FORM ONE

1.
INTRODUCTI
ONTOBI
OLOGY
Biol
ogyisthesci
encethatdeal
swiththestudyofl
i
vingthi
ngs.ThewordBi
ologyi
s
deri
vedfrom t
woGreekwor ds,
BioswhichmeansLife,
andlogoswhichmeansstudyof
.
Thusbiol
ogyisastudyofli
feandli
vingorgani
sms.

Basi
cConcept
sandTer
minol
ogi
esofBi
ology
Biologyi sder i
vedf rom t woGr eekwor ds,thati s,bioswhi chmeansl ieandl
f ogosor
l
ogi awhi chmeansst udyorknowl edge.
Sobi ologycanbedef inedasabr anchofsci encewhi chdeal switht hest udyofl if
e.The
term bi ologycanal sobedef i
nedasabr anchofsci encewhi chdeal swi t
ht hest udyof
l
ivingt hingsoror gani sms.
Biologi st
Aper sonspeci ali
zedi nthest udyofbi ol
ogy
Lif
emeansbei ngal i
v eorexi sting.Somet hingi saliveorexi stingifi tpossessesl i
fe
processes.Thel i
fepr ocessesar egr owt h, mov ementorl ocomot ion, r
espiration,
excr etion,reproduct ion, sensitivi
tyandnut r
it
ion.
Organi sm i sany t
hingwhi chhasl i
fe.Itist heot hernameofal iv
ingt hi
ng.Or ganismsi s
madeupofcel ls.
Acel li
sabasi cuni tofl ivi
ngt hings.Thecel lhast hreemai npar t
s, cellmembr ane,
cytopl asm andnucl eus.Cel l
swhi chmakeuppl antsarecal ledplantcel l
sandt hose
whi chmakeupani mal sar ecal l
edani mal cell
s.
Someor gani smsar emadeupofonecel l.Theyar ecal l
eduni cellularorsi ngle-cel
led
organi smse. g.amoeba, euglenaandy east .Someor ganismsar emadeupofmanycel l
s,
theyar ecalledmul ticell
ularorgani smse. g.animal s, pl
ant s,andmostf ungi.

TheChar
act
eri
sti
csofLi
vi
ngThi
ngs
Mov ement /l
ocomot i
on
Allli
vingorganismsar ecapableofmov ement .Mov ementisthechangeofposi ti
onof
thewhol eorganism orjustpartofanor ganism.Forani malsandunicell
ularorganisms
themov ementisofthewhol ebody .Thisisknownasl ocomot i
on.Mostanimal smov e
aboutusi nglegs,wi
ngsorf i
ns.Unicell
ularorganismssuchasamoeba, parameci um
andeugl enauset helocomot oryst
ructurespseudopodi a,ci
li
aandf l
agell
ar especti
vel
y.
Inplantsonlypartofitmaymov et
owar dsdi f
ferentfact
orssuchasl i
ght,water,gravi
ty
etc.Theymov ebygrowi ng.Theirr
oot sgrowdowni nthesoilandthei
rshoot sgrowup
i
nt otheairortowardsasour ceoflight.

I
rri
tabi
li
ty(sensi
tiv
ity)
I
rri
tabi
li
tyi
st heabili
tyofanorganism torespondt
oast i
mulus.Sti
mulus(
plur
al;
sti
mul
i
)
i
sany t
hingthatcausesar esponseinanor gani
sm.
Examplesofst i
muliincl
ude:analarm cl
ock,asmellofbr
eakfastcooki
ngandafly
l
andingony ourskin.
Allli
vingthi
ngsaresensit
ivetocertainchangesi nt hei
rsur r
oundings,thati
s,t
heyare
awar eofwhatishappeningar oundthem.Thi sispossi blebecauset heyhavespeci
al
organsknownassenseor gansbywhi cht heydet ectthesechanges.
Exampl esofsenseorgansinclude:eyesf orv isi
on( si
ght )
;skinf
ort emperat
ure,t
ouch,
pressuredetect
ion;t
onguef ortast
ing; nosef orsmel li
ng;andearsf orheari
ngandbody
balance.
Plantsdonothav esenseorgansbutar est i
ll
abl etodet ectandrespondt othi
ngsli
ke
gravit
y ,
waterandli
ght.

Feeding( Nutriti
on)
Alll
ivi
ngt hi
ngsneedf oodtopr ovi
deener gyforsuchact i
vi
ti
essuchasgr owt
h,repai
r
andheal th.
Animalsgett heirfoodbyeat i
ngot herliv
ingt hingsorfoodmat eri
alsthatwer
eonce
l
ivi
ngt hings.Her bi
vores(e.
g.rabbits)eatpl ants,car
nivor
es(e.g.li
ons)eatot
her
animals, andomni vores(e.
g.humans)eatani malsandplants.Plantsmaketheirown
foodthrought hepr ocesscall
edphot osy nthesis.
Thepr ocessoft akinginfood,synthesizi
ngi t,digest
ingandoxidizi
ngittorel
ease
energyorbui ldt hebodyi scal
lednut ri
ti
on.

Respi
rat
ion
Respi
rat
ionisthebreaki
ngdownoff
oodmat er
ial
swithi
ncell
storel
easeenergy.
Respi
rat
ionusuall
yinvol
vest
heuseofoxy
gen.Alll
iv
ingthi
ngsneedenergyfor
movement,growthanddevel
opment
,andfunct
ioni
ngofbodyorgans.

Excreti
on
Excreti
oni st heprocessofr emovingmet aboli
cwasteproductsfrom thebodyofl i
vi
ng
organisms
Allli
vi
ngthi ngspr oducewast essuchascar bondioxide,
water,ur
ea,ammoni aet c.
.
Someoft hesechemi calsifl
eftt
oaccumul ateinthecell
swouldser i
ouslypoisonthe
l
ivingorgani sm hencet heyneedtober emov ed.Wasteproductsareremov edfrom the
bodybyexcr etoryorganssuchski n,ki
dneys,lungsandli
ver.

Reproducti
on
Reproducti
onistheprocessbywhi chlivi
ngt hi
ngspr oducenewi ndivi
dualsofthei
rkind.
Alll
ivi
ngthi
ngsreproduce,t
or eplaceorganismsl ostbydeat h.Ifagroupofor gani
sms
doesnotreproducefastenought oreplacethosewhi chdie,thegr oupbecomesext inct.
Reproducti
onensuresconti
nuationofl i
fewhenpar entgenerationdies.
Humanbei ngsbearbabies;bi
rdshat chchicks;andpl ant
spr oduceseedlingsasnew
organi
sms, whi
chev ent
uall
ygrowt omat ur
eorganismst or eplacethoselostbydeat hs.

Growt h
Growt hisdefi
nedasani rr
eversi
ble(per
manent)incr
easei
nsizeanddrywei
ghtofan
organism i
nvolvi
ngdiff
erenti
ati
on.Alll
iv
ingthi
ngsneedfoodinordert
ogrowandbuild
upt hei
rbodies.
Animal sgrowunti
ltheyreachcertai
nadultsi
ze,butmostpl
antscangrowcont
inuousl
y
throughoutthei
rli
ves.
At
abl
eofdi
ff
erencesbet
weenl
i
vingt
hingsandnon-
li
vi
ngt
hings
Li
vingthi
ngs Non-
li
vi
ngt hi
ngs
Theyrespir
e Donotrespir
e
Theygrow Donotgrow
Theyrespondto Donotrespondto
st
imuli st
imul
i
Theyreproduce Donotreproduce
Theyexcrete Donotexcrete
Theyfeed Donotfeed
Theymov e Donotmov e

BRANCHESOFBI
OLOGY
Biologyi sasubj ectandi thasmanybr anches.Themai nbr anchesar ebot anyand
zool ogyBot anyi sabr anchofbi ologywhi chdeal switht hest udyofpl ants.Aper son
whost udi esbot anyi scalledabot anist. Zool ogyisabr anchofbi ol
ogywhi chdeal swi t
h
thest udyofani mal s.Aper sonwhost udi eszool ogyiscal ledaZool ogi st
Otherbr anchesofbi ology
My col ogy :t
hisi st hest udyoff ungi .Aper sonwhost udiesmy cologyi scal leda
my col ogi st
Bact er iology :
thi sist hest udyofbact eria.Aper sonwhost udiesbact eriol
ogyi scal leda
bact er i
ol ogist.
Virology :thisbr anchofbi ologydeal swi tht hest udyofv iruses.Aper sonwhost udies
vir
ol ogyi scalledav ir
ologi st.
Immunol ogy :
isconcer nedwi thbodydef enseagai nstdiseasesandf or eignsubst ances.
Aper sonwhost udiesi mmunol ogyi scal ledani mmunol ogist.
Entomol ogy :refer stot hest udyofi nsect sAper sonwhost udiesent omol ogyi scal led
anent omol ogist .
Par asi tology :t
hi sbr anchdeal swi thst udyofpar asit
esandt heireffectsonl i
vi
ng
organi sms.Aper sonwhost udiespar asi tol ogyiscal eda par
l asitologist .
Der mat ology :Itisconcer nedwi thmedi cal st udyofski nandi tsdiseases.Aper sonwho
studi esder mat ol ogyi scal edader
l mat ologi st
Ecol ogy :Isabr anchofbi ol ogyt hatdeal swi threlati
onshi pamongl ivingt hi ngsand
betweenor gani smsandt hei rsur r
oundi ngs.Aper sonwhost udiesecol ogyi scalledan
ecol ogi st
Anat omy :Isthest udywhi chdeal swi thst r uct ur
eofl i
vingt hings.Aper sonwhost udies
anat omyi scal edananat
l omi st
Diagr am r epresent ingbr anchesofBi ology
Endocr inology : Thisist hestudyofst ruct ureofendocr ineglandsandt hehor mones
associ atedbyt hem.Aper sonwhost udi esendocr inologyi
scal edanendocr
l i
nologist
.
Histology :Ist hest udyofst ructureoft issuesAper sonwhost udieshist
ologyiscalled
anhi stologist
Cytology :Ist hest udyofst ructure, composi ti
onandf uncti
onofcel ls.Apersonwho
studiescy t
ol ogyi scalledacy tologi st.
Microbi ology :Isdev otedt othest udyofor ganismst hatcanbeseenonl ywi tha
microscopee. g.bact eria,vi
ruses, somef ungiandsomepr otoctists.Apersonwho
studiesmi crobi ologyiscal l
edami crobi ol
ogist.
Taxonomy :Ist hesci entif
icclassificationofor ganisms.Aper sonwhost udiestaxonomy
i
scal ledat axonomi st.
Genet ics:St udyofher edityandv ar iati
oni nor ganisms.Aper sonwhost udiesgeneticsis
caledgenet
l icist.

THEIMPORTANCEOFSTUDYI NGBIOLOGY
Expl
aintheimport
anceofstudyi
ngbiol
ogy
Thestudyofbiol
ogyisver
yimportantt
oman.
Thefoll
owingi
sanout l
i
nesofwhyt hestudyofbi
ologyi
simpor
tant
:

I
thel
psust
ounder
standour
sel
vesbet
tersi
ncewear
eli
vi
ngt
hings.
Ski
l
lsandknowledgeofbiologycanbeappl
i
edt
ootherscient
if
icfi
eldssuchas
agr
icul
tur
e,f
orest
rymedicine,nut
ri
ti
on,
phar
macyandveteri
narysci
ence.

I
thel
psust
ounder
standourenv
ironmentbet
terandpr
inci
plesofconser
vingi
t.

Biol
ogyhel
pstoanswersomei
mportantquesti
onssuchas,whatdol
ivi
ngthi
ngsneed,
whydower esembl
ewithamonkey
,whydof rogslaymanyeggsbutonl
yfewbecome
adul
ts?

Knowledgeofbi
ologyhel
psustoimproveourhealt
hsincecauses,sympt
oms,
tr
ansmissi
onandt r
eat
mentareofvar
iousdiseasesar
estudiedinbiol
ogy
.

Knowl
edgeofbi
ologyhelpsust
oav
oidour
sel
vesf
rom magi
cal
bel
i
efs,
super
sti
ti
ons
andot
hertr
adi
ti
onaltaboos.

Knowledgeofgenet
icshelpsustocl
earsomecommondoubtsaboutcer
tai
ninher
it
ed
char
acteri
sti
cse.
g.albi
nism,si
ckl
ecell
anaemi
a,haemophi
l
ia,
etc.

Knowledgeofthestruct
ureandchemi
calcomposi
ti
onoft
heor
gani
smsenabl
eust
o
acqui
refood,cl
othesandshelt
erfr
om t
hem.

Rel
ati
onshi
pbetweenBiol
ogi
cal
Sci
encewit
hot
herRel
atedFi
elds
Vet
eri
narysci
ence(Vet
eri
nar
ymedi
cine)
Vet eri
nar
ymedicineisthebranchofmedi ci
nethatdealswit hthediseasesofanimal s.
Doct orst
hattr
eatanimalsar ecaledVet
l eri
nar
ians.Veteri
nariansaretrai
nedtopr event,
diagnoseandt r
eatil
lnessinlargeandsmal lanimals.Thei
rwor kisval
uablebecause
manyani maldiseasescanbet r
ansmi t
tedtohumanbei ngse. g.rabi
es,tuber
culosis,
tularaemi
a(rabbitf
ever)anthraxetc.Basicknowledgeofbi ologyisrequir
edfor
successfulst
udyofv eter
inaryscience.

Agr
icul
tur
e
Agri
cultur
ei sconcer nedwi thproducti
onofusef ulplantsandanimal
sthroughf arming
syst
em.Agr icult
urepr ovidesuswi thalmostallourfood.Itprovi
desmaterial
sf or
cl
othingandshel ter.Itprovidesmat er
ialsusedformaki ngmanyindust
ri
al products
suchaspai ntsandmedi cines.Agricul
tureusesknowl edgeofbiol
ogytoimpr oveplant
andanimal breeding.Genet ical
lymodi f
iedorganisms( GMOs)ensurebetterquali
ty,
earl
ymat uri
tyandhi ghy ieldproducts.Cropandani mal di
seasesandpestscanonl ybe
overcomebyappl y i
ngbi ologicalknowledge.

For
est
ry
Af orestisalargear
eaofl andcoveredwi t
ht r
ees.I
tismuchmor ethanjusttrees.I
talso
i
ncl udessmal l
erpl
antssuchasmosses, shrubsandwi l
dflowers.Forestr
yist he
scienceofmanagi ngforestresourcesforhumanbenef i
t.Thepracti
ceoff orestr
yhelps
mai ntainanadequatesupplyoftimberandmanagementofsuchv aluableforest
resour cessuchaswater,wildl
if
e,grazi
ngar easandrecr
eationalar
eas.
Biologyhelpsinimprovi
ngt hequalit
iesofthetreest
hroughmani pulati
ngthegenetic
consti
tut
ionoftheparti
cul
arpl
antspeci
es.
Cli
mate,soilandwaterdet
ermi
nethetypeofpl
ant
stobegrownwhichenti
rel
yappl
i
es
bi
ologi
cal knowl
edge.Useofbi
ologi
calcont
rol
tocombatt
reepest
sappli
esbiol
ogi
cal
pri
nci
ples.

Phar
macy
Pharmacyi sthepr ofessi
onconcer nedwiththepreparati
on,di
stri
buti
onanduseof
drugs.Member softhisprofessionarecaledphar
l maci st
sordruggist
s.Pharmacyal
so
refer
stoapl acewher edrugsarepr epar
edorsoldThedr ugsaremadedependi ngon
thechemi calcomposi ti
onoft hebodyofanor ganism andhowt heycanreactwit
hsuch
medicines.Knowl edgeofbi ol
ogyal sohel
pstoknowt heeff
ectsofdrugsonliv
ing
thi
ngs( pharmacology )andpossi bl
eremediestobet aken.

Medi
cine
Medi ci
nei st hesci enceandar tofpreservinghealthandt r
eati
ngi l
l
ness.Medi ci
neisa
sciencebecausei tisbasedonknowl edgegai nedthroughcarefulstudyand
exper iment ation.Itisanar tbecausei t
ssuccessdependsonhowski lf
ull
ymedi cal
pract it
ioner sapplyt heirknowl edgei ndeal i
ngwi thpati
ents.Thegoal ofmedi ci
ne
i
ncl udesav inglives,reli
ev ingsuf feri
ngandmai ntai
ningthedignit
yofsi ckpeople.
Biologi calknowl edgehel pst hedoct ors,surgeonsandnur sestodiagnose, t
reatand
prescr ibet her i
ghtmedi cinet ocur ethedisease.
Biologi calknowl edgewi llalsohel pthem toof fereducati
ontothepat ient
sonhowt o
prev entt hemsel vesf rom t hedi seasese.g.pur i
fyi
ngdrinki
ngwat er,vacci
nati
onagai nst
polio, measl esandot herdi seases.

Nut
ri
ti
on
Nut r
it
ionist hesciencewhi chdealswithfoodandhowt hebodyusesi t
.Peopl
e,li
keall
l
ivingt hi
ngsneedf oodtolive.Foodprovi
dessubstancesthatthebodyneedstobuil
d
andr epairit
st i
ssuesandt or egul
ateit
sorgansandsy stems.Foodalsosuppl
iesener
gy
forev eryactionweper form.Knowledgeofbi ol
ogyhelpstoident
if
ythetypeoffood
requiredbyani ndi
vidualbasedoni t
squalit
yandquant i
ty.
At
abl
eshowi
ngdi
ff
erencesbet
weenpl
ant
sandani
mal
s
PLANTS ANIMALS
(i
)Theyar eautotrophic,i
.e.t
heycanmake Theyar ehet erotr
ophici.
e.theyfeedon
theirownf ood compl exor ganiccompounds
(i
i)Containchl orophyll
,canunder go Nochl orophy l
l,cannotundergo
phot osynthesis. photosynt hesi
s
(i
ii
)Gr owthoccur si
nsomepar tsonlyi.e.
Growt hoccur sinallpart
soft hebody.
rootandshoott i
ps.
(i
v)Theyhav ebr anchedbodi es Theyhav ecompactbodi es
(v)Noner v es,muscles,bloodsy stem or Havener v es,muscles,bl
oodsy stem and
speci alsensorycel l
s. specialsensor ycell
s.
(vi
)Usual l
yr ootedinthegr oundanddonot Notr oot edi ntheground,mov etogetfood
mov
efr
om pl
acet
opl
ace. andescapeenemi es.
Havedigest
ivesystem neededtobreak
(
vii
)Hav
enodi
gest
ivesy
stem
downfood
(
vii
i
)Cel
l
sofpl
ant
shav
ecel
lwal
l
s Cel
lsofanimalshav enocellwal
ls

SCI
ENTI
FICPROCESS
Biol
ogy,justli
keot hersciencesubjects,
invol
vescarr
yingoutexperi
ments.When
study
ingl i
vi
ngt hi
ngssi mpleobserv at
ioncanbemadebyusi ngourownsensesi.
e.
si
ght,smel l
,touch,tasteandhearing.Thesensescanbedet ect
edbyoursenseor
gans
i
.e.eyeforsight,nosef orsmell
,skinfortouch,t
onguef ort
asteandearf
orheari
ng.
ToUseOwnSenseOr ganstoMakeCor r
ectObservat
ions
Useownsenseor ganst omakecor rectobser
vati
ons
Thebodysenseor gans

Measur
ement
sofMass,
Lengt
h,Temper
atur
eandPul
seRat
e
Takemeasurement sofmass, l
engt
h, t
emperatureandpulser
ate
Measurements:Whencar r
yingoutbi
ological
invest
igat
ionmeasurement
sli
kemass,
ti
me,temperatur
e,andlengthareunavoidabl
e.
I
nstr
umentsusedf orvari
ousmeasur ements:
Beam bal
ance–f
ormeasur
ingmass

Ther
momet
er–f
ormeasur
ingt
emper
atur
e

Cl
ock/
stopwat
ch–f
ormeasur
ingt
ime

Rul
er–f
ormeasur
ingl
engt
h

Pulser
atecanbemeasur
edbyusi
ngast
ethoscopeorbypr
essi
ngt
hef
inger
sfi
rml
yon
theski
n.

Thestudyofbiologylikeanyt
hesciencesubjectinv
olvessci
entif
icprocesses.The
sci
enti
fi
cprocessesi nvol
vedinthestudyofbiol
ogyincludeobservat
ion,measurement
andexperi
ment ati
on.Throughtheseprocessesthestudyofbiol
ogybecomespossi bl
e.

OBSERVATI ON
Throughobser v ati
onwecanl ear nmanysci ent i
ficphenomena.Obser vationi smadeby
usingourownsenseor gans.Ther ear efivesenseor gansi nthehumanbodywhi char e
eyes, ears, thenose, t
het ongue, andt heski n.Eachoft heseor gansi sspeci f
ictoa
certaint ypeofobser vation.
Thef ol l
owi ngar esenseor gansandt heirassoci atedf unct ionsi nobser v
at ion.
Eyes
Howcany oudi fferent iatebet weent hecol orsofaneggf rom t hatofar i
pepawpaw?I n
thi
scasei nor dert oanswert hisquest ioncor r
ect ly,youmustbeabl etomakecor r
ect
obser vation.Byusi ngy ourey esy oucanobser vedi fferencesi ncol or soft het wot hings
givenandt hent ellthei rdifferences.
Weuseourey esasasenseor ganf orv ision.Byusi ngourey eswear eabl et oseeand
diff
er entiatesi zes, colour sandshapesofv ari
ousor gani smsandhencewecanl ear n
aboutt hem.
Ears
Howcany oudi stingui shbet weent hesoundpr oducedbyasi ngingbi r
dandar oaring
l
ion?Somet i
mesy oucanj ustusey ourear stost udyv ariousbi ological concept s.For
exampl emanyor gani smspr oducedi fferentsoundswhi chwecanuset oi dent i
fythem.
Ther efore, i
tiseasyf orabi ologi sttoknowanor gani sm j ustbyhear ingt hesound
withoutev enseei ngi t.Thi spr ov eshowy ourear sar ev er yimpor tantor gansi nsci enti
fic
studiesbecauset heyar eusedt oi dent i
fyanddi f
ferent i
at esoundsofv ariousl ivi
ng
organi sms.
Nose
Somet imesi nt hesci ent i
ficst udyweneedt osmel l
inor dert oi dentifyanddi sti
ngui sh
betweenv arioust hings.Forexampl e, howcany oudi stingui sht hesmel lofar i
pe
bananaf rom t hatofar ipepi neappl e?Asasci entisty oumustbeabl etousey ournose
asasenseor ganef f
ect ivelyandsuccessf ul l
y.BUTav oidsmel l
ingany thingi nt he
l
abor at orywi thoutt heper missi onf rom y ourt eacherorl abor ator ytechni cian.
Tongue
Weuset onguet ot ast ev ar i
oust hings.Byuseoft onguewecandi f
f erentiat evarious
tastesandbeabl et odi scov ert het ypeoft het ast econcer ned.Forexampl e,onecan
diff
erent i
atesaltfr
om sugarsolut
ionsbyj usttastingusingt hetongue.BUTav oid
tasti
ngany t
hinginthelaborat
oryunlessy ouaret olddosobyt het eacherorlaborator
y
technician.
Skin
Wecanuset heskinasasenseor gantodet ectheat ,
temper ature,pressureandev en
pain.Forexampl e,
duringahotdayy oufeel hotwhi l
edur i
ngcol dday sy oufeelcol
d.
Eveni fyouclosey oureyes,andsomeoner ubsy ourskinusi ngabl ockofi ce,
youcan
simplyt el
litbyjustfeeli
ngthecoldnessitimpartst othesur faceofy ourskin.
Thisgr oupofst udentsareconducti
nganexper i
menton‘ foodt ests’i
nt heschool
l
abor atory.Cany outellt
hesenseor ganstheyareusi ngint heirstudy?

MEASUREMENT
Thoughwecanuseoursenseor ganst omakeobser vati
ons,theobser vati
onsaloneare
notsoreliable.Everysenseor ganhasi tsweakness.Si ncescienceliesupon
measurabl equant i
ti
est hereisaneedofmeasur ement .Scienti
stshav ebeenablet o
desi
gnway st otakemeasur ement sofv ar
iousthings.Someoft hequant it
ieswhichcan
successfull
ybemeasur edincludemass, t
emper atur
e, l
engthandpul ser at
e.
Measurementofl ength
Wecanuseey estoobser v
et hel engthofv ari
ousobj ects.Howev er,oureyescanj ust
tel
lwhichobj ectislongerthant heot herbutcannott elluswhatt heexactl engt
hof
eachobjecti s.Tapemeasur ei soneoft hecommoni nstrument sthatareusedf or
measuringl engthinourev erydayl if
e.
Tapemeasur e,aninstrumentf ormeasur i
nglength

Measur ementofmass
Ascientistorbiol
ogistmusthaveastandardwayofmeasuri
ngmassofasubstance.
Senseor ganscannotgiveusthetr
uev alueofmassofasubst
ance.Thi
scanbedone
byusingbeam bal ancewhichisaspeciali
nstr
umentf
ormeasuri
ngmassofa
substance.
Beam bal ance

Measur ementoftemper ature

Wecant akethemeasur ementoft emper atureofasubstancejustbyusingoursense
organs.Forexampl e,
byt ouchingsomet hingy oucantell
whetherapar t
icul
arthi
ngis
hotorcol d.However,youcannott el
lexactt emperatur
eofanobj ect.
Therefore,tobeabletoknowt heexactt emper at
ureyouneedtouseani nstrument
special
lydesignedformeasur i
ngt hetemper at
ure.Thi
sisinst
rumentisthe
thermomet er.Usi
ngthermomet er
swear eabl etoknowtheexactt emperat
ureofan
object.
Thermomet er

Measur ementofpulserate
Pulserateref
erstoaveragebeati
ngofyourheart
.Youcanf
indhowf
asty
ourhear
tis
beati
ng, t
hati
sy ourheartr
ate,
byfeel
i
ngy ourpul
se.
Howt omeasur eyourpulserat
e

Si
tdowncomf
ort
abl
yonachai
rwi
tht
hepal
m ofy
ourhandf
aci
ngupwar
ds.
Gent
lypl
acethei
ndexandmiddl
efingersofy
ourotherhandony
ourwr
ist(
seet
he
di
agr
am bel
ow).Canyoufeel
yourpulseasarepeat
edthrob?

I
fnecessar
ychanget
heposi
ti
onofyourf
ingerunt
ily
oucanf
eel
yourpul
ser
atewel
l
.
Countt
henumberofhear
tbeat
sinoneminute.

Repeatst
ep3f
ourt
imes.

Wr
it
edownt
henumberofbeat
spermi
nut
e.

Workoutt
heaverage.Thi
siswhati
scal
l
edav
eragehear
trat
epermi
nut
e.I
ttel
l
syou
howfasty
ourheatisbeat
ing.

Measur
ingt
hepul
ser
ate

EXPERI MENTATI ON
Biologyasasci encesubj ecti nvol vespr act i
calwor k.Inev eryar eaofbi ology ,
exper i
ment at i
oni snecessar y .Howev er,therear esev er alprocedur estobef oll
owedi n
conduct inganysci ent i
ficinv est igat ion.Thesepr ocedur esi ncl udet hefoll
owi ng:
Identifi
cat ionofapr oblem ( probl em st atement )
Inourdayt odayl if
eweof tencomeacr ossquest ionsorphenomenawhi chr equire
explanat i
ons.Suchquest ionsorphenomenaar eofi nter esttoabi ologi
stwhowi ll
seek
topr ovideanswer st ot hem.
Thephenomenacoul dbef orexampl e; i
twasobser v edt hatthehar vestoftomat oesin
Juma’ sgar denwasl owdespi tef requenti rri
gat i
on, cor rectpl ant ingt echniques, ti
mel y
plantingandadequat esunl ight .So, whatwast hepr obl em wi thJuma’ sgar den?
Thisi st hepr oblem t obei nv est igat edbyt hebiologi sti nor dert ocomeupwi than
answer .
Hy pothesi sf ormul ation
Hy pothesi si sat entat i
veexpl anat ionf ortheobser v ationmade.Usi ngy ourexampl eof
l
owy ieldi nt hetomat ogar den, thepossi blehy pothesi scoul dbepoory ieldcoul dhav e
beencausedbyl owsoi lfer ti
lityandt her eforeappl icat i
onoft hef er ti
li
zercoul dincrease
har v
estoft hetomat oesi nt hegar den.Thi shypot hesi smustt her eforebet estedby
exper i
ment at i
oni fithast obeasci ent if
icall
yaccept ableexpl anat ion.
Exper iment ati
on
Anexper imenti saser i
esofi nv est igat i
oni ntendedt odi scov err elat i
onshiporcer t
ain
factst hatmayl eadt of indingapr obl em.I nt hecaseofl owhar vestoft omat oes,youar e
fir
stsupposedt oconst ructapl anofi nvest i
gationasf ol l
ows:
Selectt wopl ots,AandB, from t hesamegar denandsubj ectbot hoft hem t othesame
condi ti
onsasbef ore.Inpl otBappl yf er t
ili
zerswhi l
ei npl otAdon’ tputanyf erti
li
zers
(plotAwi l
lbey ourcont rol pl ot).
Obser v ationanddat arecor ding
Afterset ti
ngupanexper i
ment ,ar esear chermustobser v eandr ecor ddat a.Obser vati
on
i
sdonebyusi ngsenseor ganssuchasear s,eyes, noseandski n.Ther esear chermust
recordwhat everheobser v es.Ther esear cherobt ainedXkgi npl otAandYkgi npl otB.
Interpret ati
onofdat a
Oncear esear cherhascol l
ecteddat a,heshoul dtryt oexplainthemeani ngofdat ain
rel
ationt ot hepur poseoft heexper i
ment .Int het omat ogar denexper i
ment ,t
hehar v
est
i
npl otAwasl ittlecompar edt othehar vestinpl otB.
Inthesepl ots, all t
hecondi t
ionswer et hesameexceptt hatinplotAnof er
ti
li
zerswere
appliedwhi leinpl otBf erti
li
zer swereappl ied.Ther efore,highharvestinplotBwasa
resultofappl yingf erti
l
izers.Ifthisexperiment ati
oni scor rect,t
hent hesamer esult
s
shoul dbeobt ainedi ftheexper i
menti srepeat edundert hesamecondi ti
ons.
Concl usion
Attheendofi nv est i
gation,ar esearchermustdr awconcl usion.Thisconclusi
oni s
basedont hecol lecteddat a.Theconcl usioni sei therconf i
rmationorr ej
ecti
onoft he
hypot hesisunderi nv esti
gation.
Inthet omat ogar denexper i
ment ,t
heresul tshav eshownt hatapplicati
onoff er
ti
li
zers
hasincr easedt hehar vestoft omatoes.Ther efore, l
owhar vestoftomat oeswascaused
bypoorsoi lfertili
ty.
Summar y
Thef ollowi ngdi agram summar izesthesci entificpr ocess.
Thesci ent i
f i
cpr ocess

THEBI
OLOGYLABORATORY
Descr
ibet
hebi
ologyl
abor
ator
y
Abiol
ogylaborat
oryi
sar oom orbui
l
dingspeci
all
ydesi
gnedf
orcar
ryi
ngoutbi
ologi
cal
exper
iments.
Abiol
ogylaborat
oryhas:

Lar
gewi ndowsandbi gspacet
oal
l
owenoughai
randl
i
ghtf
orbet
terv
ent
il
ati
onand
vi
sibi
l
ityrespect
ivel
y.

Shel
ves–f
orkeepi
ngchemi
cal
s,speci
mens,
appar
atusandmodel
s.

Suppl
yofgas,
elect
ri
cit
yandwat
er

Wor
kingbenches

Anemer
gencedoori
ncaseofdangeroccur
s.

Pr
epar
ati
onr
oom

Thebi
ologyl
abor
ator
yrul
es
Biologylaborat
oryhassophisti
cat
edinst
rumentswhichneedtobehandledwi
thspeci
al
care.Chemi cal
swhicharebeingusedarepotenti
all
yhar
mfulandtheyneedaspeci
al
attenti
onwhenwor kingwit
ht hem.
Thef ol
lowinglabor
atoryr
ulesshouldbeadheredto:

Don’
tenteri
nthel
abor
ator
ywi
thoutper
missi
onf
rom t
het
eacherorl
abor
ator
y
t
echni
cian.

Donotpl
ay,
orr
ununnecessar
il
yint
hel
abor
ator
y.

Donoteatordr
inki
nthel
abor
ator
y.

Donotusechemical
sorhandl eappar
atusorspeci
menswi
thouti
nst
ruct
ionf
rom t
he
t
eacherorl
abor
atorytechni
cian.

Anyacci
dentordamageofappar
atusmustber
epor
ted.

Label
chemi
cal
sandspeci
menst
oav
oidconf
usi
on.

Al
way
skeepf
lammabl
esubst
ancesawayf
rom f
lames.

Tur
nof
fwat
erandgast
apsaf
teruse.

Nev
erpoi
ntt
heopenendoft
het
estt
ubet
oyourf
ell
owory
our
sel
fwhenheat
ing.

Nev
ersmel
lsubst
ances,
speci
mens,
chemi
cal
sorgasesdi
rect
ly.

Washy
ourhandswi
thsoapaf
tert
heexper
iment
.
Cl
eant
heappar
atusandbenchesaf
tert
heexper
iment
.

Ret
urnt
heappar
atusandchemi
cal
stot
hei
rnor
mal
posi
ti
onaf
teruse.

TheDi
ff
erencebet
weent
heBi
ologyLabor
ator
yfr
om ot
herSchool
Faci
l
iti
es
Di
sti
nguisht
hebiol
ogylabor
ator
yfrom ot
herschoolfaci
l
iti
es
Di
ff
erencebetweenbi
ologyl
aborat
oryandotherschoolf
acil
it
ies:

Di
ssect
ingki
ts

Model
sofdi
ff
erentor
gansandsy
stems

Ref
ri
ger
ator
sandov
ensf
orst
ori
nganddr
yingspeci
mens

Ani
mal
keepi
nguni
ts

Chemi
cal
sdesi
gnedf
orbi
ologi
cal
exper
iment
s

Pr
eser
vedspeci
mensofl
i
vingt
hings

Gases,
elect
ri
ci
tyandwat
ersuppl
y.

Aim:Todiff
erenti
atebi
ologylaborat
oryf
rom otherschoollabor
ator
iesorfaci
li
ti
es
Procedur
e:letst
udentsvisi
tthechemist
rylaborat
ory,phy
sicslabor
ator
y,theschool
l
ibrar
y,cl
assroom andschool st
oreandal
lowt hem t
operformt hef
oll
owing.

Makeal
i
stofi
temst
hatar
efoundi
neachoft
heabov
enamedar
eas.

Compar
ethel
i
stwi
tht
hosewhi
char
efoundi
nthebi
ologyl
abor
ator
y.

Constr
uctatabl
eofdif
ferencesshowi
ngali
stofit
emswhicharefoundinthebi
ology
l
aborator
yandthosewhicharefoundi
ntheabovenamedschoolf
acil
it
iesasshown
bel
ow.

Listi
temswhi
charef
oundinbot
hthebiol
ogyl
abor
ator
yandot
herschool
faci
l
iti
es
l
istedabov
eandcomparet
hedif
fer
ences.

Facil
ity/Buildi
ng I t
ems
Biol
ogyl aborator
y
Chemi stry
l
abor atory
Physicslaboratory
School li
brary
Classroom
School store
I
nt erpretati
onofWar ni
ngSi gnsonCont ainersofLaboratoryChemi calsandAppar at
us
I
nt erpretwar ni
ngsi gnsoncont ainersoflabor at
orychemi calsandappar at
us
War ningsi gnsonl aborator
ychemi calsandappar at
us
Someoft hechemi calsandappar atususedi nbiol
ogylabor ator
ymaybehar mfulor
danger ous.Bef or
est arti
ngusinganychemi calyoumustknowwhet hert hechemicalis
toxic,flammabl e,oxidi
zing,expl
osi veorirri
tant/
harmful.Tohel pyour ecognizesuch
danger oussubst ances, t
hecont ainersofmoder nchemi calscar r
yspeci alchemical
war ningsignsasi ndicatedbelow.
Toxi
c
Toxi
csubstancescancausedeat h.Theymaybepoisonouswhenswal
l
owed,br
eat
hed
i
norabsorbedthroughtheskin.Examplesoftoxi
csubst
ancesi
ncl
udeaci
dsandal
kal
i
s,
l
eadIIacet
ateandpotassium dichromate.
Thesymbolfortoxi
csubstancesi srepr
esent
edasshownabove.

Flammabl e
Flammabl esubstancesaresubstanceswhichcancatchfir
eeasil
y .Exampl
esofsuch
substancesincl
udepet r
ol,al
cohol,ThomasBaker(Phosphorusyelloworphosphor
us
red)andpotassium metal.Thesesubstancesnormal
lyevaporat
ef astandther
efor
e
shouldnotbebr oughtnearopenflames.Thesy mboli
sasi ndi
catedabove.

Cor
rosi
ve
Corrosi
vesubst ancesat t
ackanddest royli
vi
ngti
ssues.Theymaydest roythefl
oor ,
desksaswel lasmet als,examplesofcor r
osiv
esubstancesareconcentratedacids,e.
g.
sul
phuricacid,hydrochlori
cacid,nitr
icaci
dandconcentrat
edalkali
se.g.sodium,
potassi
um andammoni um hydroxides.I
fbyacci
dentacorrosi
vesubstancecomesi nto
contactwit
hy ourskin,got othesinkandwashwi thalotofwater.Thesy mbolisshown
above.

Oxi
dant
Anoxi
danti
sachemicalorsubstancewhichaccel
eratesburning.Smallf
ir
escanbe
madebigi
nthepr
esenceofoxidizingagent
.Examplesofoxidizingagent
sincl
ude
pot
assi
um per
manganat
e,potassium chl
orat
e,andzincnit
rate.

Expl
osi
ve
Anexpl
osi
oni
saf
orcef
ulr
api
dreact
ionwhi
chi
nvol
vesr
andom t
hrowi
ngofpar
ti
cles
Har
mfulori
rr
it
ant
Harmf
ulsubst
anceshavealongterm ef
fect
.Theydonotkil
li
mmedi
atel
y.Theyhav
ea
cumul
ati
veeff
ect.Ther
efor
ecaref
ulhandli
ngisrequi
red.

Irr
it
antsubstancescausepainsont heskinorey es.Theycanendangerone'
sheal
thi
f
theycomei ntocont
actwiththeski noreyesfortoolong.Examplesofharmful
substancesincl
udeleadchlori
de,leadnit
rate,l
i
mewat erfer
roussulphat
eand
manganese( IV)oxi
de
Examplesabov eofsomechemi calcont
ainerswiththeirwarni
ngsigns.

Acti
vit
y6
Aim:toinvest
igatechemical war
ningsignsRequirements:vari
eti
esofchemical
contai
nersProcedure:col
lectchemicalcontainer
s.Observethem car
eful
lyandi
dent
if
y
chemicalwarningsignsont hem.
Recordyourresult
sasshowni nthetablethatfol
lows.
Chemical War ni
ng
contai
ner sign

TheCommonAppar
atusandEqui
pmentofBi
ologyLabor
ator
y
I
dent
if
ycommonappar at
usandequi
pmentofbi
ologylabor
atory
Someappar
atusandequi
pmentusedint
hebiol
ogylaborat
ory.

Mi
croscopes

Handl
enses

Ther
momet
ers

Di
ssect
ingki
ts

Mor
tarandpest
le
Di
ssect
ingt
ray
s

Del
i
ver
ytubes

Measur
ingcy
li
nder
s

Bunsenbur
ner
s

Testt
ubes

Speci
menbot
tl
es

Ov
ens

Apai
rofsci
ssor
s

Chemi
cal
bal
ance

Funnel

Testt
uber
acks

Testt
ubehol
der
s

Beaker
s

For
ceps

Sur
gical
blades

Mi
croscopesl
i
des

Dr
opper
s

Spat
ula

Cor
ks

Gl
assst
raws

Fr
idge/
ref
ri
ger
ator

Mount
edneedl
e

Beam bal
ances
Gl
assr
ods

Scal
pel
s

Mi
croscope

Ther
momet
ers

Handl
enses

Di
ssect
ingki
t
Mot
orandPest
le

Di
ssect
ingt
ray

Del
i
ver
ytube

Measur
ingcy
li
nder
BunsenBur
ner

Testt
ube

Speci
menBot
tl
es

Pai
rofsci
ssor
s
Funnel

Sur
gical
blades

Spat
ula

Gl
assst
raws
Mount
edNeedl
e

Beam bal
ance

Gl
assr
od

Scal
pel
s

Dr
oppi
ngpi
pet
te

Somecommonchemi
cal
susedi
nthebi
ologyl
abor
ator
y

Benedi
ct’
ssol
uti
on

Li
mewat
er(
cal
ci
um hy
droxi
de)

Sodi
um hy
droxi
de(
slakedl
i
me)

Cobal
tchl
ori
de

Hy
drochl
ori
caci
d
Copper(
II
)sul
phat
e

SudanI
II

Al
cohol

St
ainse.
g.car
miner
ed,
met
hyl
enebl
ue

Sodi
um bi
car
bonat
e

Pot
assi
um per
manganat
e

I
odi
nesol
uti
on

Exer
cise2
I
neachofthef ol
l
owingquest
ionswr
it
eTRUEf
orcor
rectst
atementandFALSEf
or
i
ncorr
ectstat
ement.

Abiologylabor
ator
yisapl
acewher
ebi
ologi
cal
exper
iment
sar
e
conducted……………………………….

Ev
ery
thi
ngi
nthel
abor
ator
ycanbet
ast
ed………………

Warningsi
gnscanhel
psomeonet
oavoi
dacci
denti
nthe
l
aborator
y……………………………………………….
..

Oneoft
hef
oll
owi
ngi
snotabasi
cqual
i
tyoft
hebi
ologyl
abor
ator
y.

Wor
kingbenches

Lar
gewi
ndowsandbi
gspace

Suppl
yofgas,
elect
ri
cit
yandwat
er

Ki
tchen

Subst
anceswhi
chmaycat
chf
ir
eeasi
l
yar
esai
dtobe

Toxi
c

Fl
ammabl
e

Expl
osi
ve

I
rr
it
ant
Ani
nst
rumentusedt
omeasur
etemper
atur
eoft
hebodyi
scal
l
ed

Chemi
cal
bal
ance

Measur
ingcy
li
nder

Ther
momet
er

Bar
omet
er

Oneoft
hef
oll
owi
ngi
sacommonr
eagentusedi
nthebi
ologyl
abor
ator
y

Benedi
ct’
ssol
uti
on

Pot
assi
um i
odi
de

Sodi
um acet
ate

Bar
ium chl
ori
de

Whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngl
i
stofi
nst
rument
sisnotr
elat
edt
obi
ologyl
abor
ator
y?

Fr
idge,
apai
rofsci
ssor
s,sur
gical
blades

Mi
croscope,
testt
ube,
ther
momet
er

Di
ssect
ingki
t,scal
pel
,beaker

Met
erbr
idge,
pendul
um bobandbur
ett
e.

Thewar
ningsi
gnshowni
ndi
cat
es

Expl
osi
vesubst
ance

Oxi
dizi
ngagent

Fl
ammabl
esubst
ance

Cor
rosi
vesubst
ance
Matcht
hei
temsi
nli
stAwi
tht
hecor
respondi
ngi
temsi
nli
stB.
LI
STA

Usedf
orpl
aci
ngspeci
mendur
ingdi
ssect
ion

Anappar
atususedf
orst
ir
ri
ngsol
uti
on

Asubst
ancewhi
chaccel
erat
esbur
ning

Donotpl
ayorr
uni
nthel
abor
ator
y

Acommonr
eagenti
nthebi
ologyl
abor
ator
y

LI
STB

Labor
ator
yrul
e

Oxi
dant

SudanI
II

Di
ssect
ingki
t

Gl
assr
od

Whatdoy
ouunder
standbyt
hef
oll
owi
ngt
erms?

Labor
ator
y

War
ningsi
gn

Dr
awwar
ningsi
gnswhi
chmaybeusedi
nbot
tl
escar
ryi
ngasubst
ancewhi
chi
s
t
oxi
c

f
lammabl
e

expl
osi
ve

har
mful

Li
stdownanysix(6)labor
ator
yrules
St
atetheuseofthefoll
owingapparat
us

Speci
menbot
tl
es

Testt
ubehol
der
s

Beam bal
ance

Beaker

Mor
tarandpest
le

Dr
awt
hef
oll
owi
ngappar
atus:

Measur
ingcy
li
nder

Mor
tarandpest
le

Funnel

Tr
ipodst
and.

THEMI
CROSCOPE
Muchoft heli
vingwor ldist
oosmallf
orhumaney est osee.Oureyescanonlysee
obj
ectsthatarelargerthan0.1mm.Objectswit
hsizessmal l
erthan0.1mm canbe
vi
ewedbyusi ngmi croscopes.
Whatisami croscope?
Amicroscopei saninstrumentusedf
orv i
ewingobjectswhicharetoosmallt
obeseen
byournakedey es.Itranksasoneofthemostimpor tantt
oolsofscience.

Physi
ciansandbi
ologi
sts,
forexampl
e,usemi
croscopest
oexami
nebact
eri
aandbl
ood
cel
l
s.

Mater
ial
sci
enti
stsandengi
neersusemi
croscopestost
udythecr
yst
alst
ructur
eswi
thi
n
metal
sandall
oys(metal
mixtur
es)andt
oexami necomput
erchi
psandotherti
ny
el
ectr
oni
cdevi
ces.
Ther
ear
etwot
ypesofmi
croscopes

Compoundorl
i
ghtmi
croscope

El
ect
ronmi
croscope

Opti
calorli
ghtmicroscope
Anopti
calmi cr
oscopehasoneormor el
ensest hatrefract(
bend)theli
ghtray
sthat
shi
nethroughorarer ef
lect
edbyt hespecimenbei ngobser ved.Theref
ract
edli
ghtr
ays
makethespecimenappearmuchl ar
gerthaniti
s.
Magnif
yingglassisthesimplestopti
calmicroscope, hasonlyonelens.Thebest
magnif
yingglassescanmagni fyanobjectby10t o20t i
mes.

Thecompoundorl i
ghtmi croscope
Thecompoundorl i
ghtmi croscopeusest woormor esetsoflensest oprovi
dehi gher
magni ficati
ons.Eachsetofl ensesf unctionsasauni tandisreferr
edt oaslenssy st
em.
Inmi croscopeswi thonlyoneobj ectiv
e, thel enssyst
em andocul araremount edat
opposi teendsofat ube.I
nmi cr oscopeswi tht woormor eobjecti
vest heobjecti
vesare
mount edinar otat
ingnosepi ececonnect i
ngt otheendoft hetubeopposi t
et heocular
.
Theper sonoper at
ingthemi cr oscoper otatest henosepiecetoalignoneoft he
objectiveswi t
htheopeni ngi nt heendoft het ube.
Thewor kingsofelectronandcompoundmi croscopeElect
ronmi croscope–Uses
electronst oil
luminatethespeci menandcanr ev
ealmuchmor estructur
esthanl i
ght
mi cr
oscopecando.
Lightmi croscope–Usesl ightt oi l
luminat et hespecimen
Par t
soft helightmi cr
oscopeandt heirf unct i
ons
Par
tsoft
hel
i
ghtmi
croscopehast
hef
oll
owi
ngf
unct
ions:

Ey
epi
ece–Magni
fyobj
ect
sunderobser
vat
ionsi
ncei
tconsi
stsofmagni
fyi
ngl
enses.

