CLASS VIII

SCIENCE
GIST OF THE LESSONS TAUGHT BETWEEN
3RD JULY TO 18TH AUGUST, 2023
FRICTION
➢ The invisible force responsible to stop a moving object or to oppose its
motion is known as friction.
➢ It is easier to pull any object on a smooth surface than on a rough surface.
➢ Some force is present here which is opposing the motion.
➢ Although this force, opposing the motion is different on different
surfaces.

The force acting along the two surfaces in contact which opposes the
motion of one body or tendency of its motion is termed as force of
friction.

CHARACTERISTICS OF FRICTION

✓ Friction acts in the opposite direction of the pull.

✓ Friction opposes relative motion between the surfaces of the two objects.
✓ Friction depends on nature of the surfaces in contact.
✓ Friction does not depend on area of contact.
✓ Force of friction is less for smooth surface.
✓ Force of friction is more for rough surface.
 Fluid friction and streamline shape of object

TYPES OF FRICTION

SLIDING FRICTION << STATIC FRICTION

ROLLING FRICTION << SLIDING FRICTION

Fluid friction and streamline shape of object:

• Air and water offer maximum resistance to movement.

• Fishes, birds…. their bodies are naturally broad in the middle and narrow
in front and at the back.
 • This type of shape is STREAMLINED, which provide a smooth outline
hence friction reduced.
• Submarines, cars, aero planes, rockets have special streamlined bodies to
reduce air resistance.

METHODS OF REDUCING FRICTION

➢ STREAMLINE SHAPE of the object

➢ Use of lubricants
➢ Use of ball bearing
➢ By polishing the surface
➢ Using wheels
➢ By reducing force
➢ By reducing contact between the surfaces

EFFECTS OF FRICTION

a) Friction opposes motion.

b) Friction produces heat.
c) Friction causes wear and tear.

ADVANTAGES OF FRICTION
Useful friction is EVIL??

The Verdict

• Even though the frictional force is a huge pain in the neck, life as we
know it would have been impossible without it.
• In the end, even though it makes us waste a lot of energy, causes a lot of
pain as wounds and spoils our machines, life without friction is not a life
worth living. The energy we waste overcoming frictional force in our
daily lives is a price definitely worth paying.
 CHAPTER: COAL AND PETROLEUM

Natural resources, some of which, are found in abundance around us like water,
air, soil and different types of minerals etc are essential for performing different
human activities. All of these cannot be used forever as they are going to exhaust
one day.There are two types of Natural Resources:
• Inexhaustible Natural Resources: which are present in unlimited amount in
nature and are not likely to be exhausted by human activities (e.g., sunlight,
air, soil)

• Exhaustible Natural Resources: which are present in limited amount in nature

and are likely to be exhausted by human activities (e.g., forest, mineral, coal)

Some of the exhaustible Natural Resources like coal, petroleum etc are formed
by the dead remains of the living organisms are known as fossil fuels.

• Carbonisation is the process of conversion of dead plants/vegetation into coal.

• Petroleum is formed from organisms living in the sea.
• Refining is the process of separating of the various constituents of the
petroleum. The most common method of refining crude oil into useful
products is Fractional Distillation.
• Petroleum is a mixture of various constituents such as petroleum gas, petrol,
diesel, lubricating oil, paraffin wax, etc.
• Many useful substances obtained from Petroleum and Natural Gas are termed
as PETROCHEMICALS.
Natural gas is another significant Fossil fuel which is really convenient to send
it through pipes. When Natural Gas is stored under high pressure it is termed as
CNG which causes less pollution

Petroleum and natural gas deposits

Various Constituents of Petroleum and their Uses

Many useful substances are obtained from petroleum and natural gas. These are
termed as ‘Petrochemicals’. These are used in the manufacture of detergents,
fibres (polyester, nylon, acrylic etc.), polythene and other man-made plastics.
Hydrogen gas obtained from natural gas, is used in the production of fertilisers
(urea). Due to its great commercial importance, petroleum is also called ‘black
gold’.

S.No. Constituents of Petroleum Uses

Petroleum Gas in Liquid form
1. Fuel for home and industry
(LPG)
Motor fuel, aviation fuel, solvent for dry
2. Petrol
cleaning
Fuel for stoves, lamps and for jet
3. Kerosene
aircrafts
Fuel for heavy motor vehicles, electric
4. Diesel
generators
5. Lubricating oil Lubrication
6. Paraffin wax Ointments, candles, vaseline etc.
7. Bitumen Paints, road surfacing
SOME NATURAL RESOURCES ARE LIMITED

Some natural resources are exhaustible like fossil fuels, forests, minerals etc.

