Chapter 2,

The Nature of Matter

2.1 The States of Matter

1. Matter is anything that has volume and has mass.

2. There are many kinds of matter.
3. Mass is what gives an object the properties of weight and inertia
a. The heavier the object the more mass it has.
b. The more inertia an object has the more mass it has.
4. This means that a force is needed to get a object to move and another force is needed
to stop it once it’s moving.
5. There are 3 physical states of matter
a. Solid
b. Liquid
c. Gas
6. The different physical sates have certain properties that are the same for all chemical
substances.

State Density Volume Shape Fluidity

Solid High Fixed Definite No
Liquid Moderate to Fixed Takes the shape Yes
high of its container.
Gas Low Fill its Takes the shape Yes
container of its container
7. All substances can exist in all physical states of matter.
8. The states of matter for a substance can be changed by altering the temperature and or
pressure.
9. An increase in temperature (or a decrease in pressure) results in expansion.
10. A decrease in temperature (or an increase in pressure) results in contraction.
11. These changes are the greatest in gasses as they are the most compressible.

2.2 Changes in physical state

1. A very large change in temperature or pressure can lead to one state of matter to
change into another.
2. The temperature at which a solid melts into a liquid is called its melting point. This
always happens at one specific temperature for each pure substance.
3. The temperature at which a liquid freezes into a liquid is called its freezing point.
This is the same as the melting point for the same pure substance.
4. Some substances change from solid to gas when they are heated without becoming
gas first. This is called sublimation.
5. When a liquid changes into a gas over a range of temperature it is called evaporation.
Evaporation takes place from the surface of a liquid. So the greater the surface area
the faster it will evaporate.
6. When the temperature rises and the liquid changes into a gas from within the liquid it
is called Boiling. This takes place at a particular temperature for each pure liquid.
7. If a gas is cooled it changes into a Liquid, this is called condensing. The temperature
at which this happen is called condensing point.
8. Gasses can also be changed to a liquid by increasing the pressure. A vapor is gas that
can be condensed into a liquid with lowering the temperature.
9. The boiling point and melting point of a substance can change if the pressure
changes. By lowering the pressure, the boiling point and melting point goes down. By
increasing the pressure the B.p and M.p goes up. E.g. Pressure cooker.
10. Atmospheric pressure and standard pressure is pressure at sea level.

2.3 Pure Substances.

1. A pure substance consists of one substance only - it has no contaminating

impurities.
2. The values for the melting points and boiling points are definite for a pure
substance. So they can be used to:
a. Identify a substance and
b. Check if a substance is pure.
c. Check what state it is in room temperature
3. When a pure solid melts or when a pure liquid boils the temperature stays
constant until the process is complete. The same is true for the reverse.
4. Impurities that are substances when added to a pure substance
a. Lowers the melting point
b. Raises the boiling point and
c. An impure substance melts and boils over a range of temperatures.
5. The following apparatus can be used to find the melting or boiling point of a
substance. (pg 30)

6. Melting and boiling needs energy and freezing and condensation gives out energy.
 7. A heating curve can be made from the data gathered from the experiment. It
shows how a substance changes its state as the temperature rises. Also the heating
curves for pure substances show that the temperature stays constant until the
process is complete how ever a impure substance melts over a range of
temperatures.