Bodytube–Holl
owtubeat
tachedt
othear
m.I
tsf
unct
ioni
stohol
dey
epi
ecel
ensand
rev
olv
ingnosepi
ece.

Revol
vi
ngnosepiece–Hol
dsobj
ect
ivel
ensesi
nplace.Posi
ti
onoft
heobj
ect
ivel
enses
canbechangedbymani
pul
ati
ngt
herevol
vi
ngnosepiece.

Coar
seadjust
mentknob–I
tlower
sandr
aisest
hebodyt
ubesot
hatacl
eari
magei
s
obt
ained.

Fi
neadj
ust
mentknob–Rai
sesandl
ower
sthebodyt
ubet
oobt
ainaf
inef
ocus.

Obj
ect
ivel
ens–Br
ingsi
magei
ntof
ocusandmagni
fi
esi
t.

St
age–Thi
sisapl
acewher
especi
ment
obeobser
vedi
spl
aced

Cl
i
ps–Hol
dthesl
i
deorspeci
meni
nposi
ti
on

Mi
rr
or–Ref
lect
sanddi
rect
sli
ghtt
otheobj
ectunderobser
vat
ion.
Diaphr
agm –Isanapert
urethatr
egul
atest
heamountofl
i
ghtpassi
ngt
hrought
he
condensert
oil
lumi
natethespeci
men

Condenser–Concent
rat
esl
i
ghtr
efl
ect
edbyt
hemi
rr
or.

Baseorst
and–Suppor
tst
hemi
croscopest
eadi
l
y

Ar
m orl
i
mb–Suppor
tst
hebodyt
ubeandst
age.I
tisusedt
ohol
dthemi
croscope

Hi
ngescr
ew–Rai
sesandl
ower
sthest
age.

Magni
fi
cat
ion
Magnif
icationpowerissymbol izedbyanumberandabbr ev i
ati
onX.Forexampl
ea10X
magnif
y i
nggl assmagnifi
esanobj ectby10t imes.Anobjectismagnifi
edbymulti
ply
ing
theey
epiecel ensmagnifi
cationandobj ecti
velensmagnificat
ion.
Example:
Magnif
ication=ey epi
ecelensxobj ecti
velensmagnifi
cation
=10×20=X200
Atabl
eofmagni fi
cati
on
Eyepi
ecel ens Objecti
v elens Total
magnif
ication magni f
ication magni fi
cati
on
5 20 X100
10 20 X200
15 10 X150
10 25 X250
20 20 X400
Howtouseami cr
oscope

Tur
nony
ourmi
croscopel
i
ght

Turnt
henosepi
ecesothatt
hesmall
(lowpower
)obj
ect
ivel
enscl
i
cksi
ntopl
ace.
Alway
sstar
twit
hlowpowerlensi
npl
ace.

Pl
acethepr
epar
edsl
ideonthecent
eroft
hest
ageundert
heclipssot
hatt
heobj
ecti
s
i
nthecent
eroft
heopeni
ng.Makesuret
hecov
ersl
ipisontop

Withyoureyeatstagelev
el,
usethecoarseadj
ust
mentt obr
ingt
heobjectandt
hel
ow
powerobject
ivelensasneartoeachot
heraspossi
ble.Theobj
ect
ivel
ensshoul
dnot
touchthecoversli
p

Nowwi t
hy ourey
et ot
heeyepi
ece,sl
owl
ymov ethecoar
seadjust
mentt
oincr
easethe
di
stancebetweentheobj
ectandthel
ens.Cont
inuet
hisunt
ilt
heimagei
sfocused.

Adj
ustt
hedi
aphr
agm sot
hatt
heobj
ectcanbeseenascl
ear
lyaspossi
ble
Toobservet
heobjectundermedium andhighpowers,
rotat
etherevol
vi
ngnosepiece
tobri
ngthenexthi
ghestobject
ivel
ensint
opositi
on.Makesureyouhearthe'
cl
ick't
o
ensur
ethattheobj
ecti
velensisinpl
ace.Then,f
ocususingthef
ineadj
ustmentonl
y.

Way
sofhandl
i
ngandcar
ryi
ngal
i
ghtmi
croscope

Usebothhandstocar
rythemi
croscope.Onehandshoul
dhol
dthebaseandt
heot
her
handshoul
dholdthearm.

Alwaysplacet
hemicroscopeont
hedeskort
abl
ecar
eful
l
yandgent
lyandnev
erpl
acei
t
attheedgeofthebench.

Keept
hemi
croscopei
nanupr
ightposi
ti
onwhenusi
ngl
i
qui
dsorwhennoti
nuse.

Keept
hestagecl
eananddry
.Ifanyli
qui
dsar
espi
l
ledont
hemi
croscope,
wipet
hem up
i
mmediat
elywit
hapieceoft
issue.

Focuswi
tht
hel
ow-
powerobj
ect
ivel
ensf
ir
st.

Focusbymov
ingt
hel
ensawayf
rom t
hesl
i
de,
thati
s,byi
ncr
easi
ngt
hewor
king
di
stance.

Consul
tyourt
eacheri
fthel
ensesar
edi
rt
y.(
vii
i
)Consul
tyourt
eacheri
ftheadj
ust
ment
s
donotworkfr
eel
y.

Wheny ourwor
kiscompl
eted,
mov
ethel
owpowerobj
ect
ivel
ensi
ntopl
aceandr
emov
e
yoursl
i
de.

Keepyourmi
croscopecov
eredwheni
tisnoti
nuseandkeepy
ourwor
kar
eacl
eanand
ti
dy.

ELECTRONMI CROSCOPE
Thistypeofmicroscopeusesabeam ofelect
ronsrathert
hanabeam ofli
ghtto
producemagnifi
edi mages.El
ect
ronwavelengthsaremuchshort
erthanthoseof
vi
sibleli
ght
.Asar esul
telect
ronmicr
oscopescanresolvemuchfi
nerdetai
lthanli
ght
microscopecando.
Ty
pesofel
ect
ronmi
croscopes

Transmissi
onelect
ronmicr
oscope(TEM)Thi
st y
peofamicr
oscopepassesabr
oad
beam ofelect
ronsthr
oughaspeci
mensliceafewhundr
edangst
romsthick.

Scanni
ngelect
ronmicroscope(
SEM)Thi
smi
croscopescansaf
ocusedbeam acr
oss
thesur
faceofthespeci
men.

Otherkindsofmi croscopes
Scanningpr obemi croscopeThemi cr
oscopescansaspecimenwit
hashar ppoint
call
edapr obe.
Theionmi cr
oscope( fiel
d-ionmicroscope)I
tisusedtoexaminemetal
s.Itcreat
esan
i
mageoft hecrystalstructureoft
het ipofanext
remelyshar
pmetalneedle.Anelect
ri
c
fi
eldappliedtothet i
pr epelschar
gedhel i
um,neonorargonatomswhichspreadout
andstrikeaspecial screen.Thescreenglowswher et
heatomsstri
keit
,formingan
i
mageoft hearrangementofat omsi nthemetal
.

SAFETYI
NOURENVI
RONMENT
Fi
rstAi
d
TheMeani ngandImportanceofFi r
stAidatHomeandatSchool
Expl
ainthemeaningandi mpor t
anceoff i
rstai
dathomeandatschool
Fi
rstAidisanimmedi at
ehel pwhichisgiventoasi
ckori
njur
edpersonbef
oresendi
ng
hi
m/ hertothehospi
talforfurt
hertreat
ment .

I
mpor
tanceofFi
rstAi
d

Sav
esl
i
fe

Reducesf
earofdeat
h
Br
ingshopeandencour
agementt
othepat
ient

Rel
i
evest
hev
ict
im’
spai
n

Pr
event
sthei
l
lnessori
njur
yfr
om becomi
ngwor
se

Hel
psaper
sont
orecov
erf
rom shock

I
tshowsspi
ri
tofhel
pingeachot
her
.

Component
soft
heFi
rstAi
dKi
tandt
hei
rUses
I
denti
tycomponentsofthefir
stai
dkitandthei
ruses
Fi
rstAidki
tisasmallboxwhichisusedtokeepinstr
umentsandchemi
cal
sforFi
rstAi
d.
Thefi
rstAi
dkitshoul
dbepl acedi
nasaf eandaccessibl
epl
ace.
ComponentsoftheFi
rstAidkit

Apai
rofsci
ssor
s

Gauze

Assor
tedbandages

Adhesi
vepl
ast
ers

Cot
tonwool

Newr
azorbl
ade

Gent
ianv
iol
et(
GV)

Pet
rol
eum j
ell
yorVasel
i
ne

Saf
etypi
ns

I
odi
net
inct
ureorspi
ri
t

Soap

Ant
i-
pai
n(pai
nki
l
ler
s)e.
g.Panadol

St
eri
l
izedf
orcepsandpi
ns

Li
niment

Apai
roft
ongs
Ant
ibi
oti
csol
uti
on

Usesoft
hei
nst
rument
sandchemi
cal
sint
heFi
rstAi
dki
t

Apai
rofsci
ssor
s:i
susedf
orcut
ti
ngdr
essi
ngmat
eri
alssuchasgauze,
bandages·

Gauze:
i
susedt
ocov
ert
hewoundt
opr
eventdi
rtandmi
cro-
organi
smsf
rom ent
eri
ng.

Assor
tedbandages:ar
eusedf
orsecur
ingani
njur
edpar
tinor
dert
opr
otectandsuppor
t
i
t.

Adhesi
vepl
ast
er:
areusedf
orcov
eri
ngmi
norwounds/
cut
sandgr
azes·

Cot
tonwool
:
isusedf
orcl
eani
nganddr
yingwoundsandappl
yi
ngmedi
cine·

Newr
azorbl
ade:
usedf
orcut
ti
nganyf
lapsofski
nwhencl
eani
ngt
hewound.

Gent
ianVi
olet(
GV)
:i
susedasanant
isept
ict
ocl
eanwounds.

Pet
rol
eum j
ell
yorVasel
i
ne:
usedf
ort
reat
mentofbur
ns

Saf
etypi
ns:
usedf
orhol
ding/
secur
ingbandages.

I
odi
net
inct
ureorspi
ri
t:
usedf
orcl
eani
ngwoundst
oreducebl
eedi
ng.

Soap:
i
susedf
orwashi
ngwounds,
handsandmedi
cal
faci
l
iti
es.

Ant
i-
pai
n(pai
nki
l
ler
s):
usedt
oreducepai
n.

St
eri
l
izedf
orcepsandpi
ns:
areusedf
orr
emov
ingspl
i
nter
sandgr
itf
rom wounds.

Li
niment
:usedt
oreducemuscl
epai
ns.

Apai
roft
ongs:
usedf
orhol
dingpi
ecesofbandageswhencl
eani
ngt
hewounds.

Ant
ibi
oti
csol
uti
on:
i
susedf
orappl
yi
ngi
nthewoundsf
orki
l
li
ngmi
cro-
organi
sms.

FI
RSTAI
DER
TheFi
rstAideri
saspecial
i
stwhogi
vesf
ir
stai
d.
Qual
it
iesofthefi
rstAi
der

She/heshoul
dhav
eabi
l
ityt
oassesst
hepr
obl
em andgi
vei
mmedi
ateandappr
opr
iat
e
hel
p.

She/
hemustbeabl
etoactqui
ckl
y,qui
etl
y,cal
mly
She/
heshoul
dbesy
mpat
het
ict
othev
ict
im

She/heshouldbeabl
etorecogni
zedangeroussi
gnsandgiveimmedi
atehel
pfor
exampledetecti
ngi
mmediatel
yif-
breat
hinghasstoppedori
sfai
l
ing-
ther
eissev
ere
bleedi
ng-
poisoni
ng-
fr
act
ures

She/
heshoul
dbeabl
etohel
pthei
njur
edper
sonwi
thoutunnecessar
ymov
ement

Precauti
onstobeobservedbytheFir
stAider
TheFirstAi
dershouldkeephimsel
f/
herselfsafet
oav oiddanger
sfrom t
hepati
ent
.
Someoft hedangersthats/
hemayf aceincludei
nfecti
onbypathogenssuchasvi
ruses
andbacteri
a.Sot
heyshould:

Wearpr
otect
ivegl
ovest
oav
oidcont
actwi
thbl
ood

Wearey
epr
otect
ion

Wearmasksandgowns.

Fi
rstAi
dcanber
ender
edt
othev
ict
imsof

Dr
owni
ng

Muscl
ecr
amps

Bl
eedi
ng

Poi
soni
ng

Hi
ccups

Suf
focat
ion

Br
uisesFai
nti
ngBur
nsSpr
ainBonef
ract
ureSnakebi
te

Procedur
esofGi vi
ngFi r
stAi dtoVar i
ousVictims
Outli
neproceduresofgivingf i
rstaidtovari
ousv i
cti
ms
SNAKEBI TES
Apoisonoussnakehast wof angsoneoneachsi deoftheupperj aw.Thefangsareas
sharpasneedles.Atther ootoft hefangthereisapoisongland.Whent hesnakestr
ikes,
i
tjabsdownwar dshitt
ingt heskinwi t
hitsfangsandr el
easesaf ewdropsofv enom.
Venom isthepoisonoft hesnakeTheact i
onofst r
iki
ngforcesthepoisonoutand
i
njectsi
ntothev i
cti
m’sski n.
Signandsy mptoms

I
mmedi
atepai
nandswel
l
ingaf
tert
hebi
te
TheskinbecomespurpleOneort
wopunct
uredpoi
ntsmaybeseenwher
ethef
angs
passedthr
oughtheskin

SCORPI ONBITE
Scor
pionsarear medwithasi nglecurv
edst i
ngeri
nthet
ail
.Thr
oughthis,
theyi
nject
powerf
ul v
enom t hatmaypr oduceconv ulsi
onsandtempor
arypar
aly
sis.
Theaffect
edar eafeel
sast houghishadbeenbur nedwi
thahotspark
Howtogi vef
irstAidtoavict i
m ofscorpionbite

Appl
ytour
niquet

Puti
ceont
hei
njur
edar
eat
orel
i
evepai
nandpr
eventspr
eadoft
hepoi
son

Tr
eatf
orshock

Rusht
heper
sont
othehospi
tal

DOGBI TE
Whensomeonei sbittenbyadog, keepthedogunderobser vat
iont
oseewhetherithas
rabies.Rabiesisoneoft hewor stdi
seasesknown.Itiscausedbyav i
ruswhi
chis
presentinthesalivaoft heinfectedanimal
.
I
ft heanimal hasrabies,itwill
becomer estless,
exci
table,
ref
usetoeatandbarki
ngtone
willchange.Laterthedogt henstart
sbarkingexcessiv
ely.
Howt ohelpav i
cti
m ofdogbi te

Washy
ourhandswel
lwi
thsoapandwat
er

Washthewoundt
hor
oughl
ywi
thsoapandwat
ert
oremov
etheani
mal
’
ssal
i
vausi
ng
r
unni
ngwater.

Cov
ert
hewoundwi
thcl
eangauze.

Bandagei
tcar
eful
l
y

Taket
hev
ict
imt
othehospi
tal
.

I
NSECTBI
TES

Spiderbi
tes:Somespider
shaveaharml
essvenom toman.Butthebl
ackspi
derscan
bedangeroustoman.Theinj
uredper
sonbecomesweakanddizzy,f
eel
snauseatedand
themusclesofthest
omachmaybecomehar despeci
all
yinchi
l
dren.

Blackandf
ir
eants,
bees: Whenaper
sonhasbeenstungbye.
g.bees,
severepai
nsar
e
fel
timmedi
atel
y.
Thepersonmaybeshocked,
itchi
ngandswel
l
ingmayf ol
l
ow.

Av
ict
im ofspi
derbi
tecanbehel
pedbysendi
nghi
m/hert
othehospi
tal
.
Howt
ohel
p

Remov
ethei
nsect
’sst
ing

Appl
yhousehol
dammoni
aandi
cecubes

Tr
eatf
orshock

CHOCKI NG
Chokingiscausedwhenf oodoraf or
eignobj ectbecomesl odgedinthewi ndpipe.
Havey oueverbeenwithaper sonwhoi schocki ng?Didy ouknowwhatt odo?
Wheny ouarewi t
haper sonthatischocking, fi
rstnot
icei fpersoncant al
k,breathor
cough.Ifsostaywit
hthatper sonuntilt
heai rwayi sclearedbycoughi ng.
Cauti
on:Donottrytoslaptheper sonont heback.Thesl appingmaycauset hef oodt
o
becomemor edeepl
yledgedint hewindpi pe.

I
fapersoncannott
alkorcoughandappear
stohav
eadi
ff
icul
tinbr
eat
hing,
appl
yqui
ck
abdominal
thr
ustsi
.e.Hei
mlichmaneuv
erasfol
l
ows;

Fi
rstst
andbehi
ndt
hechocki
ngv
ict
im

Putyourar
msaroundt
heper
son,
placi
ngy
ourf
ir
stsj
ustbel
owt
hebr
eastboneas
shownabove.

Gi
veaser
iesofqui
ck,
shar
pupwar
dandi
nwar
dthr
ust
s

Theset hr
ustspushinont
hedi
aphragm andthet
horaci
ccavi
tysuddenl
ydecr
easi
ngi
ts
volume.
Airpressur
eisexert
edbel
owtheobstr
uctionwhi
chproj
ect
sitfor
ceful
lyf
rom t
he
windpipe.

POI
SONI
NG
Apoisoni sanysubst ancewhi chcanlossofone’
sli
feorseri
ousl
yendangerheal t
h
whent akenintothebody .
Ineveryhousehol dtherearediff
erentki
ndsofthi
ngswhicharepoisonous.Somear e
deadlyevenonav er
ysmal ldose.Other
smaybemor eorlessharmlesswhent akenin
smallquantit
ies.
Exampl esofpoisonoussubst ancesathomear eker
osene,di
sinf
ectants,
paint
s,
medicines,art
ifi
cialfer
ti
li
zers,etc.
Fir
staidtopoi soning

Lookf
ort
hepoi
son

I
dent
if
ythepoi
son
Neut
ral
i
zet
hepoi
sonbygi
vi
ngt
hev
ict
im pl
ent
yofmi
l
ktodr
inkoreggwhi
teorwat
er.

Inducevomiti
ngi
fthepoi
soni
snotst
rongaci
doral
kal
iast
hesear
ecor
rosi
ve
substance.

I
fthepr
obl
em i
ssev
ere,
rushhi
m orhert
othehospi
tal
.

BONEFRACTURE
Aper
sonwit
habonef
ract
ureexper
iencet
hef
oll
owi
ng;

Sev
erepai
nar
oundt
hei
njur
edpar
t

Lackofmov
ement

Swel
l
ing

Fai
nti
ngorshock

Howt
ohel
p

Tr
eatf
orashock

Keept
hepat
ientabsol
utel
yqui
te

Pr
eventf
urt
herdamaget
oinj
uredpar
tbyusi
ngaspl
i
nt.

BONEDI SLOCATI
ONS
Theseareboneswhi
chhav
ecomeoutofpl
aceataj
oint
.
Howt ohelp

Br
ingt
hebonebacki
ntof
ixedposi
ti
on

Bandagei
tfi
rml
yinpl
acesot
hati
tdoesnotsl
i
poutagai
n

SHOCK
Shockisasuddenv
iol
entdi
stur
banceoft
hemi
ndoremot
ion
Causesofshock

Badnews

Sev
erei
l
lness

Heav
ybl
eedi
ng

Dehy
drat
ion
Sev
erebur
ns

Acci
dent

Way
sofpr
event
ingshock

Li
edownt
heper
sonwi
thhi
sfeethi
ghert
hanhi
shead

Loosent
hebel
tandshoes

I
ftheper
soni
sconsci
ousgi
vehi
m somet
eaoranysof
tdr
ink.

Tr
eathi
s/herwoundsi
fany

St
opanybl
eedi
ngKeept
heper
sonwar
mifhe/
shef
eel
scol
d

ELECTRI
CSHOCK
Howtohelp

Swi
tchof
ftheel
ect
ri
cit
yimmedi
atel
y

Ifnotpossi
bletoswi
tchofft
heel
ectri
cit
y,taket
hev
ict
im awayf
rom t
hesour
ceof
elect
ri
cit
yusingadrywoodenmater
ialorrope.

Loosenanyt
ightcl
othes

I
ftheper
soni
sunconsci
ous,
appl
ymout
htomout
hrespi
rat
ion

Tr
eatf
orshock

Taket
heper
sont
othehospi
tal
immedi
atel
y

BRUISES
Abrui
seisaninjur
ybeneat
htheski
n.Br
uisescanbei
dent
if
iedbypai
n,swel
l
ingora
mar
kundert heskin.
Howtotreatbrui
ses

Washy
ourhandsusi
ngwat
erandsoap

Washt
hebr
uisedpar
t

Appl
ycol
dcl
othesori
cei
mmedi
atel
ytor
educepai
nandswel
l
ing

I
fswel
l
ingcont
inuest
aket
hev
ict
imt
othehospi
tal
 VOMI TI
NG
Vomi t
ingisaninvol
unt
aryeject
ionofsubst
ancef
rom t
hest
omacht
hrought
hemout
h.
Possiblecausesofvomit
ing

Al
l
ergi
creact
ions

Di
seasese.
g.mal
ari
a

Phy
siol
ogi
cal
condi
ti
one.
g.pr
egnancy

Foodpoi
soni
ng

Unpl
easantsmel
lort
ast
e

Dr
inki
ngal
otofwat
erwhent
hir
sty
.

Howt
ohel
p

Gi
vet
heper
sonar
ehy
drat
iondr
inkoror
alr
ehy
drat
ionsal
tssol
uti
on.

Al
l
owt
heper
sont
ohav
eacompl
eter
est

I
fvomi
ti
ngcont
inues,
taket
hepat
ientt
othehospi
tal
.

MUSCLECRAMPS
Muscl
ecrampsoccurasar
esul
tofuncont
rol
l
edmuscl
espasmsandcont
ract
ion.
Howtohelp

Layt
hev
ict
im down

Massaget
hecr
ampedar
eagent
ly

Appl
ysomeant
i-
crampoi
ntmentt
otheaf
fect
edar
ea

I
fthepr
obl
em per
sist
sseekf
oramedi
cal
hel
p

Muscl
ecr
ampcancause;

Sev
erepai
n

Lossofmov
ement

DROWNI
NG
Dr
owni
ngi
sasi
tuat
ionwher
esomeonehasst
oppedbr
eat
hingdueexcessi
vedr
inki
ng
ofwaterf
oll
owi
ngsi
nki
ngi
ntowater
.
Off
eri
ngfir
stai
dtoadr
ownedvi
cti
m

Layt
heper
sononhi
sbackandt
il
thi
sheadbackwar
dssot
hathi
smout
hfal
l
sfor
war
d

Pul
lthet
onguef
orwar
d.Useadr
ycl
otht
ohol
dthet
ongue.

Hol
dhi
snosecl
osewi
thy
ourf
inger
s

Carr
youtmouthtomouthbr
eat
hingbyblowinggentl
yint
otheper
son’smout
habout30
ti
mesaminutebutdonotbl
owtoohard.
Thisprocessi edar
scal
l t
if
ici
alr
espi
rat
ion.

Keept
heper
sonwar
m.

FAI
NTING
Faint
ingiscausedbyatemporaryfal
li
nthebloodsuppl
ytot
hebr
ain,
somet
imes
broughtonbyemot i
onalshockorprol
ongedstandi
ng.
Howt ohelp

Keept
hev i
cti
mly
ingdownwi
thhi
s/herl
egsr
aisedi
nor
dert
omai
ntai
nbl
oodpr
essur
e
i
nthebrai
n.

Donott
ryt
owar
mthev
ict
im.

Loosenanyt
ightcl
othi
ngar
oundt
heneck,
chestandwai
st.

Suppl
ythepat
ientwi
thpl
ent
yoff
reshai
rbyf
anni
ngormout
htomout
hrespi
rat
ion.

I
fther
eisnoi
mpr
ovementr
usht
hev
ict
imt
othehospi
tal
.

BLEEDING
Howt ohelpt
hevi
cti
m
(a)Sever
ecuts
Sever
ebleedi
ngwithbl
oodfl
owingoutrapi
dlymustbest
oppedatoncebypressi
ng
wit
hfinger
sdir
ect
lyonthewoundorpressi
ngtheedgesoft
hewoundtogether.

Layt
hev
ict
im down.

I
fthewoundi
sinal
i
mbr
aisei
tpr
ovi
dedi
tisnotf
ract
ured.

Whenthebl
eedi
nghassl
oweddownpr
essapadofmat
eri
alov
ert
hewoundandt
iei
t
r
api
dlyinpl
ace.

I
fbl
oodoozest
hrough,
appl
ymor
emat
eri
alont
opoft
heor
igi
nal
pad.

b)Si
( mpl
ecut
s

Washy
ourhandswel
lbyusi
ngsoapandwat
er

Washt
hewound

Cov
ert
hewoundwi
thcl
eandr
essi
ngdi
ppedi
niodi
nesol
uti
onandbandaget
hewound

c)Nosebl
( eedi
ngBleedi
ngusual
l
yoccur
sneart
het
ipoft
henose.Thebl
eedi
ngmaybe
aresul
tofdi
seasessuchas

Hi
ghbl
oodpr
essur
e

Rheumat
icf
everOr

I
njur
y

Nosebl
eedi
ngi
sal
sol
i
kel
ytooccurathi
ghal
ti
tudeasar
esul
tofcol
d.

Anosebl
eedi
ngv
ict
im
Howtohel
p

Lett
hev i
cti
m si
tqui
et.Thi
smakest
hehear
tbeatt
osl
owdownandhencer
educes
bl
eeding.

Letthev
ict
iml
eant
heheadsl
i
ght
lybackwar
dormakehi
m/herl
i
edownonhi
s/her
back.

Pr
essont
hesi
deoft
henosewher
ethebl
oodi
sfl
owi
ngf
orabout10mi
nut
es.

Al
l
owt
hev
ict
imt
obr
eat
hthr
ought
hemout
h

Appl
ycol
d,wetcompressi
onov
ert
henoseandf
ace.I
fthi
sdoesnotwor
ktaket
he
vi
cti
mtothehospi
tal
Ther i
ghtposi ti
ont oof f
erf ir
stai dt oanosebl eedingvict
im
BURNSANDSCALDS
Abur niscausedbydr yheate. g.flameofhotobj ect
.Ascal discausedbyast eam or
boili
ngwat er.Thet reatmenti st hesamef orbothburnsandscal dsexceptt hati
nscalds
anywetcl ot hingshoul dbecar ef ul
lyr emov edwhilei
nbur nscl ot
hingshouldbel ef
tin
place.Ifclothesar ebur ningcov ert hevicti
m withaheav yblankett ocutofftheair
supply.
Dipthebur ninglimbi ntocl eancol dwat erorpresstheaffectedar eagentl
ywi t
hani ce
block.Donotbr eakt heblisters.Cov ertheinj
uredareawithcl eandr ycl
othtokeepaway
bacteriaent eri
ngt hedamagedt issue.Ifthesituati
onisserioust akethevicti
mt othe
hospitalimmedi ately.

CHEMICALBURNS(
ACI
DSANDALKALI
S)
Howtohel
p

St
ri
pof
fal
lcl
othi
ngwhi
chhasbeencont
ami
nat
edbyt
hechemi
cal
.

Washt
heaf
fect
edar
eawi
thpl
ent
yofwat
er.

Appl
ymoi
stpackssoakedi
naweaksol
uti
onofbaki
ngsoda.

Vi
negarcanbeusedf
oral
kal
i
nebur
ns.

HICCUPS
Hiccupsisduet
oinvol
unt
arycont
ract
ionoft
her
espi
rat
orymuscl
e,gi
vi
nga
charact
eri
sti
csound
Howt ohelp

Pul
l
ingoutt
het
ongue

Thev
ict
im mayswal
l
owf
inel
ycr
ushedi
ce

Hol
dingabr
eat
hforal
ongt
imemayal
sohel
p

Chil
drencanbegi
venat
easpoonf
ulofaweaksol
uti
onofsodi
um bi
car
bonat
eorl
emon
j
uice.

SAFETYI
NOURENVI
RONMENT
Whati sanacci dent
?
Anacci dentissomethi
ngunexpectedthatmaycauseinj
uryandsomet
imesl
eadt
o
death.Accidentsmaybediff
icul
ttopredictandpr
event.
Belowi salistofsomecommonacci dentsathomeandschool:

Bi
tese.
g.snakebi
te,
insectbi
te,
scor
pionbi
teanddogbi
te.
Burnscausedbyhotli
quids,
cooki
ngpot,
lamps,hotfood,
steam,bur
ningwood,
charcoal
sandthosecausedbycorr
osi
vechemicalssuchasconcent
ratedaci
dsand
str
ongalkal
is.

Fal
l
s,e.
g.wal
lfal
l
s,t
reef
all
s,bedf
all
i
ng,
etc.

Cut
sandscr
atchescausedbykni
ves,
hoes,
razorbl
adesandot
hershar
pobj
ect
s.

Choki
ngcausedbydr
inks,
foodorobj
ect
s

El
ect
ri
cshockduet
ounguar
dedel
ect
ri
cout
let
sandl
i
ght
ning.

Poi
soni
ngcausedbyt
aki
ngchemi
cal
sandexcessi
vei
ntakeofmedi
cines.

For
eignbodi
esi
ntheey
e,earandnose

Drowningwhichmayoccuri
nverysmal
lamountofwat
ersuchasbat
hs,
ponds,
pit
l
atri
nes,wel
lsandwatert
anks.

Nosebl
eedi
ng,
brui
ses,
suf
focat
ion,
fai
nti
nget
c.

WaysofPr event
ingAccident
satHomeandSchool
Outl
i
neway sofprevent
ingacci
dentsathomeandschool
Exer
cise2
Whatdoy ouunder st
andbytheterm acci
dent
?
Answerthebelow

Ment
ioncommonacci
dent
sthatcanhappenathomeandschool

St
atet
heway
sofpr
event
ingacci
dent
s

Howcany
oumai
ntai
npeaceandsaf
etyathomeandschool
?

WaysofMaintai
nSafetyatHomeandSchool
Expl
ainwaysofmaintai
nsafet
yathomeandschool
Waysofprevent
ingacci
dentsathomeandschool
incl
udet
hef
oll
owi
ng:

Medi
cinesandpot
ent
ial
poi
sonouschemi
cal
sshoul
dbekeptoutofr
eachofchi
l
dren.

Chi
l
drenshoul
dbemoni
tor
edcl
osel
ywhenpl
ayi
ng.

Sharpobject
sli
kebr
okenbot
tl
es,
razorbl
adesandl
abor
ator
yequi
pment
sshoul
dbe
well
disposedof.

Labor
ator
ychemi
cal
sshoul
dbel
abel
l
edandi
fpossi
bleappr
opr
iat
ewar
ningsi
gns
shoul
dbei
ndi
cat
ed.

Oneshoul
dnott
akemedi
cineunl
esspr
escr
ibedbyt
hedoct
or.

Bushesandtal
lgrassesaroundthehouseshoul
dbecutt
oav
oidhar
bour
ingsnakes,
beesandotherdangerousanimals.

St
udent
sshoul
dobser
veandadher
etol
abor
ator
yrul
es.

Wal
lsandtreest
hatar
eatar
iskoff
all
i
ngshoul
dbedi
smant
ledorcutdown
r
espect
ivel
y.

Fl
ammabl
esubst
ancesshoul
dbepr
oper
lykept
.

Pi
tsdugar oundt
hehouseshoul
dbeburi
ed.Poolsshoul
dbedr
ainedi
fpossi
bleandal
l
waterst
oragecontai
ner
sshoul
dbeproper
lycovered.

Avoi
dusingchar
coal
towarm onesel
fdur
ingnightwhensleepi
ngascont
inued
i
nhal
ati
onofcarbonmonoxi
defrom t
hecharcoalmayleadtodeat
h

Bur
ningcandl
esshoul
dbeputof
fwhensl
eepi
ng.

Pl
ayer
sshoul
dadher
etogamer
ules.

Labor
ator
ydoorsshouldopenout
war
dsf
oreasyexi
tincaseoff
ir
e.Emer
gencedoori
s
al
sonecessar
yforthi
scase.

Equi
pmentl
i
kehoes,
axesandkni
vesshoul
dbepr
oper
lykept

Tur
nof
fal
lthegast
apsaf
terexper
iment
.

Way
sofmai
ntai
ningpeaceandsaf
etyathomeandschool

Avoi
dri
skbehav
iour
ssuchaspl
ayi
ngneardeepponds,
play
ingwi
thkni
ves,
alcohol
i
sm
et
c.

Danger
oust
hingssuchasdr
ugsshoul
dbekeptawayf
rom chi
l
dren’
sreach

Repor
tanydanger
ousev
entt
hatsomeoneengagesi
n.

Beposi
ti
veandsuppor
ti
vet
oeachot
her
.

Soci
alpr
obl
emsoccur
ri
ngathomeorschool
shoul
dbesol
vedkeenl
y.

Oneshoul
dbegoodt
ohi
m/her
sel
f.
Par
ent
sshoul
dgi
vet
hei
rchi
l
dreneducat
iononhowt
oli
veandi
nter
actwi
thot
her
s.

Wast
eDi
sposal
Wastecanbedef i
nedasunwantedmateri
alsorsubst
ancesthatar
elef
taftery
ouhave
usedsomet hi
ng.Wast
emat er
ial
sorsubstancesar
eunwantedbecausethegoodpar
t
ofthem hasbeenremovedoriti
snotused.
Ty
pesofWast
e
I
denti
fyty
pesofwaste
Accor
dingtophy
sical
stat
e,wast
escanbecl
assi
fi
edas;

Sol
i
dwast
es

Sl
udgewast
es

Li
qui
dwast
es

Gaseouswast
es

Soli
dwast es
Thesear ewasteswhi chcompr iseofabout73%oft hesol i
dwast es.Exampl eofsoli
d
wastesincludehousehol dsoli
dwast essuchasv egetable,fr
uitandgar denwast es,
papers,cans,plast
ics, br eadwr appers,
brokenglasswar e, bat
teri
esf r
om wat ches,
radi
os,mobi l
ephones, etc.andj unkedautomobiles.
I
ndustri
alsolidwast es
Thesety pesofwast esi ncludepackagingmat er
ials,met altur
nings,scrappers,pl
astics
andjunkedaut omobi l
es.
Medicalsolidwastes
Theseincludepackagi ng, usedsy ri
ngesandsoileddr essings.
Market,yardandst reetsweepi ngs
Thesear ewastessuchaspaper ,gl
ass,cans,
plast i
cs,andv egetablewast es.

Sl
udgewastes
Thesearesemi-
soli
dwastesi.
e.wast
eswhi
char
enei
thersol
i
dsnorl
i
qui
ds,
forexampl
e,
amixtur
eofli
vestockur
ineandcowdung.

Liquidwastes
Thesear ewasteswhichareinthefor
m ofliquidorwater
ymateri
als.Theycontainless
than25%sol idsubst
ances.Exampleofl
iquidwast esi
ncl
udewaterf r
om sinks,wash
basinsandbat hs,
uri
ne,i
ndustri
alef
fl
uent,oilspi
l
lsandagri
cul
tur
al chemicalse.g.
i
nsect i
cidesandpesti
ci
des.

Gaseouswastes
Thesearewastemateri
alswhicharerel
easedintotheatmospherei
ngaseousstate.
Examplesofgaseouswastesarecarbondioxi
de,carbonmonoxide,sul
phurdi
oxi
deand
ni
trogendi
oxi
de.
Mostofthegaseouswastescomef rom i
ndustri
esandautomobileexhaustf
umes,
l
abor
ator
iesandbur
ningoforgani
cmat
eri
alssuchaspl
ast
icsandpol
ythenebags.
Wast
escanalsobeclassi
fi
edas

Hazar
douswast
e

Non-hazar
douswast
es

Hazar douswast es: Thesear ehar mfulwasteswhi chcanendangert heheal thofl i

ving
organisms.Exampl esofhazar douswast esincludepai nt
s,engineoil,carbat t
eri
es, used
syri
nges, soileddressi ngs,organochlor
ides,radioacti
veelement sandheav ymet alse.g.
l
eadandmer cur
y.
Nonhazar douswast es: Thesear ewasteswhi char enotharmful i
nthatt heydonot
endangert heheal thofl ivi
ngor gani
sms.Exampl esofsuchwast esincludepacki ng
mat eri
als,papers,plast i
cs,cans, wat
erfrom washbasi ns,bat
hs, et
c,v egetable,
fruitand
gardenwast esandgl ass.
Furthermor e,wastescanal sobecl assi
fiedas;

Recy
cledwast
es

Non-r
ecy
cledwast
es

Recycledwast es
Thesear ewast eswhichcanbeusedt omanuf act
urenewproduct
s.Theusedmater
ial
s
arerecycledinsteadofbeingthrownaway.Examplesofwastemater
ial
swhichcanbe
recy
cledincludemet als,
glass,paper
s,cowdung,beerbot
tl
esandplast
icbags.

Non-recy
cledwastes
Thesearewasteswhichcannotbeusedt
omanuf
act
urenewpr
oduct
sandcannotbe
usedagaine.
g.soi
ledpapersandcott
onwool
.

Exerci
se3
Visi
tdumpingsi
tesandi
ndust
ri
alar
eas.Li
standcl
assi
fyt
hev
ari
oust
ypesofwast
es
observed

Byt
hei
rphy
sical
stat
es

Ashazar
dousandnon-hazar
douswast
es

Asr
ecy
cledandnon-
recy
cledwast
es.

Wast
eDi
sposal
Wastedisposali
sthepr
ocessofgett
ingri
dofwast
emater
ial
sthatpeopl
egenerat
eor
theactofgett
ingri
dofunwantedmater
ial
sandi
temsofnoval
ueorinexcess.
Basi
cPr i
nci
pleofWasteDisposal
Recy
clabl
ewast
esshoul
dbesepar
atedf
rom non-r
ecy
clabl
ewast
es

Great
erprecaut
ionshoul
dbeobservedwhendi
sposi
nghazar
douswast
esandi
tis
i
mpor t
anttoseparat
ethem f
rom ot
hergar
bage

I
tisi
mport
antt
ousepr
otect
ivemat
eri
alse.
g.gl
oveswhencol
l
ect
inganddi
sposi
ng
wast
es.

Foodandyar
dwast
esshoul
dbesepar
atedf
rom ot
hergar
bagesoast
obedel
i
ver
edt
o
acompostsi
te

I
tisnecessar
ytot
reatsewagebef
orei
tisempt
edi
ntot
hewat
erbodi
es

Sewagesy
stemsshoul
dbecheckedf
rom t
imet
oti
met
ocont
rol
leakages

Radi
oacti
vewast
esshoul
dbedi
sposedof
fbyput
ti
ngt
hem i
ntanksanddi
ppi
ngt
hem i
n
deepoceans.

ProperWay sofDi sposingWaste

Mostci ti
esandt ownshav ewastecoll
ecti
ngdepartmentsorpr i
vatefi
rmsthatgather
muni ci
pal soli
dwast esf r
om homesandot herbui
l
dings.
Inci
neration
Thisisthemet hodwhi chinvol
vesburni
ngofwastepr oductsathightemperat
ures.
Landdi sposal
Thisinvolveshaul i
nggar bagetoanareaownedbyacommuni tyorapr i
vat
efi
rm.Land
disposalmayr angef r
om unsanit
aryopendumpst osanitar
ylandfil
ls.
Unsanitaryopendumpsar epoormethodsofwast edisposalbecausetheycause
envir
onment alproblemssuchas:

Maypr
oducebadodor
s

Rui
nthear
ea’
sappear
ance

Rai
nwaterdr
ainsthr
oughref
useandcar
ryhar
mful
subst
ancest
onear
byst
reamsand
towat
erusedfordri
nki
ng.

Decomposi
ngwast
espr
oducef
lammabl
egascal
l
edmet
haneandmet
haneexpl
osi
ons
mayresul
t.

Sanitaryl
andf il
lsareint
endedt oprotecttheenv ir
onment.Thewast eispackedfir
mly
bytractorsandcov eredwi t
hspeciallymanuf actur
edmat er
ials.Thecover
ingisdonein
ordertolimitblowingpaper s,
odors, f
ir
esandr unoffofpol
lutedwater.
Note: Asecur esanit
arylandfil
lisl
inedwi t
hmat er
ial
sthatpreventwaterfr
om carryi
ng
l
eachat es(dissolv
edsubst ances)from therefuseintoundergroundwatersuppl
ies.
Wast ebincol l
ecti
on
Thisi
sint
endedtocol
l
ectsmall
erquant
it
iesofwastes.Thewast
ebinsar
epl
acedalong
thecor
ri
dorsori
never
yroom orhousewhichi
nturnisempti
edint
obigwast
ebins.

Sewagesy st
em
Sewageiswat erthatcont
ainswast emat t
erproducedbyhumanbei ngs.Iti
salsocall
ed
wastewater.Sewagecomesf r
om toilet
sandsi nksofhomes, restaurants,of
fi
ce
bui
ldi
ngsandf actori
esSewagesy stem invol
vestheuseofcol l
ect i
onpi pesorpit
l
atri
neswher ethesewageisperiodicall
yremov edandtransportedtoasewagewor ks
whereiti
st r
eatedtomakei tharmless.
Recycl
i
ng
Recycl
i
ngi stheprocessofreusingthemat eri
alsinst
eadoft hr
owi ngt hem away.The
wasteproductsareusedtomanuf acturethesameordi ffer
entpr oduct ssuchas:

Car
dboar
dorcowdungcanbeusedt
ogener
ateBi
ogas.

Ther
mopl
ast
icscanbemel
tedandr
emoul
ded.

Or
gani
cwast
espr
oduceddomest
ical
l
yorcommer
cial
l
ycanbecompost
ed.

Ki
tchenr
efusecanbeusedt
ofeedani
mal
ssuchasdogs,
pigs,
cat
tl
e,et
c.

Newspapers,magazi
nescar
tonsandpacki
ngmat
eri
alscanbeusedt
omanuf
act
ure
t
issuepapers.

InTanzani
acof
feehusksar
econv
ert
edi
ntoaf
orm ofchar
coal
whi
chi
susedf
or
cooki
ng

Coconutandagr
icul
tur
alwast
escanbeconv
ert
edi
ntopaper
s.

Jut
ewast
escanbeconv
ert
edi
ntohar
dboar
ds.

Sewageandfact
orywast
escanbepuri
fi
edtoanextentt
hatcanbepumpedi
nto
st
oraget
anksandusedforal
ldomest
icpur
poses.

Gl
assbot
tl
escanbeusedf
orst
ori
ngspeci
mensormedi
cines.

Wastegenerati
onreducti
on
Wastereducti
onisdeli
berat
eeff
orttoproducefewerwastes.Forexample,
peopl
ecan
r
educewast ebybuyingit
emsthatcanlastlongerorhav
elesspacking.

Ef
fect
sofPoorWast
eDi
sposal
Expl
aineff
ectsofpoorwast
edisposal
Thefoll
owingaresomeoftheeff
ectsofpoorwast
edi
sposal
;

Pr
oducebadodor
s
Rui
nthear
easappear
ance

Decomposi
ngwastespr
oducef
lammabl
egascal
l
edmet haneandthi
smayresultt
o
expl
osi
onofthegaswhi
chmaycauseal
ossofmater
ial
propert
yandhumanlif
e.

Rai
nwaterdrai
nsthr
oughref
useandcar
ryhar
mfulsubst
ancestonearbystr
eamsand
wat
erusedfordri
nki
ngwhichmaylat
erl
eadtoer
upti
onofdiseasesl
ikecholer
aand
mayki
llor
ganismsfoundi
nwater

Poordisposal
ofcli
nicalwastesonlandfil
lsi
temayencour
agebact
eri
albr
eedi
ng
l
eadingtopossibl
einfect
ionsinthearea

Unr
egulat
eddumpswher
ewast
eisbur
nedi
ntheopencancausesmokeandf
oul
smel
li
ngair.

Bur
ningmayalsoresul
tint
opr oducti
onofairpol
l
utant
swhi
chmayaf
fectt
heozone
l
ayerandpossi
blecauseofrespir
atorydi
seases.

TheConcept sofHeal thandImmuni ty

Explai
nt heconceptsofheal t
handi mmunit
y
Healthisast at
eofphy sical
,mentalandsoci
alwel
lbei
ng.Itinv
olv
esmor et
hanjustt
he
absenceofdi sease.At r
ulyhealt
hpersonnotonl
yfeel
sgoodphy sical
l
ybutal
sohasa
real
ist
icoutlookonl i
feandget salongwel
lwit
hotherpeople.
Elementsofphy sicalhealt
h

Nutr
it
ion:
Bal
anceddietpr
ovi
desal
lthef
oodsubst
ancesneededbyt
hebodyf
orheal
th
gr
owthanddevelopment.

Exerci
se:
Exer
ciseshel
ptokeepthebodyhealt
hyandf i
t.Vi
gorousexer
cisesstrengthen
musclesandimprovet
hefuncti
onofthecir
cul
atoryandrespi
rator
ysystem.Physical
fi
tnessbenef
it
sbothphysi
calandmentalheal
thandhelpsthebodytowi t
hstandst r
ess.

Restandsleep:
Helptoov er
comef at
igueandrestoreenergytothebody.Every
one
needsrestandsleepRestandrel
axati
onareasimpor tantassleep.Af
terst
renuous
workorexerci
seaper sonmayneedaper iodoftotalrest
.

Cleanl
i
ness:
Cleanl
inessprevent
sthegr
owt
hofbact
eri
aandotherger
mst hatcancause
di
seases.Aregul
arbathorshowerkeepst
hebodyf
reefr
om di
rtandodour.I
talso
helpst
opreventskini
nfecti
ons.

Medicalanddentalcar
e:Regularcheckupsbydent i
standphysi
cianplayanimport
ant
rolei
nsafeguar
dinghealth.Doctorsrecommendt hatpeopl
eseekmedi cal
careatfi
rst
signofil
l
ness.Earl
ycarecanr esulti
nquickercur
eandl owermedical
costs.
Av oi
dingr iskbehav iours:
Carefulobservationov erarangeofl i
festylefact or
sindicate
thatposi ti
vechangescanbr i
ngaboutcor respondingchangei nhealthst atusRisk
behaviour sthatneedt obeav oidedinclude:Smoki ng:cigaret
tesmoki ngi ncreases
respi
rat orydiseasessuchasbr onchit
isandi ncreasesr i
skofdeat hfrom lungcancer
andhear tattack;Alcoholi
sm: heav y
,longt erm dri
nkinghassev eraleffectsont hebody .
Itaff
ect sner voussy stem,causel i
verdisease( cir
rhosis),et
c;Drugabuse: dr
ugscan
causeaddi cti
on,longt erm harmfuleffects,disr
uptionofnor malli
feandsomecanl ead
todeat h.