You know that coal and petroleum are fossil fuels. It required the dead
organisms millions of years to get converted into these fuels. On the other hand,
the known reserves of these will last only a few hundred years. Moreover,
burning of these fuels is a major cause of air pollution. Their use is also linked
to global warming. It is therefore necessary that we use these fuels only when
absolutely necessary. This will result in better environment, smaller risk of
global warming and their availability for a longer period of time.

In India, the Petroleum Conservation Research Association (PCRA) advises

people how to save petrol/diesel while driving. Their tips are

• Drive at a constant and moderate speed as far as possible,

• Switch off the engine at traffic lights or at a place where you have to wait,
• Ensure correct tyre pressure.
• Ensure regular maintenance of the vehicle.

CHAPTER: COMBUSTION AND FLAME

Combustion is a chemical process in which a substance reacts with oxygen to

give off heat. Sometimes light is also given off during combustion either as a
flame or a glow.
• The substance that undergoes combustion is said to be combustible. It is also
called FUEL.

• Cooking at home, running automobiles – in all these we need energy and

energy can be obtained from fuel. The fuel may be solid (wood, coal), liquid
(LPG, kerosine) or gas (CNG).
• Any material that does not readily burn is called non-combustible substance.
For everyday use, most metals, rocks and glass are examples of non-
combustible substances.

• The lowest temperature at which a substance catches fire is called its

ignition temperature. Combustible substances cannot catch fire or burn as
long as its temperature is below its ignition temperature.
So, the conditions necessary for combustion are, presence of air (or, oxygen),
presence of a combustible substance and heating the combustible substance
beyond its ignition temperature.

• The substances which have very low ignition temperature and can easily
catch fire with a flame are called inflammable substances. Some
Examples are Petrol, Liquified Petroleum Gas (LPG), Alcohol.

FOREST FIRE

Activity
• Two paper cups are made by folding a paper and 50ml of water is poured
in one of the cups.
• Both the cups are heated separately with a candle.

The paper cup containing water will not burn as in presence of water the ignition
temperature of paper is not reached.
But the empty paper will burn.
FIRE EXTINGUISHER

The role of a fire extinguisher is to cut off the supply of air, or to bring down the
temperature of the fuel, or both. The most common fire extinguisher is water
though water works only when things like wood and paper are on fire. If electrical
equipment is on fire, water may conduct electricity and harm those trying to douse
the fire. Water is also not suitable for fires involving oil and petrol since oil keeps
burning on top. So, to control fires involving electrical equipment and
inflammable materials like petrol, Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the best extinguisher.
CO2, being heavier than oxygen, covers the fire like a blanket. The contact
between the fuel and oxygen is cut off. The added advantage of CO 2 is that in
most cases it does not harm the electrical equipment.

TYPES OF COMBUSTION:
• When a gas burns rapidly and produces heat and light. Such combustion is
known as rapid combustion. For example, Burning of Gas in gas stove in
Kitchen, when a burning matchstick is brought near it and the stove turned on.
• The type of combustion in which a material suddenly bursts into flames,
without the application of any apparent cause is called spontaneous
combustion. For example, White phosphorus burns in air at room temperature.
• When a cracker is ignited, a sudden reaction takes place with the evolution of
heat, light and sound. A large amount of gas formed in the reaction is liberated.
Such a reaction is called explosion. For example, burning of crackers.
FLAME:
All combustible substances do not produce flame on burning. If the substances
can vaporize on burning, then they produce flame. For example, charcoal cannot
vaporize, so it does not produce flame.
The substances which have very low ignition temperature and can easily catch
fire with a flame are called inflammable substances. Ex: LPG, petrol, alcohol etc.

DIFFERENT ZONES OF A CANDLE FLAME

FUEL:
A Fuel is a source of Heat energy for domestic and industrial purposes.
Characteristics of an Ideal Fuel are: it has a high calorific value, it burns easily in
air at a moderate rate, it has proper ignition temperature, it does not produce gases
or residues that pollute the environment and it should be cheap, readily available,
readily combustible and easy to transport.
FUEL EFFICIENCY

Characteristics of an Ideal Fuel

1) It has a high calorific value.
2) It burns easily in air at a moderate rate.
3) It has proper ignition temperature.
4) It does not produce gases or residues that pollute the environment.
5) It is cheap, readily available, readily combustible and easy to transport.
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