2.4 Mixtures

1. A mixture contains more than one substance in different proportion and each
substance continues to have its own properties .
2. Each Mixture is made of at least 2 parts or phases, which could be solid liquid or gas.
3. There are two general types of Mixtures
a. Homogeneous: When the phases are completely mixed and are
indistinguishable. E.g.: salt solution in water.
b. Heterogeneous: When the phases remain separate and one phase is spread
throughout the other as tiny bubbles, particles or droplets. E.g.: Chalk in
water.
4. When one substance dissolves in any other (in any state) it is called a solution. All
solutions are homogeneous mixtures.
5. All gases form homogeneous mixtures. E.g.: air
6. Alloys are homogeneous mixtures of metals. They are made by mixing 2 or more
liquid metals and then solidifying the alloy.
7. Soluble means can be dissolved.
8. A solute is the solid in a mixture.
9. A solvent is he liquid in a mixture.
10. When solute dissolves in a liquid, the solute particles are separate and spread out
among the solvent particles. These separate particles are too small to be seen. So the
solution looks clear.
11. A Suspension is a mixture containing relatively large particles of an insoluble solid,
or droplets of an insoluble liquid, spread throughout a liquid. A suspension is opaque.
In suspensions, the particles of a solid are not all separate. Instead they stay in
clusters large enough to be seen. That’s why suspensions are not clear.
12. There are two types of heterogeneous mixtures
a. Suspensions: Suspensions contain relatively large particles (over 1000nm) of
a insoluble solid or droplets of an insoluble liquid. In time the particles settle
out.
b. Colloids: Colloids contain smaller particles (1-1000 nm) and take various
forms. The particles of a colloid are too small to be seen but they do scatter
light. E.g. Emulsion (face creams), sols (paint), gels (butter), aerosols (mist)
and foams ( shaving creams)
13. There are two parts to a colloid:
a. The dispersed phase: is split into very small particles. E.g.: The fat in milk or
the water in mist.
b. The Continuous phase: Contains very small particles (the dispersed phase)
spread throughout it. E.g. the air in mist or the water in milk.
14. If a substance dissolves, it is said to be soluble.
15. Insoluble means cannot dissolve.
16. If the clusters of a suspension are too heavy, they sink to the bottom ad form
sediment.
17. When two liquids completely mix a miscible solution is formed. E.g.: Water and
alcohol.
18. Immiscible is a mixture of two liquids that do not dissolve.
19. An emulsion is the apparent mixing of two liquids that are immiscible because an
emulsifier is added. In a emulsion one phase is suspended throughout the other as
droplets.
20. To stop an emulsion from separating out into 2 layers, an emulsifier is added. This
prevents the small droplets from joining together to form large droplets and then a
separate layer. In mayonnaise Lecithin (E322) is the emulsifier.
21. Emulsions are frequently used in the cosmetic industry. Skin moisturising cream is
actually an emulsion of oils in water.
22. An aqueous solution is a solution where the solvent is water.
23. Volatile solvents are solvents, which evaporate quickly in room temperature.

2.5 Separating Mixtures

Filtration
1. You can separate a solid from a liquid by filtering
2. This is how it works: Chalk can be separated from water by filtering the suspension
through filter paper. The chalk gets trapped in the filter paper while the water passes
through it. This is because the chalk particles form clusters and these clusters are too
big pass through the tiny holes in a filter paper however the water particles are small
enough to pass through the holes.
3. The chalk left behind in the filter paper is called the residue
4. The water collected in the conical flask is called the filtrate.
5. Other suspensions can be separated in exactly the same way.

Centrifuging
6. You can separate small amounts of suspensions by centrifuging. In centrifuge, test
tubes of suspension are spun round very fast, so that the solid gets flung to the
bottom.
7. Before centrifuging, the solid is mixed all through the liquid.
8. After centrifuging, all the solid has collected at the bottom of the test tube.
9. Then the liquid can de decanted or poured out (decanted) from the test tubes. The
solid is then left behind.

10. Evaporation
11. If the mixture is a solution, the solid cannot be separated by filtering or centrifuging.
This is because it is spread all through the solvent in tiny particles. Instead, the
solution is heated so that the solvent evaporates, leaving the solid behind.

Crystallization
12. You can separate many solids from solutions by letting them form crystals. Copper
(II) sulphate. A saturated solution of copper (II) Sulphate in water at 70oC. If it is
cooled at 100oC crystals begin to appear because the compound is less soluble at 20 0C
than at 700C.
13. This process is called crystallization.
14. A solution of copper sulphate is heated, to get rid of some water. As the water
evaporates, the solution becomes more and more concentrated. The solution can be
checked to see if it is concentrated enough, by placing one drop on a microscopic
slide. Crystals should form quickly on the cool glass. Then the solution is left to cool
and crystallize. The crystals are removed by filtering, rinsed with water and dried
with filter paper.