MENTALHEALTH
Ment al healthi sasi mpor tantasphy sicalhealt
handt oagr eatext enddependsoni t.
Element sofment alhealth
Emot ionaldev elopment
Experiencesdur i
ngchi ldhoodst rongl yinfl
uenceaper son’sment alhealththr
oughout
l
ife.Chi l
drenr emai ndependentf ormanyy ear
s.Att hi
sper iodt heylearncer t
ain
guidelinesf orr elati
ngt oot herpeopl e.Thuschi l
dr endev elopt heknowl edgenecessary
todeal withdi ffi
cultsituati
onsi nli
fe.Thi sknowl edgehel psthem mai ntaingoodment al
healtht hroughoutl i
fe.
Emot ional dev elopmentdoesnotendwhenaper sonr eachesadul thood.Ani ndivi
dual
's
ment al healthcont i
nuest ochangef rom t i
met ot ime.Thesechangesr esultfrom dai
ly
circumst ancest hatcauseei therpleasur eorpaint ot heper son.
Handl i
ngst ress
Stresshandl ingisessent i
al foravoidingbot hment alandphy sicalil
lness.Feelingsof
stressar et hebody ’
sr esponset oanyt hreateni
ngorunf ami l
i
arsi tuati
on.Causesof
stressesi ncludet hefollowing:

Mostsev
erest
ressmayr
esul
tfr
om di
vor
ceorl
ossofj
ob.

St
resscanalsooccurev
eninpleasantsi
tuat
ionssuchas:
Wat
chi
ngaf
oot
bal
lgame,
Wait
ingforalov
elyonetor
etur
nf r
om atrip,
etc.

I
fnothandl
edpr
oper
lyst
resscanl
eadt
o

Phy
sical
oremot
ional
il
lness

Hi
ghbl
oodpr
essur
e

St
omachul
cer
s

Noonecanav
oidst
ressbutcer
tai
nthi
ngst
hatcanbedonet
olesseni
tincl
ude:

Regul
arex
erci
sesandsuf
fi
cientsl
eepst
rengt
henst
hebodyr
esi
stancet
ost
ress

Rel
axbyr
est
ing

Taki
ngawal
k
Medi
tat
ing

Wor
kingwi
thhobby

Socialrel
ati
onships
Closepersonalrelat
ionshi
pswithfri
endsandr elat
ivespr
ov i
deopportuni
ti
esfor
communi cati
on,sharingandemot i
onalgrowth.Suchrel
ationshi
psalsoprovi
destr
engt
h
andsuppor tf
ordealingwithchal
lengingsit
uati
onsorper sonalprobl
ems.
Importanceofgoodheal th

Enabl
espeopl
etoenj
oyl
i
feandhav
eoppor
tuni
tyt
oachi
evet
hei
rgoal
s.

Set
ssomeonef
reef
rom at
tackbydi
seases.

Enabl
espeopl
etowor
kef
fect
ivel
yandef
fi
cient
ly.

Goodheal
thhel
pspeopl
etopar
ti
cipat
einsoci
ali
ssues.

Enabl
esmot
her
stodel
i
verheal
thybabi
es.

Rai
sesthefamil
yeconomywhi
chint
urnensur
espeaceandsecur
it
ywi
thi
nthef
ami
l
y
andthesur
roundi
ngcommunit
y.

Ty
pesofBodyI
mmuni
tyandThei
rImpor
tance
Ment iontypesofbodyi mmuni tyandt heirimportance
Immuni tyistheabi l
ityofthebodyt oresi stcert
aindi seasesandpoi sons.I
mmuni t
ycan
alsobedef inedast heabilit
yoft hebodyt odefendi tselfagai
nstinf
ectiousagent s,
foreigncel l
sandev enabnor mal cel
lssuchascancercel l
s
Thesci enti
ficstudyofi mmunesy stem iscalledimmunol ogy.
Immunesy stem
Thei mmunesy stem compr isesofagr oupofcel ls, moleculesandtissuest hathelp
def endagai nstdiseaseandot herharmf ulinvaders.
Thei nvadersincludedisease-causingor ganisms( pat hogens)suchasbact eria,f
ungi,
prot ozoa,virusandwor ms.Akeyf eatureofi mmunesy stem i
sitsabil
it
yt odestroy
foreignor ganisms, leavi
ngthebody ’
sownheal tht issuesal one.
Thei mmunesy stem consistsofwhi tebl oodcells,lymphnodes, spleen,l
iverandbone
mar row.
Ty pesofi mmuni ty
Basi call
yther earetwot ypesofi mmuni t
y

Nat
ural
immuni
ty

Ar
ti
fi
cial
immuni
ty

Nat
ural
immuni
ty
Natur
ali
mmunityist
hatwhi
chani
ndi
vi
dual
isbor
nwi
th.Nat
ural
immuni
tycanbe
di
vi
dedintocat
egori
es,
namely
:

Nat
ural
act
ivei
mmuni
ty

Nat
ural
passi
vei
mmuni
ty

Naturalacti
v ei
mmuni t
y:Thisimmunitydevel
opsinabodyafteranaturali
nfect
ion.Aft
er
i
nfection,anti
bodiesarepr oducedinthebody.Theant
ibodi
esnormallyresi
deint he
bl
oodori not herpartsoft hebody.Thebodycanmakemor eantibodi
eswhenev erthe
pathogent r
iestoattackt hebodyagain.

Natur
alpassi
vei
mmuni ty:
Thi
stypeofimmunityisachi
evedduringdevel
opmentoft
he
f
oetuswhereanti
bodiespassfr
om themothertothefoetust
hroughplacent
aor
t
hroughthemother’
smi l
kaft
erthebabyi
sborn.Theant i
bodi
esdisappearfr
om t
he
i
nfantafewmonthsaf t
erbi
rt
h.

Art
if
ici
alimmuni
ty
Art
if
ici
alimmuni
tyi
sthatwhichani
ndi
vi
dual
acqui
resdur
inghi
s/herl
i
fet
ime.
Therearetwot
ypesofart
if
ici
ali
mmuni
ty

Ar
ti
fi
cial
act
ivei
mmuni
ty

Ar
ti
fi
cial
passi
vei
mmuni
ty

Arti
fi
cialacti
veimmuni ty
Thisisimmuni t
yi nt
roducedinthebodybyimmunizaton.I
i mmunizati
onistheprocess
ofintr
oducingav accineint
othebodyofananimal i
nordertoi
ncr
easeitsabi
li
tyto
produceant i
bodies.Theseanti
bodiespr
otectt
hepersonifhe/
sheisexposedtothe
actualdisease.

Mostv
acci
nescont
aindi
sease-
causi
ngbact
eri
aorv
irusest
hathav
ebeenki
l
led.

Ot
her
sconsi
stoft
hel
i
veger
msbuti
naweakenedf
orm orat
tenuat
ed.

Toxoi
dvacci
nesar
emadef
rom poi
sonspr
oducedbydi
sease-
causi
ngor
gani
sms.

Thesepoi
sonsar
echemi
cal
l
ytr
eat
edsot
hatt
heypr
ovi
dei
mmuni
tywi
thoutcausi
ng
di
sease.

Somev
acci
nesar
emadef
rom par
tsofdi
sease-
causi
ngor
gani
sms.

Vaccineshavebeendev elopedagai nstmanydiseasessuchaschickenpox,di

phther
ia,
i
nf l
uenza,measles,meningi
tis,mumps, pneumonia,pol
iomyeli
ti
s,choler
a,r
abi
es,
rubell
a(Germanmeasl es),t
et anus,
whoopingcoughandy el
l
owf ever.
Vacci
nescanbe
takenthrough,
inject
ion,
rubbingort hemout h(
orall
y).
Arti
fi
cialpassiv
ei mmunity
Thistypeofi mmunityinvol
vestheinj
ecti
onofserum i
ntothebodyofanor ganism.
Serum containsantibodi
esthathavebeenformedinanotherpersonorani
mal .It
provi
desi mmedi at
epr ot
ecti
onfrom i
nfect
ionandlast
sforweeksormont hsandaf t
er
thatperi
odt her
ear enoantibodi
eslef
tinthebodyandtherefor
enoi mmunity.

Fact
orswhi
chAf
fect
sBodyI
mmuni
ty
Stat
efact
orswhi
chaff
ect
sbodyimmunity
Fact
orswhichmayl
eadtolowofbodyi
mmuni
ty

Al
cohol
andot
hert
oxi
cdr
ugs.

Lackofi
mmuni
sat
ion.

Lackofpr
operbal
anceddi
et.

I
nabi
l
ityoft
hebodyt
opr
oduceant
ibodi
esandwhi
tebl
oodcel
l
s.

Pat
hogensofHI
V(HumanI
mmunodef
ici
encyVi
rus)

ConceptsofPersonal HygieneandGoodManner s
Explainconceptsofpersonal hygieneandgoodmanner s
Personalhygieneref
erstoi ndiv
idualcleanl
iness.I
tmirr
orsonhowonetakescar
eof
oneself.
Goodmanner sref
ertoaccept ableperson’sway sofbehavi
ngt
owardsother
s.
Pri
ncipleofPersonalHygieneandGoodManner s
Outli
nepr i
nci
pleofpersonal hygieneandgoodmanner s
Pri
nciplesofpersonalhygiene

Eat
ingbal
anceddi
etr
egul
arl
ytomai
ntai
ngoodheal
th

Thebodyshoul
dbewasheddai
l
yandhai
rcombedr
egul
arl
y

Teet
hshoul
dbebr
ushedaf
terev
erymeal

Thenai
l
sshoul
dbecutshor
t

Wearcl
eanandi
ronedcl
othes

Av
oidr
iskbehav
iour
sli
kesmoki
ngci
gar
ett
es,
dri
nki
ngal
cohol
,pr
ost
it
uti
onandot
her
s

Washy
ourhandswi
thsoapbef
oreandaf
termeal
sandaf
terv
isi
ti
ngal
avat
ory

Hav
eenoughsl
eepandr
est
.
Taker
egul
arexer
cisest
omai
ntai
nfi
tness

Under
wear
sshoul
dbechangedr
egul
arl
y

Beddi
ngshoul
dbechangedr
egul
arl
y

Pr
inci
plesofgoodmanner
s

Respect–anindiv
idual
shouldhav
egoodr espectsuchas:showi
nggr
eatrespectt
o
el
dersbyhel
pingandgreeti
ngthem decent
ly;
beingpoli
teandhumbl
e;andtal
kingi
na
cl
earandcal
mv oi
ce.

Tidi
ness–ev erybodyshoul
dlooksmartal
lthetime.Anindivi
dual
should:
keepthe
bedroom neat;
brushshoes;wearcl
eanandironedcl
othes;cutnai
lsandhair
sshor
t;
comborpl ai
tthehairni
cel
y,et
c.

Disci
pli
ne–ani ndi
vi
dualshoul
dbewelldi
scipli
nede.g.av
oidusi
ngbadlanguage;cover
,
yourmout hwhensneezi
ng,yawni
ngorcoughing;andport
raygoodpost
urese.g.si
tt
ing
proper
lyincl
assandathome.

Goodeat inghabits(t
ablemanners)whichincl
udet hefoll
owing:Eat
ingatr
egulartime
i
ntervals;
Av oi
dt al
ki
ngwi t
hf oodi
sinthemout h;Donotpi l
efoodupony ourplate.
Serveyour sel
fwithareasonableamountwhileconsideri
ngot her
s;I
ncasethef ood
giv
eni snotgood, makeanexcuset hatyouarenothungr yornotfeeli
ngwel
lratherthan
showingorsay ingthatthefoodisnotgood;Don’ttel
lstori
esthatwil
lmakeother s
l
aughwheneat i
ng;Al
way swashy ourhandsbeforeandaf t
ereati
ng

Putt
ingthingsi npr
operorder
:Allobj
ect
sinthesur
roundingshouldbekeptproper
lyand
i
nar ightplacee.g.
:Rubbi
shshouldbedisposedasrequi
red;Booksshouldbekeptin
shel
ves; Cookingandeati
ngutensil
sshoul
dbekeptwel l
inthecupboards;Cl
othes
shouldbepr operl
yir
oned,fol
dedandkept.

Requirement sofPer sonalHygieneandGoodManner s

Ment i
onr equi rement sofpersonal hygieneandgoodmanner s
Requirement sofper sonalhy
gieneandgoodmanner sincludetowel,
soap,comb, brush,
basin,toothbr ush,apai rofscissor s,r
azorbl ades,waterandcosmet ics.
Way sofMai ntainingPr operPer sonal Hy gi
eneDur i
ngPuber ty
Outl
ineway sofmai ntai
ningproperper sonalhygieneduringpuberty
Pubertyist headol escentperi
od.I tistheper iodwhenoneexper i
encesphy si
ologi
cal
changesi nt hebody .Thephy siological changesmar kthebeginningof
adolescence. Puber tybeginstheageof10t o12y earsforgirl
sand11t o14yearsfor
boys.
Way sofmai nt ai
ningpr operhygi enedur ingpuberty

Bot
hsexesshoul
dwasht
hei
rbodi
esr
egul
arl
y
Dur
ingmenstruat
ion,gi
rl
sshoul
dusegoodqual
i
tysani
tar
ytowel
sorpadsandchange
t
hem asnecessary.

Boy
sshoul
dunder
goci
rcumci
sionandf
emal
esshoul
dav
oidf
emal
egeni
tal
mut
il
ati
on

Under
wear
sshoul
dbewashedandchangedr
egul
arl
y

Bothboysandgi
rl
sshoul
davoi
dirresponsi
blesexualbehaviour
ssuchaspr
ost
it
uti
on
andrapesoastokeepawayf
rom sexuall
ytr
ansmi t
teddiseases(STDs)

Hai
rint
hear
mpi
tsorpubi
car
easshoul
dbeshav
edort
ri
mmed.

TheI
mpor
tanceofPer
sonal
Hygi
eneandGoodManner
s
Expl
ainthei
mport
anceofpersonal
hygi
eneandgoodmanners
I
mportanceofper
sonal
hygieneandgoodmanner
sincl
ude:

Reduceschancesofpat
hogeni
nfect
ion

Enhancessoci
alaccept
ancei
nthesoci
ety

Pr
event
sonef
rom get
ti
ngchokedwhi
l
eeat
ing

Mai
ntai
nsnat
ural
bodyst
ate

Mai
ntai
nsper
sonal
i
tyofani
ndi
vi
dual
int
hesoci
ety

Onebecomesr
espect
edbyot
her
s

Mai
ntai
nsheal
thoft
hebodyandmi
nd

I
NFECTI
ONSANDDI
SEASES
TheMeani ngoft heTer msInfecti
onandDi sease
Explai
nt hemeani ngoft het
ermsi nfect
ionanddi sease
I
nf ect
ionist hei nvasionofdisease-causingmi cro-organi
smsint
othebody.Di
seasei
s
thedisturbanceoft henormalstateofthebody .I
tisadi sor
der
edstat
eofanorganor
organism.I nfectionsnor mal
lyleadtodi seases.
Classi
f i
cationofdi seases
Diseasesar ecl assi f
iedas:

I
nfect
ious(
communi
cabl
e)di
seases

Non-
inf
ect
ious(
non-
communi
cabl
e)di
seases
I
nfecti
ous(communi cabl
e)diseases
Thesearediseaseswhi chcanbet r
ansmitt
edfrom onepersontoanot herperson.
Communi cabledi seasesarenormal l
ycausedbymi cro-or
ganismslikev i
ruses,bact
eri
a,
fungi
andpr otozoa, etc
Examplesofinf ecti
ousdiseasesinclude:malari
a,t
yphoid,
tubercul
osis,cholera,
gonorr
hoea,sy phili
s,ebola,
AIDS, chl
amy di
a,et
c.
Manyofthei nfect i
ousdiseasesar etr
ansmitt
edbyawayof :

Dr
opl
etofl
i
qui
d

Ai
r

Foodorwat
er

Sex
ual
int
ercour
se

Touchorcont
acte.
g.r
ingwor
m

Ani
nter
mediat
eor
gani
sm cal
l
edav
ect
ore.
g.mal
ari
abymosqui
toandbuboni
cpl
ague
byr
atfl
ea.

Diseasescausingmi cr
o-organi
smscanentert
hebodyt
hroughmout
h,nose,
ski
n,
vagina,anus,peni
s,ears,eyesandopenwounds.
I
nf ect
iousdiseasescanbe:

Epidemicdisease-adiseasethataff
ect
salar
gernumberofpeopl
einashortper
iodof
ti
mei nar egi
onforexample,chol
era,meni
ngi
ti
s,buboni
cpl
ague,r
if
tval
l
eyfever(
RVF),
tubercul
osis,
etc.

Pandemicdisease-acommunicabl
ediseasewhi
chiswi
despr
eadov
eracount
ry
cont
inentorthewholewor
ld,
forexampleHIV/
AIDS,
etc.

Endemi
cdisease-acommuni cablediseasewhichoccur
sinanareacontinuousl
yfor
exampl
e,bi
lharzi
a,sexual
l
yt r
ansmi t
teddiseases(STDs)
,mal
ari
a( anendemicdisease
i
nt r
opi
calr
egions)andcholera(endemi cinAsi
a).

Non-inf
ecti
ous( non-communicabl
e)diseases
Thesearediseaseswhi chcannotbetransmit
tedf
rom oneper
sont
oanot
her
.
Examplesofnon- communicabl
ediseasesincl
ude:
Envi
ronmentaldiseasese.g.
:

Lungcancer

Asbest
osi
s

Ast
hma
Cor
onar
y(hear
t)di
seases

Al
cohol
i
sm

Defi
ciencydiseases
Thesediseasesar eduetolackofcer
tai
nnut
ri
ent
sint
hedi
et.Theymaybeduet
olack
ofoneoft hemai nfoodgroupse.
g.:

Kwashi
orkor
:lackofpr
otei
n

Mar
asmus:l
ackofbot
hcar
bohy
drat
eandpr
otei
ns

Ni
ghtbl
i
ndness:l
ackofVi
tami
nA

Ber
iber
i:l
ackofVi
tami
nB1

Scur
vy:l
ackofVi
tami
nC

Ri
cket
s:l
ackofVi
tami
nD,
cal
cium,
andphosphor
ous

Anaemi
a:l
ackofi
ron

Goi
tr
e:l
ackofi
odi
ne

Excessi
vebl
eedi
ng(
haemophi
l
ia)
:lackofVi
tami
nK

Genet
icandcongeni
tal
disor
der
se.
g.

Col
ourbl
i
ndness

Haemophi
l
ia

Si
ckl
ecel
lanaemi
a

Al
bini
sm

Down’
ssy
ndr
ome

Kl
i
nef
elt
er’
ssy
ndr
ome

Tur
ner
'ssy
ndr
ome

Agei
nganddegener
ati
vedi
seasese.
g.

Longsi
ght
ednessduet
oweakeni
ngofey
emuscl
es
Ar
ter
ioscl
erosi
s(har
deni
ngofar
ter
ies)

Ar
thr
it
is–agei
ngofj
ointandbonet
issues

Ment
ali
l
lnesse.
g.

Schi
zophr
eni
a

Seni
l
edement
ia

Depr
essi
on

Hor
monal
diseasese.
g.

Di
abet
esmel
l
itus

Di
abet
esi
nspi
dus

Cr
eti
nism

CommonInfect
ionsandDiseases
Ment
ioncommoni nf
ecti
onsanddiseases
CommonInfect
ionsandDiseasesincl
udet
hef
oll
owi
ng:

CHOLERA

MALARI
A

TYPHOI
D

TUBERCULOSI
S(T.
B)

MENI
NGI
TIS

AMOEBI
CDYSENTRY(
AMOBI
ASI
S)

PLAGUE

TRYPANOSOMI
ASI
S(SLEEPI
NGSI
CKNESS)

BI
LHARZI
A(SCHI
STOSOMI
ASI
S)

ATHLETE’
SFOOT

GONORRHOEA
SYPHI
LIS

CLAMYDI
A

GENI
TALHERPES

GENI
TALWARTS

HEPATI
TISB

TRI
CHOMONI
ASI
S

CANDI
DIASI
S

TheCauses,Symptoms,ModeofTransmi
ssi
onandEf
fect
sofCommon
Inf
ecti
onsandDiseases
Explai
nthecauses,
symptoms,modeoftr
ansmi
ssi
onandeff
ect
sof
commoni nf
ecti
onsanddiseases

CHOLERA
Cause:
Iti
scausedbyabact
erum knownasVi
i bri
ochol
erae
Symptoms

Sev
erewat
erydi
arr
hoeaandv
omi
ti
ng

Bodyweakness

Fastandweakpul
se

Lowbl
oodpr
essur
e

Wr
inkl
edski
nandsunkeney
esduet
odehy
drat
ion

Rapi
dlossofwei
ght

Transmissi
on
Choler
aistransmi
tt
edt
hrough:

Foodorwat
erbor
nemat
eri
alcont
ami
nat
edwi
thf
aecesf
rom i
nfect
edper
son

Handl
i
ngofcont
ami
nat
edobj
ect
s

Vect
orse.
g.f
li
esmov
ingf
rom humanf
aecest
ofood.
 MALARIA
Cause:
Mal
ari
aiscausedbyapr
otozoancal
l
edpl
asmodi
um.
Si
gnsandsymptoms

Hi
ghf
ever
.Fev
ermaybecont
inuous,
irr
egul
arort
wicedai
l
y.

Vomi
ti
ng

Lackofappet
it
e

Gener
albodyweakness

Joi
ntpai
ns

Transmissi
on
Malari
aistransmitt
edbyaf emaleanophelesmosquit
o.Themosqui tosucksblood
contai
ningplasmodium from theinfect
edpersonandint
roducesthem int
othebodyof
ahealt
hper son.Inrarecasesmal ari
acanbet r
ansmit
tedthroughbloodtr
ansfusi
on
fr
om theinfectedpersontoaheal thperson.

TYPHOID
Cause:I
tiscausedbyabacter
ium knownasSalmonel
latyphus.Thebact
eri
adamage
theint
esti
nalwallandot
herpart
softhebodyl
ikegall
bladder,spl
eenandbonemarr
ow.
Signsandsympt oms

Mi
l
dfev
er

Sl
i
ghtabdomi
nal
pai
ns

Di
arr
hoea

Vomi
ti
ng

Ul
cer
ati
onandr
upt
ureofi
ntest
ine

Transmissi
on
Thediseaseisspr
eadt
hrough

Cont
ami
nat
edwat
erandf
ood

Handl
i
ngofcont
ami
nat
edobj
ect
s

Vect
orsoft
hedi
seasee.
g.housef
li
es

TUBERCULOSI
S(T.B)
Cause:
T.Bi
scausedbybact
eri edMy
um cal
l cobact
eri
um t
uber
cul
osi
s.Thebact
eri
acan
at
tackt
helungsoranypar
toft
hebodyanddest
royt
issues.
Si
gnsandsymptoms

Lossofwei
ght

Coughi
ng

Fev
er

Chestpai
n

Bl
oodi
nthesput
um

Tr
ansmi
ssi
on

Thr
oughdr
opl
eti
nfect
ion

Thr
oughdr
inki
ngmi
l
kfr
om i
nfect
edcat
tl
e

T.
Biscommoni
nov
ercr
owdedar
easwi
thpoorsani
tat
ion

Appropri
atePrev
ent i
veandContr
olMeasur
esforCommonInf
ect
ionsandDiseases
Suggestappropr
iateprev
ent
iveandcont
rolmeasur
esf
orcommoni nf
ect
ionsand
di
seases
Prevent
ionofCholera

Washhandsaf
terv
isi
ti
ngt
oil
etorl
atr
ine

Foodshoul
dbewel
lcookedanddr
inki
ngwat
ershoul
dbeboi
l
edandwel
lfi
l
ter
ed

Handsshoul
dbewashedbef
oreandaf
tereat
ing

Foodshoul
dbewel
lcov
ered

Ut
ensi
l
sshoul
dbewashedt
hor
oughl
y

Mai
ntai
ngener
alenv
ironment
alcl
eanl
i
ness

Cont
rol
ofChol
era

Thei
nfect
edper
sonshoul
dbei
sol
ated

Speci
alpr
ecaut
ionsshoul
dbet
akenwhenhandl
i
ngt
hei
nfect
edper
son

Vacci
nat
ioni
spossi
ble
Tr
eat
ment

Thedi
seasecanbet
reat
edbyusi
ngant
ibi
otcssuchast
i etr
acy
cli
ne,
chl
orampheni
col

Admi
nist
eri
ngr
ehy
drat
ionsal
tsol
uti
ons

Ef
fect
s

Mayl
eadt
odeat
h

Ext
ramedi
cal
expenses

Fai
l
uret
oper
for
m dai
l
yact
ivi
ti
es

Pr
event
ionandcont
rol
ofmal
ari
a

Spr
ayi
ngi
nsect
ici
dest
odest
royadul
tmosqui
toes

I
ntr
oduci
ngfisheat
ingmosqui
toi
ntost
agnantwat g.Gambusi
ere. athatf
eedon
mosqui
tolar
vae.

Dr
aini
ngst
agnantwat
ert
oremov
ethebr
eedi
ngsi
tesf
ormosqui
toes

Useofmosqui
tonet
stopr
eventmosqui
toesf
rom bi
ti
ngpeopl
e

Scr
eeni
ngthewindowswit
hmosquito-
proofwi
re-
mesht
opr
eventent
ryofmosqui
toes
i
nthehousethr
oughthewindows.

Wearl
ong-
sleev
edshi
rt
sandt
rouser
stopr
eventmosqui
tobi
tes.

Mosquit
olar
vaeandpupacanbeki
l
ledbyspr
ayi
ngoi
li
ntost
agnantwat
ert
hatcannot
bedr
ained.

Taki
ngr
egul
arweekl
ydosesofpr
event
ivedr
ugst
oki
l
lpar
asi
tesonent
ry.

Cut
ti
ngbushesar
oundt
hehousest
odest
royshel
terf
ormosqui
toes

Usi
ngmosqui
tor
epel
l
ent
stof
leeawayt
hemosqui
toes

Treatment
Anti-
mal ari
aldrugscanbeusedt
otr
eatt
hedi
seasee.
g.qui
nine,
fansi
der
,mef
loqui
ne,
chloroquine,et
c.
Effects

Cancausedeat
h
Canl
eadt
oment
alconf
usi
oni
ncaseofcer
ebr
almal
ari
a

Par
aly
sisandunconsci
ousness

Dr
owsi
ness

Anaemi
a

Mi
scar
ri
age

I
nabi
l
ityt
opar
ti
ci
pat
eineconomi
cact
ivi
ti
es

I
ncr
easedmedi
cal
expenses

Pr
event
ionandcont
rol
ofTy
phoi
d

Washhandsaf
terv
isi
ti
ngt
het
oil
et

Foodandwat
ermustbepr
otect
edf
rom dustandf
li
es

Washhandsbef
oreandaf
tereat
ing

Dri
nkboi
ledwaterandeatpr
oper
lycookedf
ood;
frui
tsshoul
dbewashedt
hor
oughl
y
bef
orebeingeat
en.

Vacci
nat
ioncanal
sohel
ptocont
rol
thedi
sease

Treatment:
Thedi
seasecanbet
reat
edbyusi
ngant
ibi
otcssuchast
i etr
acy
cli
ne,
chlorampheni
col
,et
c.
Effects

Cancausedeat
h

Maycauseul
cer
sandf
inal
l
yrupt
ureoft
hei
ntest
ine

Enl
argedspl
een

Pr
event
ionandcont
rol
ofT.
B

El
iminat
ionofthecondi
ti
onsunderwhi
chTBt
hri
vese.
g.ov
ercr
owdi
ng,
pov
ert
ylev
el
l
iv
ingandinadequatenut
ri
ti
on.

Obser
vinggener
alper
sonal
hygi
ene,
especi
all
ywhencoughi
ngandsneezi
ng.

EarlyBCG(Baci
ll
usCal
mette-Guér
in)Vacci
neTheVacci
nemaybeusedforeit
heroftwo
reasons:
(i
)Prot
ecti
ngnewl
y-bornbabiesorchi
l
drenatpar
ti
cul
arr
iskofi
nfect
ion.
(i
i)
I
mmuni
zat
ionofy
oungper
sonsoratr
iskgr
oupsi
nthecommuni
ty.

Keepi
ngchi
l
dren,
inpar
ti
cul
ar,
awayf
rom r
isksi
tuat
ions.

Theuseofst
eri
l
izedmi
l
kandpast
eur
izeddai
rypr
oduct
s

Cont
actt
raci
ngsot
hatr
iskt
oot
her
smaybemi
nimi
zed

Tr
eatment
:Ant
ibi
oti
cssuchasst
rept
omy
cincanbeusedt
ocur
ethedi
sease.
Ef
fect
sofT.B

Causesanumberofdeat
hs.

Abscessf
ull
ofpusmayf
orm neart
hel
umpi
nthespi
ne.

Shor
teni
ngandt
hickeni
ngoft
hechesti
ncaseofTBoft
hespi
ne.

Sexuall
yTransmit
tedI
nfect
ions(
STIs)andSexuall
yTransmitt
ed
Diseases(
STDs)
Causes,Symptoms,ModeandTransmissionandEffect
sofHIV/AIDs,
STI
s
andSTDs
Explai
ncauses,sy
mptoms,modeandt ransmissi
onandeffectsof
HIV/AIDs,STI
sandSTDs
Cause
IscausedbyHI V( HumanI mmunodef iciencyVir us).
TheVi r
usat tackthebody 'simmune
system weakeni ngi tandmaki ngi tmor esuscept i
bletoi nfecti
onsandsomecancer s.
Iti
simpor tanttor ealizethat,i
nfecti
onwi ththeHI Vv i
rusdoesnotnecessar i
l
yr esulti
n
AIDS.Aswi thotherdi seases,somepeopl eremai nsy mpt omlessandar esaidt obe
carri
ers.
TypesofHI VViruses
Therear etwomaj ort ypesofHI VViruses, HIV1andHI V2. HIV1i sthemost
predomi nantv i
rusandi ti
smor eeasi l
yt ransmittedwhi l
eHI V2occur sinasmal l
numberofpeopl einWestAf ri
ca,Angol a, Mozambi queandsomepar tsofI ndia.Iti
s
l
essv irul
ent.
Wher einthebodycany oufindHIVv ir
uses?Thev i
rusint hebodycanbef oundi nthe
foll
owingbodyf luids:blood,semen, vagi nalfl
uid,tears,salivaandur i
neandbr east
mi l
k.I
tisobser vedt hatsemen, bloodandv agi
nal fl
uidsar emor einfectious.
Signsandsy mpt omsofAI DS
Aper soninf ect
edwi t
hHI Vmayst ar
tt oshowsi gnsofi ll
nessasf r
om f ewweekst o
manyy ears.Thei nfectedindivi
dualmayexper i
encet hef ollowingsignsandsy mpt oms:

Tr
emendousl
ossofwei
ght
Per
sist
entf
ever

Chestpai
n

Di
arr
hoeaf
ornoobv
iouscause

Coughi
ngf
ormor
ethanonemont
h

Shor
tnessofbr
eat
hget
ti
ngwor
seov
ersev
eral
weeks

I
tchyski
nrashes

Thr
ushi
nthemout
handt
hroat

Lossofhai
r

Tr
ansmi
ssi
on
AI
DScanbetr
ansmi
tt
edt
hroughanyoft
hef
oll
owi
ngway
s:

Sex
ual
int
ercour
sewi
thani
nfect
edper
son

Tr
ansmi
ssi
onf
rom t
hemot
hert
othebabydur
ingpr
egnancy
,bi
rt
horbr
eastf
eedi
ng.

Sharingshar
pobj
ect
swi
thi
nfect
edpeopl
ee.
g.shar
ingneedl
es,
razorbl
ades,
toot
h
brushesetc.

AIDS-relatedcompl ex
Theinf ectedper sonmayexhi bi
tav ar
iet
yofconditi
ons.Commonbact eri
al,f
ungaland
vi
ralinfect i
onsat t
ackt hevi
cti
m.Thesear eknownasoppor tuni
sti
cinfecti
ons.They
i
ncludedi seaseslikepneumonia,T.B,meningi
ti
s,candi
diasi
s,cancere.g.Kaposi
’s
sarcoma, etc.
ThePr ev entiv
eandCont rol
MeasuresofHI V/AI
Ds,STIsandSTDs
Outli
net hepr eventiveandcontrol
measur esofHIV?AIDs,STIsandSTDs
Prevent i
onofHI V/ AIDS

UsetheABCmet hodtopr
eventt
hedisease:A-
Abst
ainfr
om sexB-Befait
hfult
oy our
onlypart
nerC-useCondom.Thismeanst haty
ouareadvi oabst
sedt ai
ncompl et
ely
fr
om sexualint
ercour
se.I
fyoucan'
tthenhaveonefai
thf
ulpart
nerandi
fthisseemst o
bediff
icul
tthenusecondoms.

Av
oidshar
ingshar
ptool
swi
tht
hei
nfect
edi
ndi
vi
dual
s

Bl
oodt
ransf
usi
onshoul
dbedonepr
iort
oHI
Vscr
eeni
ng

Pregnantmot
hersshoul
datt
endcli
nicsot
hatt
heygett
reat
mentt
hatwi
l
lpr
eventHI
V
tr
ansmissi
onfrom t
hemothert
othebaby.
Avoi
dalltheriskbehaviour
s,sit
uat
ionsandpr act
icest
hatmayenhanceHI V
tr
ansmission.Theriskbehavi
oursincl
udedrugabuse,prosti
tut
ion,
rape,
analsex,
oral
sex,
alcoholi
sm, unsafesex,r
oaminginbars,guesthouse,et
c.

ManagementofSTI sandHIV/AIDs
Way sofAvoidi
ngRiskySi
tuati
ons,Ri
skyBehaviour
sandPract
ices
Explai
nwaysofav oi
dingr
iskysit
uati
ons,
riskybehavi
our
sandpr act
ices
Riskybehavi
ourscanbeavoidedby:

Pr
act
isi
ngsaf
esex

Appl
yi
ngnon-penet
rat
ivesexe.
g.ki
ssi
ng,
huggi
ng,
etc.

Del
ayi
ngt
echni
quee.
g.I
’
mrequi
redathomej
ustnowl
etsmeett
omor
row

Di
scour
agi
ng/
negat
ivewor
dse.
g.I
’
m HI
Vposi
ti
ve

Di
scour
agi
ngpeerpr
essur
e

Engagi
ngi
nspor
tsandgameswhi
chdi
str
actone’
smi
ndf
rom concent
rat
ingt
osex.

Showingasenseofdi
sl
iket
oexpr
esst
hewayy ouarebywear
ingT-shi
rt
s,capswit
h
var
iousmessagese.
g.‘
saynot
osex’
,‘
pract
icesaf
esex’
,Mi
‘ minimepimawewej e?
’,
‘
AIDSkil
ls’
etc

NecessarySkil
lsf
orAv oi
dingRiskyBehavi
ours,Pract
icesandSi t
uati
ons
Demonst rat
enecessaryskil
lsf
oravoidi
ngriskybehaviour
s,pract
icesandsi
tuati
ons
SofarthereisnocureforHIV/AIDS,butt
reatmentisav ai
l
able.However,
thedisease
canbepr event
edbyt hefol
lowi
ngway s:

Avoi
dsexual
int
ercour
se.I
tispossi
blet
oli
veaheal
thynor
mal
li
fewi
thouthav
ingsexual
i
nter
cour
se.

Useacondom corr
ectl
yeveryt
imeyouhavevagi
nal
sex.I
tisof
tenhar
dtobesur
ethat
yourpar
tneri
str
ulyfai
thf
ulandunaf
fect
ed.

Av
oidmul
ti
plepar
tner
s.Don’
thav
emor
ethatonesexual
par
tner
.

Avoi
dal
coholanddrugabuseast
heyaf
fecty
ourdeci
sionmaki
ngabi
l
ityt
husl
eadi
ng
yout
ounsafesex.

Av
oidshar
ingneedl
esandot
herski
npi
erci
ngtool
s.Needl
escanbecont
ami
nat
edand
HI
Vcansurvi
veinasyri
ngef
oramonthorl
onger.
Avoidcontr
act
ingotherSTIsbecausetheyincreaset
hechancesofHIVandAIDS
i
nfecti
on.Fort
hosewhohav ebeeninf
ected,theymustgetpr
opertr
eatmentf
rom a
qual
ifi
edmedicalpr
actit
ioner
.

Avoi
dri
skybehavi
ourssuchasgoingtoni
ghtcl
ubs,negat
ivepeerpr
essur
eandt
aki
ng
al
cohol
ordrugabuse.Thesemightputy
ouindangerofbeingi
nfect
ed.

Prev entmot
hertochil
dtr
ansmissi
onby:(a)counsel
li
ngandtreat
ingthemot
her
; (
b)
usingcaesareansecti
onasamodeofdelivery;
(c)useofalt
ernat
ivef
eedi
ng(mi
lk)
i
nst eadofbreast
feedi
ng;
and(d)notshar
ingbreastmilk.

Prev
enttr
ansmissi
ont
hroughor
ganandt
issuet
ranspl
ant
sbyscr
eeni
ngbot
hthedonor
andthepati
ent
.

Preventminorinj
uri
eswhichmi ghtleadtoinf
ect
ion.Thi
scanbeachievedthr
ough:
(a)
useofgloves;(b)useofsteri
lei
nstruments;(
c)avoi
dingdir
ectcont
actwit
h
contaminatedbodyflui
ds;
(d)properhandli
ngofcontaminat
edhumanwast e;
and(e)
decontaminati
ngsoil
edsur f
acesandl i
ned.

Effect
ivet
reatmentoft
heinf
ectedt
hrough:
(a)admi
nist
eri
ngant
i-
ret
rov
iral
ther
apy
;and
(b)prompttreat
mentofoppor
tuni
sti
cinf
ecti
ons.

CareandSuppor tofpeopl
eliv
ingwithHIV/
AIDS( PLWHA)
TheI mportanceofProv
idi
ngCareandSuppor tt
oPLWHAi ntheFamil
yCommunityand
atSchool
Explaintheimport
anceofprovi
dingcar
eandsuppor tt
oPLWHAi nthefami
ly
communi t
yandatschool
Importanceofcareandsupporttopeopl
eli
vingwi t
hHIV/
AIDS(PLWHA)incl
udet
he
fol
lowing:

I
tenabl
est
hem t
opr
olongt
hei
rli
vesi
ncaset
heyar
eadmi
nist
eredwi
thARVs.

I
treducesf
earofdeat
h.

I
tenabl
est
hem t
oper
for
mthei
rdai
l
yact
ivi
ti
eswi
thoutf
ear
.

I
treducesdepr
essi
onandsel
fdi
sli
ke.

NecessaryCareandSuppor
tServi
cesProv i
dedtoPLWHAintheFamily,
Communityand
atSchool
Outl
inenecessar
ycareandsupportser
vicesprov
idedt
oPLWHAi nthefamil
y,
communityandatschool
Peoplewhoar ei
nfect
edwit
hHIVneedcar eandsupportf
ormthei
rfri
ends,
famil
i
esand
thecommuni ty
, especial
l
ywhent heyareil
l.Fri
endsandf amilymember ssometi
mes
worrythatt
heymi ghtbeinfectedwhencar i
ngf orapersonwi t
hHI V.
HIVcannotbepassedonbyt ouching,
hugging,coughing,orshari
ngeatingut
ensi
ls.I
tis
possibl
eforpeopl ewhoar einfectedwithHIVtol i
velonghealthyl
ives.Youcanhelp
thosewhoar einfectedby:

showi
ngl
ove,
respectandsuppor
t;

knowi
ngt
hef
act
saboutHI
V/AI
DSandt
alki
ngopenl
yaboutt
hedi
sease;

hel
pingt
oreducest
ressandst
ressf
ulsi
tuat
ions;

hel
pingt
opr
ovi
debal
ancedandnut
ri
ti
ousmeal
s;

seeki
ngf orsuppor
tfr
om f
ami
l
yandf
ri
endsaswel
lasf
rom ot
herpeopl
ewhoar
eHI
V
posit
ive;

encour
agi
ngt
hem t
oli
vewi
thhope;

encour
agi
ngt
hem t
obeact
ive.Donotst
opt
hem f
rom doi
ngt
hingst
heyl
i
ke;

spendtimewit
hthesickperson.Forexamplehel
pthem t
oprepar
etheirmeal
s,cl
ean
thei
rrooms,maketheirbedsandtakethem t
oawalkift
heycanwalk.Encour
agefamil
y
andfri
endtodothi
st oo;

encour
agingthem t
ogett
reat
mentift
heyaresi
ck.Mosti
nfect
ionsar
eeasi
l
ytr
eat
ed
andcured,ev
enifaper
sonisHIVposi
ti
ve.

Cl
eani
ngt
hei
rhouses,
utensi
l
s,cl
othes,
etc.
;

tr
yingt
orel
iev
eanypai
ntheper
sonmaybef
eel
i
ng,
forexampl
ebyadmi
nist
eri
ngpai
n
ki
ll
ers;
and

t
reat
ingt
hem wi
thr
espectanddi
gni
tymaki
ngt
hem ascomf
ort
abl
easpossi
ble.

Pr
ecaut
ionst
obet
akenwhenhandl
i
ngPLWHAandSTI
s

Theremaybesi t
uati
onswher eyouneedt ocleanupbodyfluidsorbloodf r
om someone
i
nfectedwi thHI
V.Donott ouchbodyf l
uidssuchasblood,stoolandurinewi t
hyourbar
e
hands.Itisimport
anttouser ubberorpl
asti
cgl ov
esorotherbarri
erssuchaspl ast
ic
bagsort hickcl
othtoprev
entdi r
ectcontact
.Makesurethaty ouhavet heseeasi
ly
avai
labl
eatal lt
imes.

Washtheglovesorpl
ast
icbagsinhotwaterever
yti
meaf t
eryouhaveusedthem.Keep
cl
othesandbeddingwi
thbl
ood,diar
rhoeaorbodyfl
uidsawayfr
om otherwashi
ngs.
Washthebeddi
ngandclot
heswi
thsoap.Hangt
hem wher
ether
eisapl
ent
yofsunshi
ne
andai
rcir
cul
ati
ontodr
ywel l
.

Donotshar
etoot
hbr
ushes,
razor
s,ski
npi
eci
ngi
nst
rument
s,orneedl
es

Coveryourwoundswit
hacleanandst
eri
l
ebandage.Buydi
sposabl
egl
ovessot
hat
onceusedtheyaredi
scar
ded.

Di
sposeof
fpr
oper
lyt
hev
omi
tsorbandagesusedwhendr
essi
ngwounds.

Lear
naboutthewaysHIVcanandcannotbetransmit
ted.Tal
ktoy
ourf
ri
endsand
fami
ly.Cont
acty
ourlocal
cli
nicf
ormoreinf
ormation

TheEf fectsofDiscri
minat i
onandSt i
gmat oPeopl
eLi v
ingwi t
hHIV/AIDStot he
I
ndividual,FamilyandSoci ety
Explaintheef f
ectsofdiscriminati
onandst igmatopeoplelivi
ngwithHIV/AIDStothe
i
ndividual,famil
yandsoci ety
HIV-rel
atedst i
gmaanddi scri
minationexistwor
ldwide,al
thoughtheymanifest
themsel vesdiff
erent
lyacrosscount ri
es,communiti
es,rel
igiousgroupsandindivi
dual
s.
PossibleconsequencesofHI V-rel
atedstigmacouldbe:

l
ossofi
ncomeandl
i
vel
i
hood

l
ossofmar
ri
ageandchi
l
dbear
ingopt
ions

poorcar
ewi
thi
ntheheal
thsect
or

wi
thdr
awal
ofcar
egi
vi
ngi
nthehome

l
ossofhopeandf
eel
i
ngsofwor
thl
essness

l
ossofr
eput
ati
on

THECONCEPTOFCELL
TheMeani ngoftheCell
Explai
nt hemeani ngofthecell
Plantsandani malsaremadeupofuni t
scalledcell
s.Thecellsaremi croscopi
ci nsuch
awayt hattheycannotbeseenbyournakedey es.Someor ganismsl i
kepr ot
ozoa,
di
atomsandbact er
iaconsi
stofonecel
l andarecall
edsingle-
cell
edoruni cell
ular
organisms.Somear emadeupofmanycel l
sandar ecal
ledmul ti
cel
lularorgani
sms.
Thecel lstr
uctureofli
vi
ngthingswasfi
rstseenbyRobertHookei n1667whenhe
exami nedfi
nesli
cesofcork.Rober
tHookebeli
evedthatt hecel
lswereemptyandthat
thecellwallandcell
membr anewerethemostimportantpartsofthecel
lbutnowcell
contentsareseentobethemosti mport
antones.Thereforeacellcanbedefi
nedasthe
smallestuni
tofli
vingthi
ngsoracelli
sabasicunitofli
fe.
TheChar
act
eri
sti
csoft
heCel
l
Menti
onthecharacter
ist
icsoft
hecel
l
Char
acter
ist
icsofthecelli
ncl
udet
hefol
l
owi
ng:

Cel
l
sar
esmal
lmi
croscopi
cst
ruct
ureswhi
chcannotbeseenbyournakedey
es.

Cel
l
sar
ecapabl
eofdi
vi
dingbymi
tot
icpr
ocessormei
oti
cpr
ocess.

Cel
l
scont
ainst
ruct
urescal
l
edor
ganel
l
es.

Thecel
ltheor
y

Acel
li
sabasi
cuni
tofst
ruct
ureandf
unct
ioni
nli
vi
ngor
gani
sms.

Newcel
l
sonl
ycomef
rom pr
e-exi
sti
ngones.

Cel
l
scont
ainst
ruct
urescal
l
edor
ganel
l
es.

Thecel l t
heori
eswer epr oposedj oi ntl
ybyt wosci enti
stsnamel ySchl
eiden,
aBelgian
botani st ,
in1838andSchwann, Ger manZool ogist
,in1839
DifferenceBet weenVar iousTy pesofCel l
s
Different i
atevarioustypesofcel l
s
PROKARYOTI CANDEUKARYOTI CCELLS
Prokar y oti
ccell
sar ecellswi t
hnomembr ane-boundnucleus.TheDNAl i
esfreei
nthe
cytopl asm inar egionknownasnucl eoid.Theyhav enot ruenuclei
.Examplesof
prokar y oti
corganismsar ebacteria.
Eukar y oti
ccell
sar ecellswhosenucl eiar eboundedbynucl earmembr ane.Theyare
surroundedbyt wonucl earmembr anescal lednuclearenvelope.Examplesofeukary
oti
c
organi smsar epr otocti
sts,fungi,plant sandani mal cel
ls.
Differencesbet weencel lwallandcel lmembr ane
Cell wal l Cellmembr ane
Iti
sanon–l iv
ing
Iti
sal ivi
ngst ructure
structur e
Iti
smadeupof Iti
smadeupof
cellulose li
poprotein
Iti
ssel ectively
Iti
sf reel ypermeabl e
permeabl e

Dif
fer
entbet
weenprokar
yoti
candEukaryot
iccell
s
Eukar
yoti
ccell
s Prokar
yoticcel
l
Theyhavenucl
earmembrane Lacknuclearmembr
ane
Organellesaresur r
oundedby Organel
l
esarenotsurr
oundedby
envelopes envel
opes
Havet ruenucleus Havenotruenucl
eus
TheFunct ionsofDi f
ferentPart
sofPlantandAnimalCel
ls
Explainthefunctionsofdiffer
entpart
sofplantandani
malcell
s
Basicallyacellhasthreemai npart
s

Cel
lmembr
ane

Cy
topl
asm

Nucl
eus

Cel
lmembrane(plasmal
emma)
Thi
sisat
hinfl
exiblemembr
anemadeofpr
otei
nandoi
l
.Ithast
hef
oll
owi
ngf
unct
ions:

Thecel
lmembr
aneencl
osest
hecont
ent
soft
hecel
l
.

I
tisfreelypermeabl
etowaterandgasesonlyandsel
ectiv
elyper
meabletoother
moleculese.g.i
tall
owsfoodinbutkeepsunwantedmolecul
esout.Thuscel
lthe
membr anecontrol
sthesubst
ancesenteri
ngandleav
ingthecell
.

Cy t
oplasm
Cy t
oplasm isatransparentj el
ly-
li
kefluidandmaycont ainparti
clessuchchl oropl
ast
sor
starchgrainsoroildroplets.Itcontai
nsupt o80%wat erandt her emai nderismainly
protein.I
tisaplacewher echemi calreacti
onstakeplace
Nucl eus
Anucl eusisabal l
-shapedorov albodylocatedinsi
det hecy t
oplasm.I tcannotusuall
y
beseenunl esst
hecel lhasbeenst ai
nedwi thcert
aindy es.I
tconsi st
sofnucl eopl
asm
boundedbynucl earmembr ane.Thenucl eusisacellcont r
olcentr e.
Thef oll
owingarethef unctionsoft henucleus:

I
tcont
rol
sthef
ormat
ionanddev
elopmentofacel
l
.

Thenucl
eusal
socont
rol
schemi
cal
swhi
cht
hecel
lmanuf
act
ures.

Thenucleuscont
ainchromosomeswhichcar
rygenet
icmat
eri
ali
.e.DNAwhi
chi
s
responsi
blef
orcontr
oll
i
nggeneti
cinf
ormati
on.

Cellwall
Thecell walli
sonl yf
oundinplantcel
ls.I
tismadeupofcel l
ulose.Whent hecelli
s
growingt hecellwalli
sfair
yplast
icandextensibl
e.I
tbecomest oughandr esi
sts
stret
chingwhent hecell
hasreachedfull
size.Thecel
lwalli
snon- l
iv
ing.I
thast he
fol
lowingf unct
ions:

I
tgi
vest
hecel
li
tsshape.
I
tisf
reel
yper
meabl
etoal
lki
ndsofmol
ecul
es.

I
tsuppor
tsandpr
otect
sthecel
l
.

I
tsuppor
tsnon-
woodypl
antor
gans,
suchasl
eav
es,
byt
urgorpr
essur
e.

I
tosmor
egul
atesbyr
esi
sti
ngent
ryofexcesswat
eri
ntocel
l
.

Vacuole
Inanimal cell
s,vacuol
esaresmal ldropletsoff l
uidinthecy t
oplasm var
iabl
einsizeand
posit
ion.Inplantcell
s,thev acuol
ei sal arge,permanentfluid-
fi
lledcavi
tywhich
occupiesagr eaterpartofthecell.Inplants,thefluidi
scalledcel l
sap.Thecell
sapmay
containsalts,sugarandpigment sdi ssolv
edi nwat er.
Thev acuoleper f
ormst hefoll
owingf unctions:

I
tisr
esponsi
blef
orf
oodst
orageandosmor
egul
ati
on.

Theoutwar
dpressur
eofthevacuoleont
hecel
lwal
lmakest
hepl
antcel
l
sfi
rm,
giv
ing
st
rengt
handresi
li
encet
ot het
issues.

Mit
ochondr
ia
Mit
ochondr
iaar
efoundinall
aer
obiceukaryoti
ccells.Ami
tochondr
ionissurr
oundedby
anenvel
opeoft
womembr anes,t
heinnerbeingfoldedtof
orm cr
ist
ae(singul
ar:
cri
sta)
I
tcontai
nsamatri
xwit
haf ewri
bosomes,aci r
cularDNAmoleculeandphosphate
gr
anul
es.

Mitochondr i
on
Ami tochondr i
onisapowerhouseofacel l
.Itcontai
nsr espir
atoryenzymesinvol
vedin
respi
rati
on.I tabsor bsoxy genandgl ucose.Theglucosei sbrokendownt oCO2andH2O.
Energyisr el
easedf rom glucosebondst oform ATPs( forusei nothervit
alf
uncti
onse.g.
growth,mov ement ,etc.
Chloroplast
Chloroplastsaredi sc-shapedor ganell
es.Theyaref oundinpl antcell
sandalgaecel
ls.A
chlor
oplastcont ainsagr eensubstancecalledchlorophy l
l.I
tissurroundedbyan
envelopeoft womembr anesandcont ainsgel-
li
kest r
omat hr
oughwhi chrunsasystem
ofmembr anest hatar est ackedinplacestoform grana.

Chl
oropl
ast
Chl
oropl
astisanor ganel
leinwhichphotosy
nthesistakespl
ace,
produci
ngsugar
sfr
om
car
bondioxideandwat erusingli
ghtener
gytrappedbychlor
ophyl
l.
Gol
gibody
Gol
gibodiesarestacksofflatt
ened,membrane-boundsacs

Gol
gibodi
eshav
ethef
oll
owi
ngf
unct
ions:

Gol
gibodi
esar
eresponsi
blef
ori
nter
nal
processi
ngandt
ranspor
tsy
stem.
Pr
ocessi
ngofmanycel
lmat
eri
alse.
g.pr
otei
ntakespl
acei
ntheci
ster
nae.

Godgi
vesi
clest
ranspor
tthemat
eri
alst
otheot
herpar
tsoft
hecel
l

Pl
antandAnimalCell
Drawandlabel
plantandani
mal
cel
l
Animalcel
l

Pl
antcel
l
Simil
arit
iesandDi ff
erencesofPl antandAnimal Cell
s
Outli
nesimi l
ariti
esanddi ff
erencesofplantandani mal cell
s
Dif
ferencesbet weenpl antcellandanimal cell
s
PLANTCELL ANI MALCELL
(i
)Hav edefiniteshape Hav enodef i
nit
eshape
(i
i
)Hav echl oroplasts Hav enochloroplasts
Hav esmal l
tempor ary
(i
i
i)Havel ar
geper manentvacuol es
vacuoles
(i
v)Centriol
esusual lyabsent Centriol
espresent
(v
)Hav ecel lwallmadeofcel lulose Hav enocellwall
(v
i)Thenucl eusi slocatedatthe Thenucl eusiscentral
ly
peri
phery located
Simil
arit
iesbet weenani malcellandplantcells

Bot
hhav
ecel
lmembr
anes

Bot
hcont
aincy
topl
asm

Bot
hhav
enucl
eus

Bot
hhav
emi
tochondr
ia

Bot
hhav
egol
gibodi
es

Bot
hhav
eri
bosomes
 Cel
lDi
ff
erent
iat
ion
TheConceptofCell
Dif
fer
enti
ati
on
Expl
aint
heconceptofcel
ldif
fer
enti
ati
on
Whenmostcellshavef
ini
sheddivi
dingt
heybecomespeci
ali
zed.Thi
smeanst
hat
:

Theydoonepar
ti
cul
arj
ob

Theydev
elopadi
sti
nctshape

Speci
alki
ndsofchemi
cal
changet
akepl
acei
nthei
rcy
topl
asm

Thechangesi nshapeandchemi cal r

eact ionsenablet hecelltocarryouti t
sspeci al
functi
on.Thepr ocessbywhi chcel lsarespeci ali
zedt operform apar t
icularfunctioni
s
call
edcel ldif
ferent i
ati
onor‘ divisionofl abour’wit
hintheor ganism.Simi l
arly
, t
hespeci al
functi
onsofmi tochondr ia,ri
bosomesandot hercellorganell
esmaybet ermedas
divi
sionofl abourwi thi
nt hecel l
.
TheI mpor t
anceofCel lDi f
ferentiationandFor mationofTi ssues,OrgansandBody
Systems
Outli
net heimpor t
anceofcel ldifferentiationandformat ionoftissues,organsandbody
systems
Diff
erencebet weenCel ls,TissuesOr gansandBodySy stems
Diff
erentiatecells,ti
ssuesor gansandbodysy stems
Animal cell
s
Nervecel l
s
Thesear especi ali
zedf orconduct ingi mpul sesofanel ectr
icalnaturealongt hefibre.
Thef i
bremaybev eryl
onge. g.from t hef oottothespi nalcolumn.Theyar ethelongest
cell
sknown.

Ner
vecel
l
Bl
oodcel
l
s

Whitebl
oodcells:
Thesecellsoccurinbloodstream andar
especi
ali
zedforengul
fing
harmfulbact
eri
a.Theyareablet ochangetheirshapesandmoveabout,
eventhrough
thewall
sofbloodv essel
sintothesurroundi
ngt i
ssue.
Whi
tebl
oodcel
l

Redbloodcel
l
s:Thesecel
l
sar
eresponsi
blef
ort
ranspor
tat
ionofoxy
genf
rom t
hel
ungs
toal
lpart
softhebody.

Redbl
oodcel
l
s

Pl
atel
etcel
ls:Pl
atel
etcel
l
sarefoundinthebl
ood.Theyar
ealsocall
edbloodpl
atel
ets.
Thei
rfunct
ionist
ohelpclott
hebloodatwoundsandsostopbleedi
ng.

Repr
oduct
ivecel
l
s

Sper
m cel
l
:iti
samal
egamet
epr
oducedi
nthet
est
es.

Sper
m cel
l

Eggcel
l
:I
tisaf
emal
egamet
epr
oducedi
ntheov
ary
.

Eggcell
Musclecel
ls
Theseareel
ongat
edcel
lswhichf
ormthemuscl
etissues.Muscl
ecell
sarehighl
y
speci
ali
zedi
nthatt
heyareabl
etoshor
tenahal
forevenat hi
rdoft
heirr
est
inglengt
hs.
Thi
schar
act
eri
sti
cenabl
est
hemuscl
est
ocont
ractandexpand.

Musclecell
Cil
iat
edcel l
s
Thesecellsfor
mt heliningofthenoseandwi ndpipe.
Plantcell
s
Roothaircell
s
Thesecellsfor
mt heout erlay
erofy oungr oot
s.Thecell
sarespeci
ali
zedtoabsor
b
waterandmi ner
al sl
atsf r
om thesoil.Thehair
-l
ikeproj
ecti
onspenet
ratet
hesoil
parti
clesandofferalargeabsorbingsur f
ace.

Phloem cells
Thesear ef oodconduct i
ngcel
lsinaplant,
joi
nedendtoend,andwher etheymeet,
perfor
ationsoccuri nthewall
s.Throughthesehol
es,t
hecytoplasm ofonecell
communi cateswiththenext.
Xyl
em cel ls
Thecellsconductwat erandmineralsal
tsfor
mthesoilt
oallpartsoftheplant
.Theyar
e
al
sor esponsi bl
eformechanicalsupport
.

Par
enchy
macel
l
s

Col
l
enchy
macel
l
s
Scl
erenchy
macel
l
s

Epi
der
mal
cel
l
s

TISSUES
At i
ssuei sagr ouporcol lecti
onofsi milarcel
lsperformingaspeci ficfunction.Ti ssues
varyinsize,shapeandf unct i
on.
Exampl esoft i
ssues
Animalt i
ssues
Animal ti
ssuesi ncludeepi t
helial
tissue,muscletissue,nervoustissue,bloodt issueand
bonyt i
ssue.
Epit
helialti
ssue:Epithel
ial t
issuescov erthebodyl i
ningcaviti
es,hollowor gansand
tubes.Theyar er esponsiblefor(i
)protectionoftheunder l
yi
ngst ructurefrom
dehydration,andchemi cal andmechani caldamages; (
ii
)secreti
on; and(i
ii
)absor ption.

Col
umnarepi
thel
i
um

Squamousepi
thel
i
um

Cuboi
dalepi
thel
i
um
St
rat
if
iedepi
thel
i
um

Cl
i
atedcol
umnar

Ci
l
li
atedcol
umnarepi
thel
i
um wi
thgobl
etcel
l
s
Muscleti
ssue
Muscleti
ssueconsi
stsofcel
l
sspeci
ali
zedt
ocont
ractandmov
ethebody
.Muscl
e
t
issuescanbe:

skel
etal
muscl
eti
ssue;

smoot
hmuscl
eti
ssue;
or

car
diacmuscl
eti
ssue.

Skel
etal
muscl
eti
ssuesf
ormt
hosemuscl
est
hatmov
ethebones

Skel
etalmusclef
ibres
Smoothmuscl et
issues
Thesearefoundi
nt hewal
l
sofhol
l
owor
gans.Theyper
for
mthef
oll
owi
ngf
unct
ions:

Regul
atet
hedi
amet
erofbl
oodv
essel
sandpar
tsoft
her
espi
rat
oryt
ract
.

Pr
opel
thecont
ent
soft
heur
eter
s,duct
sofgl
andsandal
i
ment
aryt
ract
.

Expel
cont
ent
soft
heur
inar
ybl
adderandut
erus.

Smoothmusclefi
bres
Cardi
acmuscleti
ssue
Thiski
ndofmuscleti
ssueisf
oundonl
yinthehear
twal
l
.Ithel
psincontr
act
ingand
rel
axi
ngofheartmuscl
esthuspumpi
ngthebloodt
ovar
iousbodypart
s.
Cardi
acmusclefibr
es
Nervoust
issues
Nervoust
issueshaveendi
ngsthatdetectchangesint
heenvi
ronment.Theytr
ansmit
andconductnervei
mpulsest
ot hebrainandspinal
cordandt
ot heef
fectoror
gans.

Plantt
issues
Examplesofplantt
issuesar
ecoll
enchymati
ssue,
scl
erenchymati
ssue,epi
der
mal
ti
ssue,conduct
ingt
issuese.
g.phl
oem andxyl
em,pal
i
sadet i
ssueandspongyt
issue.

Anonionepi
dermalt
issue
ORGANS
Anorganisacoll
ect
ionofti
ssueswor
kingt
oget
hert
oper
for
m acer
tai
nfunct
ion
Ani
malorgans
Otherexampl
esofani
malorgansi
ncl
udeski
n,t
estes,ears,
nosesandthebr
ain.
Plantor
gans
Examplesofpl
antor
gansi
ncludel
eav
es,st
ems,roots,f
lowersandfr
uit
s.
Plantorgans
Organsy stem
Asy st
em r eferst
osev er
alint
er-
rel
atedorgansper
for
mingaparti
cularf
unct
ion.
Digesti
vesy stem
Themai nor gansthatmakeupt hedigest
ivesyst
em ar
ealiment
arycanal
,l
iv
erand
pancreas.Themai nfuncti
onofthissyst
em istodi
gestandabsor
bfood.

Thedigest ivesy st
em
Cir
culat orysystem
Thissy stem consistsoft
heheart
,ar
ter
iesandveins.
Therol
eoft
heci
rcul
ator
ysy
stem
i
stot ranspor tgases,f
ood,hor
monesanddistr
ibuteheat
.
Thecircul
ator
ysystem
Lymphat i
csyst
em
Lymphat i
csyst
em hascompri
sesofthelymphv essel
sandly
mphnodes.Themai
n
funct
ionofthelymphati
csy
stem i
stotranspor
tmat er
ial
sandpr
otectagai
nst
.

Lymphaticsystem
Respi
ratorysystem
Therespir
atorysystem consi
stsoft
het r
acheaandthel
ungs.Ther
oleoft
her
espi
rat
ory
syst
em istotakeinoxy genandexpelcarbondi
oxi
degas.
Therespir
atorysyst
em
Theurinar
ysy st
em
Themai norgansoftheuri
narysyst
em ar
ekidneys,
uret
er,
bladderanduret
hra.
The
uri
narysystem pl
aysarolei
nremov i
ngmetaboli
cwasteproduct
sfrom t
hebodyand
al
soitisresponsibl
eforosmoregul
ati
on.

Theurinarysystem
Thener v
oussy stem
Thissystem consist
softhebrai
n,spi
nal
cordandner
ves.
Ther
oleoft
hener
vous
system i
stodet ectandr
espondtosti
muli.
Muscul
arsystem
Themuscularsyst
em
I
tconsi
stsoftheorgansmuscl
esandt
endons.Ther
oleoft
hemuscul
arsy
stem i
sto
bri
ngaboutmovement .

Theskeletalmuscl
es
Thereproducti
vesyst
em
I
tconsistsoftheovar
ies,
test
esandut
erus.I
tsr
olei
stopr
oduceof
fspr
ing.

Mal
erepr
oduct
ivesy
stem

Femalerepr
oduct
ivesyst
em
Endocr
inesyst
em
I
tconsist
sofendocri
neglands.I
tsr
olei
stopr
oducehor
mones.

Endocri
nesyst
em
Skel
etalsy
stem
I
tconsi
stsofasyst
em ofskel
etons.I
tsf
unct
ioni
stosuppor
tthebody
,pr
otecti
nter
nal
or
gansandproducebl
oodcell
s.

Skel
etalsyst
em
Examplesoforgansystem inpl
ant
s
Rootsystem –consi
stsofroots
Funct
ion:

Hol
dst
hepl
antf
ir
mlyi
ntot
hesoi
l

Absor
pti
onofwat
erandmi
ner
alsal
tsf
rom t
hesoi
l

Somet
imest
heyactasst
orageor
gansi
nsomepl
ant
s

Shootsyst
em –consi
stsoft
heor
gansf
lower
s,f
rui
ts,
stem andl
eav
es
Funct
ion

Si
teofr
epr
oduct
ion

Tr
anspor
tofsubst
ances

Phot
osy
nthesi
soccur
sint
heshoot

Tr
anspi
rat
ionpr
ocesses.

CLASSI
FICATI
ONOFLI
VINGTHI
NGS
ConceptofCl assi fi
cat i
on
TheConceptofCl assificati
on
Explaintheconceptofcl assifi
cat i
on
Hav eyouev erv i
sitedal i
brary?Howar et hebooksar rangedandkept ?Aret heyar ranged
randoml yorsy stemat icall
y?Obv i
ousl yt hebooksar ear r
angedsy st
emat icall
yint he
shelves.Sciencebooksar ekeptsepar at elyi ntheirrespect i
v eshelves.Sciencebooks
arekeptsepar atelyf r
om soci al orcommer cialbooks.Bi ologybooksar esepar atedf rom
physicsbooksorchemi strybooks.Li kewi se, i
nt heshop, l
aboratoryorphar macyi tems
aresor t
edandpl acedont hebasi soft heirsi milari
ties.
Inthewor ld, t
herear enumer ousv ari
et i
esofl i
vingor ganisms. Theseor ganismsdov ary
i
nsi ze,structure, shape, habitat,modeoff eedingandev enmodeofr eproduction.The
organismscanbesor tedoutandpl acedi nt odifferentgr oupsbasedont heirsi
mi lari
ties.
Thesy stem ofsor t
ingoutandpl acingor gani smsi nt odifferentgroupsont hebasi sof
thei
rsimi l
ariti
esanddi ffer
encesi scal ledcl assifi
cation.
Livi
ngThi ngsAccor dingt oThei rSi milaritiesandDi fferences
Groupl i
vingt hingsaccor dingt ot heirsi mi l
ar i
ti
esanddi fferences
Acti
vit
y1
Studytheexternal
featur
esofthefol
lowingorganisms:
Lizard,
sugarcaneplant
,maize
pl
ant,shark,
Tilapi
a,cact
uspl
ant,bat
,cockroach,but
ter
fl
y ,
hen,goat
,toad,
frog,spi
der
andorangeplant
Acti
vit
y2

Sor
toutt
heabov
eor
gani
smsi
ntopl
ant
sandani
mal
s

Cl
assi
fyt
heani
mal
sont
hef
oll
owi
ngbasi
s

Thosewi
thwi
ngsandt
hosewi
thoutwi
ngs

Thosewi
tht
ail
sandt
hosewi
thoutt
ail
s

Thosewi
thant
ennaeandt
hosewi
thoutant
ennae

Ter
rest
ri
alandaquat
icor
gani
sms

TheImportanceofClassif
yingLi
vingThings
Expl
aintheimport
anceofcl assi
fyi
ngliv
ingthings
Thefoll
owingareimportancesofclassi
ficat
ion

Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionmakest
hest
udyofl
i
vingt
hingseasy

Cl
assif
icat
ionmakescommuni
cat
ioneasyamongbi
ologi
stsf
rom di
ff
erentpar
tsoft
he
worl
d

I
tprov
idesgoodor
gani
zedsy
stem i
nwhi
chanewl
yident
if
iedor
gani
sm canbeeasi
l
y
f
it
tedinfut
ure.

I
tmakesi
teasi
ert
oident
if
yor
gani
sms

I
tcanbeusedt
opr
edi
ctchar
act
eri
sti
cst
hatar
epr
esenti
nthemember
soft
hesame
gr
oup.

Classi
fi
cati
onSystems
TypesofClassi
fi
cati
onSy stemsandTheirDi
fferences
Outli
netypesofcl
assif
icati
onsy st
emsandtheirdif
fer
ences
Therearetwotypesofclassif
icati
on

Ar
ti
fi
cial
classi
fi
cat
ion

Nat
ural
classi
fi
cat
ion
Artifi
ci alclassi ficat ionAnar ti
f i
cialclassifi
cat i
oni sbasedononeoraf ew
easily obser v ablechar act eristicsandusual l
ydesi gnedf orpr act i
calpur posewi than
emphasi sonconv eni enceandsi mpl i
city
.Int hi stypeofcl assi f
ication, unrelated
organi smsar eof tenpl acedi nt hesamegr oupwhi l
ecl osel yrelatedor gani smsar eof ten
placedi ndiffer entgr oups. Linnaeusi ncludedal l
Linnaeusi ncl udedal lwor m- likeor ganismsi nasi ngl egr oup, thev er mes.Thi si ncl uded
widear angeofani mal sasf romnemat odes, ear thwor mst osnakes.Thi swasan
artif
icialclassi f
icat ionsi ncei tdi dnotconsi dernat ural rel ationshi pssuchast hef actt hat
snakeshav ebackbonesandear thwor msdonot hav e.Thus, snakeshav emor ef eat ures
i
ncommonwi t
hv er tebr at est hanwi thwor ms.
Bat sandbi rdswoul dbepl acedi nt hesamegr oupbecauseal l
hav etheabi l
it
yt of ly
sincet heyposseswi ngs.Butbat sshar emanyf eatur eswi thmammal s.Theyhav e
featur eslikehai r,
mammar ygl ands, sweatgl andsanddi ff erentt ypesoft eethwhi char e
char act eri
st icsofmammal s.Ther efore,bat sar emor erel atedt omammal sthan
birds.Nat ur al
Nat ural syst em ofcl assi ficationThi stypeofcl assificat i
onsy stem t r
iest ousenat ural
relationshi psbet weenor gani sms.I tconsi der smanyf eat ur esi ncommoni ncl
udi ng
i
nt ernal aswel lasext er nal f
eat ures.Similarityofembr yol ogy , mor phol ogy ,anat omy ,
biochemi st rycel l
, struct ureandbehav iourar eal lconsi der edr elevant .Itisbasedon
evolut ionar yr elationshi pi nwhi chor ganismsbel ongi ngt ot hesamegr oupar ebel iev ed
tohav eacommonancest or .
Char act eri
st icf eat ur eswhi chshowhomol ogyar edi stingui shedf rom t hosewhi chshow
anal ogy .Exampl et hef or el i
mbsof mammal s, whal es, bir dsandbat shav ethesame
basi cpat ter nandsi mi larbonear rangement ,i.e.homol ogous.Thi ssuggest sthatt hese
organi smsar ecomi ngf rom t hesameancest orandt hat canbepl acedi nt hesame
group.
Thewi ngsofbi rdsandgr asshopper sar eanal ogous.Thewi ngsofbi rdshav eint er nal
skelet onswhi let hewi ngsofgr asshopper sdonothav ebonesbutt heyper form si mi l
ar
funct ion.Theseor gani smscannotbepl acedi nt hesamegr oupsi ncet heyar edi ffer entin
manyway s.

Merit
sandDemer it
sofEachTypeofCl assif
icati
onSystem
Expl
ainmer i
tsanddemeri
tsofeachtypeofcl assi
fi
cat
ionsyst
em
Advantagesofart
if
ici
alsy
stem ofcl
assif
icati
on

I
tiseasyt
ocl
assi
fyor
gani
smssi
ncei
tisbasedonf
ewobser
vabl
echar
act
eri
sti
cs.

Itdoesnott
akemucht
imet
ocl
assi
fyor
gani
smsbasedont
hissy
stem (
nott
ime
consuming)
.

I
tdoesnotneedexper
ti
se(
evenal
aymancando)
.

I
tisr
elat
ivel
yst
abl
ei.
e.noteasi
l
ychangi
ngf
rom t
imet
oti
me.

Di
sadv
ant
agesofar
ti
fi
cial
syst
em ofcl
assi
fi
cat
ion
I
ttendst
oplacecl
osel
yrel
atedor
gani
smsint
odif
fer
entgroupsi
nst
eadofbei
ng
gr
oupedtoget
here.
g.abatcanbepl
acedi
nagroupofbir
dsinst
eadofmammals.

Di
ffer
entorunrel
atedor
ganismsmaybeplacedi
nthesamegroupe.
g.bat
spl
acedi
na
gr
oupofbirds,
wor msplacedwi
thsnakesi
nthesamegroup

Thesy
stem doesnotpr
ovi
deenoughi
nfor
mat
ionabouti
tsmember
s.

I
tisdi
ff
icul
ttoi
ncor
por
ateaddi
ti
onal
inf
ormat
ion.

Adv
ant
agesofnat
ural
syst
em ofcl
assi
fi
cat
ion

Cl
osel
yrel
atedor
gani
smsar
epl
acedi
nthesamegr
oup.

I
tref
lect
sev
olut
ionar
yrel
ati
onshi
ps.

Unr
elat
edor
gani
smscannotbepl
acedi
nthesamegr
oup.

I
tmakesi
teasyt
oincor
por
ateaddi
ti
onal
inf
ormat
ion.

Di
sadv
ant
agesofnat
ural
syst
em ofcl
assi
fi
cat
ion

I
tisdi
ff
icul
tsi
ncei
tconsi
der
smanyf
eat
ures.

I
trequi
resexper
ti
sei
.e.mor
eknowl
edgeaboutanor
gani
sm.

I
tist
imeconsumi
ng.

I
tisr
elat
ivel
yunst
abl
ei.
e.i
tchangesf
rom t
imet
oti
me.

I
tismor
eex
pensi
vesi
ncemor
edat
aar
erequi
red.

Diff
erencesbet weennat uralclassi
fi
cat
ionandarti
ficialclassificati
on
Arti
fi
cialclassi
fi
cati
on Naturalclassificat i
on
Consider smanyf eatur
esin
(i
)Consi dersfewfeaturesi ncommon
common
(i
i)Doesnotr efl
ectonev ol
utionary Refl
ect sonev olutionary
rel
ationships rel
ati
onshi ps
(i
ii
)Itiseasyt ocl
assify Iti
sdifficulttocl assify
(i
v)Nott imeconsumi ng Iti
sti
meconsumi ng
(v)Doesnotr equir
eexper t
ise Requiresexper ti
se
(vi
)Newi nfor
mationcannotbeadded Newi nformat ioncanbeadded.
 Maj
orGr
oupsofLi
vi
ngThi
ngs
MajorGr oupsofLi vingThings
Ment i
onmaj orgroupsofl i
vi
ngt hi
ngs
Themaj orgr oupsofl iv
ingthingsaret hekingdoms.Pr eviousl y
,li
vi
ngt hingswer e
categor izedi ntotwomai ngroups;plantaeandani mal
iaki ngdom.Butt hisclassi
fi
cati
on
causeddi fficult
iessincesomeor ganismsseemedt opossessomeoft he
char acteristicsofbot hgroups.Forexampl e,euglenai
scapabl eoff eedingl i
kean
animal andl ocomot eli
keanani mal.Ther efor
e,itispl
acedi nani maliakingdom.Butt he
sameeugl enahaschl orophyllanditi
scapabl eofmanuf act uri
ngitsownf ood.
Ther efore, i
tshoul dalsobepl acedinpl antaekingdom.Suchanor ganism doesnot
seem t of itexact l
yinani mali
aorplant aekingdom.Thus, euglenasar eassi gnedinthe
maj orgr oupoft heirown.
Current ly,therearef iv
emaj orgroups( kingdoms)ofl i
vingt hings.

Ki
ngdom moner
a

Ki
ngdom pr
otoct
ist
a

Ki
ngdom f
ungi

Ki
ngdom pl
ant
ae

Ki
ngdom ani
mal
i
a

RanksofCl
assi
fi
cat
ion
Outli
neranksofcl assif
ication
Inthemi l
l
ionsofor ganismsf oundonear thsomear emor esi
mil
arwhileothersarel
ess
simil
ar.Forexampl e,al
l humanbei ngsresembleeachothermorecloselythanthey
resemblewiththechi mpanzees.Humanshav emoreresemblancewithchimpanzee
thancatsanddogs, andmor elikedogst hanbir
ds.
Thereforewhenclassif
yingthe
organi
sms, groupsar eest abli
shedwhi charecall
edranksortaxa.
Therearesevenr anksofcl assi
ficati
on

Ki
ngdom

Phy
lum/
div
isi
on

Cl
ass

Or
der

Fami
l
y

Genus

Speci
es
Thehighestr
ankofclassi
fi
cati
onistheki
ngdom.Thelowestr
ankofcl
assi
fi
cat
ioni
s
thespeci
es.Ever
yknownor gani
sm haspar
ti
cul
arplacei
neachgroup.

Kingdom-thi
sist
hehighestr
ank(t
axon)
.Itcompri
sesofsev
eral
rel
atedt
axa.I
t
compr i
sesofmanyor
ganismsthananyothert
axon.

Phyl
um/di
visi
on–thi
sisthesecondl
argestr
ankofcl
assi
fi
cat
ion.I
tconsi
stsofsev
eral
cl
osel
yrel
atedcl
asses.

Class-member sort
hisgr
ouphav
emor
echar
act
eri
sti
csi
ncommont
handomember
s
ofdivi
sionorphyl
um.

Or
der
-itconsi
stsofgr
oupst
hatar
emor
eal
i
ket
hant
hosei
nacl
ass.

Famil
y–thi
sismadeupofgroupsthatar
emoreal
ikethanthosei
ntheorder
.Wol
ves
andcatsar
ebothi
ntheorderCar
nivor
ebutwol
vesareinthefami
lyCani
daewhi
lecat
s
bel
ongtothef yFel
ami
l i
dae.

Genus–i
tconsi
stsofv
erysi
mil
arspeci
esbutmember
sofdi
ff
erentspeci
escannot
br
eedoneanot
her.

Speci
es–Speciescanbedef
inedasagroupofcl
osel
yrel
atedor
gani
smswhi
char
e
capabl
eofi
nter
breedi
ngandproducef
ert
il
eoff
spri
ng.

Iti
sthebasicuni
tofsci
enti
fi
ccl
assi
fi
cati
on.Organi
smsthatneedt
obepl
acedi
nthe
samespeciesmusthavethefol
l
owingcharact
eri
sti
cs:

Musthav
emanyf
eat
uresi
ncommon.

Mustbeabl
etobr
eedoneanot
hert
opr
oducef
ert
il
eof
fspr
ing.

Mustbedi
sti
nctanddi
ff
erentf
rom ot
heror
gani
sms.

N.B:Thet erm di
v i
si
onisusedbybot ani
stsinst
eadofphy
lum whencl
assi
fyi
ngpl
ant
sor
organismsr el
atedtoplants.
Classifi
cati
onofsomemember sofanimals
Domestic
Human Leopar d
cat
KingdomAni mal i
a Ani mali
a Animal i
a
Phylum Chor dat a Chordat
a Chor dat
a
Class Mammal iaMammal iaMammal ia
Order Pr imates Car ni
vore Car
nivore
Fami l
y Homi nidaeFel
idae Fel idae
Genus Homo Panther
a Felis
Species sapiens padus cat
us
 Scient i
ficnamingofl i
vingor ganisms
Thesci ent i
ficprocessofnami ngor ganismsi scall
ednomen-cl at
ur e.Biol
ogical
nomencl atureisbasedont hebi nomi alsystem (
doublenamingsy stem)pi oneer
edby
thewor kofaSwedi shnaturalistCar lLi
nnaeus( 1707-
1778).
Biologistsassi gnscient
if
icnamest oor ganismssoast oavoidconf usionamong
themsel vessi ncescient
istsfrom di ffer
entcount r
iesusedif
ferentlanguages.The
scienti
ficnamesar euni
formi nal ll
anguages.
Latinlanguagei susedinassi gningt hesci ent
if
icnamebecausei tisanof fici
all
anguage
andt hatt hislanguageisnol ongersubj ectt ochanges;i
tisconsider edtobeadead
l
anguagehencenamesoncegi venremai nunchanged.
Rulesofbi nomi alnomenclature

Sci
enti
ficnamesofor gani
smsmustbeinLatinl
anguageandi
fthenamesar
eder
ived
fr
om otherlanguages,t
heymustbel
ati
nized.

Asci
ent
if
icnameofanor
gani
sm hast
wopar
ts,
genusnameandspeci
esname.

Agenusnameal
way
sst
art
swi
thacapi
tal
let
terandaspeci
esnamef
oll
owswi
tha
smal
llet
ter
.

I
nty
pedscr
ipt
s,asci
ent
if
icnamemustbewr
it
t ni
eni t
ali
csorunder
li
nedi
fhandwr
it
ten.

Aspecifi
cnameissometi
mesaccompani
edwi
tht
henameoft
heaut
horwhof
ir
st
descr
ibedandnamedtheorgani
sm.

Whenanorganism i
sknownbyseveral
names,
thev
ali
dnamei
stheonewhi
chwas
est
abl
i
shedaftertheworkofLi
nnaeus.

Exampl e1
Exampl esofscient
if
icnames
Humanbei Homosapi
ng: ens
Homoi sthegenercnameandsapi
i ensist hespecifi
cname.
Otherexampl esoforgani
smswi ththeirscientif
icnames
Commonname Sci
entifi
cname
Earthwor m Lumbr i
cus t err
est r
is
Cockr oach Peri
planetaamer icana
Amoeba Amoeba pr oteus
Coff ee Coff
ea arabica
Mai ze Zea may s
Bean Phaseolus v ulgaris
Domest i
ccat Fel
is catus
Sisal Agave sisalana
Ashokt ree Pol
yant hi
al ongifoli
a
Housef ly Musca domest i
ca
Neem tr
ee Azadir
achtai
ndi
ca
Flamboyant(Chr
ist
mas
Deloni
x r
egia
tr
ee)
Tropi
calalmond
Terminal
i
a catapa
(mkungu)

Vi
ruses
Vir
useswer edi scoveredbyaRussi anbot anistD.I.IvanovskyandaDut chman
Beij
eri
nk.In1852I vanovskypreparedani nfectiousext r
actfrom tobaccoplant
sthat
weresuf f
eri
ngf rom mosai cdisease.Whent heextractwaspassedt hroughafi
lterable
topreventthepassageofbact eri
a,thef i
lt
eredf l
uidwasst il
linf
ectious.1898Beijer
ink
gavethename“ vi
rus”(i
nlati
nmeans, “poi
son” )todescribetheinfecti
ousnatureof
cert
ainfil
teredpl antflui
ds.
GeneralandDi sti
nctiveFeaturesofVi r
uses
Expl
aingener alanddi st
incti
vefeaturesofv i
ruses
Characteri
sticsofVi r
uses

Theyaret
hesmall
estli
vingor
ganismsrangi
ngf
rom 20-
30nm.Onav
erage,
theyar
e
about50t
imessmal
lerthanbact
eria.

Vi
rusesdonothavecel
l
ularst
ruct
ures,whichmeant hatt
heyl
ackcer
tai
nimpor
tant
or
ganell
esl
ikenucl
eus,
cytopl
asm,golgibodies,
etc.

Theycanonl
yrepr
oducei
nsi
det
hel
i
vingcel
l
shencet
heyar
epar
asi
ti
c.

Theyhav
easimplestr
uctur
econsi
sti
ngofei
therDNAorRNAbutnotbot
h,sur
rounded
byaprot
einorl
i
poprot
eincoat
.

Theycanbedescr
ibedasl
i
vingornon-
li
vi
ng.

Theyarehi
ghl
yspeci
fi
ctot
hei
rhost
si.
e.eachv
irusr
ecogni
zesonl
ycer
tai
nty
pesof
cel
ls.

Vi
rusesar
ecapabl
eofr
epl
i
cat
ingt
hemsel
vesonl
ywhent
heyar
einsi
det
hehostcel
l
.

Vi
rusesasl
i
vingt
hings

Theypossessgenet
icmat
eri
al(
RNAorDNA)
.

Theyr
epr
oducewhent
heyar
eint
hehostcel
l(r
epl
i
cat
ion)
.

Theyar
ecapabl
eofi
dent
if
yingt
hei
rhost
sandat
tackt
hem.
Theycanunder
gomut
ati
on(
theymut
ate)i
.e.t
heyunder
godi
ff
erentchangesi
nshape.

Li
keot
herpar
asi
tes,
theyar
especi
fi
ctohost
.

Vi
rusesasnon-
li
vi
ngt
hings

Theycancr
yst
all
i
zeout
sidet
hehost
.

Theyar
emet
abol
i
cal
l
yiner
tini
sol
ati
on.

Theyar
enon-
cel
l
ulari
.e.t
heyl
ackcel
lor
ganel
l
es.

Theydonotper
for
m necessar
yli
fepr
ocessessuchasr
espi
rat
ion,
excr
eti
onnut
ri
ti
on
et
c.

TheSt
ruct
ureofVi
ruses
Descr
ibethestruct
ureofvi
ruses
Gener
all
yv i
ruseshaveaverysimpl
est
ruct
ureconsi
sti
ngoft
hef
oll
owi
ng:

RNAorDNAwhi
chmaybesi
ngl
est
randedordoubl
est
randed.Theyf
orm ast
ruct
ure
cal
l
edcor
e.

Apr
otect
ivecoatofpr
otei
nsur
roundi
ngt
hecor
ecal
l
edcapsi
d.

Anucl
eocapsi
dwhi
chi
sacombi
nedst
ruct
ureofcor
eandcapsi
d.

Env
elope–anaddi
ti
onal
lay
erofl
i
popr
otei
nlay
erar
oundt
hecapsi
d.

Capsi
dsar
emadeupofi
dent
ical
repeat
inguni
tsknownascapsomer
es.

Bacter
iophage
Bacter
iophageisav
irust
hatat
tacksandki
l
lsbact
eri
a.Someoft
hem hav
eheadwi
tha
tai
lsheath.
Bact
eri
ophage

Adv
ant
agesandDi
sadv
ant
agesofVi
ruses
Out
li
neadvant
agesanddi
sadv
ant
agesofv
iruses
Adv
antagesofvi
ruses

Virusesar
eusedi
ndevelopi
ngvacci
nes,
forexample,
v acci
nesformeasl
es,
pol
i
oand
rubell
aaremadef
rom vi
rusest
hathavebeenatt
enuated(weakened)
.

Vi
rusesar
eusedasbi
ologi
cal
weaponst
oki
l
lor
gani
sms.

Theyar
eusedasvect
orsi
ngenet
icengi
neeri
ngtotransf
ergenesf
rom oneor
gani
sm t
o
anot
herfori
mpr
ovi
ngortr
eat
ingt
hedefecti
vegenes.

Bacter
iophagesar
ev i
rusest
hatat
tackbact
eri
aandhencet
heyhel
pincont
rol
l
ing
i
nfecti
onsanddiseases.

Vi
rusesar
eusedasbi
ologi
cal
weaponsi
nwar
sandi
nbi
ologi
cal
pestcont
rol
.

Di
sadv
ant
agesofv
iruses

Mostv i
rusescausediseasest
obot hpl
antsandani
mal s.Plantdiseasesuchtomato
mosaic,cassavamosaicandtobaccomosai c;
andanimal diseasese.g.measl
es,
small
pox,
poliomy el
i
tisandyell
owfeverarecausedbyvi
ruses.

KI
NGDOM MONERA
Thiskingdom ismadeupofor ganismsknownasbact eria(singular:
bacteri
um) .They
arethemostanci entandsmal lestorganismswit
hacellularstructur
e.Theyaremai nly
si
nglecelled.Bacter
iaoccupymanyenv i
ronment
ssuchassoi l
,dust,waterandi nthe
bodiesofpl ant
sandanimal s
Somebact eri
aarefoundinhotspr ingswheretemper
aturesar e78º Cormor e.Other s
canwi t
hstandv er
ylowtemper atures.Somear ef
oundinv erydeepcr acksintheocean
fl
oor,atveryhightemperatures,about360º C(
extr
emether mophi l
es).

General
andDi sti
ncti
veFeaturesoftheKi
ngdom Monera
Expl
aingeneralanddist
inct
ivefeat
uresoftheki
ngdom moner
a
General
characteri
sti
csofthekingdom monera

Theyar
emai
nlyuni
cel
l
ularandv
erysmal
l
.

Theyar
eal
lpr
okar
yot
ic(
nucl
eusnotboundbymembr
ane)

Theyr
epr
oducebybi
nar
yfi
ssi
on.
Somemember
soft
heki
ngdom ar
eaut
otr
ophswhi
l
eot
her
sar
ehet
erot
rophs

Theyhav
ecel
lwal
lmadeupofpr
otei
nmat
eri
alandsomet
imesl
i
pids.

Somebacteriafor
m sporesdur
ingadversecondit
ionsi.
e.ext
remecondit
ionse.
g.hi
gh
orlowtemperatur
es,dr
oughtetc.Thesporesal
lowt hem t
osurvi
veastheyhavever
y
thi
ckresi
stantwall
s.

Somear
eaer
obeswhi
l
eot
her
sar
eanaer
obes.

Thegenet
icmater
ial(
DNA)isscat
ter
edi
nthecyt
oplasm andtheylacki
nter
nal
membraneboundorganel
l
essuchasmit
ochondr
ia,
chlor
oplasts,
golgibodi
eset
c.

St
ruct
uresoftheRepr esent
ati
veOrgani
smsoftheKi
ngdom Moner
a
Descr
ibest
ructuresoftherepr
esentat
iveor
gani
smsoftheki
ngdom moner
a
Gener
alstr
uctureofthebacteri
a

Bacter
iahavest
rongandri
gidcel
lwal
lsduetot
hepr
esenceofmurei
n.Thewal
l
prev
entsthecel
lfr
om bur
sti
ngwhenitabsor
bsmuchwater(
asaresul
tofosmosi
s).

Bact
eri
alcel
l
sar
eboundedbypar
ti
all
yper
meabl
emembr
anes.

Bacter
iapossesscapsul
eswhicharesli
myorgummy .
Theyhav efl
agel
lawhi
chai
d
motil
it
yofthebacteri
a.Mot
il
ebacteri
acanmoveinresponsetoacertai
nsti
mul
usi.
e.
tact
icmovement.Flagel
l
acaneasil
ybeseenbyelect
ronmi cr
oscope.

Theyhav
esmal
lsel
frepl
i
cat
ingci
rcl
eofext
raDNAcal
l
edapl
asmi
d.
Generalstr
uctureofbact
eri
um
Formsofbact eri
a
Bacter
ialshapeisanimport
antai
dtocl
assif
icat
ion.Ther
ear efourmai
nshapes
Coccus( pl
ural
:cocci
)
Theyarespher i
cali
nshapeandcanbeofthefol
lowingtypes.

Mi
crococcus–exi
stsi
ngl
y.Theycausesor
ethr
oat
.

Dipl
ococci-t
histy
peofbact
eri
aexi
sti
npairs.Thepneumococci
(Di
plococcus
pneumoniae)aret
heonl
ymembers.Theycausepneumonia.

Str
eptococci–thi
stypeofbact
eri
asti
cktoget
herandf orm achai
n.Mostoft
hem i
nfect
upperrespi
rat
orysur
faceandcausedi
seasese.g.sor
et hr
oat.
Staphy
lococci–Thesebact
eri
af or
m agr
apel
i
kebunch.Theycauseboi
l
s,pneumoni
a,
foodpoisoni
ngandotherdi
seases.

Baci
ll
i(si
ngul
ar:baci
l
lus)
Thesearerodshapedbacter
ia.Theycanbe:

Singl
erods,
forexampl Escher
e, i
chi
acol
icommonl
yli
vi
ngi
nthegutandSal
monel
l
a
ty
phiwhichcausetyphoi
dfever
.

Rodsinchai
n,f
orexampl Azot
e, obact
er,ani
tr
ogen-
fi
xi
ngbact
eri
a,andBaci
l
lus
ant
hraci
swhichcauset
hediseaseanthr
ax.

Baci
ll
iwi
thendospor
esshowi
ngv
ari
ousposi
ti
ons,
shapesandsi
zesofspor
es.They
canbe:

Cent
ral
,notswol
l g.Baci
ene. l
lusant
hraci
scausesant
hrax

Spher
ical
spor
e,t
ermi
nal
swol
l g.Cl
ene. ost
ri
dium t
etanicausest
etanus

Sub-
ter
minal
,swol
l g.Cl
ene. ost
ri
dium bot
uli
sm causesbot
uli
sm.
Spor
esmayal
sobe
cent
ral
Spi
ril
l
a(singul
ar:spi
ri
ll
um)
Thesearespir
al-
shapedbact
eri g.Tr
ae. eponemapal
l
idum whi
chcausessy
phi
l
is

Sprr
il
la
Vibr
io
Thesearecommashapedbact
eri
a,f eVi
orexampl bri
ochol
erae.

Vi
bri
ochol
erae

Ki
ngdom Pr
otoct
ist
a
Gener alandDi sti
nctiveFeatur esoft heKingdom Pr otocti
sta
Explaingener alanddi sti
ncti
v efeaturesoft heki ngdom pr ot
oct i
sta
ThisKi ngdom compr i
sesofuni cel
lularandsi mpl emul ti
cell
ularorgani
smswhosecel
l
s
haveor ganizednucl eusandmembr aneboundor ganell
es.Itincl
udestheal
gaeand
protozoa.
Algaehav echlorophyllhencemaket heirownf oodt hrought heprocessof
photosy nthesis.
Protozoaar ehet erotrophictakingi nready-madef ood.
Otheror ganisms, whichar eincludedi nthisKingdom ar eredalgae,Brownal
gae,
Amoeba, Euglena,plasmodi um, t
rypanosomeandpar amecium.
Gener alfeaturesofKingdom Pr otoctista

Somear
eaut
otr
ophs,
forexampl
eEugl
enawhi
l
eot
her
sar
emul
ti
cel
l
ular
.

Theyar
eal
leukar
yot
eswi
thmostoft
hem hav
ingl
ocomot
eryst
ruct
ure.

Mostoft
hem l
i
vei
nmoi
stpl
acesori
nwat
er.