A Mixture of 2 solids
15. You can separate a mixture of two solids by dissolving one of them.
16. A mixture of salt and sand can be separated like this:
a. Water is added to the mixture, and it is stirred. The salt dissolves.
b. The mixture is then filtered. The sand is trapped in the filter paper but the salt
solution passes through.
c. The sand is rinsed with water and dried in an oven.
d. The salt solution is evaporated to dryness.
17. This method works because the salt is soluble in water and sand is not. Water could
not be used to separate salt and sugar, because it dissolves both of them. Ethanol
could be used instead, because it dissolves sugar but not salt. Ethanol is flammable,
so it should be evaporated from the sugar solution over a water bath,

Simple Distillation
18. You can separate a solvent from a solution by simple distillation
19. The solution is heated in the flask. It boils, and steam rises into the condenser. The
salt is left behind.
20. The condenser is cold because of the cold water running through it so the steam
condenses to water in it.
21. The water drips into the beaker. It is completely pure. It is called distilled water.
22. This method could also be used to obtain pure water from sea water, or from ink.

Separating funnel
23. You can separate a mixture of two liquids that are immiscible, they can be separated
with a separating funnel. For example, when a mixture of oil and water is poured into
the funnel, the oil floats to the top because it is less dense than the water. When the
tap is opened, the water runs out. The tap is closed again when all the water has gone.

Fractional Distillation
24. You can separate two liquids that are miscible by fractional distillation. It is could be
used to separate a mixture of ethanol and water.
25. This is how it works.
26. The mixture is heated. At about 78 degrees the ethanol begins to boil. Some water
evaporates too, so a mixture of ethanol and water vapor rises up to the column.
27. The vapor condenses on the glass beads in the column, making them hot and then
drips back into the beaker.
28. Then it evaporates again and condenses on the glass beads again making them even
hotter.
29. When the beads reach about 78 degrees ethanol vapor no longer condenses on the
beads only the water does. The water drips back into the flask, while the ethanol
vapor is forced into the condenser.
30. There is condenses. Liquid ethanol drips into the beaker.
31. Eventually the thermometer reading arises above 78 degrees. This is a sign that all the
ethanol has been be separated
32. Then the heating can be stopped.
33. However if it was wine to be separated, continue heating and change the beaker used
to collect the distillate in the beaker. Then the beads will continue to rise up to 100
degrees where water no longer condenses on the glass beads. Then the water vapor is
forced into the condenser and then the vapor condenses into water. The solid grape
particles in wine are left behind.
34. In this experiment do not use a Bunsen burner, as ethanol is flammable, use an
electric heater as it is safer even though it’s slower.
Paper Chromatography

1. Separating two are more dissolved solids in a solution can be carried out by
chromatography.
2. Paper chromatography is the simplest form. It can tell us if a solution is
contaminated.
3. A drop of concentrated solution is usually placed on a pencil line near the bottom
edge of the chromatography paper. The paper is then dipped in a solvent. (The solvent
must start below the sample.
4. The solvent used could be water or an Organic Solvent. When an organic solvent is
used the process is carried out in a tank, with a lid to stop the solvent evaporating.
5. The substances separate according to their solubility in the solvent. As the solvent
moves up the paper the dyes are carried with it and begin to separate. The substance
that is most soluble moves up the paper fastest. An insoluble substance would remain
at the origin. The run is stopped just before the solvent reaches the top of the paper
(solvent front).
6. The distance moved by a particular spot is measure and related to the position of the
solvent front. The ratio of these distances is called the Rf value and it can be used to
identify a substance.
7. Originally paper chromatography was used to separate solutions of coloured
substances. But because of locating agents it can be used for colourless substances as
well. The paper is treated with these after the run and produces coloured spots.
8. Chromatography is used in the food inspection industry for checking the food
additives in it and also for the analysis of biologically important molecules.

The Purity and identity of substances.

1. The M.p and the B.p are specific for each substance so they can be used to identify
the substance and see if it is pure.
2. Pure substances melt and boil at particular temperatures while impure substance melt
and boil over a range of temperatures.
3. Paper chromatography can be used to check if a substance is pure. If a substance is
pure it should only produce one spot in several different solvents.
4. The identity and purity of a sample can also be checked by comparing the Rf value to
that of a sample that you know is pure.