Di
sti
nct
ivef
eat
ures
Mostar
euni
cel
l
ulareukar
yot
es

Theyr
epr
oducebybi
nar
yfi
ssi
on

Phyl
aoftheKi
ngdom Protoct
ist
a
Menti
onphyl
aofthekingdom prot
oct
ist
a
Thephyl
aofki
ngdom protoct
ist
sincl
udethef
oll
owi
ng:

Eugl
enophy
tae.
g.Eugl
ena

Rhi
zopodi
ae.
g.Amoeba

Zoomast
igmae.
g.Tr
ypanosoma

Api
compl
exae.
g.Pl
asmodi
um

Oomy
cot
ae.
g.Whi
ter
oot

Chl
orophy
tae.
g.Spy
rogy
ra

Ci
l
li
aphor
ae.
g.Par
ameci
um

Rhodophy
tae.
g.Redal
gae

St
ruct
ureofAmoebaandPar amecium
Descr
ibest
ruct
ureofamoebaandpar amecium
Amoebabelongtophyl
um Rhizopoda,
organismswi
tht
hef
oll
owi
ngext
raf
eat
ures:

Theyar
eeukar
yot
es

Uni
cel
l
ular

Par
asi
ti
c

Theymov
eusi
ngpseudopodi
a

Pseudopodi
aareproj
ecti
onoft
hecy
topl
asm t
hatext
endandpul
ltheamoebaf
orwar
d
orengul
ffoodpar
ti
cles.
TheAdv antagesandDi sadv ant agesofAmoeba, Eugl enaPar amecium andPl asmodi u
Explaintheadv ant agesanddi sadvant agesofamoeba, euglenapar ameci um and
plasmodi um
Adv antagesofPar ameci um: Ar eeatenbysmal l
wat erani mal s
Disadv antagesofPar ameci um: Causesdi seasesofbul ant erdium eol
idest r
oy i
ngt he
l
iningofi ntestines
Osmor egulati
on: Parameci um hast wocont racti
lev acuolesandeachi sassoci atedwi th
permanentsy st em ofcol lect ingchannel s,whichempt y,intothemai nv acuole.
Feedi ng:
Par ameci um feedonbact eria.Thesear eobt ainedf rom t
hesur roundingwat er
byt hebeat ingoft hecilia-liningot heor algrove.
Repr oduction:Par ameci um r epr oducesbot hasex uallyandsexual ly.Theasexual
met hodi smor ecommonandi ti
sbi naryfissi
on.Sexual met hodiscalledconj ugation.
Mov ement i
npar ameci um i scausedbyci l
iabeating.Thi smov ementiscal l
edcill
iary
mov ement .
FORM TWO

1.
KINGDOM FUNGI
Memberofthekingdom Fungii
ncl
udefai
rlyf
amili
arorganismssuchasmushrooms,
toadst
ool
sandbracketfungi
.Ther
earealsolessobvi
ousbutv er
yimpor
tantmembers
suchasmold,whichgr
owonbr ead,r
ipef
ruit
sandotherf ood.

TheGeneralandDist
inct
iveFeaturesoftheKingdom Fungi
Expl
ainthegener
alanddisti
nctiv
ef eat
uresoftheki
ngdom Fungi
General
featur
esofkingdom fungi

Fungi
aref
oundi
ndamporwetpl
aces

Theyhav
eeukar
yot
iccel
l
swi
thar
igi
dpr
otect
ivewal
lmadeofchi
ti

Theyar
ehet
erot
rophs,
somear
esapr
ophy
ticwher
eot
her
sar
epar
asi
ti
c

Theyst
oref
oodasgl
ycogen

Theyr
epr
oduceusi
ngspor
e

Theyar
enon-
mobi
l
e

Di
sti
nct
ivef
eat
uresofki
ngdom f
ungi

Theyhav
echi
ti
nint
hei
rcel
lwal
l

Theyhav
esept
ate

THEPHYLAOFTHEKI
NGDOM FUNGI

Ascomy
cot
a

Zy
gomy
cot
a

Basi
diomy
cot
a

Ascomy cota
Ascomy cotaarealsocall
edsacf ungi.Theyproducespor
einsac-
li
kecel
lcal
ledasei
.
Thesespor esarecall
edascospor es.ExamplesofAscomycot
aarebaker
s‘yeast
,cup
fungiandringwormf ungi
.
Character
isti
csofphy l
aAscomy cot a

Thei
rcel
lwal
li
snotmadebychi
ti
nbutcet
inpol
ysacchar
idecomponentofphosphor
ic
aci
d
Hav
egr
anul
atedcy
topl
asm

St
oref
oodi
nfor
m ofgl
ycogen

Repr
oduceasexual
l
ybybuddi
ngandsexual
l
ybymeansofascospor
es.

Di
sti
nct
ivef
eat
ures
(
i)Repr
oducesexual
l
ybymeansofascospor
es

TheSt ruct
ureofMosses
Mossesar esmal l
,sof
tplantscal
ledbr yophytes,t
hatarety
pical
ly1–10cm ( 0.
4–4i n)
tall
,thoughsomespeciesaremuchl arger.Theycommonl ygrowclosetogetherin
clumpsormat sindamporshadyl ocations.Theydonothav efl
owersorseeds, and
theirsimpl
eleavescoverthethi
nwi rystems.Atcer t
ainti
mesmossespr oducespor e
capsuleswhichmayappearasbeak- li
kecapsul esbor
nealoftonthi
nstalks.

Adv
ant
ageandDi
sadv
ant
agesofMosses
Ontheadvant
ageside,
itcanhelpt
oholdthesoili
nplaceandprev
entitf
rom washi
ng
outoft
hecontai
ner.Mosscanincr
easethewaterret
enti
oncapabi
li
tyofthesoi
lby
sl
owingev
aporati
on.

Onthedisadvantageside,athickcar
petofmosscanr educethediff
usionofgasesinto
thesoi
landtot heroots,whi
chcanr esul
tinr
oottopoordrainageconditions.Mosscan
growupontot hesurfacerootsandtrunkofyourbonsai
,andsoftentheirbark,
promoti
ngitsdecay.
Di
vi
sionFi
l
ici
nophy
ta(
Pter
idophy
ta)
Thisdivi
sionwasf ormerlycall
edPt eri
dophy ta.Thedivisi
onFili
cinpphytaincl
udesa
groupofpr i
mi t
ivev ascul
arplants.Theadul tplantbodyi ntheseplantsisasporophyte.
I
tshowsdi f
ferenti
at i
onintotr
uer oots,stemsandl eaves.Thestem ismost ly
herbaceous.Leav esmaybesmal l
erorl arger.Vascularti
ssuesar epresentinal
lthe
vegetat
ivepartsoft heplantbody .
Character
isti
csofdi vi
si
onFili
cinophyt a
Member soft hiskingdom includehor setail
s,fer
nsandmosses.

Reproduct
ioni
nvolv
esproducti
onofsporesi
nsidespeci
alst
ruct
urescall
edspor
angi
a
whichoccurontheunder
sideoftheleav
escal
ledsporophyl
l
s.Sprangi
amay
sometimesbefoundingroupscall
edsori
.

Theplantsmaybehomosporous-pr
oducingonlyonetypeofspor
eorheter
osporous-
produci
ngtwodif
fer
entt
ypesofspores;
smallermicr
osporesandl
argermegaspores.

Theyareseedl
essv
ascul
arpl
ant
s,whi
chcont
ainv
ascul
art
issuesbutdonotpr
oduce
seeds.

TheSt ructureofFer ns
Fernsar eintermedi at
eincompl exitybet
weent hemoreprimit
ivebryophytes(mosses,
l
iverwor ts,
andhor nwort
s)andt hemor eadv ancedseedplants.Likebryophytes,f
erns
reproducesexual lybymaki ngsporesratherthanseeds.Mostf er
nsproducespor eson
theunder sideormar gi
noft hei
rleaves.Likeseedplants,
fernshav estemswi tha
vascularsy stem foreffi
cienttr
ansportofwat erandfood.Fernsalsohav eleaves,
knownt echnical
lyasmegaphy ll
s,withacompl exsystem ofbranchedv ei
ns.

I
ngener
al,
fer
nsconsi
stoft
hef
oll
owi
ngst
ruct
ures:
Fronds
Thef rondi st he"l
eaf"ofaf ern.Itisdi v idedintotwomai npar t
s, t
hest i
pe( l
eafstalkor
petiole) andt heblade( thel eaf yexpandedpor t
ionoft hefrond) .
Rhizomes
Rhizomeswoul dbecompar ableto" st ems"i nthef l
ower i
ngpl ants.Frondsar i
sefrom
ther hizome.I nsomeepi phy ti
cf erns( f ernsthatgr owont rees)andi nterrestr
ial
creepi ngf ernst herhizomer oamswi del yandi squi tevisi
ble.
Ther hizomecont ainst heconduct ingt i
ssues( xylem andphl oem)andt hestrengthening
ti
ssues( scl
er enchymaf ibres).Theconduct ingtissue, knownast hev ascularbundle,
carriest hewat er,
miner als,andnut rient st hr
oughoutt heplant .
Root s
Root sar eformedf rom t her hizomesorsomet i
mesf rom thest ipe.Ther ootsusuallydo
notdi v i
deoncet heygr owf rom t her hizome.Tr eef ernrootsgr owdownf rom t
hecr own
andhel pt hi
ckenandst rengt hent het runk.Ther oot sanchort hepl anttothegr oundand
absor bwat erandmi ner als.
Spor angi a
Thespor angiaar ether epr oduct ivest ruct ur
esoft hefernsandf ernalli
es.Theypr oduce
thedust l
ikesporesthatar ethe" seeds"bywhi chfer
nsar epropagated.Sev eral
sporangiagr oupedtoget herarecalledasor us.Mostfernshav ethei
rspor angiaont he
under si
deoft hef r
ond,arrangedi nanor ganizedpatt
ernusuallyassociatedwi t
hv einsin
thepinnule( l
eaf).Manyt i
mes( butnotalway s)thef
ernsprovideapr otecti
vecov ering
forthesor uscalledani ndusium.
Spores
The" seeds"oft hefernsandf ernall
iesarecal l
edspores.Normallytheyar eformedi n
groupsof four.Sporescont ainoildropletsandsomet i
meschl orophyllinthei
rnucl eus.

Adv
ant
agesandDisadv
ant
agesofFer
ns
Adv
ant
agesoffer
ns

Somef
ernsar
eedi
bleandhenceser
veasasour
ceoff
ood.

Theypr
ovi
denut
ri
ent
stot
hesoi
ltoi
mpr
ovesoi
lfer
ti
li
ty.

Theycov
ert
hesoi
landpr
eventsoi
ler
osi
on.

Theyar
eusedasdecor
ati
onmat
eri
als.

Di
sadv
ant
agesoff
erns

Theyhar
bourdanger
ousor
gani
smsl
i
kesnakesandi
nsect
s.

Somef
ernsar
epoi
sonouswheneat
en.

NUTRI
TION
Nut
ri
ti
oni
sthepr
ocessbywhi
chor
gani
smst
akei
nandusenut
ri
ent
s.
Nutr
ientsar
eanysubstancesthatnour
ishanorgani
sm.
Foodisanymater
ialwhentakeninabsorbedanduti
li
zedmeetr
equi
rementof
plantand
ani
mal body.

FUNCTI
ONOFFOOD

Oxi
dizedt
orel
easeener
gy

Usedi
ngr
owt
hofcel
l
s

Usedt
orepai
rlostcel
l
sandt
issue

Hel
pst
ofi
ghtagai
nstdi
seases.

TYPESOFNUTRI TION
Therear etwomai nty pesofnut ri
ti
on:autotrophi cnutri
ti
onandheterotrophicnutr
it
ion.
AutotrophicNutri
ti
on
Istheprocessbywhi chor ganismsmanuf acturet hei
rownfoodf r
om simpl ei
norganic
substancesl i
kecarbonandhy drogenusi ngei therli
ghtener
gy (
photosynthesis)or
chemical energy(
chemosy nt
hesis)
HeterotrophicNutri
ti
on
Istheprocessi nwhichor ganismsgetnut ri
ent sbyeatingotheror
ganisms
TheImpor t
anceofNut r
it
ioninLi v
ingThings
Outli
net heimportanceofnut r
iti
oninli
vingt hings

I
MPORTANCEOFNUTRI
TION

Pr
eventdi
seases

Hel
psgr
owt
handdev
elopmentofcel
l
s,t
issueandor
gans

I
thel
pst
orepai
rdamagedpar
ts

I
thel
pst
opr
otectt
hebodyagai
nsti
nfect
ionanddi
seases

Nut
ri
ti
oni
nMammal
s,
HumanNut
ri
ti
on
HumanNut ri
t i
onistheprovi
siontoobtaintheessent
ialnutri
ent
snecessar
ytosupport
l
ifeandheal th.
OR
Aresev er
al t
y pesoffoodsubstancesthatareneededbyt hehumanbodyforit
sproper
functi
oning?
Thebasi cfoodsubst ancesi
ncludeprotei
ns,car
bohydrates,l
ipi
ds,
vit
amins,mi
neral
s,
roughageandwat er.

DI
FFERENTTYPESOFFOODSUBSTANCESANDTHEI
RFUNCTI
ONSI
NHUMANBODY
PROTEINS
Thesearesubstances,whichcontainel
ementsoxygenandnitrogen.
SOURCEOFPROTEI NS
FoodssuchasMeat ,li
ver,
eggs,beans, mi
l
k,cheese,peas,
groundnutsandmushr
ooms
aregoodsourcesofprotei
n.
FUNCTIONOFPROTEI NS
Thefoll
owi
ngar ethefunctionofprotei
n

I
tisusedi
nbodybui
l
ding

Usedbybodyf
ort
issuegr
owt
handr
epai
rsuchasheal
i
ngofwoundsandr
epl
acement
ofski
n

Usedasasour
ceofener
gy,
especi
all
ywhent
hebodyl
ackscar
bohy
drat
esandl
i
pids

I
tenabl
esr
edbl
oodcel
l
stot
ranspor
toxy
geni
nourbodi
es

CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydr
atesaremainlymadeofcarbon,hydrogenandoxygen
SOURCESOFCARBOHYDRATES
Foodssuchasmai ze,ri
ce,
bananas,
potatoes,cassava,
wheat(br
ead,
cake)andy
ams
areri
chincarbohydr
ates.
FUNCTIONSOFCARBOHYDRATES
Thefoll
owingarethefunct
ionofcar
bohydrates

Theyar
echi
efsour
ceofener
gy

I
npl
ant
stheyar
est
oredasst
arch

I
nani
mal
stheyar
est
oredasgl
ycogen

LI
PIDS
Thesearecompoundsofcarbon,
hydrogenandoxy
gen.Theyarei
nsol
ubl
einwater
.
Li
pidsaremadeupoffatt
yacidandglycogen
SOURCESOFLI PIDS
Foodssuchasfish,
nut
s,seedoil
s,av
ocadosandoli
vesaregoodsour
cesofl
i
pids.
FUNCTIONSOFLI PI
DS

Li
pidsar
eusedasasour
ceofener
gy

Pr
otectt
heor
ganssuchashear
tandki
dney
s

VITAMINS
Vit
aminsarechemical
substancesi
nsmal lamountsthatareusedt
omai ntai
nthebody.
Vit
aminscanbegroupedint
ot wocategor
ies:water
-sol
ubleandfat
-sol
ublevi
tamins.
Fat-
Sol
ubleVit
aminscanbest or
edinthebody.Examplesoffat-
sol
ublevi
taminsare
Vit
ami nsA, D, EandK
Wat er-
Solubl eVi taminsar enotst or edi nt hebody .Vit
aminsBandCar ewat er
soluble.Vi
tami nBi sofv ari
ousf orms, namel yVitaminB1, B2, B6andB12.
SOURCES, FUNCTI ONSANDSI GNSOFVI TAMI NDEFI CIENCI ES
SI GNOF
VITAMI N SOURCE FUNCTI ON
DEFI CIENCY
Essent ialforthe
-Ni ght
for mat ionof
blindness-
Liver,Mi l
kCar rots,OrangeandYel lowmembr anesof
Vit
ami nA( Ret inol) Incr eased
Veget ables theey esand
riskof
ther espiratory
i
nf ections
tract
-Ber i
ber i-
Car bohy drates
Lossof
met abol i
sm of
Vit
ami n Leanmeat ,
li
v er,eggs, t
omat oes,y
east Appet ite-
all foodsand
B1(Thiami ne) extractsandbr ownr i
ce Muscl e
releaseof
cr amps-
ener gyt ocells
Hear tf ai
lure
-Cr acksand
Neededf or
sor es
met abol i
sm of
Vit
ami n Liver,
meat ,
whol egrain,
cereals,
yeast ar oundt he
all foodsand
B2(Ribof l
avin) extracts mout hand
releaseener gy
nose-Vi sual
tocel l
s
pr oblems
-Ner ve
i
r ritabili
ty-
Essent ialin
Vit
ami n Meat ,
v egetabl es,yeast Sor esint he
pr ot ei
n
B6(Py ri
doxine) extracts,whol egr aincer eal
s mout hand
met abol i
sm
ey es-
Anaemi a
Bui ldsgenet ic -Anaemi a-
Vit
ami n
mat erials,help Ner ve
B12( Cyanocobal amiFi sh,meat ,eggs, mi l
kandl i
v er
tof ormr ed damage-
n)
bloodcel l
s Wei ghtLoss
-
Incr easer esista
ntt odi seases. -
Impr ove
Pawpaw, Citrusf r
uits,
Fresh
Vit
ami nC( Ascor bic absor ptionof
Green,v egetabl es,tomatoesandpot at
Acid) i
r on. -Used
oes
i
nsy nthesi s
of col l
ageni n
thebonesand
gums
Vit
ami nD( Cal cit
er ol
)Eggy ol k,
mi l
k, oilf
ishandl i
ver Hel pst obuild -Ri cket si n
 children-
Ost eopor osi
andmai ntai
n
s( soft
teet
handbones
bones)i n
adul t
s
-Antioxidant- -Ner ve
Vi
tami
n Sunfl
oweroil
,butt
er,
brownri
ceand Prevents abnor mal it
ie
E(
Tocopher
ol) peanuts damageofcel ls-Infer t
il
ity
membr ane i
nr at
s
Def ective
blood
Neededf or
coagul ation
Vi
tami
nK Greenveget
ablesandliv
er normal blood
resultingin
clot
ti
ng
excessi ve
bleeding.
MI NERALS
Cer tainmi neral element sar ev italfort hepr operf unctioningofthebody .Somear e
requi redinrel ativelyl argequant it
iesandt her eforecalledmacr omi neral
sandot hersare
requi redinv erysmal l quant i
tiesandar er eferredt oasmi cr o
Macr omi neral si ncludecal cium, phosphat es, potassium, ir
on,zinc,sodium chlorineand
magnesi um.
Mi cromi neral si ncludei odine, fluoride, manganeseandcopper .
Exampl esofmi ner als, t
heirsour ceandt heirfunct i
oni nthebody
MI NERAL SOURCE FUNCTI ON SIGNOFDEFI CIENCY
-Hel psbui ldstrong
Mi lk,Cheese, eggs bonesandt eeth- -Weakbones-Bl eeding
Cal cium
andgr eenv eget abl es I mpor tanti nclott
ingof easi ly
blood
-Bui l
dsbonesandt eeth-
Meat ,Milk,Fish,Eggs -Poorboneandt eeth
Phosphat es Helpsi nmuscl eand
andnut s formation
nerveact iv
ity
Peanut s,
bananas, orangeNeededf ornerveand -Poormuscl e
Pot assium
juiceandgr eenbeans muscl ef unction contraction
Liv er,ki
dney ,
beansand Essent ialformaki ng
I
r on -Anemi a
gr eenv eget ables hemogl obin
Zinc Meat ,yeast Helpst oheal wounds -Skinpr obl
ems
ext ract sandcr ab
-Forner veandmuscl e
Sodi um Tabl esal t -Muscl ecramps
activit
y
Format ionofhy drochlori
c-Poordi gesti
onof
Chl orine Tabl esal t
acidi nthest omach protein
-Relaxat ionofner vesand-Muscl eweakness-
Spi nach, pumpki nseeds,
Magnesi um muscl es-St rengthening I r
regularheartbeat -
blackbeans
ofbones Weakbones
 -Anemia-Boneand
Copper Meat
,fi
shandl
i
ver Act
ivat
ionofenzy
me
j
ointpr
oblems
Kidneys,l
iver,tea,cof
fee, -Nausea-Di
zziness-
Manganese Formationofbones
nutsandf r
uits Lossofheari
ng
Productionoft hy
roid
Iodi
zedt ablesal tand -Goitr
e( enlar
ged
Iodi
ne hormoneswhi chregulat
e
seafood thyr
oidgl and)
growth
ROUGHAGE
-Thisisdietaryfi
bert hatisobt ai
nedfrom thei ndi
gesti
blepartsofplants.
SOURCESOFROUGHAGE
Foodssuchasf ruit
s,beans, cabbage,spi
nach, cassava,andwhol ebakedpot atoesar
e
goodsour cesofr oughage.
FUNCTI ONSOFROUGHAGE
Ithel
psint hepassageoff oodandf ecesthrought hegutbyaidingcontract i
onofthe
gutmuscl es
WATER
Thisisacompoundcont aini
ngel ementhydrogenandoxy gen
SOURCESOFWATER
Rainf
all,
Rivers,Springset c.
FUNCTI ONSOFWATER

Usedi
ndi
gest
ionoff
ood

Usedi
ntr
anspor
tofmat
eri
ali
nthebody

Usedassol
venti
nchemi
cal
react
ion

ABALANCEDDI ET
Meaningofbalanceddiet
:Abalanceddi etrefer
stofoodcontaini
ngallty
pesoffood
nutr
ient
sinthecorrectpr
oport
ions.Weshoul deatadietl
owi nfat
s,sugarsandsal
ts
buthighi
nprotein,
carbohydr
ates,vi
tami ns,miner
alsandroughage.Moreimport
antl
y
weshouldtakeinlargeamountsofwat er .

I
MPORTANCEOFABALANCEDDI ET
I
norderfort
hebodytofunct
ionpr
oper
ly,
dif
fer
entf
oodsubst
ancesar
erequi
redt
odo
di
ff
erentworksf
orexample:

Car
bohy
drat
espr
ovi
deener
gy

Vi
tami
nsneededt
okeept
hebodyheal
thy

Mi
ner
alsar
eneededf
orpr
otect
ionagai
nstdi
seases

Wat
eri
sauni
ver
sal
sol
vent

NUTRI
TIONALREQUI
REMENTSFORDI
FFERENTGROUPSOFPEOPLE
Thef
oll
owi
ngnut
ri
ti
onal
requi
rement

Expect
ant
s:Ther
edi
etshoul
dcont
ainmor
epr
otei
nandmi
ner
als(
Cal
cium (
Ca)andI
ron
(Fe)
)

Lact
ati
ngMother
s:Thei
rrequi
rement
sar
eli
ket
hoseofexpect
ant
sbuti
ngr
eat
er
amounttof
eedthebody

Chi
l
dren:
Requi
real
otofpr
otei
nsf
orgr
owt
handdev
elopmentofbodyt
issue.

Theel
derl
yPeopl
e:Theyr
equi
readequat
eamount
sofv
itami
nsandmi
ner
alst
o
maint
aint
hei
rheal
th

Sedent
aryworkers:
Theseareindiv
idualswhost ayi
nonepl aceforal
ongtimewhil
e
perf
ormingt
heirdai
lyoccupat
ionalacti
vit
ies.Duetothei
rli
festyl
eandoccupati
on,
obesi
tyi
sincr
easinglycommonamongt hem, theyl
imitt
heirint
akeoffoodri
chinl
ipi
ds.

Si
ckpeople:Theyneedspecialandpl
entyofnutr
ient
stohelprecovertheirhealt
h,t
hose
whohaveincurabl
ediseasessuchasHIV/AIDSshouldgetfoodthatwillhelpthem t
o
managethei
rconditi
ons.Theyneedtotakeplent
yoffrui
tsandwat er
.

NUTRI TIONALDEFI CIENCIESANDDI SORDERS

Malnut r
ition
Thisist hecondi ti
on, whi
choccur swhenonef ai
lstofeedonabal anceddi et
.Itmaybe
toolit
tleoreat ingonl yonetype.Thesedefici
enciesanddi sor
der sincludeobesi ty,
ri
ckets,kwashi orkor ,
mar asmusandanor exianervosa.
Nutrit
ional Disorders
Thesear econdi t
ionsofillheal
thinaperson, whichariseasar esultoflifestyl
e.
TheCauses, Sy mpt oms,Ef f
ectandContr
ol Measur esofNut r
it
ional Deficienci
esand
Disorders
Explaint hecauses, sympt oms,eff
ectandcont rolmeasuresofnut rit
ional defi
cienci
es
anddi sor der
s

CausesofMalnut
ri
ti
on
Theret
hreecauseofmal
nut
ri
ti
on

Eat
ingt
ool
i
ttl
e

Eat
ingt
oomuch

Eat
ingonet
ypeoff
ood

Ef
fect
sofMal
nut
ri
ti
on

Excessi
vef
eedi
ngcausesobesi
ty
Undernut
ri
ti
oncausesdef
ici
encydi
seases

CAUSES, SYMPTOMS, EFFECTSANDPREVENTI ONMEASURESOF

NUTRI TIONALDEFI CIENCI ESANDDI SORDERSI NHUMANBEI NGS
DISEASE CAUSES EFFECTS SYMPTOMS PREVENTI ON
-Poorgr owth
-Diar rhea
-Lossof
appet ite
-Paleski n
-Dryski n
-Consumpt i
onof
Shortageofpr otei
nin-Change
Kwashi orkor foodsr i
chin
diet colourand
protei
n
texture
-Body
becomes
weakand
stomach
protrudes
-Wei ghtl oss
-Slowed
-Lackofandequat e gr owt h
amountoff ood- -Decr eased -Get ti
ngadequate
Mar asmus I gnoranceofbal ancedactivity amount soffood-
dietpreparati
onof -Lackof Balanceddi et
food, f
oodhy gi ene ener gy
-Shr unken
buttocks
-Bowl egs-Knock-Prov idefoodri
ch
Lackofv it
ami n
knees-Anodd withv itamin
Rickets D,Phosphat esand
shapedskul- D,Phosphat esand
Calcium
Deformedspi ne Calcium
-Prov idedietwhi
ch
-Paininjoi
nts-
cont ainsfr
uit
s-
Scurvy Lackofv it
ami nC Stuntedgrowth-
Avoi dpr ol
onged
Bleedingums
cooki ng
-Prov ideiodi
zed
-Swel l
i
ngoft he
Goitre Lackofi odine saltand
thyroi
dgland
wat er(H2O)

DIGESTIVESYSTEM INHUMANBEI NGS

Thedigest
ivesyst
em ofhumanr
eferst
othehumanal
i
ment
arycanal
andt
heor
gans
andglandsassoci
atedwit
hit
.

THEMAI
NPARTSOFALI
MENTARYCANAL
Themainpart
sare:
-Mout
h,Esophagus,st
omach,
smal
lint
est
ine,
(duodenum and
i
leum)
,lar
geint
esti
ne(
col
on)andrectum.
ADAPTATIONSOFSTOMACHTOI TSMODEOFFUNCTI ON

St
omachhassphi
nct
ermuscl
est
opr
eventf
oodf
rom f
lowi
ngbacki
ntot
heesophagus

St
omachhasgast
ri
cgl
ands,
whi
chpr
oducegast
ri
cjui
cef
ort
hedi
gest
ivepr
ocess.

Al
soi
nthest
omachofay
oungbabyt
her
eisr
eni
nwhi
chcoagul
atesmi
l
k

St
omachshav
emucuswhi
chpr
otect
sitf
rom cor
rosi
onbydi
gest
iveenzy
mes

Ther
eishy
drochl
ori
caci
dfort
heemul
sif
icat
ionoff
atsandki
l
li
ngofbact
eri
a

ADAPTATI
ONSOFILLEUM TOITSFUNCTI
ONS
Thefol
l
owi
ngar
etheadaptat
ionsofi
l
eum t
oit
smodeoff
unct
ions:
-

I
thassecr
etor
ygl
ands,
whi
chpr
oducedi
gest
iveenzy
mes

I
tisconnect
edt
othel
i
verbyt
hebi
l
eductwhi
chenabl
ethebi
l
etor
eachi
l
eum

I
thasf
ingerl
i
kepr
oject
ionscal
l
edv
il
li
fort
heabsor
pti
onoff
ood

Thei
l
eum i
sver
ylongt
oensur
esuf
fi
cientabsor
pti
onsoff
ood

Thevi
ll
ihavel
argenet
wor
kofbl
oodcapi
l
lar
iesf
ort
ranspor
ti
ngabsor
bedf
oodt
oal
l
par
tsofthebody

Thei
nnerl
i
ningoft
hei
l
eum i
sfol
dedt
oincr
easet
hesur
facear
eaf
orabsor
pti
on

DIGESTI ONPROCESSI NHUMANBEI NGS

Digestionist heprocessbywhi chfoodisbrokendowni ntoaformt hatcanbeabsor bed
andusedbyt hebody .
Digestionpr ocessinvol
v estwoprocesses,whi
charemechani calbreakdownoff ood
andchemi cal br
eakdownoff ood.Themechanicalbreakdownoff oodt akespl aceinthe
mout hwher ethefoodischewedbyt eethsoastoreduceitint
osmal l
pi eces.
Digestiveenzy mesachi evechemicalbreakdownoffood.Thedi gestedf oodi s
absorbedandassi milat
edi nthebody.
Thedi gestionprocessst art
sinthemout hwherefoodismechani call
ybr okendownby
teet
h.Thepr esenceoff oodinthemout hsti
mulatesthesali
varyglandt opr oducemor e
sali
va.

FUNCTI
ONSOFSALI
VA
Hav
esal
i
var
yamy
laseenzy
met
hatconv
ert
sst
archi
ntomal
tose

Tomoi
stent
hef
ood

Topr
ovi
demedi
um f
orenzy
mer
eact
ions

Hav
emucust
olubr
icat
efoodf
oreasyswal
l
owi
ng

Sali
vaconsi
stsofSodi
um andCal
cium sal
ttoensur
eal
kal
i
nemedi
umf
oramy
lase
enzyme

DIFFERENCESBETWEENHUMANDI GESTIVESYSTEM ANDRUMINANTS’DIGESTIVE

SYSTEM
Ther umi
nant
s’di
gest
ivesy
stem di
ff
ersf
rom humandi
gesti
vesy
stem i
nthefol
lowing
way s:

Rumi
nant
shav
emor
eel
abor
atesy
stem t
oenabl
ecel
l
ulosedi
gest
ion

Thest
omachofr
umi
nant
shav
efourchamber
s(r
umen,
ret
icul
um,
omasum,
abomasum)

Thef
oodi
sregur
git
ated,
chewed,
andagai
nthenpassedt
oomasum.

DISORDERSANDDI SEASEOFTHEDI GESTI VESYSTEM

Theseincl
udediseasesanddisor
der
st hataff
ectteet
h,oesophagus,stomach,
smal
l
i
ntest
ineandlargeint
esti
nes
Examplesare:
-dentalcar
ies,
hear
tburn,ulcer
s,const
ipat
ionandflat
ulence.

Dent
alcari
es.t
hisi
scommonlyr
efer
redt
oast
oot
hdecay
.Itoccur
swhenbact
eri
a
dest
roytheout
erpartoft
het
oot
h.

HeartburnRefer
st otheburni
ngorpai
nfulsensat
ionint
heoesophagus.I
tiscausedby
regur
git
ationofhydrochl
ori
cacidi
nthestomachwhi chl
eadstothei
rri
tat
ionof
oesophagus.

St
omachulcersRef
erstothesor
einstomachl
i
ning.I
tiscausedbyer
osi
onof
st
omachwallduetoenzymereact
ions.

Const
ipat
ionRef
erst
othedecr
easei
nfrequencyoff
ormati
onofstool
.Itoccur
swhen
thest
oolbecomesdryandhar
dduetoexcessiv
ewater
absorpt
ioni
nthecolon.

Fl
atul
enceThi
siscausedbyexcessgasi
nthedi
gest
ivet
ract

SYMPTOMSOFDENTALCARI
ES

Toot
hache
Hol
esi
nthet
eet
h

CONTROLMEASURESTOCARI
ES

Regul
arbr
ushi
ngoft
eet
h

Damagedt
eet
hcanbef
il
ledwi
thar
ti
fi
cial
crown

Mi
nimi
zat
ionofi
ntakeoff
oodsr
ichi
nsugar

Av
oideat
ingv
eryhotorcol
dfoods

Hav
eregul
ardent
alcheckups

SYMPTOMSOFSTOMACHULCERS

Bur
ningpai
nint
hest
omach

Nauseaandv
omi
ti
ng

Ti
rednessandweakness

Bl
oodi
nvomi
torst
ool

CONTROLMEASURESTOSTOMACHULCERS

Medi
cat
ion

Av
oidsmoki
ng

Av
oidt
aki
ngal
cohol

Av
oideat
ingaci
dicf
oods

SYMPTOMSOFCONSTI
PATI
ON

Lackofbowel
mov
ement
sfort
woort
hreeday
s

Har
dst
ool
s

Theur
get
ogof
orl
ongcal
lev
enaf
tery
ouhav
ejustbeent
othet
oil
et

PREVENTI
ONOFCONSTI
PATI
ON

Eatenoughf
ibr
e
Dr
inkenoughwat
er

Exer
ciser
egul
arl
y

Seekmedi
cal
hel
p

CAUSESOFFLATULENCE

Swal
l
owedai
r

Eat
ingf
oodt
hatcausesgassuchasbeans,
cabbage,
mil
kandoni
ons

Poorabsor
pti
onsofcar
bohy
drat
es

SYMPTOMSOFFLATULENCE

Abdomi
nal
pai
n

Theconst
antur
get
opasswi
nd

Excessi
vebel
chi
ng

Accumul
ati
onofgasi
nthest
omach

PREVENTI
ONOFFLATULENCE

Av
oidf
oodst
hatpr
oducegas

Chewi
ngf
oodpr
oper
ly

Li
mitt
heamountoff
oodwhi
char
e

NUTRI TIONINPLANT,
Mineral r
equirementinPlants
EssentialMineralElementinPlantNutr
it
ion
Mentionessent ialminer
alelementinpl
antnutr
iti
on
Themi neralrequir
ementi nplantgr
owtharecategor
izedi
ntot
wogr
oups:

Mi
cronut
ri
ent
sormi
ner
als

Macr
onut
ri
ent
s

Macronutri
ent
sar
emi
ner
alst
hatar
erequi
redi
nal
argequant
it
yfort
hepl
antgr
owt
h.
Theyi
nclude
Nit
rogen,phosphorus,
potassi
um, sulphur
,sodium,magnesi
um, car
bon,hydr
ogen,
and
oxygen.
Micronutr
ient
s;thesearenutr
ient
st hatarerequi
redi
nsmal l
amountforthe
pl
antgrowth.
Theyincl
ude;ir
on,cobalt
,fl
uor
ide,sil
icon,
iodine,
copperandzink

THEROLESOFESSENTI ALELEMENTSI NPLANTNUTRI TION

Investi
gatether ol
esofessent i
al el
ement sinplantnutri
tion
Ther ol
eofessent i
almi neralel
ement sinplantnutri
tion
element r ol
e Deficiency
Proteinsynt hesi
sManuf actur
eof Leav esbecomepal egreen, yel
l
ow,
nitr
ogen chl orophyllPromot esnor malplant smal lleaves,thi
nweakst em and
growt h stuntedgr owth
Promot er ootandbr anchgr owth Poorgr owthofroots,
leavesand
phosphor usProteinsynt hesi
sandener gyrel
ease br anchesLeav esbecomer eddish
i
nr espirati
on puple
Useddur i
ngphot osy nt
hesisand Yell
owl eaveswithdeadspot s
Potassium
proteinmet aboli
sm i ny
oungerl i
eves especi all
yatmar gi
nsandt i
ps
Promot esnor mal plantgrowthand Poorr ootgr owthDeathofgr owi ng
Calcium
cellwallformat i
on regi
ons
Magnesi umManuf acturechlorophy l
l Yell
owi ngofl eaves
Stuntedgr owt hYel
lowpat cherson
Sulphur Pr oteinsynt hesi
s
l
eav es

Phot
osy
nthesi
s
Phot osynthesisisthepr ocesswher ebygr eenplantsmanufact
uret heirownf
ood
byusingl i
ghtener gyproducedf rom thesun.phot osynt
hesi
stakespl acein
plantsespeciall
yi nl
eav essoast omaket heirownf oodbythepresenceofdif
fer
ent
factors.
FACTORSFORPHOTOSYNTHESI S
Chlorophy l
l,corbondioxide,sunl
ightenergy,mineralsalt
s,t
emperatureand
wat er.
Equationf orphotosynthesis:
TheSt
ruct
ureoft
heLeafi
nRel
ati
ont
oPhot
osy
nthesi
s
Thepetioleorleafst al
kat tachestheleaftothebranchorstem.I tkeepsthelamina
i
npositi
ont hatwillenabl ei
tt ogetamaxi mum amountofsunl i
ght .Thelaminahas
al
argesur facearea, t
husmaxi mizestheabsorpti
onofli
ghtener gyand
carbondioxide.
Thel aminai salsothinsothatcarbondi
oxi
deandl ightenergydif
fuse
overashot dist
ancet or eachcells.
Themi dr i
bandv einscont ainxylem andphloem.Xy l
em vessel
st ransportwater
andminer alsal
ttothel eaf.Phloem vessel
stransportmanufacturedf oodtootherpart
s
oft
hepl ant.

ThePr
ocessofPhot
osy
nthesi
s
I
ttakespl
aceinsi
dethecellorganel
l
esknownaschloropl
asts.Phot
osy
nthesi
stakes
pl
aceintwostagest
helightstageandthedar
kstage.
TheImport
anceofPhotosynthesisi
ntheReal
Lif
eSituati
on

Al
lor
gani
smswhi
char
ehet
erot
rophydependonaut
otr
ophyassour
ceof
food.

Li
vingorgani
smsdependonoxy
genf
ort
hei
raer
obi
crespi
rat
ionpr
oduceddur
ing
photosy
nthesi
s

.Photosy
nthesi
sconv
ertl
i
ghtener
gyi
ntochemi
cal
ener
gywhi
chi
susedby
other
organi
sms

.Humansdependonphot
osy
nthesi
sfort
heener
gycont
aini
ngf
ossi
lfuel
whi
chhav
e
devel
opedov
eramill
i
onsofyear
.

PROPERTI
ESOFFOODSUBSTANCE

i
.Car
bohy
drat
es

Pr
otei
n

Li
pids

CARBOHYDRATES
I
sthekindoffoodsubst
ancenutr
ientsmadeupofcar
bon,
hydr
ogen,
and
oxygen.
Example:
cassav
a,maize,
riceet
c.
TYPESOFCARBOHYDRATES

Monosacchar
ide

Di
sacchar
ide

Pol
ysacchar
ide

MONOSACCHARI DE:
Monosacchar i
deisalsoknownassi mplesugar
.Theyincludegl
ucose, f
ructose
andgalactors.Thesesugarsdissol
v einwaterandform sweetsolut
ions.
Monosacchar i
dearereducedsugar.Thegeneralfor
mulaef ormonosacchar i
deis
(CH2O) n
Wher e“n”representsanumberofcar bonatomsandhav eav al
uebetween3&
6.Examplet heformulaeofglucoseis( C6H12O6)
DISACCHARI DES:
Thisistheki ndofcarbohydrat
ewhi chisformedwhent womonosacchar idemolecul
es
combi ne.
Twogl ucosemolecul
escombi netoform maltose.
(C6H12O6)+(C6H12O6)
condensation–C12H22O11+H2Osomedi sacchar
idearereduci
ngsugar
sexampl
e
l
actoseandmal t
ose, ot
herar enonreducingsugarexamplesucrose
POLYSACCHARI DES:
Isthetypeofcar
bohydratesf ormedbycondensat i
oninvol
ving
several
monosacchari
deExampl est
arch,chit
inetc
Properti
esofpol
ysaccharides:

Theyar
enotsol
ubl
einwat
er

Theyar
enonr
educi
ngsugar

.Theyar
enotsweet

Whenputi
nwat
ert
heyf
orm suspensi
on

COMMONREAGENTSANDCHEMI
CALSUSEDTODETERMI
NEFOODPROPERTI
ES
Identi
f ycommonr eagent sandchemi calsusedt odetermi nefoodPr opert
ies
TESTFORCARBOHYDRATES
PROCEDURE OBSERVATI ON CONCLUSI ON
Dissolv ethef oodsampl einwat er·Foodsampl edissolve·Colorchange
Reducingsugar
Addanequal amountofBenedi ctfr
om bl uetogr eentoor ange,yel
low
i
spr esent
soluti
ont othesol uti
on andf i
nall
ybr i
ckr ed
Dissolv ethef oodsampl einwat er
·FIZZING·COLORCHANGEFROM
toget solutionPut2cm ofa Nonr educi
ng
BLUE, GREEN,YELLOW, orangeand
soluti
onobt ainedinat estt ube sugarispresent
fi
nallybri
ckred
Add1cm ofHCLaci d
Boilthemi xtureAllowthemi xture
tocool Addsmal lamountof
sodium hy droxide,
shaket het est ·Fizzing·
Colorchangef rom bl
ue,
Nonr educi
ng
tubeaf terev eryadditi
onal greent oyel
lowt oorangeandf i
nal
ly
sugarispresent
continueunt i
l f
izzi
ngst opsAdd2br i
ckr ed
cm ofBenedi ctsolut
iont henboi l
themi xtur e
TESTBFORSTARCHAddsmal l
amountoff oodsampl esol ut
ion
Starchis
i
nat estf ood.Addf ewdr ops( 2- Col orchangef rom bluet oblack
present
3)ofiodi nesol uti
oninthef ood
sampl e

FOODPROCESSI NG,PRESERVATIONANDSTORAGE.
TheConceptofFoodProcessi
ng, FoodPreser
vat
ionandFoodStor
age
Expl
aint
heconceptoffoodprocessing,
foodpreser
vati
onandfoodst
orage
Foodprocessi
ngreferstoal
lthewaysinwhichfoodist
reat
edi
nor
dert
omakei
tedi
ble,
appet
izi
ngandsafet oeatortokeepitf
reshforalongt
ime.
Someofact i
vi
ti
esinvolv
edinfoodprocessi
ngare;

Pi
cki
ng,
sor
ti
ngandwashi
ngf
rui
tsandv
eget
abl
es

Cooki
ngbyboi
l
ingst
eami
ng,
roast
ingbacki
ngorf
ryi
ng

Conver
ti
ngrawmat eri
alsi
ntoot
herpr
oduct
sforexampl
emaki
ngcheer
sfr
om mi
l
kor
sugarf
rom sugarcane

FOODPRESERVATI ON
Foodpreser
vationrefer
sspecifi
cal
lyt
othemet
hodsoff
oodpr
ocessi
ngt
hatar
eusedt
o
prev
entfoodfrom spoil
ingorgoingbad
Methodsoffoodpr eser
v at
ion

Keepi
ngoutmi
croor
gani
smsf
orexampl
ebycanni
ngorbot
tl
ing

Usi
nghight
emper
atur
etoki
l
lmi
croor
gani
smst
hatcausespoi
l
ageeg.
Bypast
ural
i
zat
ion
andboi
l
ing

Usingveryl
owtemper
atur
etosl
owdownt
hegr
owt
hofmi
croor
gani
smsf
orexampl
e
ref
riger
ati
oni
v.

I
rr
adi
ati
onwhi
chi
sbyusi
ngr
adi
ati
onssuchasgammar
ayst
oki
l
lmi
croor
gani
smsv

El
i
mi nati
ngthemoist
uret
hati
sneededf
orgr
owt
hofmi
croor
gani
smf
ori
nst
anceby
dr
ying,sal
ti
ng,smoki
nget
c

Addingchemi
cal
ssuchassal
tsugar
,car
bonmonoxi
det
opr
event
phy
sical
changesi
n
food

FOODSTORAGE
Ref
erstothemethodsusedtokeeporreser
veoffoodforfut
ureuse.Foodstoragecan
bedoneonasmal lscal
eatthefami
lyl
evelf
orexampleinafamil
ygranaryorfoodstor
e.
Orl
argescalef
orlargepopul
ati
onse.
gingover
nmentstoresofgr
ains.

TheI
mpor
tanceofFoodPr
ocessi
ng,
Preser
vat
ionandSt
orage

pr
event
swast
ageoff
ood

i
tsav
esmoneybypr
event
ingspoi
l
ageoff
ood

mai
ntai
nst
hequal
i
tyoff
ood
pr
event
sthegr
owt
hofmi
croor
gani
smst
hatcancausei
l
lness

i
mpr
ovet
hef
lav
oroff
ood

r
emov
esar
mful
toxi
nsandmi
croor
gani
smsf
rom f
ood

makesf
oodav
ail
abl
eev
enwher
etheyar
enoti
nseason

enabl
estranspor
tat
ionofdel
i
cat
eandper
ishabl
efoodsuchasmi
l
kandf
rui
tov
erl
ong
di
stance

TRADI TIONALANDMODERNMETHODSOFPROCESSI NG,PRESERVI NGANDSTORING

FOOD
Dif
ferentiatebet
weentradi
ti
onal
andmodernmethodsofprocessi
ng,pr
eser
vingand
st
oringf ood
Theyar et womethodsoffoodpr
ocessi
ngandpr
eservat
ionwhichare;

t
radi
ti
onal
met
hods

moder
nmet
hods

TRADI TI ONALMETHODS
Thesear emet hodsusedt opr ocessandpr eservef oodwhi chdoesn’ tr equiretheuseof
technol ogy.
Thesear emet hodsusedt opr ocessandpr eservef oodwhi chdoesn’ tr equiretheuseof
technol ogy.Thef ollowingar et het raditi
onal way s.
CURI NG
Iti
nvol vesaddi tional ofsubst ancessuchassal t,sugar ,spacesandv inegart oanimal
foods, moi stmeatandf i
sh.Cur i
ngr emov eswat ermaki ngi t unav ail
abl eforthegr owth
ofmi croor ganism i talsoi mpr ovethet asteoff ood. Sausages, beconandcur r
iedbeef
aremadebycur i
ngmeat .
DRYINGI NTHESUN
Thusmet hodi susedt opr eser verice, maize,clov es, banana, beans, peas, meat ,fi
sh
etc.
Her ef oodi sl eftforlongt imeont hesuni nor dert or educei tsmoi sturecont ent.
Reduci ngt heamountofwat eri nfooddi scouragest hegr owt hof mi croor ganisms.Some
foodsuchasbananaandcassav aar ecuti ntosmal l
piecest ofast ent hepr ocess.
SMOKI NG
Smoki ngi st het raditi
onal met hodwhi chisusedt or educemoi st urecont entof f
oodt o
preventgr owt hofmi croorgani sms.Gr ai
ns, meat ,fishcanbedr iedsl owl yov erthe
smoki ngwoodf i
re
COOKI NG
Traditi
onal met hodsofcooki ngar esi mpl eandi ncl udeboi l
ing, steami ng,backing, i
nhot
hashandr oasting.Thesepr ocesseshel pt osof t
enf ood, i
mpr ovef lav orandpr eserve
food.Exampl epot atoes, bananas, andmai zecanbeboi ledbef orebei ngdr ied.
STORAGEI NGRANARI ESANDPI TS
Drygr ainsar est oredi ngr anarieswhi char eusual lyraisedabov et hegr ound. Thegr ai
ns
aresomet i
mesmi xedwithneem l
eafashorgroundnutsoi
ltofurt
herpr
eventatt
ackby
microorganisms.Granari
eskeepgrai
nssafefr
om insectsr
odentsandbir
ds.Example
harvest
edy ams,potatoesandcassavacanbestoredinlar
gepitsint
hegroundafter
dryi
ng.

ADVANTAGESOFTRADI
TIONALMETHODSOFFOODPROCESSI
NG
ANDPRESERVATI
ONANDSTORAGE

Theyar
esi
mpl
eandt
heycanbedonebymostpeopl
e

Theyusel
ocal
l
yav
ail
abl
emat
eri
alsandsi
mpl
etechnol
ogyt
huskeepi
ngcost
slow

Nohar
mful
chemi
cal
sar
eaddedt
othef
ood

Cur
ingandsmoki
ngadddi
sti
nctf
lav
or.

Mostmet
hodsdonotdest
roynut
ri
ent
s

DI
SADVANTAGES:

Foodcanbepr
eser
vedandst
oredf
ort
hel
i
mit
edper
iodoft
ime

Theyar
emanual
andt
husdi
ff
icul
ttoappl
yonal
argescal
e

Tr
adit
ionalmet
hodsarehi
ghl
yli
mit
edi
nthev
ari
etyoff
oodt
hatcanbepr
ocessed
pr
eservedandst
ored.

MODERNMETHODSOFFOODPROCESSI NGANDPRESERVATI ON
REFRI GERATI ONANDFREEZI NG
Ist het empor aryst or
ageoff oodatl owt emper atureofupt o4cent i
gradei nordert o
slowdownt hegr owthofmi croorgani sms.Fr eezingi nvolvesst oringfoodatv er ylow
temper atur esi nordert ost opt hegr owt hofmi cr oorganisms. f
rozenf oodcanbekept
formont hs.Foodt hatcanber efri
ger atedi ncludemi l
k, fr
eshf ruits,vegetables, juice
andbut ter.Fr eezingismost l
yusedf ormeat ,f
ish, fr
uitsandv eget abl
es.
PASTEURI ZATI ON
Thusmet hodofpr eser vationwasnamedaf t
eri tsinventorLoui sPast eur.Iti
nv olved
heat ingf oodt oav eryhi ghestt emper atur ef orashor ttimei nor dert okil
lthemi cro
organi smst hatcancausespoi lage.
Past eur i
zationmai ntainsthenut ri
entscont entand
fl
av oroff ood.Exampl esof f
oodt hatcanbepast euri
zedar emi l
kandf r
uityjuice.
CANNI NGANDBOTTLI NG
Int hismet hod, foodi spr eser v
edbyheat ingi tinai r
tightv acuum, sealedbot t
lesorcans.
Thecont aineri sfil
ledwi thf oodt hent heai ri
spumpedoutt oform av acuum.The
cont aineri sseal edandheat edt okill mi croor gani smsandenzy mesbutnotenought o
ov ercookt hef ood.Foodt hatcanbebot tledor cannedi ncludet omat oes, frui
ts, juice,
beef ,fishandpackedbeans.Bot tl
edor cannedf oodcanbekeptf ormont hsorev en
year s.
USINGADDI TI
VES
Thismet hodi nvol
vedt heuseofchemi calssuchassodi um benzoat e,
sodiumchl
ori
de,
andv i
negarar eaddedt ofoodt oslowdownt hegr owthofmi croorganisms.Thi
sis
commonl ydonet opr essurefishandmeat
DRYING
Foodisdr iedbyusi ngei t
herhotbl astofairfrom avacuum dr ayer.Aft
erdryi
ngt
hefood
i
st henseal edinmoi sture–pr oofcont ai
ners.
IRRADIATI ON
Isthemoder nmet hodwhi chinv ol
vet heuseofr aysofenergyt ost opthegr
owthof
microorgani smsinst oredfood.Exampl einonions,beansandpot atoes.Thismakes
foodlastlonger.Italsopr eventssprout i
nginonionsandpot atoes.

ADVANTAGESOFMODERM MOTHODS

Foodcanl
astf
ormanymont
hsandev
enay
ear

Moder
nmet
hodscanpr
ocess,
preser
ve,
andst
orel
argev
ari
etyoff
ood.

Theyar
eadv
ancedt
echnol
ogybusedi
nfastandcanhandl
ehugequant
it
iesof
food.

DI
SADVANTAGES;

Thechemi
cal
susedcanbehar
mful
ifeat
eni
nex
cess

Theseadvancedtechnol
ogyinvolvemeanswher
etheyar
eusedonl
yincer
tai
nar
easf
or
i
nstancer
efri
gerati
onrequi
reselectr
ici
ty.

Thepr
ocessusedf
orex
ampl
ecanni
ngandpast
eur
izi
ngr
equi
respeci
alski
l
ls.

Somet
imesnut
ri
ent
sar
elostt
husl
ower
ingt
henut
ri
ti
onal
val
ueoff
ood

DIFFERENCESBETWEENTRADI TIONALANDMODERNMETHODSOFFOOD
PROCESSI NGANDPRESERVATI ON
TRADI TIONALMETHODS MODERNMETHODS
Lesscost i
ful Highcostiful
I
tinvolvestheuseofadv anced
I
tinv olv
est heuseoflowtechnology
technol
ogy
I
tpr ocessesandpr eser
vesfoodf oral
i
mit
ed Preservesfoodf ormonthsandev
en
amountoft i
me years
I
tusesl ocalmater
ial
stoprocessand I
tuseschemi calstopr
ocessand
preservef oodIti
susedbymostpeopl e preserv
ef oodItisusedbyfewpeopl
e
I
tsel ecttypeoffoodtobeprocessedand
I
tisnotsel ecti
ve
preserved
BALANCEOFNATURE
Naturalenvi
ronmentismadeupofal ll
ivi
ngandnonl i
v i
ngthi
ngst hatoccurnatural
lyon
eart
h.Anor ganism l
ivi
ngany wher
einanyenv ir
onmenti saff
ectedbyt hethingsaround
i
tsuchasai r,water,
animals,pl
ants,
mi croor
ganism,stones,r
ock, soi
l,
cloudsandt he
sun.everyt
hingarounditinfactmakesi t
snaturalenvi
ronment.Itisimportantt
o
underst
andt hattheenvir
onmentincludesalll
ivi
ngthingsaswel lasnonliv
ingthi
ngs.

I
MPORTANTTERMS

Ecol
ogy:i
st hebr
anchofbi
ologyt
hatdeal
swi
thst
udy
ingi
nter
act
ionofor
gani
smswi
th
thei
renv
ironment

Popul
ati
on:
isthet
otal
numberofor
gani
smsoft
hesamespeci
esl
i
vingi
nacer
tai
nar
ea.
Exampl
ethenumberoffr
ogsi
napond

Communi
ty:t
hisr
efer
stothesum oft
otal
ofal
lpopul
ati
onofdi
ff
erentor
gani
smsl
i
ving
i
naspeci
fi
ccall
edhabit
at

Habi
tat
:isthespeci
fi
careawher
eanorgani
sm i
sfoundandadopted.i
.ei
tisan
appr
opri
atefort
hecertai
ncommuni
tyexampleanocean,
grassl
and,andapond

Ecosyst
em: r
efer
stoanat
ural
uni
tmadeupofl
i
vingandnonl
i
vingt
hingswhose
i
nteract
ion

BIOTICANDABIOTI
CCOMPONENTSOFTHEENVI RONMENT
Descri
bebi
oti
candabi
oti
ccomponentsoft
heenv
ironment
Therearet
wocomponent
sofenvi
ronment,
;

Bi
oti
c(l
i
vingt
hings)

Abi
oti
c(nonl
i
vingt
hings)

BIOTI
CCOMPONENT
Thesearel
ivi
ngcomponentsi
ntheenvi
ronmentsuchasani
mal
s,plant
s,f
ungi
,
andmicr
oorgani
sms.Theseor
ganismsint
eractt
oget
heri
nnumberofwaysandthese
waysofint
eract
ioni
ncl
udethefol
l
owing;

Compet it
ionThator
ganismsmustcompetef
orli
mit
edresour
cesinst
ruggl
eforl
if
e.For
anorganism t
osurvi
veinanecosy
stem i
tmustcompet
ewithpar
tnerf
ortheli
mit
ed
resources.

Pr
edat
ionI
sthesystem i
nwhi
choneorgani
sm ut
il
izetheotherasf
ood.Theeateri
sa
pr
edat
orwhil
etheeateni
sapreyandanumberofpredator
sandpreysregul
ateeach
ot
her

Sy
mbi
oti
crel
ati
onshi
pThi
siswher
ether
eisacl
oser
elat
ionshi
porassoci
ati
onbet
ween
organi
sms.thi
sassoci
ati
oncoul
dtakev
ari
ousf
ormsl
i
kemut
ual
i
sm,
commensal
i
sm,
andparasi
ti
sm

Adapt
ationAdaptat
ionhasenabl
edorganismstosur
viv
e.Theymaybeanatomi
cal
l
y
st
ruct
urall
yphysi
ologi
cal
lyorbehavi
oral
.Egsomeorganismsarepoi
soner
stot
hei
r
pr
edatorwhil
eotherswhil
eothersdevel
opwarmingcol
ourat
ion

ABIOTICCOMPONENTS
Thesei ncl
udenonl iv
ingorganismsthatarefoundi
necosyst
em.Exampleai
r
solar
,energy,soi
l,andnutr
ients.Gener
all
yabioti
ccomponent
sofanecosyst
em consi
st
ofphysicalenvi
ronmentandt heyareasfoll
ows.

Cli
maticfact
orSeveralchangeofcli
maticcondi
ti
oninf
luenceordeter
minet hesurvi
val
oforgani
smsi necosystem suchcondi
ti
onincl
udetemperatur
e,humidi
ty,
pressureetc

Aquati
cconditi
onChangesint
heaquat icenvir
onmentandthenat
ureofenvi
ronmenti
t
i
sselfdeter
minedbythetypeoforganism foundi
ntheareasuchachangesi
nclude
watercur
rent,
waveacti
on,sal
ini
ty,et
c

Li
ghtcondi
ti
onfact
orTheseaf
fectmuchplantpopul
ati
onwher
ephot
osy
nthet
ic
pr
ocessdependontheav
ail
abi
l
ityofl
i
ght.

Soi
lfact
or/
condi
ti
onThesear
eal
soadaphi
cfact
orsandt
heyi
ncl
udesoi
ltext
ure,
soi
l
st
ructur
eandsoi
lPH

Var
iousOrgani
sm i
nthei
rNatur
alEnvi
ronmentintheCommunity
I
denti
fyvar
iousor
gani
sm int
heirnat
uralenv
ironmenti
nthecommuni
ty

I
MPORTANCEOFNATURALENVI
RONMENT

I
tisasour
ceoff
oodt
oor
gani
sms

I
tpr
ovi
desshel
terandsecur
it
yforor
gani
sms

I
tal
l
owl
i
vingandnonl
i
vingt
hingst
oint
eract

I
tpr
ovi
desanappr
opr
iat
eset
ti
ngf
oror
gani
smst
orepr
oduceandi
ncr
easei
nnumber
.

INTERACTIVEOFORGANI SMSI NTHEENVI RONMENT

Way sinWhichLi
vingOrganismsInter
actwit
htheNonLi vi
ngComponentofthe
Envir
onment
Ident
ifywaysinwhichli
vi
ngorganismsint
eractwit
hthenonliv
ingcomponentoft
he
envir
onment
Thefollowi
ngaretheint
eracti
onoforgani
sm intheenv
ironment
Gr
oundwat
erandwat
erf
rom r
ainf
lowi
ntost
reamsandr
iver
s

Thest
ream andr
iver
sfl
owi
ntol
akesandocean

Waterevapor
atei
ntot
heat
mospher
efr
om l
akesandoceanandf
rom pl
ant
sthr
ough
t
ranspi
rati
on

Theev
apor
atedwat
erpr
eci
pit
atest
ofor
m wat
erv
aporwhi
chcondensest
ofor
m cl
ouds

Wi
ndcausescl
oudst
omov
eforexampl
efr
om abov
etheoceant
oabov
ethel
and

Rai
nfal
landabsor
bedbypl
ant
sorf
orm gr
oundswat
er,
andt
hecy
clebegi
nsagai
n..

THEINTERACTIONOFORGANI SMSAMONGTHEMSELVES
Expl
aint
heint
eract
ionofor
gani
smsamongthemsel
ves
I
NTERACTIONAMONGLI VI
NGORGANISMS

Compet it
ionThatorgani
smsmustcompet eforl
i
mitedresourcesinst
rugglef
orl
ife.For
anor gani
sm tosurv
iveinanecosystem i
tmustcompetewi thpart
nerforthel
imi
ted
resources.EXAMPLEl i
onsandleopardsbothhuntzebr
a,andsot heyarecompet
itors

Pr
edationIst
hesystem i
nwhi
choneorgani
sm ut
il
izetheotherasf
ood.Theeateri
sa
pr
edatorwhil
etheeateni
sapreyandanumberofpredator
sandpreysregul
ateeach
ot
her.e,gcat
seatmice

SymbiosisThisi
swherether
eisacl
oserel
ati
onshiporassoci
ati
onbetweenor
gani
sms
thi
sassociat
ioncoul
dtakevari
ousf
ormsli
kemut ual
i
sm, commensal
ism,and
parasi
ti
sm

Mutual
ism i
sarel
ati
onshi
pwheretwoorganismsbenef
iteachot
herf
orexampl
ethe
r
hizobi
um bact
eri
ainther
ootnodul
esoflegumesfixni
tr
ogenint
onit
rat
etoneusedby
t
heplant

Adapt
ation.Adaptati
onhasenabl
edorgani
smstosurvi
ve.Theymaybeanatomi
cal
ly
st
ruct
urall
yphysiologi
cal
l
yorbehavi
oral
.Egsomeorganismsarepoi
soner
stothei
r
pr
edatorwhileotherswhi
leot
hersdevel
opwarmi
ngcolorati
on

Commensal
i
sm i
stheinter
act
iont
hati
sbenefi
ci
alt
ooneor
ganism andisneut
ral
tot
he
ot
heror
gani
sm.Forexamplewhenabi
rdbui
ldsahol
eoranestinatree

Par
asi
ti
sm i
stheassociat
ionwher
eoneor
gani
sm benef
itwhi
l
etheot
heri
shar
med.E.
g
pl
asmodi
um thatcausemalar
iat
ohuman

FOODCHAI
NANDFOODWEB
TheMeani ngofFoodChainandFoodWeb
Explai
nthemeaningoffoodchainandfoodweb
FOODCHAI N
Isthesequenceofli
vi
ngthingsi
nwhicheachor
gani
sm i
sthef
oodoft
henexti
nthe
sequence.

1.Gr
ass→Zebr
a→Li
on

Mai
zepl
ant
→gr
asshoppe→r
Frog

→
FOODWEB
I
smadeofi
nter
connect
ingf
oodchai
ns
TheComponent
sofaFoodChai
nandFoodWeb
Producers
Areorganismst hatcanmanufact
uretheirownf oodforexamplegreenplant
sandgreen
bacter
ia
Pri
mar yconsumer s
Theyareor ganismsthatf
eedonpr oducersforexamplerabbi
ts,buff
aloandsheep
Secondaryconsumer
Theyareor ganismsthatf
eedonpr i
mar yconsumer
Decomposer s
Theseorgani smsfeedondeadmat terandbr eaki
tdownt her
ebyfacil
it
ati
ng
decomposi ti
on.Forexamplebact
eriaandf ungi

Differencesbet weenfoodchai nandf oodweb

Foodchai n Foodweb
1.Itconsi st softhesinglest r
aightpat hway 1.I tconsi stsofanumberof
throughwhi chfoodener gytravelsinan i
nter connect edfoodchainst hroughwhi ch
ecosy stem ener gytrav el
sinanecosy stem
2.Usual lymember softhehi ghertrophic 2.Usual lymember softhehi ghertr
ophi c
l
ev elfeeduponasi ngletypeofor gani sms l ev el f
eeduponmanyor ganismsofl ower
oflowert rophiclevel tr
ophi clev el
3.Isolatedorsepar atefoodchai ns 3.Pr esenceofcompl exfoodwebs
i
ncr easest heinstabi
li
tyoft heecosy stem i ncr easest hestabil
it
yoft heecosy stem
4.Itdoesnothav eanyef f
ectoni mpr oving 4.Mor ecompl exfoodwebsi mpr ovesthe
theadapt abi l
i
tyandcompet iti
venessoft he adapt abil
ityandcompet it
ivenessoft he
organi sms organi sms
Foodchai
nexampl
e

Gr
ass→cow→humanbei
ng

Phy
topl
ankt
on→f
ish→bi
rd

Foodweb
THESI
GNI
FICANCEOFFOODCHAI
NANDFOODWEBI
NREALLI
FESI
TUATI
ON
Expl
ainthesigni
fi
canceoffoodchai
nandfoodwebinreal
li
fesi
tuat
ion
Thefoll
owingarethesigni
fi
cantoff
oodchai
nandfoodweb

Foodchai
nsandwebshelpi
nthefl
owofener
gyfr
om pr
oducer
stoconsumersandf
rom
onetr
ophi
clevel
toanot
her,
wit
houtwhi
chener
gyfl
owwouldbeimpossi
ble.

Foodchai
nst
udieshav
ehadani mport
antr
oleinecot
oxicologyst
udi
es
tr
aci
ngpat
hwaysandbiomagni
fi
cat
ionsofenvi
ronmentalcontami
nant
s.

Learni
nghowt hefoodchai
nwor ksenabl
eust ounder
standtheimportance
l
ivi
ngorganismsthatmakeupthefoodchainandhowt heecologyisbalanced.Thi
s
i
scruci
alsinceanyint
err
upt
ioninfoodchaincoul
dleadtoecosystem i
mbal ance.

Foodchai
nsandwebsshowt
hef
lowofener
gyt
hroughanecosy
stem.

Under
standi
ngtheeff
ectofpol
lut
ingt
henat
uralenv
ironmentenabl
eustoav
oid
or
contr
olenvi
ronmental
poll
uti
onsoastomaint
ainnatur
alecosyst
ems.

Tr anspor tat
ionOfMat erial
sI nLiv i
ngThi ngs
Uni cellul
aror gani sms( forexampl eamoeba) ,
nut ri
ents( forexampl eoxy genandf ood)
andwast epr oduct s( f
orexampl ecar bondi oxide)cansi mplydi f
fuseintooroutoft he
cel l
sf rom thesur roundi ngs.Buti nmul ticel
lularor ganisms( f
orexampl ehumansand
trees) ,manycel l
sar ev eryfarawayf r
om t hebodysur face, henceat r
anspor tsystem i
s
requi redfort heexchangeofmat eri
als.
Or gani smsr equi ret r
anspor tsy stemssoast ocar ryoutv ariousli
feprocesses.These
l
ifepr ocessesi ncludenut r
iti
on, r
espi rat
ion,excr eti
on, growt handdev elopment ,
mov ement ,
repr oductionandcoor dinat i
on.Fort hesel if
epr ocessest otakepl ace,
transpor tofmat erial
si sinevitable.Mat er i
alsaret ranspor t
edei t
herfrom env i
ronment
i
nt ot heor gani smsorf rom onepar tofanor ganism t oanot her,andcanal sobe
transpor tedf rom anor gani sm intot heenv ironment .
Forexampl e,dur ingnut riti
onor ganismst akei nf oodsubst ancest hattheyneedt o
produceener gy,
gr owandcar r
youtot herli
feprocesses.Thesef oodsubst ancesmust
bet akeni nfrom theenv i
ronment .Thesamecaseappl iestoreproductionwhi ch
requirest hemov ementofgamet es(sexcel l
s)from t
hesexor ganst othear eawher e
fert
ili
zationoccur s.Therefore,t
ranspor tisveryimportantforthesurvi
v alandexi stence
ofli
v ingthings.
TheI mpor t
anceofMat er
ialsinLivingThi ngs
Outlinethei mportanceofmat eri
alsi nli
vingthings
Transpor tofmat erial
sisv eryimpor tantforthesurvi
val anddevelopmentofl iving
organi sms.Iftr
anspor tat
ionnev erexi st
ed, t
hennol i
feonear t
hcoul dbepossi ble.The
foll
owi ngi sanout l
ineofthei mpor tanceoft r
ansportofmat er
ialsinli
vingthings:

I
tfacil
it
atestheremov
al ofwast
emat
eri
alsf
rom t
heor
gani
sm’
sbody
,theexcessof
whichcouldhar
m anorganism.

Itensur
esthatessenti
almater
ial
slikeoxygen,
nutri
ent
s,wat
er,
hor
monesandmi
ner
al
salt
saresuppl
iedtothecel
lsandtissuesasrequi
red.

Itenabl
esessent
ial
substancestomovefrom onepar tofthebodytoanother
.For
example,
foodmanufact
uredbyphotosynt
hesi
si nplantleavesi
stranspor
tedfr
om
l
eav est
ootheror
gansoftheplantf
oruseorstorage.

Diff
usion, OsmosisandMass-f low
TheMeani ngofOsmosi s,Di
ffusi onandMass-Fl ow
Explaint hemeaningofosmosi s, di
ffusionandmass-f low
Lif
epr ocessesi norganismst akepl aceatt hecelllev el
.Ther ef
ore,i
tisnecessaryfor
substancest omov einandoutoft hecel l
s.Therear etwoway sthr
oughwhi ch
substancescanmov eacrosst hemembr ane.Mat erialsinliv
ingorganismsmov eby
dif
fusion, osmosisandmassf l
ow.
Diff
usion
Thisist hemov ementofmat erialsfrom ar egi
onofhi gherconcentrati
ont oaregionof
l
owerconcent r
at i
onunt i
lequil
ibr i
um oft wosidesi smai ntai
ned.Dif
fusioncanalsobe
defi
nedast hemov ementofionsormol eculesfrom t her egi
onofhigherconcentrati
on
tother egionoflowerconcent rat i
on,withoutinvolvinganyper meablemembr ane.A
dif
ferencei nconcent r
ati
onofasubst ancebet weent wor egi
onsisknownas
concent rati
ongradient.
Diagram showi ngdi f
fusi
on
Mat er i
alsar etransportedi nthebodysy stem oflivingt hi
ngsf rom theareawher ethey
areabundantt oar easwher etheyar elessabundant ,andt hisprocessormechani sm of
transpor tat i
onintheseani malsi st ermedasdi f
fusion.Di ff
usionoccur sinexchangeof
gasesl i
keox ygenorcar bondi oxidedur i
ngr espirationinani mal sandplants.Also,
diffusiont akespl acedur ingdist r
ibut i
onofnut ri
ent sanddi gest edfoodsi nli
ving
organi sms.
Osmosi s
Thisi sthemov ementofwat ermol eculesf rom ar egionofhi gherconcent rati
ont oa
regionofl owerconcent rati
ont hroughasemi -permeabl emembr ane.Apar ti
all
y-
permeabl emembr aneisamembr anet hatal l
owssmal lparti
clessuchaswat er
mol eculest opasst hroughi t,butnotl ar gerpar ti
clessuchassugarmol eculesandi ons
from sal ts.Exampl esofsemi -
permeabl emembr anesar ecellmembr anesandapi g’s
bladder .Thesemembr anesal lowt r
anspor t
ationofwat erthrought hem.I nspiteofthe
factt hatt heyallowt r
anspor tationofwat erthrought hem, theydonotper mitthe
passageofsugarorsal tmol eculesbecauset heyar esol ut
es.Osmosi soccurswhen
wat ermov esdowni tsconcent rationgr adientacr osst hesemi -permeabl emembr ane.
Ther efore, forosmosi st otakepl acet her emustbe:

t
wosol
uti
onswi
thdi
ff
erentconcent
rat
ions;
and

apar
ti
all
yper
meabl
emembr
anet
osepar
atet
hem.

Adi
l
utesol
uti
onhasahi ghwaterconcentr
ati
on,whi
l
eaconcent
rat
edsol
uti
onhasa
l
owwater
concent
rat
ion.Forexample,whensalti
sdi
ssol
vedi
nwater:

Al
i
ttl
edi
ssol
vedsal
tpr
oducesadi
l
utesol
uti
onwi
thahi
ghwat
erconcent
rat
ion

Al
otofdi
ssol
vedsal
tpr
oducesaconcent
rat
edsol
uti
onwi
thal
owwat
erconcent
rat
ion.

Di
agr
am ofosmosi
s
Massf low
Diffusionandosmosi soccur sv eryslowl yandcov ershortdistances.Inanimalsand
plants,mat er i
alsareusual lytranspor tedal ongdi stanceandi nlargequantiti
es.For
exampl e,foodnut ri
ent sf rom t hesmal li
ntestinehav etobemov edtocell
si nthe
extremi ti
essuchast oesandf i
nger s,wher ethenut ri
entmat eri
alshav etobe
transpor tedal ongdi stance.Ther efore,anef f
icientandfastmechani sm i
sr equiredt o
facili
tatet hismov ement .Thati swhenmassf lowcomesi n.
Massf lowi sthemov ementofmat erialsinlargequant i
ti
esandacr ossal ongdi stance
i
nt hebodyofanor gani sm duet odi f
ferencesi npressurebet weent hetwor egions.
Mat erialsinhi gherplant sandani mal sar emov edbyt hepr ocessofmassf l
ow.For
exampl e,themanuf actur edf oodi npl antleaveshast obemov edt oallpl
antpar ts,for
useorst or age,bymassf low.
Exper iment st oDemonst r atethePr ocessofDi ff
usion,Osmosi sandMassFl ow
Car r
youtexper i
ment stodemonst ratethepr ocessofdi ff
usi on,osmosisandmassf low

Demonstrati
onoft heprocessofdi ffusi
on
Takeabot t
leofper f
umeandmov et oonecor neroft
hecl assroom.Openabot t
leand
observewhathappens.Ther esultis,aft
eraf ewseconds, thewholeclassr
oom isfi
ll
ed
withasmelloft heperf
ume.Thi smeanst hatthemoleculesoft heperf
umemov esf
rom
theregi
onofhi gherconcent
rati
on( thebot t
le)toaregi
onofl owerconcentrat
ion(ai
r).
Thatiswhythesmel lisfel
tbyaper sonstandingseveral
met ersawayfrom t
hesource
oftheperf
ume.
Somei mportantprocessesthatinvolvediff
usionare:

Gaseousexchangei
nthel
ungsofani
mal
sandi
nthel
eav
esofpl
ant
s

Absor
pti
onofdi
gest
edf
oodi
nthei
l
eumThepr
ocessofdi
ff
usi
on

Remov
alofwestmat
eri
alsf
rom cel
l
s
Absor
pti
onofnut
ri
ent
sandoxy
geni
ntocel
l
s

Demonst rati
onoft heprocessofosmosi s
Procedure
Peelapot atoandcuti tasshowni nthediagram bel ow.Thenf i
llthedepressi
onwi t
h
bri
ne(concent r
atedsoluti
onofsodium chlori
de) .Leav ethesetupunt i
lthenextdayand
observewhathappenst othelevelofbri
neint hepot ato.
Result
I
nt hefoll
owi ngday,youwi l
lfi
ndthatthelevel ofbrinewi l
lhaverisenasshown.This
meanst hatwat erhasmov edf r
om thepotatot ot hebr i
nesolut
ioncausingthebri
ne
l
eveltoriseup.Thewat erhasmov edfrom ar egionofhi ghwat erconcentr
ati
on(the
potato)t
hr oughthecellmembr anesoft hepot atocel l
s(part
ial
lypermeablemembr ane)
totheregionofl owwat erconcent
rati
on( t
hebr i
ne).

TheDi f
ferencesbet weenDi ffusion,Osmosi sandMassFl ow
Outli
nethedi ff
erencesbet weendi f
fusi
on, osmosisandmassf l
ow
Diff
erencesbet weendi f
fusionandosmosi s
Diff
usion Osmosi s
Itisthemov ementofonlysolventor
Iti
sthemov ementofal ltypesof
wat erf
rom t
hear eaofthei
rhigher
substancesfrom theareaoft hei rhi
gher
concent r
ati
ontotheareaoftheirl
ower
concentrati
ont otheareaoft heirlower
concent r
ati
onthroughaparti
all
ypermeabl
e
concentrati
on
membr ane
Diff
usioncanoper atei
nanymedi um Osmosi soperatesonlyinali
quidmedium
Diff
usionisappl i
cabletoall t
y pes
ofsubsstances( soil
ds,l
iquidsand Itisappli
cableonlytosolv
entpartofasol
uti
on
gases)
Itdoesnotr equireanysemi - Asemi -
permeablemembr aneisamust
per
meabl
emembr
ane for
operat
ionofosmosis
Osmosisisdependentuponthedregr
ee
Iti
spurel
ydependentupont
hefree
ofr
educti
onoffreeenergyofonesolv
ent
energyof
thedi
ffusi
ngsubst
ance
overt
hatofanot
her
Ithelpsi nequal i
zingt heconcent r
at i
on
Itdoesnotequal i
zetheconcent r
ation
ofthedi ffusingsubst ancet hrougoutt he
ofsolventont hetwosi desoft hesy stem
availablespace
Turgorpr essur eorhy drostat
icpr essureOsmosi sisoppossedbyt ur goror
doesnotnor mal l
yoper ateindiffusion hy drostat i
cpr
essureofsy stem
Osmosi sisdependentupont hesol ut
e
Iti
snoti nf l
uencedbysol utepot ential
potential
Diffusionofasubst ancei smost ly
Iti
sdependentupont henumberofpar ti
cles
dependent ofthepr esenceofot her
ofothersubstancesdi ssolvedinal iquid
sust ances
Fact orslikewat erpot ential
,solute Factorsl i
kewat erpotenti
al,solute
potent i
alandpr essur epot enti
aldonot pot entialandpressurepotent i
alaffectosmosi s
affectdi f
f usion inali
vingsy st
em

TheRol esofDi ff
usion,Osmosi sandMassFl owi nMov ementofMat eri
alsinLivi
ng
Organisms
Explai
nt her olesofdi ff
usion,
osmosi sandmassf l
owinmov ementofmat eri
alsinli
ving
organisms
Mat er
ialsaret ransportedinthebodysy st
em ofl ivi
ngthingsfrom thear eawher ethey
areabundantt oar easwher et
heyar elessabundant ,
andt hi
spr ocessormechani sm of
tr
anspor tati
oni ntheseani mal
si ster
medasdi ffusion.Diff
usi
onoccur sinexchangeof
gasesl i
keox y
genor carbondioxideduringrespirati
oninanimal sandpl ants.Al
so,
di
f f
usiont akespl acedur i
ngdi
stribut
ionofnut r
ient sanddigestedf oodsinlivi
ng
organisms.

Thr
oughthepr
ocessofosmosi
s,nut
ri
ent
sgett
ranspor
tedt
ocel
l
sandwast
emat
eri
als
get
movedoutofthem.

Thepr essurewi t
hinandout sideeachcel l
ismai ntainedbyosmosi sasthisprocess
ensuresabal anceoffluidvolumeonbot hsidesoft hecel lwal
l
.Ifflui
dvol
umewi thi
na
cel
lismor et
hant hefl
uidvolumeout sideit,suchpr essurecouldleadthecellt
obecome
tur
gidandex plode.Ont hecont r
ary,i
ff l
uidv olumeout sidethecelli
smor ethanthefl
uid
vol
umewi thi
n,suchpressurecoul dleadt hecel lt
ocav ein.Bot
hcaseswoul dbe
detr
iment altonormalandheal thycellularfuncti
on.

I
tisvi
aosmosi sonl
ythatroot
sofplant
sareabl
etoabsor
bmoisturefr
om thesoi
l
andt
ranspor
titupwar
ds,towardst
heleavest
ocarr
youtphot
osynthesi
s.Pl
ants
wouldn'
texi
stwi
thoutosmosis;andwit
houtpl
ant
s,noot
herl
i
fecoul
dexi
stast
heyar
ea
vi
tal
linkoft
heenti
refoodchainofthepl
anet.

Wit
houtosmosis,i
twouldbeimpossi
bleforourbodi
estoseparateandexpeltoxi
c
wastesandkeept
hebloodst
ream f
reefr
om impuri
ti
es.Theprocessofblood
pur
if
icati
oniscar
ri
edoutbytheki
dneyswhichisol
atet
heimpurit
iesinthefor
m ofuri
ne.

Theref
ore,theroleofosmosisistwofol
d:i
thelpsmaintainastabl
einternalenvir
onment
i
nalivi
ngorganism bykeepingthepressur
eofinter
cel
lularandint
racel
lularfl
uids
bal
anced.Italsoall
owstheabsorpti
onofnutr
ientsandexpulsi
onofwast efr
om v ar
ious
bodi
lyorgansont hecel
lul
arlevel
.Thesearet
wooft hemostessent i
alfunctionsthata
l
ivi
ngorganism cannotdowithout.

Transpor tofMat erialsi nMammal s,t

heSt ructureoftheMammal ianHeart
TheExt ernal andI nter nalStructuresoft heMammal i
anHear t
Describet heext ernal andinternal st
ructuresoft hemammal i
anhear t
TRANSPORTOFMATERI ALSINMAMMALS
Mammal sar ethecompl exmul t i
cell
ularor ganismswhosebodi esar emadeupof
numer ouscel l
sandt issues.Int hiscase, diffusionaloneisnotenought oinsureef f
ici
ent
carry
ingoutofl i
fepr ocess.Ther efor
emammal shaveanelaboratetransportsystem
thati
smadeupoft hehear t
,bl
oodandbl oodv essel
.
Thest ructureoft hemammal i
anhear t
Thehear tisamuscul arorganaboutt hesi zeofacl osedf i
stthatfuncti
onsast he
body’scirculatorypump.I ttakesi ndeoxy genat edbloodt hr
ought hev ei
nsanddel iv
ersit
tothelungsf oroxy genat ionbef orepumpi ngi tintot
hev ari
ousarteri
es.Thehear tis
l
ocatedi nt het horaci ccav i
tybet weent het wol ungs.
Theext ernal structureoft hemammal ianhear tisasshowni nthelabell
eddi agr
am
below:
Themammal ianhear tisbroaderatt het opandnar roweratt hebot tom.Itisencl osedby
adoubl elay eroft oughandel asticmembr anescal l
edper i
cardium.Thesemembr anes
preventthehear tfrom ev er-
expandi ngwhenbeat i
ngv er
yf ast.Alsot heperi
car dium
secretsaf luidwhi chenabl est hemembr anest omov esmoot hl
yagai nsteachot her .
Thewal lsoft hev entricl
esar ethi
ckert hant hoseoft heaur icl
esbecauset hev entricles
pumpbl oodagr eaterdistancet hant heaur i
cles.Auriclespumpbl oodtothev entricles
whilethev entricl
espumpbl oodt otheot herpar tsoft hebody .
Thel ef
tv entri
cl eisthickerthant her ightv entri
clebecauset her i
ghtv entr
icl
epumps
bloodtot helungswhi lethel eftventri
clepumpsbl oodt other estoft hebodypar ts.The
heartconsi stsoff ourchamber s,r
ightandl eftatri
aandr i
ghtandl eftventri
cles.
Thefunctionsofeachpar tandt heassoci atedst r
uctur esareasf oll
ows:

Therightat
ri
um l
inkstot
heri
ghtvent
ri
clebyt
het r
icuspi
dval
ve.Thisval
ve
prev
entsbackf
lowofthebl
oodint
otheatri
um above,whent
hev ent
ri
clecont
ract
s.

Thelef
tatri
um li
nkst
othelef
tvent
ri
clebythebicuspi
dval
ve.Thisvalv
ealso
prev
entsbackf
lowofthebl
oodint
otheatri
um above,whent
hev ent
ricl
econtr
act
s.
Semi-l
unar(pocket)val
vesarefoundi
nthebl
oodvessel
sleav
ingtheheart(
pulmonar
y
art
eryandaorta).Theyonl
yall
owexitofbl
oodfr
om t
heheartthr
oughthesevessel
s
fol
lowingv
entricul
arcontr
act
ions.

Ventr
icl
eshavethickermuscul
arwall
sthanatr
ia.Wheneachat
ri
um cont
racts,
itonl
y
needstopr
opelthebloodashortdi
stancei
ntoeachvent
ri
clewhi
lev
entri
clespump
bl
oodt odi
stant
bodypar t
s.

Theleftvent
ri
clehaseventhi
ckermuscul
arwal l
sthantherightventr
icle.Thel
eft
ventr
icl
eneedsamor epowerf
ulcontr
acti
ont opropelbl
oodt othesystemiccir
cul
ati
on
(al
lofthebodyapartf
rom t
helungs)
.Therightventr
icl
epropelsbloodtot henear
by
l
ungs.So, t
hecontr
act
iondoesnotneedtobesopower ful
.

I
NTERNALSTRUCTUREOFTHEMAMMALI
ANHEART

Thehearthassever
alval
ves.Andthesev
alv
eshav
efl
apst
hatensur
ethatbl
oodf
lows
i
nonedi r
ecti
ononly.
Thesevalv
esincl
udethefol
lowing:

Thet
ri
cuspi
dval
ve;
foundbet
weent
her
ightaur
icl
eandr
ightv
ent
ri
cle

Thebi
cuspi
dval
ve:
foundbet
weenl
eftaur
icl
eandl
eftv
ent
ri
cle

Semi-l
unarv
alv
eswhi charel
ocat
edatthebasesofthepul
monar
yar
ter
yandaor
tat
o
prev
entbl
oodfrom f
lowingbacki
ntot
heventr
icl
es.

Thesev alveswil
lcl
oseifthebloodf l
owsback.Theval
vesareheldinplacebytendons
whichpr eventt
heflapsfr
om turninginsi
deout
.Theri
ghtandleftsi
desoftheheartare
separat
edbysept um whichisat hickmuscul
arwall
whichpreventsmixingof
oxygenat edanddeoxygenat
edbl ood.
TheFunct i
onsoft heExt ernal andI nternal Par tsoft heMammal ianHear t
Expl aint hefunctionsoft heext ernal andi nter nalpartsoft hemammal ianheart
Funct ionsofpar tsoft hemammal i
anhear t
Par toft he
Funct i
on
hear t
Thel ar gestar teryi nthebody ;itconduct sfreshl yoxy genatedbloodfr
om
Aor ta
thehear tt othet issues.
Super i
orv ena Lar gev eint hatbr ingsdeoxy genat edbloodf rom t heupperpar t
softhe
cav a bodyt ot her i
ghtat ri
um
Inferiorv ena Lar gev eint hatbr ingsdeoxy genat edbloodf rom l owerr egionsof
cav a thebodyt or i
ghtat r
ium
Pulmonar y
Car ri
esdeoxy genat edbl oodf rom t heri
ghtv ent ri
cl etothelungs
artery
Pulmonar y Bloodv essel t
hatcar ri
esoxy genat edbloodf rom t helungst othe
vein l
ef tatr
ium
Thischamberoft hehear trecei vesdeoxy genat edbl oodf r
om thebody
Rightat ri
um
(fr
om t hesuper iorandi nfer iorv enacav a).
Leftat rium Thischamberoft hehear trecei vesoxy genat edbl oodfrom thelungs
Locat edont her ightsideoft hehear tbetweent her i
ghtatri
um (RA)and
Tricuspi dv al
ve
ri
ghtv entr i
cle(RV)
Locat edont hel eftsideoft hehear tbetweent hel eftatri
um (LA)andthe
Bicuspi dv alve
l
ef tvent ricl
e( LV)
Rightv entri
cle Thechamberoft hehear tt hatpumpsdeoxy genat edbloodt othel
ungs
Recei vesbl oodf rom t helef tat ri
um andpumpsi ti nt
otheaor ta
Leftv ent ri
cle
fortranspor ttothebodycel l
s
Sept um Dividest her i
ghtandl eftchamber softhehear t

THEADAPTATIONSOFTHEPARTSOFTHEMAMMALI
ANHEARTTO
THEI
RFUNCTIONS
Thehear
tisadapt
edt
ocar
ryouti
tsf
unct
ionsbyhav
ingt
hef
oll
owi
ngf
eat
ures:

Thecar
diacmuscl
eisadapt
edt
obehi
ghl
yresi
stantt
ofat
igue.

Thehearthasal
argenumberofmitochondr
iaenabli
ngconti
nuoussuppl
yofener
gyt
o
thehear
tandnumerousmyoglobi
ns(oxygenstor
ingpigment
).

Thepr
esenceoft
hecar
diacmuscl
esenabl
est
hehear
ttobeatr
hyt
hmi
cal
l
y.

Theper
icar
dium whi
chsur
roundsandpr
otect
sthehear
tfr
om phy
sical
damage.

Per
icar
dial
flui
dwhi
chpr
event
sfr
ict
ionwhent
hehear
tbeat
s.

Theouterl
ayeroft
hepericardi
um at
tachestothebr
east
boneandot
herst
ruct
uresi
n
thechest
cavi
tyandthushelpstohol
dt hehear
tinpl
ace.
Bi
cuspidandt
ri
cuspi
dval
vesbet
weenat
ri
aandv
ent
ri
cleswhi
chpr
eventt
hebackf
low
of
blood.

Sept
um whi
chprevent
sthemixi
ngofdeoxy
genat
edbl
oodi
nther
ightandoxy
genat
ed
bl
oodint
hel
eftchambersoft
hehear
t.

I
tsownbl
oodsuppl
yforsuppl
yi
ngnut
ri
ent
sandr
emov
ingwast
e.

Thelef
tvent
ri
clehasthi
ckmuscul
arwal
ltopumpbl
oodatahi
gherpr
essur
etot
he
di
stant
bodyti
ssues,

Thehearti
ssuppl
iedwitht
hener
veswhi
chcont
rol
ther
ateofhear
tbeatdependi
ngon
thebodyr
equi
rements.

Bloodv essels
Bloodv esselsarei nt
ri
catenetwor ksofhollowt ubesthattr
anspor tbloodt hroughoutthe
entir
ebody .Thisisanessent i
al f
unct i
onasbl ooddeliver
sv al
uablenut ri
entst oand
remov eswast esfrom ourcell
s.Bloodv esselsar econstr
uctedoflay ersofconnect i
ve
ti
ssueandmuscl e.Thei
nnerbl oodv essell
ayerisf or
medofendot heli
um.I ncapill
ari
es
andsi nusoids,endothel
iumcompr isesthemaj ori
tyofthevessel.Ther earet hr
eetypes
ofbloodv esselsnamel yarteri
es,veinsandcapi l
lar
ies.Eachofthesev esselshasa
diff
erentstructureandf uncti
on.

TheBl ood
TheMaj orComponentsoft heBl
ood
Li
stthemaj orcomponentsoftheblood
Bloodi stheredfl
uidthatci
rcul
atesinourbloodvessel
s.Theav
eragehumanbody
containsabout4to5l i
tresofbl
ood.Bloodisclassi
fi
edasaconnecti
veti
ssueand
consistsoft womaincomponents:

Pl
asmawhi
chi
sacl
earext
racel
l
ularf
lui
d.

Thesol
i
dcomponent
,whi
char
emadeupoft
hebl
oodcel
l
sandpl
atel
ets

Thesol
idcomponenti
smadeupofbl oodcel
l
sexceptfort
heplat
elets,whi
char
eti
ny
fr
agmentsofbonemarr
owcells.
Thesol
idcomponentconsi
stsofbl
oodcel
ls(
cor
puscles)whi
chinclude:

Er
ythr
ocy
tes,
alsoknownasr
edbl
oodcel
l
s(RBCs)

Leukocy
tes,
alsoknownaswhi
tebl
oodcel
l
s(WBCs)

Pl
atel
ets,
alsoknownast
hrombocy
tes

Redbl
oodcel
l
s,mostwhi
tebl
oodcel
l
s,andpl
atel
etsar
epr
oducedi
nthebonemar
row,
thesoftfatt
ytissuei nsidebonecav i
ties.Thewhi tebloodcell
s( l
ymphocy tes)arealso
producedi nthelymphnodesandspl een,andi nthethymusgl and.
Withinthebonemar row, al
lbloodcell
sor i
ginatefrom asingl
et ypeofunspeci al
izedcel
l
call
edast em cell.Whenast em cell
di v
ides,itf
irstbecomesani mmat urer edbloodcell
,
whitebloodcell,orplatelet-
produci
ngcel l
.Thei mmat urecell
thendivides,mat ures
furt
her,andul t
imat elybecomesamat ureredbl oodcell,
whitebloodcell,orplatelet
.
Bloodcel l
s

Byvol
ume, t
hepl
asmaconst
itut
esabout55%ofwhol
ebl
ood,
andr
edbl
oodcel
l
s,
pl
atel
etsandwhi
tebl
oodcel
lsabout45%.
TheFuncti
onofMaj orBl
oodComponents
Expl
ainthefunct
ionofmajorbl
oodcomponents
Redbloodcell
s
Redbloodcell
s(RBCs)havetwomainfunct
ions:

Topi
ckupoxy
genf
rom t
hel
ungsanddel
i
veri
ttot
issuesel
sewher
e.

Topi
ckupcar
bondi
oxi
def
rom ot
hert
issuesandunl
oadi
tint
hel
ungs.

Erythrocytest ransportoxy genint hebl oodt hr ought her edpigmentcal l

ed
haemogl obi n.Haemogl obincontainsi ronandpr ot
einsj oinedtogreatlyincreasethe
oxy gencar ryi
ngcapaci tyoferyt
hrocy tes.Thehi ghsur facear eatovolumer ati
oof
erythrocytesal lowsoxy gentobeeasi lytr
ansf erredintot hecellsi
nthel ungsandoutof
thecel l
sint hecapi l
lariesofthesy stemi cti
ssues. Ery t
hrocy t
esarepr oducedi nsi
dered
bonemar rowf rom stem cellsattheast onishingr ateof about2mi ll
ioncel lsever
y
second.
Whi tebloodcel ls
Althought hewhi tebloodcel l
saccount sforonl yabout1%oft heblood, theyplaya
veryimport antr ol
eint hebody .Thei rmai nfunct ionist opr ot
ectthebodyagai nst
diseasepat hogens.Ther ear
etwoofwhi t
ebl oodcel ls,eachofwhi chpl ay saspecif
ic
roleinprot ecti
onoft hebody againsti l
lnessanddi sease.

Phagocy
tes:Engulfanddigesti
nvadi
ngbacter
iaandv
iruses(
pat
hogens)
.Iti
sthe
body’
smaindefenceagainstger
ms( micr
obes)
.

Lymphocy
tes:pr
oduceant
ibodi
eswhi
chneutr
ali
zeant
igensf
rom bact
eri
aorv
iruses.
They
kil
lmicr
obesormakethem cl
umptoget
her,t
oberemovedinthel
ymphglands.
Whitebloodcel
lsareproducedintheyel
lowmarr
owofthebone, spl
een,t
hymusand
l
ymphat i
csyst
em.
Pl
atelet
s
Pl
atelet
saresmallfragmentsofbonemar r
owcel
lsandarether
eforenotreal
l
y
cl
assifi
edascell
sthemselves.Pl
atel
etshavet
hefol
l
owingfunct
ions:

Secretev
asoconstr
ict
orswhi
chconst
ri
ctbl
oodv
essel
s,causi
ngv
ascul
arspasmsi
n
brokenbl
oodvessel
s.

For
mtempor
arypl
atel
etpl
ugst
ost
opbl
eedi
ng.

Secr
etepr
ocoagul
ant
s(cl
ott
ingf
act
ors)t
opr
omot
ebl
oodcl
ott
ing.

Di
ssol
vebl
oodcl
otswhent
heyar
enol
ongerneeded.

Di
gestanddest
roybact
eri
a.

Secr
etechemi
cal
sthatat
tractneut
rophi
l
sandmonocy
test
osi
tesofi
nfl
ammat
ion.

Secr
etegr
owt
hfact
orst
omai
ntai
nthel
i
ningsofbl
oodv
essel
s.

I
ngener al,t
hebloodpl at el
etsfunct
ionsinheali
ngoft hewoundswhent heski ngets
broken.Thisi
sachi evedbycl umpingtogetheroftheplatel
etstofor
m anetwor kof
mesh, hencebleedingi sstopped.
Plasma
Plasmai sthenon-cellularorli
quidporti
onoftheblood.Plasmai samixtureofwat er,
protei
ns,anddissolvedsubst ances.Around90%ofpl asmai smadeofwat er,alt
hough
theexactpercentagev ariesdependinguponthehy dr
at i
onlevel
softheindi
vidual.Blood
plasmahast hefoll
owi ngf unct
ions:

Pl
asmaservesasatr
anspor
tmedi
um f
ordel
i
ver
ingnut
ri
ent
stot
hecel
l
soft
hev
ari
ous
or
gansoft
hebody.

I
ttr
anspor
tswastepr
oduct
sder
ivedf
rom cel
l
ularmet
abol
i
sm t
otheki
dney
s,l
i
ver
,and
l
ungsf
orexcr
eti
on.

I
tfi
ght
sinf
ect
ionssi
ncei
tcont
ainsant
ibodi
es.

I
tisal
soatr
anspor
tsystem f
orbl
oodcel
l
s,andi
tpl
aysacr
it
ical
rol
einmai
ntai
ning
nor
malbl
oodpr
essure.

Plasmahelpstodi
str
ibut
eheatt
hroughoutt
hebodyandt
omaintai
nhomeostasi
s,
orbiol
ogi
calst
abi
li
ty,
incl
udi
ngaci
d-basebal
ancei
nthebl
oodandbody.
6.I
tcarri
esand
tr
ansport
ssomehor mones.

TheEf
fect
sofHI
VonWhi
teBl
oodCel
l
s
Explai
ntheef f
ectsofHI Vonwhitebl oodcell
s
TheHI VsinthebloodofaHI V-positi
vepersonattackthewhi t
ebloodcel l
s
(l
ymphocy tes)
.Thev i
rusesr
eproduceandi ncreaseinnumberwi thi
nt helymphocytes.
Thenthelymphocy tesburst
andr el
easemor evi
rusesinthebloodstream.Ther el
eased
vi
rusesattackmor e,newwhitecells.
Theat t
ackcontinuesinthatcycleuntil
manywhi te
cel
lsaredest r
oyed.Becausetherear eonlyafewwhitecell
slefttofightagainst
pathogens,thebodyimmuni t
yget slow.Oncet heimmuni t
yislowered,thebodyisoften
att
ackedbydi seasesandaper sonsuf fer
sfrom AIDS.

BloodGr oupsandBl oodTr ansf usion

TheConcept sofBl oodGr oupandBl oodTr ansf usion
Explai nt heconcept sofbl oodgr oupandbl oodt ransf usion
Humanbl oodcanbegr oupedi nt of ourbl oodgr oupsnamel ygr oupsA, B,ABandO.
Theywer ediscov er edi n1900and1901att heUni versityofVi ennabyKar lLandsteinerin
thepr ocessof t
ryingt olear nwhybl oodt ransf usi onssomet i
mescausedeat handat
othert imessav eapat i
ent .Thiscl assi fi
cat i
oni sbasedont het ypeofant i
gensi nther ed
bloodcel l
sandant ibodiesi nthepl asma.
Redbl oodcel l
shav epr oteins( ant igens)ont hei rsurface: A, BorAandB.Pl asma
hasant i
bodi eswhi chcancauseaggl uti
nat ion: ant i-
Aandant i
-B.
Serum i sbl oodpl asmawi thoutf ibrinogen.I tcanbest oredwi thoutcl otti
ng,andi sused
i
nt r
ansf usions.
Blood
Ant i
genAnt ibodi es Aggl utinat es
group
A A Anti-B Anti-Aser um
B B Anti-A Anti-Bser um
Anti-Aandant i
-B
AB AandBNone
serums
Anti-Aandant i-
O None Neitherser um
B
Consi dert het ableabov e.Peopl ewi tht ypeAbl oodwi llhavet heAant i
genont he
surfaceof theirredcel l
s( asshowni nt het abl e).Asar esult,
ant i-
Aant i
bodieswi llnotbe
producedby t
hem becauset heywoul dcauset hedest ructi
onoft heirownbl ood.
Howev er, i
fBt ypebl oodi sinjectedi ntot heirsy stems, anti
-Bant i
bodiesi ntheirplasma
willrecogni zei tasal i
enandbur st oraggl utinat et heint r
oducedr edcel l
si nordert o
cleanset hebl oodofal ienpr ot
ei n.
Individual swi t
ht ypeObl ooddonotpr oduceanyant i
gens.Ther ef or
e, t
heirblood
normal lywi llnotber ej
ect edwheni tisgi vent oot herswi t
hdi fferentbloodt ypes.Asa
result, t
y peOpeopl ear euni ver
sal donor sf ort ransf usions, butt heycanr eceiveonl ytype
Obl oodt hemsel ves.Thosewhohav et ypeABbl ooddonotmakeanyant ibodies.Their
blooddoesnotdi scr iminat eagai nst anyot herbl oodt y pe.Consequent l
y,theyar e
univer sal recei versf ort ransf usions, butt heirbl oodwi l
l beaggl utinat
edwhengi vent o
peopl ewi thev er yot hert y pebecauset heypr oducebot hki
ndsofant igens.
Bloodgr oupi ng
I
ti seasyandi nexpensi v et odet ermi neani ndi vi
dual'sbloodt ypef rom af ewdr opsof
blood.Thisi showbl oodt y ping/ groupi ngi ti
sdone: Aserum cont aininganti-
Aant ibodi es
i
smi xedwi t
hsomeoft hebl ood.Anot herser um wi t
hant i-
Bant i
bodi esismi xedwi tht he
remai ni
ngsampl e.Whet herornotaggl utinationoccur sinei t
hersampl eindicatest he
bloodt ype.For i
nst ance, i
fani ndividual '
sbl oodsampl eisaggl uti
nat edbyt heant i
-A
antibody, butnott heant i
-Bant ibody ,itmeanst hattheAant i
geni spr esentbutnott heB
antigen.Ther efore, t
hebl oodt ypei sA.
Rhesusf actor
Somepeopl ehav eanot herant igencal ledRhesusant igenont heirredbl oodcellswhi le
othersdonothav eit.Thosehav i
ngt hisant i
genar ereferredt oasRhesusposi ti
ve( Rh+)
andt hosewi thoutar eitar eRhesusnegat ive( Rh-).Rhant igenoccur sinredbl oodcel l
s
andRhant i
body occur sinbl oodpl asma.
I
fRhant ibodymi xeswi thRhant i
gendur ingbl oodt ransfusion, agglut i
nati
onwi ll
occur .
Rh+canst imulatet heRh-t opr oduceant ibodi estoactagai nstRh+ant i
gens.Howev er,
theRh-cannot stimul atet heRh+bl oodt opr oduceant i
bodi esagai nstRh- .Therefore, an
Rh+per soncanr eceivebloodf rom t heRh-donor .Thedonat edbl oodbel owi sgroupAB
rhesusposi t
ive(AB+) .

TheRel at i
onshi pbet weenBl oodGr oupsandBl oodTr ansf usion
Out l
inet her elati
onshi pbet weenbl oodgr oupsandbl oodt ransf usion
Bloodt ransfusion
Bloodt ransfusioni st het r
ansf erofbl oodf r om oneper son( donor )t oanot herperson
(recipient )
throughbl oodv essel s.Tr ansf usioni sdonet or epl acel ostbl oodduet o
i
llness, accident sorbl eedi ng.Thedonori st heper sonwhogi vesbl oodwhi l
ethe
recipienti stheper sonwhor eceivesbl ood.
Whenper f
ormi ngbl oodt ransf usionsi tisimpor tantt oav oidcombi ni ngcor r
esponding
antigensandant ibodi esbecauset heycauseaggl ut i
nat ionofr edbl oodcel l
swhichmay
l
eadt odeat hof ther ecipient .Aggl utinat i
oni st hecl umpi ngofr edbl oodcel l
s.Bl
ood
transf usionisonl ypossi bleifbloodgr oupsar ecompat ible.Bl oodgr oupcompat i
bil
it
ies
areasshowni nt het abl ebel ow.
Reci pientDonor
A BABO
A √ ×× √
B × √× √
AB √ √√ √
O × ×× √
Not e: at i
ck( √)meanscompat i
bleandacr oss( ×)meansi ncompat ible.
I
ndi vidual swi t
hbl oodgr oupABcanr eceivebl oodf rom i ndi vi
dual sofal l
bloodgroups
andar eknownasuni v ersal recipi
ent s.I ndividual swi thbl oodgr oupOcandonat eblood
toindi vidualsofal lbloodgr oupsandar eknownasuni ver sal donor s.
TheAdv antagesandDi sadv antagesf orBl oodTr ansf usi on
Explai nt headv ant agesanddi sadv ant agesf orbl oodt ransf usion
Adv ant agesofbl oodt ransf usions
Bloodt ransfusiondoessomuchf orpat i
ent sinneed.Thegi ftofl i
fei sdonat ed,t
ested,
processedandsentt ohospi tal
s’transf usi
onser vicedepar tment swher emor eimportant
wor ki sdonet oensur eiti scompat i
blewi t
ht her eci pient .
Bloodtr
ansf
usionhasanumberofadvant
ages.Thesear
esomeoft
hebenef
it
sthe
donatedbl
oodcanprov
idef
orpati
ent
sinneed:

Incr
easelowhaemoglobi
nlevels:l
owhaemogl obincancausedamaget obodyor
gans
andti
ssuesduetol
owoxy genlevel
s.Donatedblood,wit
hsuf f
ici
enthaemogl
obi
n,can
corr
ectthepr
obl
em oflowhaemogl obi
nlev
el ofthereci
pient
.

Hel
pstopbleedi
ng:
bleedi
ngmaynotbecontr
oll
edifpl
atel
etsand/orcl
ott
ingf
act
ors
ar
elow.Recei
vi
ngbloodwit
hhi
ghclot
ti
ngfact
orscansolvetheprobl
em.

Keepsthehear
tpumping:
lowbloodvol
umecanl
eadt
olowpr
essur
eandt
hehear
tmay
notbeabl
emaintai
ntheci
rcul
ati
onofbl
ood.

Helpwi
thser
iousbl oodinf
ectionswhenothermethodsfai
l
.Forexample,bl
ood
tr
ansf
usi
onmayser v easatreatmentmethodforpeopl
ewithsi
cklecel
lanaemi
aor
bl
oodcancer
(leukaemia).

Provi
deredcel
lsandpl
atel
etswhenthebonemarrowiscompr
omi
sedaswi
thbl
ood
cancer
s,bonemarr
owtr
ansplant
s,chemother
apy
,etc.

Pr
ovi
der
edcel
l
sandpl
atel
etsf
orpat
ient
swi
thbl
ooddi
sor
der
ssuchassi
ckl
ecel
l
.

Savesomeone’sli
fe:
peopl
ewhohavehadabiglossofbl
oodduetoanumberof
reasonscanhav
etheirl
i
vessav
edoncetheyr
ecei
vedonat
edblood.

Becausebloodtr
ansf
usi
oninvolv
esscreeni
ngofthedonor
’sbl
ood,
ifthedonorhas
anyheal
thprobl
em i
tcanbedetectedandhencet
reat
edbefor
egett
ingworse.

Di
sadv antagesofbloodtr
ansf
usi
ons
Al
thoughbl oodtransf
usi
onscanbeli
fe-
sav
ing,
theyar
enotwi
thoutr
isks.Thef
oll
owi
ng
ar
edisadvantagesofbloodtr
ansf
usi
ons:
Medicalreacti
ons:

All
ergi
creact
ion:
Thisi
sthemostcommonreacti
on.Ithappensduri
ngthe
tr
ansfusi
onwhenthebodyr
eact
stoplasmapr
oteinsorothersubst
ancesi
nthedonat
ed
bl
ood.

Feverreaction:Thepersongetsasuddenfev
erduri
ngorwit
hin24hour
sof
thetr
ansfusion.Headache,nausea,
chi
ll
s,oragener
alf
eel
ingofdi
scomfor
tmaycome
witht
hef ever.

Haemolyt
icreact
ions:
Inver
yrar
ecases,
thepat
ient
'sblooddest
roysthedonorred
bl
oodcell
s.Thisi
scall
edhaemol
ysi
s.Thi
scanbesev er
eandmayr esulti
nbleedi
ngand
i
nkidneyf
ail
ure.

Di
seases:
Ifpr
operscr
eeni
ngoft
hedonat
edbl
oodi
snotobser
ved,
itcan
causet r
ansmi ssionofdiseasesfrom thedonort ot her eci
pient.Examplesofsuch
transmi ssibl
edi
seasesar eHIVv i
rus,hepati
ti
s,andot herinfecti
ons.
Pat ientswhoar egiventoomuchbl oodcandev elophi ghbloodpr essure,aconcer
n
for peopl ewhohav ehear tdi
sease.
Pr ecaut ionstobeTakenDur i
ngBloodTr ansfusion
Out l
inepr ecaut
ionstobet akendur i
ngbloodt r
ansf usion
Bloodt ransfusi
onpr ecauti
ons
Cer tainpr ecaut
ionsandgui del
inesmustbeadher edt oinbloodt r
ansfusi
ontoensure
thesaf etyoftheprocedure.Thepr ecaut
ionsmayi ncludethef oll
owing:

Donat
edbl oodmustcaref
ull
yandt hor
oughlybescreenedf
oranyinf
ecti
ous
di
seasesbefor
ebeingtr
ansfusedtothereci
pient
.Thebloodshoul
dbescr eenedf
or
di
seasesli
kehepat
iti
sB,HIVv i
rus,
andallsexual
l
ytransmit
teddi
seases(STDs).

Thedonatedbl oodmustbemat chedwi t

hther ecipi
ent'sbloodtype,as
i
ncompat i
blebloodtypescancauseaser i
ousadv erser eacti
on(t
ransfusionreacti
on)
.
Bloodisi
ntr
oducedsl owlybygravit
yf l
owdir ect
lyi
ntot hev ei
ns(i
ntravenousinfusi
on)so
thatmedi
cal personnelcanobservethepatientforsignsofadv er
ser eacti
ons.

Dur
ingbl
oodtransf
usi
on,vi
tal
signssuchasbodyt
emper
atur
e,hear
trat
e,and
bl
oodpr
essur
ear ecar
eful
l
ymoni t
ored.

Somepat i
ent
smaygetasuddenf everdur
ingorwit
hin24hoursoft
het r
ansfusi
on,
whichmayberel
iev
edwithpai
n-r
elievi
ngdrugssuchaspanadol
,di
clof
enacor
paracet
amol.
Thi
sfeveri
sacommonr eact
iontothewhit
ebloodcel
lspresenti
n
donatedbl
ood.

BloodCi r
cul ation
BloodCi r
cul ationi nHumans
Describebl oodci r
cul ationinhumans
Bloodcircul ati
oni st hef l
owofbl oodf rom thehear ttoal lbodypar tsandbackt ot he
heart
.Bloodci rculationorci r
culat or ysystem, alsocal ledcar di
ov ascul arsyst
em, isone
ofthreemai nsy stemsi nhumanbodywhi chconsi stofor gansandt i
ssues.
Thecar diov ascularsy stemsofhumansar eclosed, sot hebloodnev erleavesthe
networkofbl oodv essel s.Butoxy genandnut r
ient sdiffuseacr ossbl oodv essellayers
andent erint ersti
tialfluid,whichcar riesittothet argetcellsandcar bondi oxi
deand
wastesi nt heopposi tedi rection.
Thehumanbl oodci r
culat i
onconsi stsoft woci rculationsnamel yt hepul monary
cir
culati
onandsy st emi cci r
culati
on.
Pulmonar yci rculation
Pulmonar yci rculationi st hemov ementofbl oodf rom thehear t,tothel ungs,andback
tothehear tagai n.Thi si sjustonephaseoft heov erallcir
culat
orysy stem.Inthistypeof
cir
culati
on, thebl oodf l
owsf rom t her ightventriclet othel ungsandf rom thelungst othe
l
eftaur i
cle.Int hepul monar yci r
cul ation,thebloodci rculatestoandf rom thelungs, t
o
rel
easet hecar bondi oxideandpi ckupnewoxy gen.
Int hepul monar yci rculation, bloodf rom al lbodypar ts( exceptt hel ungs)ent er st he
ri
ghtaur iclet hroughv enacav a.Fr om t her ightaur i
clet hebl ooddescendsi ntot her ight
vent ri
cl et hr ought hetricuspi dv alve.Whent hev ent riclecont racts, thebl oodi spushed
i
nt ot hepul monar yar teryt hat branchesi nt otwomai npar t
s: onegoi ngt othel ef tlung,
andanot hert ot her i
ghtl ung.Thef resh, oxy genat edbl oodr eturnst ot hel eftaur i
cleof
thehear tt hrought hepul monar yv ein.
Syst emi cci rcul ation
Syst emi cci rcul ationi st hef l
owofbl oodbet weent hehear tandt hebodypar t
s.I nt his
par ti
cul ar circulat ion, thebl oodf lowsf rom t hel eftv ent ri
clet odi ffer entpar tsoft hebody
andf rom22di fferentpar tsoft hebodyt ot her ightaur i
cle.Thesy stemi cci rculat i
on
suppl iesnour i
shmentt oal loft het issuesl ocat edt hr oughouty ourbody ,wi ththe
except ionoft hehear tandl ungsbecauset heyhav et hei rownsy stems.Sy stemi c
circulat ioni samaj orpar toft heov erall circulator y
sy stem.I nthisci rculation, thebl ood
circulat esi ntot hebody ’
ssy stems, br i
ngi ngoxy gent oal li
tsor gans, struct uresand
ti
ssuesandcol lectingcar bondi ox idewast e.
Thesy stemi ccy clebegi nswhent heoxy genat edbl oodcomi ngf rom t hel ungsent ers
thel eftaur i
cl e.Ast hechamberf i
ll
s, itpr essesopent hebi cuspi dv alv eandt hebl ood
fl
owsdowni ntot hel eftv ent ri
cle.Whent hev ent ri
clescont ractdur i
ngahear tbeat , the
bloodont hel eftsi dei sfor cedi nt ot heaor ta.Thi slar gestar t
eryoft hebodyi sani nch
wide.Thebl oodl eav i
ngt heaor tabr ingsoxy gent oal l t
hebody ’scel lst hrought he
net wor kofev ersmal l
erar teriesandcapi l
l
ar i
es. Theusedbl oodf rom t hebodyr et urnst o
thehear tt hrought henet wor kofv eins.Al loft hebl oodf rom t hebodyi sev ent ually
collect edi ntot het wol argestv eins: thesuper iorv enacav a, whichr ecei vesbl oodf rom
theupperbody , andt hei nfer i
orv enacav a, whichr ecei v esbl oodf rom t helowerbody
region.Bot hv enaecav aeempt yt hebl oodi ntot her ightaur icleoft hehear t.
Thepr ocessbywhi chbl oodpassest hrought hehear ttwi cebef orei treturnst ot he
otherpar tsof thebodyi scal leddoubl eci rculation.
TheI mportanceofBl oodCirculat
ioninHumans
Explaintheimpor t
anceofbl oodcircul
ationi
nhumans
I
mpor tanceofbl oodcircul
ation
Bloodcirculati
onisessentialforahealt
hybody.Bl
oodci
rcul
ati
oni
simpor
tantbecause
i
tfacil
it
atest hefol
lowingprocessest otakepl
acei
nthebody
:

Everycel
li
nthebodyneedst orecei
vedoxygenandnutr
ients.Bloodri
chinoxy
genis
senttot
hebodyorgans,
tissuesandcell
stonouri
shthem throughbloodcir
cul
ati
on.

I
tenabl
est
ranspor
tati
onofwast
epr
oduct
sfr
om bodyt
issuest
oexcr
etor
yor
ganssoas
t
oberemov
edf r
om thebody
.

Pr
otect
sthebodyagai
nstdi
seasesandi
nfect
ionst
hrought
hewhi
tebl
oodcel
l
s.

Faci
l
itat
esbl
oodcl
ott
ingt
opr
eventl
ossofbl
ood.

Mai
ntai
nsbodytemper
atur
ebydi
str
ibut
ingbodyheatev
enl
yfr
om t
hel
i
verandspl
een
t
oall
bodypar
ts.

Di
sorder sandDiseasesoftheHumanBl oodCir
culat
orySystem
Mentiondisorder
sanddi seasesofthehumanbl oodcir
culat
orysystem
Addit
ionalnotesondiseasesanddi sorder
softhecir
culat
orysystem:
Hypertensi
on
Highbloodpressure(hypert
ension)isdefi
nedashighpressure(t
ension)i
nthear
ter
ies,
whi charethev essel st hatcar r
ybl oodf rom t hehear tt ot her estoft hebody .
Bloodpr essurer eadi ngsar egivenast wonumber s.Thesy stol icbl oodpr essur e(thet op
number )
equalst hepr essur einthear teriesast hehear tcont ract s.Thedi ast olic
pressure( t
hebot t
omnumber )ist hepr essur einthear ter iesast hehear trelaxes.
Nor mal bl
oodpr essur eisbel ow120/ 80; bloodpr essur ebet ween120/ 80and139/ 89is
called"pre-hypertensi on,"andabl oodpr essur eof140/ 90orabov ei sconsi deredhi gh
bloodpr essure.
Compl i
cati
onsofhi ghbl oodpr essur ei ncludehear tdi sease, ki dney( r
enal)di sease,
hardeningof thear teries( atheroscl erosisorar ter
ioscl er osi s), ey edamage, andst roke
(braindamage) .
TheCauses, Sy mpt omsandEf fect sandCont rol/
Measur esoft heDi sorder sand
Diseasesoft heHumanBl oodCi rculator ySy stem
Out li
nethecauses, sy mpt omsandef fect sandcont rol /measur esoft hedi sor dersand
diseasesoft hehumanbl oodci rculator ysy stem
Causesandef fectsofdi seasesanddi sor der softhehumanv ascul arsyst em
Disease/ Effect s/
Descr ipti
on Causes
Disorder Sy mpt oms
Themanypossi ble
causesi ncl ude: 1.Hae
mor r hagi canaemi a-
duet ol ossof
blood2. I
ron-
def ici ency anaemi a-
duet oi nsuf f i
ci ent
iron, of tendue
tdiet ar y def iciency .
3.H
aemol ytic
anaemi ar esul tf rom Mai nsy mptoms
Ar educt ioni nthe t hei ncr eased are:·Excessi v
et i
r
quant ity dest ruct i
onofr ed edness·Br eathle
of(oxy gencar r
y i
ng)hbl oodcel lse. g. duet o ssnesson
1 Anaemi a aemogl obini nthe t oxi c exer ti
on·Pal l
or
bloodand/ orbelow chemi cal s,aut oi mmun( i
.e.lookingpal e,
normal quant it
yof i t
y ,t heact i
onof esp. onf ace
redbloodcel l
s. par asi tes, abnor mal andpal ms)·Low
for msof haemogl obinr esistancet oinfe
or abnor mal red
bloodcel ls.4.Anaemi a
canal sobecausedby
the
impai redpr oduct ion
ofr edbl oodcel ls, as
inl eukaemi a( when
redbl ood
cel lpr oduct ioni nt he
bonemar rowi s
 suppr
essed)
.
Ty pical
sympt omsi ncl ud
eshor t-
termdi scomf or t
suchasanache,
painor
ti
ght nessacr oss
Nar rowedcor onar y
thef rontof
arteriesbeingunabl e
thechestwhen
tosuppl yi
ncreased
orimmedi ately
bloodf l
owr equi redfor
followi ngexer t i
o
i
ncr eased
nor
phy sicalexertion.(The
Painaf terphy si
cal other situations
2 Angina arteriesmay hav e
effort i
nwhi ch
beennar rowedby
hear t ratei s
theaccumul ationof
i
ncr easede. g.
ather omat ouspl aque-
duet opani cor
see
an
ather osclerosis,below
argument .Other
.)
l
ess
commonef fect s
&sy mpt oms
areal sopossi bl e
e.g.si mi l
arpai n
whenorsoon
after eat ing.
Aneur ysmscan
causet hewal l of
thebl oodv essel
Ingener al
,causes
toweaken.
canbegenet i
cordue
Whenan
todi sease, e.g.1.a
aneur y sm get s
degener ati
vedi sease
bigger ther iskof
Balloon-likebulgeorasy phi l
iti
cinfect i
on-
rupt ur eincreases
Aneurysm swel l
ingint hewall causi ngdamaget o
.Thatcanl eadt o
ofanar tery themuscul arcoatof
sev er e
thebl oodv essel 2.a
haemor rhage( bl
congeni t
al
eedi ng)and
def i
ciency i
nt he
other compl icat i
muscul arwal l
ons-some
ofwhi chmaybe
l
ifet hr eateni ng.
Har deningof Highbl oodpr essur e Ar ter ioscl erosi s
3 Art
erioscl
erosi
s thearteries.(Art
eri
ol(alsoknownas (i
ncombi nat i
on
osclerosi sis hyper tension) withat her oscl ero
 sisor ot her wi se)
thehar dening canr educet he
ofarteriol
es.)Art
ery fl
owof
iswidel yci tedasa
wallsthicken, blood, hencet he
causeof ,or atl easta
stif
fenand suppl yof oxy gen,
cont ribut or yf act ort
o,
loseelasticit
y, nut r
ient set c.,to
thedev elopment
aprogr essivecondi
ti ti
ssuesi n
ofarter ioscl erosi s.
To
on theaf fect ed
reducer isk, keep
thattypically
worsens area.Ar ter ioscl er
bloodpr essur ewi t
hin
overtime osiscanaf fect
aheal thy range.See
unlessact ionis anyar teryi n
alsohowt o
takent oaddr ess thebodybuti sof
reducer iskof
itNot
. e: great est concer n
ather oscl erosi s
Healthy arteri
es whenoccur s
(below) .
arefl
exi bl
e i
nt hehear t
andel asti
c. (coronar yar ter i
e
s)ort hebr ai n.
Achr oni c
diseaset hat can
remai nasy mpt o
mat ic
fordecades.
Howev er,bl ood
fl
owi s
•Mul tiplef at t
y
restrictedand
plaques( consi stingof
event ual lyobst ru
e.g.chol est er ol
cted.Var ious
andt rigly cer ide) accu
compl icat ionsof
mul at eont hei nner
adv ancedat her o
wallsofar ter ies.To
Atherosclerosis sclerosi s
reducer isk: 1.Eat
(Atheroma) -a arepossi bl e.One
sensi bl y( seebal anced
4 commont ype oft hemost
diet)2. Don' tsmoke3.
ofart
eriosclerosi
s significantr i
sks
Take
(seeabov e) i
sofani nf ar ction
appr opr iat er egul ar
duet osof t
exer cise4.Mai ntai
na
plaque
healt hy bodywei ght5.
suddenl y rupt urin
Donot
g,causi ng
consumeexcessi ve
thefor mat ionof
alcohol
a
thrombus( blood
clot)t hat
cansl oworst op
blood
fl
owl eadi ngt o
deat hof
 thet i
ssuesf ed
byt he
artery .
Thr ombos
i
sofacor onar y
arterycancause
ahear t
attack( My ocar di
al
i
nf arct i
on) .The
samepr ocessi n
anar ter ytot he
brain
i
scommonl y
calledst roke. 6.
Cor onar ythromb
osisAt hr ombus
i
sabl ood
clot.Thr ombosi s
i
sacondi ti
on
i
nwhi ch
bloodchanges
from al i
qui di nto
aCor onar y
thrombosi s
canoccurduet o
the
accumul at i
onof
fattydeposi ts
(plaques) insi de
thear teries,
i
.e.ather oscl eros
i
s.The
har deni ngof
arteries
(arterioscl erosi s
)canal so
cont ribut et o
reducedCanl ead
toa
At hrombusis Coronarythrombosi s Canl eadt o
ablood canoccurduet ot he amy ocar di al
cl
ot .
Thrombosisis accumulationoffatt
yi nf arct i
on( hear t
Coronar
ythr
ombo
6. acondi t
ioni
nwhich deposit
s attack) .Sensat io
si
s
bl
oodchangesf rom (pl
aques)insidethe nst hatmi ght
al
iquidintoasol
id ar t
eri
es, beindi cat ionsof
state,pr
oduci
nga i .e.
atherosclerosi
s. cor onar y t
hr omb
 osisl eadi ng
tomy ocar di al
i
nfar ct i
oni ncl ude
:
·sudden
shar ppai n
behi nd
thest ernum
(breast bone) ·su
ddenshar ppai n
'
clot'(
thrombus).Cor
ont he
onar yt
hrombosi s
Thehar deningof l
efthandsi deof
i
st hecondi t
ion
arteries thechest ,that
i
nwhi ch
(arterioscl erosis)can mi ght spr ead
thethrombus
alsocont ri
but et o downt hel eft
i
sf ormedi none
reducedbl oodf low ar m·pai n
ofthe3
l
eadi ngt o radiat i
ngt owar ds
maj orcoronary
coronar ythrombosi s.t hej aw, ear ,
arteri
esthatsupply
handsst omach,
theheart.
ri
ght ar m·const r
i
cti
ngsensat ion
i
nt het hr oat
areadi fficul tybre
athing·sudden,
sev eredi zzi ness
and/ or faint i
ng, e
xper ienced
withpai n.
Theper son
might exper ience
prolongedbl eedi
Def i
ciencyofei ther
ngaf terany
oftwobl ood
i
njur ythat
coagul ationfact ors:o
causesan
Fact or
openwound.I n
VIII
(ant ihaemophi li
c
sev erecasesof
factor ),or oFact or
haemophi li
a
Bloodcl otsonlyver
yI X(Chr istmasf actor)·
7. Haemophi
l
ia theremaybe
slowly. Her edi t
ar y-
spont aneousbl e
sympt omsi n
edingi nto
mal es; maybe' carri
ed'
muscl esand
byfemal eswhocan
j
oint s.Tr eat ment
passi ttot heirsons
:Bleedi ng
without being
i
ncasesof
affect edt hemsel ves.
haemophi li
a
hasbeent reat ed
bytransf usi ons
 of
plasmacont ainin
gt he
mi ssingf act or ,
or
wi t
hconcent r at
e
dpr epar at i
onsof
Fact orVI IIor
Fact or
IXobt ainedby
freezingf r esh
plasma.
Effect s&
Thedi f f
er entt ypes
sy mpt omsal so
ofhaemat oma
dependont he
gener ally
typeof
hav edi ffer ent
Acol lect ion haemat oma: ·An
causes: ·An
oraccumul ati
on i
nt racrani alhaem
i
nt r
acer ebr al
haemat o
ofbloodout si
de atomami ght
mamaybeduet oa
8 Haemat oma theblood compr esst he
headi nj ury .
·A
vessel s,whi chmay brain
perineal haemat oma
clotformi ng andi ncrease
mayoccur duet o
aswel ling. pressur ewi thin
bleedi ngf r
om
theskul l·A
avagi nal tear
subdur alhaemat
orepi siot omy( cut)
omacanbe
duringchi l
dbi r
th.
l
ifethreat ening
Riskf act or s-r atherSy mpt oms
thandi rect causes- of haemor rhoids
i
ncl ude: ·excessi ve cani ncl ude: ·Bleeding
body (bri
ght redbl ood)
wei ght·pr olonged af terpassi nga
Haemor rhoids(
alconst ipat ione.g.duest ool ·Api l
e
socal l
ed'
piles'
) toinsuf fi
ci entdietarymov ingdown, out si
de
areswelli
ngscontfi
br e.
·pr olonged ofthe
aini
ngenlarged di arrhoea·l ift
ing anus( prol apse) ·a
9.
Haemo
andswol l
en heav y mucusdi schar ge
rr
hoi
ds
bloodvesselsin object sfrequent ly·prafterpassi nga
oraround egnancy–whi ch st ool ·itchi ness
therect
um and canpl ace aroundt he
anus. i
ncr easedpr essur e anus·sor eness
onpel vicbl ood andi nf l
ammat i
onarou
vessel s, ndt heanus· sensation
thoughhaemor rhoid ofbowel sst i
l
l
sof tendi sappear bei ngf ullandi n
afterthebi rth·age needofem
 (above50
years)
·family
hist
ory
ofhaemorrhoids
(genet
icpr
edisposi
ti
on)

TheLy mphat icsSy stem

TheConceptofLy mphat ics
Explaintheconceptofl ymphat i
cs
Thel ymphat icsy stem i sanet workoftissuesandor ganst hatpri
mar il
yconsist
sof
l
y mphv essel s,lymphnodesandl ymph.Thet onsils,
adenoi ds,spleenandt hy
musar eal
l
partoft helymphat icsy st
em.
Therear e600t o700l ymphnodesi nthehumanbodyt hatfi
lt
erthel y
mphbef orei
t
retur
nst ot heci r
cul ator ysy stem.
Thespl een, whi chi st hel argestlymphat i
corgan, islocatedont hel ef
tsideofthebody
j
ustabov etheki dney .
Thet hymus, whi chst oresi mmat urelymphocy t
esandpr eparesthem tobecomeact i
ve
Tcel l
s,islocat edi nt hechestj ustabovet hehear t
.
Tonsilsar elargecl ust ersofl ymphaticcellsfoundi nt hepharynx.
TheComponent soft heHumanLy mphat icSy stem
Descr i
bet hecomponent soft hehumanl y mphat i
csy stem
TheHumanLy mphat icSy stem
Funct
ionsofthel
ymphati
csyst
em
Thely
mphat i
csyst
em per
for
mst hef
oll
owi
ngf
unct
ions:

Removesexcessf
lui
dandwast epr
oduct
sfr
om t
hei
nter
sti
ti
alspacesbet
weent
hecel
l
s
andr
etur
nsiti
ntot
hebloodst
ream.

I
talsofunctionsi
ntransport
ingwhi
tebloodcell
stoandfrom t
helymphnodesint
o
thebones,
andant i
gen-pr
esenti
ngcell
s(APCs),suchasdendr
it
iccel
ls,
tothel
ymph
nodeswher eanimmuner esponsei
sstimul
ated.

Speci
allymphvessel
s(lact
eal
s)absor
bfatandfat
-sol
ubl
evi
taminsfr
om thesmal
l
i
ntest
ineanddel
ivert
hesenutr
ient
stothecel
lsoft
hebodywheretheyar
eusedbythe
cel
ls.

Pr
otect
sthebodyagai
nstger
ms.Ly
mphgl
andspr
oducel
ymphocy
teswhi
ch
produceanti
bodiest
hatf
ightagai
nstmicr
obes.Theyal
socont
ainphagocy
tes,
whi
cheat
deadwhi t
ecell
sandmicr
obesi nt
helymph.

TheCommonDi sor dersandDi seasesoft heLy mphat icSy stem

Ment i
ont hecommondi sor der sanddi seasesoft hel y mphat i
csy stem
Ther ear esev er al diseasesanddi sor derst hataf fectt hely mphat icsy stem.Thet wo
commondi sor der soft hel ymphat icsy stem ar el ymphoedemaandl y mphat icfi
lariasis
(elephant iasis) .
Lymphoedema
Lymphoedemai sachr onicswel lingoft hel i
mbscausedbyt heaccumul ationofl ymph
fl
ui dthat occur si fthel ymphat i
csy stem i sdamagedornotf unctioningpr oper l
y.Whi le
thel imbsar et ypical lyinvolved, thef ace, neckandabdomenmayal sobeaf fect
ed.
Thel ymphat icsy stem consi stsofaser iesofl ymphnodes( glands)connect edbya
net wor kof vessel s, similartobl oodv essel s.Fl uidsur roundi ngbodyt i
ssuesusual ly
drainsi ntonear by lymphv essel ssoi tcanbet ranspor tedbacki ntot hebl ood.Howev er
,
i
ft hel ymphv essel sar eblocked, thef lui
dcan' tber eabsor bedandwi l
l buildupi nt he
ti
ssue.
Sy mpt oms
Swel lingoft hel imbs( armsorl egs)i sthecommonsy mptom oft hisdi sorder.
Effect s
Unl i
keoedema, lymphoedemai sal ong- term condi tiont hatcancausedi scomf or t,pain
andal ossofmobi lit
y.
Elephant iasi s
Lymphat icf il
ar i
asi s,commonl yknownasel ephant iasi s,i
sapar asitici nfect i
ont hat
causesext remeswel li
ngi nt hear msandl egs.I tisapai nfulandpr ofoundl ydisfiguring
disease.Whi lethei nfectioni susual lyacqui redi nchi ldhood, it
sv i
sibl emani festations
occurl ateri nl ife,causi ngt empor ar yorper manentdi sabi l
ity.
Thedi seasei scausedbyt hef i
lar i
al wor m, whi chi st ransmi ttedf orm humant ohuman
viat hef emal emosqui towheni tt akesabl oodmeal .Thepar asit
egr owsi ntoanadul t
wor mt hatl i
v esi nt hel ymphat icsy stem ofhumans.
Sy mpt oms
Elephant iasi sist ypical l
ychar act erizedbyat hickeni ngoft heski nandsubcut aneous
ti
ssuet hat givesr iset ot hegr ossl yenl argedandswol l
enl i
mbst hatear nthecondi ti
on
i
tsname.I naddi tiont othechar act eristi
cswel ling,peopl ewi ththisdi sor dersomet imes
hav ebout soff ev erandheadache.
Cause
Thedi seasei scausedbyt hr ead- li
kenemat odewor ms, knownasf ilariae.The
l
ar vae( mi cr ofil
ar iae)oft hepar asi tear etakenupbyt hemosqui towheni tfeeds.When
thel arv aer eacht het hirdstageofdev elopment ,t
heyar eintroducedt oanewhost , who
thendev elopst hei nf ection.
Effect s

Fi
lari
ali
nfect
ioncancauselymphoedemaoft helimbs,geni
taldi
sease(hydr
ocele,
chyl
ocel
e,andswelli
ngofthescrot
um andpenis).I
talsocausesrecur
rentacut
eattacks,
whichareext
remelypai
nfulandareaccompaniedbyfever.
Thei
nfect
edpeopl
emayhav
ely
mphat
icandki
dneydamages.

Somet
imest
heswol
l
enl
i
mbsbecomei
nfect
ed.

Thei
nfect
edper
soni
sdi
sabl
edandcannotwor
ktoear
nhi
s/herl
i
ving.

Causes, Symptoms, Effect

sandPr ev
enti
onofDisordersandDiseasesoftheHuman
Lymphat icSystem
Explai
ncauses, sy
mpt oms,effect
sandprev
enti
onofdi sorder
sanddiseasesoft
he
humanl ymphat icsystem
Preventi
onandcont rol
Effect
ivetreatmentandpr eventi
veeff
ort
swoul
di nclude:

spr
ayi
ngi
nsect
ici
dest
oki
l
lmosqui
toes;

gi
vi
ngant
ibi
oti
cst
opr
eventorcont
rol
inf
ect
ion;

gi
vi
ngmedi
cat
ionst
oki
l
lmi
crof
il
ari
aeci
rcul
ati
ngi
nthebl
ood;

appl
yi
ngpr
essur
ebandagest
oreduceswel
l
ing;
and

sur
gical
l
yremov
ingi
nfect
edt
issue.

TRANSPORTATI ONI NPLANTS

Mat erialstobet ranspor tedacr osst hepl antbodyar ewat er, miner alsandf ood.Apar t
from t hesenut r
ient s,subst ancesl iket hehor monesal sohav etobet ranspor ted.The
transpor tofmat er ialstakespl acet hroughaspeci ali
zedt issuecal ledt hev ascul artissue.
Thet issuei smadeupofxy l
emandphl oem tissues.Xy l
em t i
ssuet ranspor tswat erand
mi ner al saltsf rom t hesoi ltoall partsof thepl ant.Phl oem t issuet ranspor t
s
manuf actur edf oodf rom thesi tesofphot osynthesi stoal lpartsoft hepl ant.
Inbet weent hexy lem andphl oem i st hev ascul arcambi um.Thecel lsofcambi um tissue
div i
det of orm anewxy l
em andphl oem.Ast hesecel l
sdi videandmul tiply
,thepl ant
i
ncr easesi tsgi rth.Thexy lem gr owsi nwar dfrom t hev ascul arcambi um whi let he
phl oem gr owsout war df r
om t hev ascul arcambi um.
Thear rangementoft hev ascul arbundl esint hest em, r
ootandl eafofdi cotandmocot
plant sdi ff
er sinanumberofway s.Thedi agramsbel owshowt hemannert heyar e
arrangedi nt her espect i
veor gans.
Thev ascul art i
ssuei nther ooti sar r
angedi nt hei nnerpor tionoft her oot,whichi scal l
ed
thev ascul arcy l
inder .Al ayerofcel l
sknownast heendoder missepar atesthev ascular
ti
ssuef romt hegr oundt i
ssuei nt heout erpor ti
onoft her oot .Theendoder misi s
excl usiv etor oot s, andser vesasacheckpoi ntf ormat eri
alsent eri
ngt her oot’sv ascular
sy stem.Awaxysubst ancecal ledsuber inispr esentont hewal l
soft heendoder mal cell
s.
Thi swaxyr egi on, knownast heCaspar ianst ri
p, forceswat erandsol ut estocr osst he
plasmamembr anesofendoder malcell
sinsteadofsl i
ppingbet weent hecell
s.This
ensurest hatonlymateri
alsrequir
edbyt her ootpassthrought heendoder mis,while
toxicsubstancesandpat hogensar egenerallyexcluded.Theout er
mostcel ll
ay erofthe
root’
sv ascularti
ssueisthepericycl
e,anar eathatcangi verisetolateral
roots.Indicot
roots,t
hexy lem andphloem arear r
angedal ter
natelyinanXshape, whereasinmonocot
roots,t
hev ascularti
ssueisarrangedinar ingaroundt hepith.I
n

I
nmonocotstems,t
hev
ascul
arbundl
esar
escat
ter
edt
hroughoutt
hest
em asi
ndi
cat
ed
i
nthef
igur
ebelow.

I
ndi
cotst
ems,
thev
ascul
arbundl
esar
ear
rangedi
nar
ingar
oundt
hepi
th.
Thearr
angementofvascularbundl
esint heleav
esofdicotsandmonocot
sdiff
ers.The
di
agramsbelowshowthedi f
fer
encesinar r
angementofthebundl
es.Canyounoti
cethe
di
ff
erences?Thexy
lem andphloem vesselsareencl
osedinabundl
esheath.
Component sofVascul arSy stem
Descr ibecomponent sofv ascul arsy stem
Thev ascul ar(transpor t
)sy stem inpl antsi smadeofv ascul arbundl es.Thev ascular
bundl esar emadeofxy l
em andphl oem whi char esepar at edbyawal lcalledv ascular
cambi um, of t
ensi mpl yshortenedascambi um ( seedi agr amsdi scussedi nt hepr evious
sect ion) .
Xy l
em
Itist hev ascul artissuethatt ranspor tswat eracr osst hepl antbody .Xy l
em ismadeup
off our di fferentt ypesofcel ls.Theyar etrachei ds,v essel s,xy l
em f ibr esandxy lem
par enchy ma.Of theseonl ytrachei dsandv essel sar einv olvedi nt het ranspor tofwat er
andmi ner als.
Trachei ds
Trachei dsar eelongat eddeadcel lst hathav esl opingendwal l
s.Thecav i
tyisempt yas
thecel lsar edead.Thewal l
sar ethickenedwi thamat erialcal l
edl igni nt oprev entthem
from col l
apsi ngaswat erist ranspor tedupt hepl ant.Theset hickeni ngsar eindi f
ferent
pat terns.Thecel lsarearrangedendt oend.
Vessel s
Vessel sar eal sodeadcel lst hathav ev ariousl ypat ternedt hickenedwal l
s.These
thickeni ngsar eduet oli
gnin.Thev essel sar ear rangedendt oend.Theendwal l
soft he
vessel sar eei therparti
all
yorf ull
ydi ssolved.Thi sresul tsi nthef or mat ionofl ongt ubes
thatcar rywat er.Thexy l
em v essel sandt r
achei dst oget herf orml ongt ubest hathav ea
nar rowdi amet er.Thust heyfunct i
onascapi l
laries( narrowt ubes)t ot ranspor twat er.
Phloem
Itisthevasculart
issuet hattr
anspor
tsorgani
csubstanceslikesucr
oseacrosstheplant
body .I
tismadeupoff ourtypesofcel
lsnamelysi
evetubes, companioncel
l
s,phloem
fibresandphloempar enchyma.Exceptforphl
oem f
ibres,al
ltheotherthr
eetypesof
cellsareli
vi
ng.Sievet ubesandcompanioncel
lsar
emai nl
yinvol
vedinthetr
ansportof
themat eri
als.
Sievetubes
Theyar etubesf ormedbycel lsthatar ejoinedendt oend.Theendwal lsoft hesecell
s
haveper f
orations.Themat uresi evet ubecel l
sar eenucl
eated.Thecy toplasm ofthe
sievetubecel lsiscontinuoust hrought heper f
orati
onsoftheendwal l
s.Thi shelpsinthe
tr
anspor tofmat eri
als.
Compani oncel l
s
Theyar esmal l
ercellsassoci atedwi ththesi evetubes.Theyhav edensecy t
oplasm and
elongatednucl eus.Theyar ei ncont actwi t
ht hesievetubecellt
hroughpor esinthewal l
.
TheFunct ionofVascul arSy stem inPl ants
Explai
nt hef unctionofv ascularsy stem inpl ants
Thev ascularsy stem ismai nlyresponsi blefort r
ansportat
ionofmat erial
swi thi
napl ant
body .
Thexy lem andphl oem t issuesar especi ali
zedtoperform dif
ferentfunct i
onsina
plantbody .
Functionsofxy l
em
Thexy lem funct i
onsi ntranspor t(
translocat i
on)ofmanuf actur
edf oodf r
om t heleaves
tothecellsoft heplant ,storageor gans, fruit
s,etc.
Functionsofphl oem

Pr
ovi
dessuppor
tforwoodypl
ant
s.

Tr
anspor
tswat
erandsol
utesf
rom r
oot
stoal
lpl
antpar
ts.
Absor ptionandMov ementofWat erandMi ner al SaltsinPl ant s
TheFunct i
onsofRootHai rsi nAbsor pti
onandMov ementofWat erandMi neral Sal t
sin
Plant s
Explai nt hef unctionsofr oothai rsi nabsor pt ionandmov ementofwat erandmi ner al
saltsi npl ant s
Wat erandmi neral uptakebyr oot s
Plant sabsor bwat erfrom t hesoi lthrought her ootandt ranspor titt othest em, leav es
andf l
ower s.Root shav er oothai rst hatareuni cel l
ular,thin-wal l
edout growt hsoft he
epiblema( ski noft her oot).
Ther oothai rsar ei nclosecont actwi ththet hi nf i
lm ofwat ersur roundi ngt hesoi l
particles. Ther ear emi neralsal tssuchasni trates, chlorides, sulphat es,phosphat es,etc.
,
dissol vedi nt hi
swat er.
Wat eri sabsor bedbyosmosi s, whi l
et hemi neral sar eabsor bedasi onsbyact ive
transpor t(transpor tagai nstt hel awofdi f
fusi on, byspendi ngcel l
ularener gy).Thecel l
membr anehast ranspor tpr ot einst hatal l
owt hei onst ocr osst hemembr ane.Thei ons
thenmov eupwar dt hrought hexy lem, t
ot hel eav esandot heraer ialpar tsoft hepl ant.
Thecel lwal lofeachr oothai risper meabl et owat erandmi nerals,buti tscel lmembr ane
andt hemembr anear oundt hev acuol earesemi permeabl emembr anes.Ther oothai r
cellst akeupmi ner al i
onsbyact ivet ranspor t .
Thiscr eat esaconcent r
at i
ondi ffer enceoft hesei onsbet weent her ootandt hesoi l
.
Now, thesoi l
solutionhashi gherwat ercont entt hant hecel l sapoft her oothai r.Hence,
wat erf rom t hesoi ldif
fusesi ntot her oothai r.Ther oothai rcel l
snowbecomet urgi d,
whi l
et headj acentcel l
soft hecor texhav elowerwat ercont ent .
Thisr esul tsi nt hedi ffusionofwat erfrom t her oothai rsint ot hecor ti
cal cells(seef i
gure
below) .
Af terpassi ngt hrought hecor ticalcel lsbyosmosi s, thewat erreachest he
endoder mi s( ti
ssuesepar atingt hecor texf rom t hev asculart issues) .Theendoder mis
forceswat erintot hexy lemt ubest hroughpassagecel ls.
Thepr essur ewi thwhi chwat eri spushedi ntot hexy lem t ubesoft her ooti scal l
edr oot
pressur e. Thewat ermov i
ngupwar dsf ormsacol umn, whi chi smai ntainedupt oa
certainhei ghtduet or ootpr essur e.
TheMov ementofWat erandDi ssol v edMi ner al Sal t
si nPl ants
Out l
inet hemov ementofwat eranddi ssolv edmi ner al saltsi npl ants
Upwar dmov ementofwat erwi thint hepl ant
Ther ear esev eral processest hatenabl et hewat ert omov eupapl ant .Thesepr ocesses
i
ncl uder ootpr essur e, t ranspirationpul l
,cohesi on, adhesi onandcapi llarit
y .
Rootpr essur e
Asl ongast hesoi li
sdamp, ther ewi llbewat ert akeni nbyt her oothai rs.Asmor ewat er
i
st akeni n, thewat ert hati salreadyi nt hexy l
em v essel willbepushedupt heplant .This
i
scal l
edr ootpushorr ootpr essur eandi thel pst opushwat erupt othel eav es.
Rootpr essur ei scapabl e,underi deal atmospher i
ccondi tions, ofpushi ngwat eroneor
twof eet abov et hegr ound.Si ncer ootpr essur ei snotst rongenought omov ewat erup
veryhi gh, anot herpr ocesscal l
edt ranspi rationpul lisneededt oenabl et hewat erto
cont i
nuemov ingupt hepl ant.
Exper iment stoDemonst rateTr anspi rationpul l,RootPr essur eandCapi llari
ty
Conductexper iment st odemonst r
at et ranspi rationpul l,rootpr essureandcapi l
l
ar ity
Transpi rat i
onpul l
Transpi rat i
oni sthel ossofwat ert hrought hel eav esandot herpar tsoft hepl ant.
Most t
ranspi r
at i
onoccur sthroughopeni ngs, cal l
edst omat a,ont heunder sideoft he
l
eav es.Ast ranspi rationoccur s, wat eri slost .Thi swat eri sr eplacedbywat erinthe
xylem v essel s.Thi scausesanupwar dpul l(transpi rat i
onpul lort r
anspi rationst r
eam)on
thewat eri nthev essel s.Thus, wat eri spul ledupt hrought hepl ant ,andmor eent er sby
ther ootst oreplacei t.
Cohesi on
Cohesi oni sthef or ceofat t
ract i
onbet weensi mi larmol ecul es.Tr anspi rationpul lis
possi blebecausewat ermol eculescl ingt oeachot herbycohesi on.Whenwat er
mol ecul escl i
ngt oeachot herast heymov eupt hest em andi nt ot hel eav es, t
heypul lup
mor ewat ermol ecul esupt hepl ant .Thispr ocess, howev er,isf aci li
tat edbyt ranspi rat i
on
pul lsincet hewat ermol ecul esl ostthrought ranspi rationi sbei ngr epl acedbymor e
wat ermol eculesabsor bedbyt her oots.
Adhesi on
Adhesi on
Adhesi oni st hef or ceofat tract ionbet weendi ff
erentmol ecul es.Aswat ermol ecul esar e
stuckt oget herbycohesi on, theent ir
ecol umnofwat eri nt hexy lem adher estot hesi des
oft hexy lem. I
ti ssai dt hatt hewat erinundert ensionast hecol umnmov esupt hexy l
em.
Att hesamet ime, thexy lem t ubenar r
owsbecauseoft het ensi on.
Cohesi onandadhesi onf orcesmai ntainacont i
nuouscol umnofwat eri nt hexy lem
vessel sf r
omt her oot st ot hel eav esofpl ant s.
Capi llar i
ty
Capi llar i
tyi sthet endencyofwat ertor iset hroughnar rowt ubes.Thel umenofxy l
em
trachei dsandv essel si sv er ynar rowandt hisenabl eswat ert or iset hroughi tby
capi llarity.Capi l
larityi sassi stedbyadhesi onandcohesi onf or ces.
TheConceptofTr anspi ration
Expl ai nt heconceptoft ranspi r ati
on
Tr anspi rationi stheev apor at ionofwat erf rom pl ant s.I toccur schi ef l
yt hrought he
l
eav eswhi letheirst omat aar eopenf ort hepassageofcar bondi oxi deandoxy gendur i
ng
phot osy nt hesis.
Tr anspi rational sooccur st hr ought hecut icleandl ent icels.Lent icel sar epor esi nt he
stemsof woodypl ant st hatal lowgaseousexchangebet weent heat mospher eandt he
i
nt ernal tissues.
TheSi gni ficanceofTr anspi rat ioni nPl ant s
Out linet hesi gnificanceoft ranspi rati
oni npl ants
Tr anspi rationi sofi mmensei mpor tancei npl antlifeasi tisofgr eatbenef i
ttot hepl ant.
Thef ollowi ngar et her easonswhyt r
anspi rationi si mpor tantinpl ant s.
Cool i
ngoft hepl ant
Thel eav esabsor bt her adi antener gy.Someoft hel i
ghtener gyi sut ili
zedi n
phot osy nt hesis.Ther esti sconv er t
edi ntoheatener gyr esul t
ingi nani ncreasei nleaf
temper at ure.Howev er, rapi dlossofwat eri nt hef orm ofwat erv apourf rom t heaer ial
par tsoft hepl antt hr ought ranspi rationbr ingsdownt hei rtemper atur e.Tr anspi ration
thuspr ov idesasi gni ficantcool i
ngef fectwhi chkeepst hepl antf rom bei ngov erheat ed.
Mi ner al transpor t
Mi ner al sal tsremai ndi ssol v edi nt hesoi l wat erandar eabsor bedbyt her oots.Mi ner al
s
thatar cabsor bedandaccumul atedi nthexy lem ductoft her ootmov eupandar e
distribut edi nt hepl ant byt het r anspi r
at i
onst ream.
Wat ermov ement
Theabsor bedwat eri st ranspor t
edf r
om r oot st oleav est hrought hexy l
em v essel s.Thi s
i
sgr eat ly i
nf l
uencedbyt ranspi rationpul l.Wat erlossduet otranspi rationr esultsi nt he
dev el opmentofl owwat erpot ent i
al i
nt hel eaft i
ssues.Thus, wat ermov esf rom t he
xy l
em v essel st ot hel eafcel ls.
Dev el opmentofmechani cal tissues
Gr eat eramountoft ranspi rat i
onhel psi nt hedev elopmentofmechani cal ti
ssuesi n
plant s.Thepl antsbecomeheal thierandmor ecompact ,thecel lwal lsbecomet hickand
cut i
nizedandt heplant sareabletor esisttheat tackoff ungi andbact eria.
Mai ntenanceoft urgidity
Transpi rationmai ntainsanopt imum degr eeoft ur gidi
tyi ncel l
s.Underf avourable
condi t
ions, pl
antsabsor bexcessamountofwat er,whi chi sgi v
enof fbyt r
anspirati
onto
mai ntaint heopti
mum t urgi
dityforbet t
ergr owt h.
Increaseoft asteoff ruit
s
Thesol utesinsidet hecellbecomemor econcent ratedwhent ranspirationisrapid.
Consequent l
y,
theconcent r
ationofsugarsol ut ioni nt hecel lsoff rui
tsi ncreasesand
fruit
st astesweet er
.
Wi lt
ing
Whent her at
eofev apor ati
oni shighert hant hatofabsor pti
onofwat erf r
om thesoil,
as
i
toccur sdur i
ngdr oughtcondi ti
ons, theplantwi lts.Wi lt
ingi sbenef i
cialwhenapl ant
cannotobt ai
nenoughwat ertor eplacet hatlostbyt hepl antt hrought ranspirati
on
becausei tcausest hecl osureofthest omat a( singul ar:stoma) .Thus, therateof
ev aporationisgr eatlyreduced.
Transpi rationasanecessar yev il
Transpi rationisanecessar yev i
lbecauseoft hef oll
owi ngf acts:-

Al
argeamountofabsor
bedwat
eri
slostdur
ingt
ranspi
rat
ionwhi
chi
shar
mful
topl
ant
s.

Unnecessarywast
ageofenergyt
akespl
acedur
ingt
hepr
ocessofwat
erabsor
pti
on
whichisl
ostduetotr
anspi
rat
ion.

Whenther
ateoftranspi
rati
oni
shi
ghinpl
antsgr
owi
nginsoi
ldef
ici
entinwater
,an
i
nter
nal
waterdef
ici
tdevelopsi
npl
ant
swhichmayaf
fectmet
abol
icprocess.

Manyxerophyt
esunder
gost
ruct
ural
modi
fi
cat
ionsandadapt
ati
onst
ocheck
t
ranspi
rat
ion.

Consi deringbot ht hebenef i

cialandhar mf ulef
fectsoft ranspir
at i
on,itmaybe
concl udedt hati tisdef init
elyadv antageousi nspiteofitsharmf ul consequences.
Factor sAf fectingt heRat eofTr anspirationi nPlants
Outlinef actor saf f
ect ingther ateoft ranspi r
ati
oni nplants
Ther ateoft ranspi rati
oncanbeaf f
ect edbybot hplantfeaturesandenv i
ronment al
factors.
Plantf actors
Thesepl antpar amet er shelpplant scont rolrat
esoft r
anspirati
onbyser v
ingasf ormsof
resi
st ancet owat ermov ementoutoft hepl ant.Theyi ncl
udet hef oll
owi ng:-
Rootsy stem
Plantswi t
hext ensiv er ootsystemsabsor bagr eatamountofwat erandt hereforemuch
wateri smov edupt hepl ant.Thus, pl
ant swi thextensiverootsy stemshav ehi gherrates
oftranspi rationthant hosewi thf ewr oots.
Sizeofl eav es
Apl antwi thbr oadl eav estendt olosemor ewat erthanthatwi thsmal l l
eav es.Thisis
becauset hebr oadl eav eshav elargesur facear easov erwhicht ranspirati
ont akespl ace.
Leafst ructure
Thest ruct ur eofal eafhasagr eati nf l
uenceont her at eoft r
anspi ration.Thef ol lowi ng
areanat omi cal struct ur esofal eaft hataf f
ectt her at eoft ranspi ration: -
Numberofst omat a
Stomat aar epor esi nt hel eaft hatal lowgaseousexchanget ot akepl ace, andwat er
vapourt ol eav et hepl ant .Speci alcel lscal l
edguar dcel l
scont rol eachpor e’sopeni ngor
closi ng.Somepl ant shav emanyst omat awhi l
eot her shav eaf ewst omat a.Themor e
thest omat a, thehi ghert her ateoft r anspi r
at i
onandv icev er sa.
Posi tionofst omat a
Plant swi thf ewst omat aont heuppersur faceoft hel eafexper iencesal ittle
transpi rat i
oncompar edt ot hosewi thmanyst omat aont hel owerl eafsur face.Thi sis
becauset heupper sur f acei shi ghlyst ri
ckenbydi rectsunl ighthencei ncr easi ngt her at
e
oft ranspi rat ion.
Epi der mal hai rs
Epi der mal hai ront hel eaft r apsat hi nlayerofst il
l aircl oset ot hel eafsur f ace.Fort he
wat erl ost from t hel eaft ogeti nt ot heat mospher e, ithast ocr osst hisr esi st antl ay erof
air.Thel ay ert huschecksexcessi vel ossofwat erf rom t hel eaf .Likewi se, thewat er
vapourf rom t hel eafi sal sot rappedbyt heepi der mal hai rs.Thi spr ev ent sf urtherl ossof
wat erv apourf rom t hel eav esandhencesl owsdownt her at eoft ranspi rat i
on.
Sizeofst omat al ai rspaces
Lar geai rspacesbet weent hecel lsoft hespongymesophy llandst omat a, called
subst omat al ai rspaces, i
ncr easet her ateoft ranspi ration.Smal l subst omat alai rspaces
reducet her ateof t
r anspi r
at ion.
Cut icle
Thecut i
cl ei st hewaxyl ay erpr esentonal l abov e-gr oundt issueofapl antandser v esas
abar rier towat ermov ementoutofal eaf.Becauset hecut iclei smadeofwax, iti sv ery
hy drophobi cor ‘
wat er -
r epel ling’.Ther efore, wat erdoesnotmov et hroughi tv eryeasi ly.
Thet hi ckert hecut iclel ay eronal eafsur face, t hesl owert het ranspi rat i
onr ate.Cut icle
thicknessv ar i
eswi del yamongpl antspeci es.I ngener al,pl ant sf rom hot , dr yclimat es
hav et hi ckercut iclest hanpl antsf romcool ,moi stcl imat es.I naddi ti
on, leav est hat
dev elopunderdi rectsunl ightwi llhav emucht hi ckercut iclest hanl eav est hatdev elop
undershadecondi t ions.
Env ironment al fact or s
Someenv ir
onment al condi tionscr eat ethedr ivingf orcef ormov ementofwat eroutof
thepl ant .Ot her sal t ert hepl ant’sabi li
tytocont rol wat erl oss.
Light
Plant st ranspi remor er api dl yint hel ightt hani nt hedar k.Thi si sl argel ybecausel ight
stimul atest heopeni ngoft hest omat a( mechani sm) .Lightal sospeedsupt ranspi rat i
on
bywar mi ngt hel eaf .
Phot osy nthesi soccur si nt hepr esenceofl i
ght .Ahi gherl ighti nt ensi t
yi ncr easest he
rateof phot osy nt hesi si nt heguar dcel l
s.Ast heguar dcel lsabsor bwat erf r om t hesoi l
forphot osy nt hesi s, theybecomet urgi dandhencet hest omat aar eopened, andhencea
higherr ateof transpi r ation.
Temper ature
Plant st ranspi remor er api dlyathi ghert emper aturesbecausewat erev apor atesmor e
rapi dlyast het emper aturer ises.At30° C, al eafmayt r anspiret hreet i
mesasf astasi t
doesat20° C.
Rel ativehumi dity
Rel ativehumi dityist heamountofwat erv apouri nt heai rcompar edt otheamountof
wat er vapourt hataircoul dhol datagi vent emper at ur e.Whent heai rislessmoi st,t
he
relat i
vehumi dityislow, andt hust her ateoft r
anspi rat ioni sgr eater .Whenr elat ive
humi dityishi gh, t
heat mospher econt ainsmor emoi st ure,reducingt her ateof
transpi ration.Ther ef ore,transpi rationi ncreaseswi tht hedecr easei nr el
at i
vehumi dit
y.
Ther ateofdi ffusionofanysubst ancei ncreasesast hedi fferencei nconcent rat ionof
thesubst ancesi nthet wor egionsi ncr eases.Whent hesur roundi ngai ri
sl esshumi di
ty,
diffusionof wat eroutoft hel eafgoesonmor er apidl y .
Wi nd
Thewi ndr emov eswat erv apourandt husi ncr easest her ateoft ranspi r
ation.Hi ghwi nds
l
eadt ost omat alclosur et ost opt her apidwat erlossandhencebr ingadr opi nr at eof
transpi ration.Moder atewi ndsmayr educet ranspir ationbyl oweringt het emper atureof
thel eaf .
Whent her eisnobr eeze, theai rsur roundi ngal eafbecomesi ncreasi nglyhumi dt hus
reduci ngt her ateoft ranspi rati
on.Whenabr eezei spr esent , t
hehumi dai riscar ried
awayandr epl acedby drierai r,t
husi ncr easingt her ateoft ranspir ation.
Soi lwat er
Thesour ceofwat erf ort r
anspi rationoutoft hepl antcomesf rom t hesoi l.Pl ant swi th
adequat esoi lmoi stur ewi llnor mal l
yt ranspi reathi ghr atesbecauset hesoi l prov i
dest he
wat ert omov ethrought hepl ant.Plant scannotcont inuet otranspi rewi thoutwi lti
ngif
thesoi lisv erydr ybecauset hewat eri nt hexy l
em t hatmov esoutt hr ought hel eav esis
notbei ngr eplacedbyt hesoi lwat er.Thus, therateoft r
anspi rati
onwi l
lincreasewhen
ther eisadequat eamountofwat erint hesoi landwi ll decr easewhent hesoi l cont ai
ns
l
it
tl
emosi ture.
Atmospher i
cpressur
e
Tr
anspirati
onishighatlowatmospher
icpressureanditi
slowathi
ghatmospheri
c
pr
essure.Plant
sthatgrownatur
all
yathigheral
ti
tudes,
wheretheat
mospher
icpressur
e
i
slow,hav emodifi
edleavest
oreducetherateoftr
anspir
ati
on.

GaseousExchangeAndRespi rat
ion
TheConceptofGaseousExchange
OrgansResponsi bleforGaseousExchangei nLi
vi
ngOr gani
sms
I
dent i
fyorgansresponsi bl
ef orgaseousexchangei
nlivingor
ganisms
Organsr esponsibleforgaseousexchangei nli
vi
ngorganismsincludet
hef
oll
owi
ng:
ORGANI SM RESPI RATORYSURFACE
Amoeba Cel lmembr ane
I
nsect s Tracheal system
Spider Bookl ung
Fish Gill
s
Plants Leav es, stems, r
oots
Amphi bi
ansSki n, gil
lsandl ungs
Mammal s Lungs
Birds Lungs
repti
les Lungs
FeaturesofRespi ratorySur f
ace

Theyar
ethi
ntor
educedi
ff
usi
ondi
stance

Theyar
emoi
stt
odi
ssol
vegaseoussot
hatt
heydi
ssol
veanddi
ff
usei
nsol
uti
onf
orm

Theyarehighl
ybraced,
fol
dedorf
lat
tenedi
nor
dert
oincr
easet
hesur
facear
eaf
or
gaseousexchange

Theyar
ecl
oset
oef
fi
ci
entt
ranspor
tandexchangeeasi
l
ybyt
hecel
l
s

Theyar
ewel
lvent
il
atedsot
hatgaseouspasseseasi
l
y

TheConceptofGaseousExchange
Explaintheconceptofgaseousexchange
Gaseousexchanger eferstothemov ementofoxy genandcar
bondi oxideacrosst
he
respir
atorysur
face.Istheprocessthroughwhichrespi
rat
orygaseousar epassed
throughtherespir
atorysur
face.Respirator
ysurf
acearespeci
ali
zedor gansforgaseous
exchange.Gaseousexchanget akespl acethr
oughaprocessofdif
fusion.
Par
tsoftheRespir
ator
ySy stem
I
denti
fypart
softherespi
ratorysy
stem
Thegaseousexchangeinmammal st
akespl
acei
nthel
ungs.

TheFeaturesofDi
ffer
entPart
softheRespir
ator
ySy stem andtheirAdapti
veFeatures
Descri
bethefeat
uresofdif
fer
entpar
tsoftherespi
ratorysystem andthei
radapti
v e
feat
ures
TheFeaturesofDi
ffer
entPart
softheRespir
ator
ySy stem i
ncludethefoll
owing:

Noseandnasal
cav
ity
:I
thasmucusandhai
rwhi
cht
rapdustandmi
croor
gani
sms

Gl
ott
is:I
tissi
tuat
edintheepigl
ott
iswhichcl
osesthet
racheadur
ingswal
l
owi
ngt
o
pr
eventfoodf
rom ent
eringt
herespir
atorysy
stem

Trachea,Bronchus,andBr onchi
oles:
Theyhav ebl
oodvesselwhi
chhaveri
ngcar
til
age
andmucuswhi chwar m hairandpreventcol
l
apseofrespi
rat
oryt
rackal
sotheyt
rapand
fi
tterdustandmi cr
oor ganisms

Lungs:
Theyarespongewi
thai
rspace(
alv
eol
i
)whi
chi
sthemai
nor
ganofmammal
i
an
gaseousexchange

Ri
bs:
Theyar
emadeupofhar
dbonet
issueswhi
chpr
otectt
hel
ungsf
rom i
njur
y.
I
nter
cost
almuscl
es:
Theymor
eant
agoni
sti
cal
l
ytoal
l
owexpansi
onandr
elaxat
ionoft
he
t
horai
ccavi
ty

Di
aphr
agm:
ist
hemuscul
arsheetoft
issuewhi
chsepar
atet
hor
axf
rom abdomen

Al
veol
i
:theyar
enumer
ousi
nnumber
;theyar
emoi
standt
hinmembr
anes

Funct
ionsofal
veol
us

Pr
ovi
desur
facear
eaf
orgaseousexchange

Reducedi
stancef
ordi
ff
usi
onofgaseous

Enabl
egaseoust
odi
ssol
vei
ntosol
uti
onbef
oredi
ff
usi
ng

Tr
anspor
toxy
genf
rom t
heal
veol
itot
het
issuesandcar
bondi
oxi
det
otheal
veol
i

Mai
ntai
ntheshapeandav
oidcol
l
apsi
ng

TheMechani sm ofGaseousExchangei nMammal s

Descr ibet hemechani sm ofgaseousexchangei nmammal s
Gaseousexchangei nmammal shappensasar esultofinhalationandexhal ation.
Inhal ationi sbr eathinginai rint othel ungs.Exhal at
ionist hebr eathingoutofai rfrom
thel ungs.Dur i
ngi nhalationt hemuscl eoft hedi aphr agm cont ractpul l
i
ngt hedi aphragm
downwar ds.Ast hi
shappens, theext ernal intercost almuscl econt ractandpul lther i
b
cageupwar dandout war ds.Thi si
ncr easev olumeanddecr easespr essureint het horax.
Thi smakesai rrushi nthel ungs.
Dur ingexhal ationt hemuscl esoft hedi aphr agm r esumesi t
sdomeshape.Theext ernal
i
nt ercost al muscl esr elaxpul li
ngther i
bcagei nwar dsanddownwar ds.Thi sdecr eases
volumeandi ncreasespr essur e.Thi sfor cesai routthrought hebr onchi oles,tr
acheaand
nost rils
GaseousExchangeAcr osst heAl veolus
Descr ibegaseousexchangeacr osst heal v eolus
Theact ual exchangeofoxy genandcar bondi oxidetakespl acei ntheal veoli.One
mammal ianl unghasmi ll
ionsofal veol i.Whenwebr eatheai rinitaccumul atesint he
alveol i.Ther eishi gherconcent rati
onofoxy geni ntheal veolithani nthebl oodst ream.
Theoxy gencombi neswi thhemogl obint of or m oxyhemogl obi n.Oxy geni sthen
transpor t
edt ot het i
ssues
Thet issueuseoxy genandr eleasecar bondi oxidewhi chdi ff
usesi nbl oodcapi ll
aries
andcombi newi thhemogl obint oform car bonhemogl obin.Capi ll
ariestransformt hi
s
formt oal v eoliasiti sthent ranspor t
edt hrought hebr onchiolest r
achea, glotti
s, pharynx,
andf inall
ynost ril
si ntotheat mospher e.
Fact
orsAff
ecti
ngGaseousExchangeinMammal
s
Outl
i
nefactor
saff
ecti
nggaseousexchangei
nmammals
Fact
orsaf
fecti
nggaseousexchangei
nmammalsi
ncl
udethef
oll
owi
ng:

Exer
ciseorphy
sical
act
ivi
ti
es

Age

Emot
ions

Temper
atur
e

Heal
th

Car
bondi
oxi
deconcent
rat
ion

Hemogl
obi
nconcent
rat
ion

Al
ti
tude
GaseousExchangeinPlants
I
nplantsgaseousexchanget akesplacet hr
ought hestomataont heleav
esandl ent
icels
onthestem.Butsomepl antssuchasmangr ovealsocarryoutgaseousexchange
thr
oughbreathi
ngroots.
Part
sofPlantResponsibl
ef orGaseousExchange
I
denti
fypartsofpl
antresponsibleforgaseousexchange
I
nplantsgaseousexchanget akesplacet hr
ought hestomataont heleav
esandl ent
icels
onthestem.Butsomepl antssuchasmangr ovealsocarryoutgaseousexchange
thr
oughbreathi
ngroots.
TheProcessofGaseousExchangei nPlants
Descri
betheprocessofgseousex changeinpl ant
s
Gaseousexchangeinleaves:Throughst omat a,at
mospher i
cairmovesinandoutoft he
l
eaf.Gaseousexchangemost lytakesplaceint heairspacesinthespongymesophy ll
.

Duringt heday ,greenpl antscar ryoutphot osy nt hesistopr oducegl ucoseandt hist
akes
placewi thint heguar dcel lsthatsur r
oundt hest omat at hent hecel lsapoft heguar d
cell
sbecomeshy per tonicanddr awsinwat erf rom thenei ghbor ingcel lsbyosmosi s.
Theguar dcel lsbecomet urgidandt hest omat aopenwher ebyt heai rfrom t he
atmospher esuchascar bondi oxideent er
si ntot heai rspacesi nt hespongymesophy ll
.
Inthiscasecar bondi oxide( CO2)i smor eint heai rwithi ntheai rspacebutoxy genis
l
ess.Thent hecar bondi oxideandoxy gendi ffusei nopposi tedirectiondependi ngon
theirconcent rat i
ongr adients( suchasoxy genoutandcar bondi oxidei n) .Thecar bon
dioxidedi f
fusesi nt oneighbor ingcellsunt i
l i
tr eachest hesi t
ef orphot osy nthesi sand
oxygenmov esoutt hrought heopenst omat at ot heat mospher e.
Duringt heni ghtt her eisnol ightsot hatphot osy nthesisceasesandt herei sno
product i
onofgl ucose.Ther ef oret heguar dcel lsdonotabsor bwat erbyosmosi shence
thest omat ar emai npar ti
allycl osed.
Howev errespi rati
onpr ocesst akespl aceatni ghti nplant s.Thepar tiall
yopenst omata
all
owsmal lamountofai rtoent erandaccumul ateint heai rspaces.I nt hiscaset her
eis
mor eoxy genandl esscar bondi ox i
dei ntheai rspacescompar edt opl antcel ls.
Oxygenmov esint
ot hepl
antcell
swhilecarbondi oxi
demov esint
otheairspacesand
eventual
lyintotheatmospherethr
oughthepar tial
lyopenstomata.Thi
sexplai
nswhy
greenplantsproducecarbondioxi
deatnightandoxy genduri
ngtheday.
ImportanceofGaseousExchangei nPlants
Explai
nt heimportanceofgaseousexchangei nplants
ImportanceofGaseousExchangei nPlantsincludethefol
lowing:

I
tenablest
hepl
ant
stoel
i
minat
eexcesscar
bondi
oxi
deatni
ghtofwhi
chi
flef
twi
l
l
har
mt hepl
ant
s

I
tenabl
esplantst
oobt
aincar
bondi
oxi
dewhi
chi
soneoft
her
awmat
eri
alsnecessar
y
f
orphot
osynthesi
s

Plantsobtai
noxygenwhichisnecessar
yforproduct
ionofener
gywhi
chi
spr
oduced
duringrespi
rat
iont
hroughgaseousexchange

Respirat
ion
TheconceptofRespi ration
Explaint
heconceptofr espiration
Respirat
ion:I
sthemet abol i
cact i
vit
yorr eactioninwhichcompl exf oodsubstancesare
brokendownst epbyst ept or eleaseener gywi t
hinacell.
Cell
ularRespiration:Isasetofmet abol i
cr eactionandpr ocesst hattakesplaceinthe
celloforgani
smst oconv er
tbi ochemi cal energyfrom nutri
entsintoATP.
NB: Thereacti
oni nvolvedi scat abolicr eact i
on,whichbreaksl argermol ecul
esinto
smal l
eronest or eleaseener gy .Cel l
ularr espirati
onisconsi der
edasexot hermic
reacti
on.Exother mi creact i
oni st hepr ocesswher ebyener gyisreleasedout.
TypesofRespi rat i
on
Ment i
ont y
pesofr espiration
Therearet wot ypesofr espiration

Aer
obi
cRespi
rat
ion

Anaer
obi
cRespi
rat
ion

AerobicRespi rati
on
TheConceptofAer obicRespi ration
Explai
nt heconceptofaer obi
cr espi r
ation
Thisisthecombust ionr eacti
on.Thi smeanst hatoxygeni
srequi
redinor dertogener
ate
ATP.Thesi mpl i
fiedreact ionofr espirationofcar bohydrat
esisC6H12O6.
Aerobicr espi
ration–I nt hepresenceofoxy genglucosemolecul
esar ebr okendown
i
ntocar bondi oxidewat erandener gy
EquationofAer obicr espirati
on
C6H12O6+6O2→ 6CO2+6H2O+Ener gy( 38ATP)
TheMechani sm ofAer obi cRespi rati
on
Outli
net hemechani sm ofaer obicr espiration
Respirati
onst artswi thgl ucose( usual l
y).Inaer obi
candanaerobicrespirati
onini
ti
al
react i
onsar ecommonasar esul tofwhi chpy ruvicaci di sformedbybr eakdownof
glucose.
Thepr ocessi scal ledGl ycolysisorEMPPat hway( Embden- Mey erhof-Par nasPat hway).
Thi spr ocessdoesnotr equir
eO2al t
hought hiscant akepl acei nthepr esenceofoxy gen.
Aftert hisst age, thef ateofpy ruvicaci disdi ff
er entdependi ngupont hepr esenceor
absenceofoxy gen.
Ifoxy geni spr esentt herei scompl eteoxi dationofpy ruvicaci dintoH2OandCO2and
chemi cal react i
onst hroughwhi cht hisoccur si scal ledTr i-Carboxy l
icAci dcy cle(TCA
Cy cle)orKr ebsCy cl e.Thi scycl eoccur si nmi tochondr i
a.Ifoxy geni sabsent ,pyruvi
c
acidf or mset hyl alcohol (
C2H5OH)andCO2wi thoutt hehel pofanycel lor ganell
e.This
processi scal ledanaer obicrespi ration.
Exper iment sonAer obi cRespi ration
Car ryoutexper iment sonaer obi crespiration
Respi rationbyl ivingor gani smscanbei nv estigatedbycar r
yingoutexper imentst o
showt hepr oduct ionofcar bondi oxideandheat .
Invest i
gat ingcar bondi oxidepr oduct i
on
Limewat erturnsmi lkyint hepr esenceofcar bondi oxide.I tcanbeusedt oshowt hat
exhal edai rcont ainsmor ecar bondi oxi
det hani nhal edai r
.
Car bondi oxidedi ssol v
esi nwat ertof orm aweakl y acidicsolution.Hydr ogencar bonate
i
ndi cat orisusedt oshowt hepr esenceofcar bondi oxi deinsol ution.Itis:

r
edatneut
ral
pH(
nocar
bondi
oxi
de)

y
ell
owatl
owpH(
car
bondi
oxi
depr
esent
)

I
nvesti
gati
ngheatproduct
ion
Therel
easeofheatcanbeshownbycar
ryi
ngoutanexper
imentusi
ngger
minat
ingseeds.
Twovacuum f
lasksar
eused:

onecont
aini
ngl
i
vingpl
antmat
eri
al

onecont
aini
ngdeadpl
antmat
eri
al(
thecont
rol
)

Tempchange
Cont
ent
s St
artt
emp(
°C)Endt
emp(
°C)
(°
C)
Li
vi
ngpl
ant 21 29 8
mater i
al
Deadpl ant
21 21 0
mater i
al
FactorswhichAf fecttheRat eofRespirati
on
Descr i
befactorswhi chaffecttherateofrespi
rat
ion
Ther ateofrespir
ationinor ganismsisrarel
yconstant.Therear
esever
al f
act
orsinthat
aff
ectr at
eofr espir
at i
on.Theseappl yequall
ytoaerobicandanaer
obicrespi
rat
ion
al
thought heexampl esgivenher er
efertoaerobi
crespirat
ion

Temperature:
Respi
rat
ionisachemi
cal
processtheref
oreit
srateincr
easeswit
h
i
ncreasi
ngbodyt emperat
ureasani
ncr
easingi
nt emperat
ureincr
easestherat
eof
chemicalchange.

Act
ivi
ty:
Allbodyact
ivi
tyrequiresenergy.Whenanorganism becomesacti
veitr
equi
res
moreenergythanwhenit’sinacti
ve.Sincer
espi
rat
ionprovidesener
gyrequi
redfort
he
act
ivi
tyt
her at
eofrespir
ationwi l
lcor
respondi
ngl
yincrease.

BodySize:Smallorganismshav ehighsurfaceareatovolumer atio.Heatl

ossoccursat
thesurf
ace;theref
oresmal lorganismstendt oloseheatmorer apidlyt
hanlar
gerones.
Smallanimalse.g.shrews,havetomai ntainhigherr
ateofrespirati
onthanlar
gerones
tomaintai
ntheirbodyt emperature.

Age:Youngorgani
smsar egrowingandasar esultrequir
emor eenergythanol
der
mat ur
eindi
vi
dualwhosegrowt hmayslowdownorst opped.Youngerindi
vi
dualt
endt
o
bemor ephysi
call
yacti
vealso.Bothoftheseratefactorsleadtoincr
easedrat
esof
respir
ati
oni
ny oungeror
ganism

AnAerobi cRespirat
ion
TheConceptofAnaer obi
cRespi r
ati
on
Explai
nt heconceptofanaerobicrespi
rat
ion
Thisisthepr ocesswherebyenergyisrel
easedi
nabsenceofoxygenal
thoughthe
energyout comei nanaer
obicrespir
ati
onismuchlesst
hanaerobicr
espi
rati
on.
Anaerobicr espi
rati
ondif
fer
sinplantandanimal
.

Anaer
obi
cAl
cohol
i
cfer
ment
ati
oni
npl
antcel
landy
east

Anaer
obi
clact
icf
erment
ati
on

TheMechanism ofAnaerobicRespir
ati
on
Outl
inethemechanism ofanaer
obicrespi
rat
ion
Anaerobi
crespi
rat
iondiff
ersinplantandani
mal.

Anaer
obi
cAl
cohol
i
cfer
ment
ati
oni
npl
antcel
landy
east
Anaer
obi
clact
icf
erment
ati
on

Anaer
obi cAlcohol
icfer
mentati
oni
nplantandyeast
I
nthepr esenceofAlcohol
i
cf er
ment
ati
onglucosemolecul
eisbr
okendowni
ntoet
hanol
andcarbondi oxi
deandenergy.

Gl
ucose→ Et
hanol
+Car
bondi
oxi
de+Ener
gy

C6H12O6→ 2C2H5OH+2CO2+2ATP

RawMat
eri
al→ EndPr
oduct

Anaerobi
cLact
icFer
ment at
ion
Ift
hereisl
ackofoxygencarbohy
drat
emol
ecul
eisbr
okendownt
olact
icaci
dand
energyout
comeonly2ATP.

C6H12O6(Glucose)→ C3H6O3+2ATPEner
gy(
Lact
icAci
d)

RawMat
eri
al→ EndPr
oduct

Amor ecommonoccur r
enceoflacti
cacidfermentati
onisinmuscles;duri
ngexer
cise.
Duri
ngt hi
sper i
odtherespirat
orysurf
aceisincapableofsuppl
yi
ngoxy gentothe
molecule,whichisrequi
rement.Henceduet othisl
acticaci
disproduced.Accumul
ation
ofl
acticacidwillcausemusclecrampandsopr eventmusclesfr
om operati
ng.
TheEndPr oductsofAnaer obi
cRespirat
ion
Mentiontheendpr oductsofanaerobi
crespirati
on
Thefoll
owi ngaretheEndPr oductofAnaerobicRespir
ati
on:
I
nplants

Et
hanol

Car
bondi
oxi
de

Ener
gy

I
nAni
mal
s

Lact
icAci
d

Ener
gy(
2ATP)

I
mpor
tanceofAnaer
obi
cRespi
rat
ion

Thi
spr ocessbri
ngsaboutf
erment
ati
on.Fer
mentat
ionoccurswhensi
mpl
esugar
(gl
ucose)isbrokendownbybact
eri
ali
nabsenceofoxygen
Bact
eri
abr
eakdownmi
l
ksugart
oreducel
act
icaci
d

Pr
oduct
ionofcomposi
temanur
e

Oxy gendebt
Duringheavyexercise,oxygensupplyislessthanwhati srequi
redbyt hebody .Asa
resultofanaerobi
cr espir
ati
ontakingplaceandl acti
cacidaccumulates.Thiscreat
es
oxygendef i
cit
.
Oxy gendebtrefer
st otheamountofoxy genrequiredtoconvertl
acti
caci dint
ocarbon
dioxide,wat
erandener gy.
AnExper imenttoDemonst r
atetheApplicat
ionofAnaer obi
cRespirat
ion
Carryoutanexper i
mentt odemonst rat
et heapplicat
ionofanaerobi
cr espir
ati
on
Appl i
cati
onofAnaer obicrespi
rati
oninindustryandhome

Al
cohol
brewi
nge.
g.maki
ngbeerandwi
ne

Pr
oduct
ionofacet
icaci
dandot
heraci
dsuchasci
tr
icaci
d

Pr
oduct
ionofbi
ogasf
rom cooki
ngandl
i
ght
ing

Br
eadmaki
ngpr
ocess

Pr
oduct
ionofcomposi
temanur
e

TheDi fferenceBetweenAer obi

cRespirati
onandAnaer obicRespirati
on
Disti
ngui shbetweenaer obi
crespi
rati
onandanaer obicr espi
rati
on
Diff
erencesbet weenAerobicRespir
ati
onandAnaer obicRespi rati
onincl
udethe
foll
owi ng
AerobicRespi rati
on AnaerobicRespir
ati
on
Oxygeni susedup Oxygenisnotused
Largeramountofener gyis
Lessamountofener gyi sreleased
rel
eased
Wat ermol eculesareproduced Wat ermol ecul
esarenotpr oduced
Takespl acei nmitochondri
a Takesplaceincytoplasm
Product sproducedar enot Productsproducedar eharmf ulexamplel
acti
c
harmf ul acid

Inf
ecti
onandDiseasesoftheRespi r
atorySystem
CommonAi rborneI
nfecti
onsandDi seaseswhi chAffecttheRespir
atorySystem
Mentioncommonai r
borneinfect
ionsanddi seaseswhi chaff
ecttherespir
atorysy
stem
Therearesever
alai
rborneinf
ecti
ons, whichaffectt
hehumanr espi
rator
ysy st
em.The
commononesar ei
nfl
uenza,pneumoni a,commoncol dandtubercul
osis.
Mostoft heai r
bor neinfecti
onsar ear esultofclosecontactwi thaninfect
edper son.
Whent hesickper sonbr eat hesout ,coughsorsneezes, thepathogensar ereleasedinto
theair.
Airborneinfectionscanbecont rol
ledbyi solati
onoft heinf
ectedpat i
ents,proper
disposalofi nfectedsecr eti
onsuchassput um, l
ivi
ngi nawel l
-vent
il
atedhouseand
avoidi
ngov ercrowdi ngespeci all
yinbedr ooms.
TheCauses, Sympt oms, EffectsandCont r
ol MeasuresofCommonI nfect
ionsand
Diseasesoft heRespi ratorySy stem
Explai
nt hecauses, sy mptoms, eff
ectsandcont rolmeasur esofcommoni nfectionsand
diseasesoft herespi r
atorysy stem
Airborneinfectionscanbecont rol
ledbyi solati
onoft heinf
ectedpat i
ents,proper
disposalofi nfectedsecr eti
onsuchassput um, l
ivi
ngi nawel l
-vent
il
atedhouseand
avoidi
ngov ercrowdi ngespeci all
yin

Di
sor
dersoft
heRespi
rat
orySyst
em
Di
sor
dersoft
heRespi
rat
orySyst
em
Ment
iondi
sor
der
softherespi
rat
orysyst
em
Di
sor
dersoft
heRespi
rat
orySyst
em incl
udet
hef
oll
owi
ng:

PNEUMONI
A

BRONCHI
TIS

ASTHMA

LUNGCANCER

EMPHYSEMA

TUBERCULOSI
S

Causes,SymptomsandEffectsoftheDisorder
softheRespirat
orySystem
Expl
aincauses,sympt
omsandef fectsofthedisor
der
soft herespi
rator
ysystem
PNEUMONI A
Pneumoniaisinfl
ammati
onoft helung.I
tiscausedbybacteri
a,vi
ruses,f
ungiorby
i
nhali
ngchemi calt
oxi
nsorir
ri
tants.Pneumoniaisnor
mallyfoll
owedbyot heril
l
nesses
suchascoldorf l
u.
SIGNSANDSYMPTOMSOFPNEUMONI A

Fev
er

Chi
l
ls

Shor
tnessofbr
eat
hassoci
atedwi
thpai
n
I
ncr
easeofmucuspr
oduct
ion

Cough

PREVENTI
ONANDTREATMENTOFPNEUMONI
A

St
ayi
ngwar
m

Av
oidi
ngov
ercr
owdedar
eas

Av
oidi
ngcol
dfoodanddr
inks,
hotdr
inksar
epr
efer
redmor
east
heyl
oosensecr
eti
ons

Gett
reat
mentasear
lyaspossi
blesi
ncei
tiscur
abl
ebyant
ibi
oti
cs

BRONCHI TIS
Bacteri
a,v i
rusesandi nhali
ngofirri
tat
ingsubstancescancausetheli
ningofthe
respi
ratorysy stem t
obecomei nflamed.Thiscausesani nf
ecti
oncall
edbronchi
ti
s.
Bronchiti
scanbeacut eorchr
onic.
ACUTEBRONCHI TIS
Thisiscausedbywhoopi ngcoughorr ecur
rentattacksofi
nfl
uenza;
smokingcanalso
causeacut ebr onchi
tis.
SIGNSANDSYMPTOMSOFACUTEBRONCHI TITS

Pai
nint
hechest

Rapi
dbr
eat
hing

Fev
er

Coughi
ng

Headache

CHRONI
CBRONCHITIS
Heav
ysmoki
ngandrecur
rentacut
ebronchi
ti
scausechr
oni
cBr
onchi
ti
s.
SI
GNSANDSYMPTOMSOFCHRONI CBRONCHITIS

Coughi
ngwi
tht
hepr
oduct
ionoft
hicksput
um

Br
eat
hingdi
ff
icul
ti
es

PREVENTI
ONANDTREATMENTOFCHRONI
CBRONCHI
TIS

Av
oidi
ngsmoki
ng

Av
oidv
erysmokyordust
yar
eas
Li
vei
nawel
l
-vent
il
atedhouse

Keepy
ourbodywar
m

Seekmedi
cal
hel
p

ASTHMA
Asthmai
scharacter
izedbyinf
lamedandconst
ri
ctedai
rway
s.Thenar
rowi
ngoft
he
ai
rwaysrest
ri
ctst
hef l
owofairint
othel
ungs.
Asthmacanbecausedby :

Al
l
ergi
creact
ionst
odust
,pol
l
en,
spor
esorani
mal
fur

Her
edi
rot
ydi
seasesoft
her
espi
rat
orysy
stem

Ext
remel
ycol
dweat
her

Fr
equentv
iral
orbact
eri
alungi
nfect
ion

SI
GNSANDSYMPTOMSOFASTHMA

Narrowi
ngofbronchi
olesr
esul
ti
ngi
nbr
eat
hingdi
ff
icul
ti
esandawheezi
ngorhi
ssi
ng
soundwhenbreathi
ng

Coughi
ng

Shor
tnessofbr
eat
h

Excessi
vepr
oduct
ionofmucus

Di
l
ati
onofbl
oodv
essel
sleadi
ngt
olowbl
oodpr
essur
e,l
owbl
oodpr
essur
ecanbef
atal

Chestt
ight
ness

PREVENTI
ONANDTREATMENTOFASTHMA

Av
oidal
l
ergens(
thi
ngst
hatcauseal
l
ergeni
creact
ion)

Gett
reat
mentf
orr
espi
rat
oryi
nfect
ionsasear
lyaspossi
ble

Keept
hebodywar
m

Muscl
erel
axantsi
nthefor
m ofspr
ays,
pil
l
sandi
nject
ionsar
eusedt
opr
eventt
he
nar
rowi
ngofbronchi
ti
s

LUNGCANCER
Themaincauseofl
ungcancerissmoking.Thenicoti
neinci
garett
esmokestopsthe
ci
li
aint
hetracheaf
rom expel
l
ingfor
eignmateri
alsleadi
ngtorespi
rat
oryi
nfect
ion.
SI
GNSANDSYMPTOMSOFLUNGCANCER

Chestpai
n

Br
eat
hingdi
ff
icul
ty

Wei
ghtLoss

Per
sist
entCough

Abnor
mal
Product
ionofMucus

PREVENTI
ONANDTREATMENTOFLUNGCANCER

St
opsmoki
ng

Ther
eisnocureforcancer
.Howev
erchemot
her
apyandphy
siot
her
apyar
eusedt
o
cont
rol
thedi
sease

EMPHYSEMA
Thisisalungdisease,
whichresult
sfrom destr
ucti
onoft hestr
uct
uresupport
ingthe
alveol
il
eadingtothesecol
lapse.Thi
ssignif
icant
lyreducesthesur
faceareaavai
labl
e
forgaseousexchange.
CAUSESOFEMPHYSEMA

Mai
nlyci
gar
ett
esmoke

Ai
rpol
l
uti
on

Her
edi
tar
y

Ol
dage

SI
GNSANDSYMPTOMSOFEMPHYSEMA

Shor
tnessofbr
eat
h

Coughi
ng

Obst
ruct
ivel
ungdi
sease

Di
ff
icul
ti
eswhenbr
eat
hingespeci
all
ydur
ingexer
cise

Wheezi
ngdur
ingbr
eat
hing
PREVENTI
ONANDTREATMENTOFEMPHYSEMA

Av
oidci
gar
ett
esmoki
ngandexposur
etosmoke

Lungsur
ger
yisusual
l
ydonet
orel
i
evet
hesy
mpt
oms

Useofmedi
cal
drugs

I
nsev
erecases,
lungt
ranspl
anti
snecessar
y

TUBERCULOSIS
Tubercul
osi
sishighl
yinf
ecti
onsdi
sease.Thecausalor
ganism forTBisoneoft he
str
ainsofbact
eri
abelongi
ngtotheMycobacter
ium t
uberculosi
s.Tuber
culosiscanbe
spreadfr
om onepersontoanot
herper
son,whenthebact er
iabecomeairborne.
SIGNSANDSYMPTOMSOFTUBERCULOSI S

Cough

Fev
er

Wei
ghtLoss

Lossofappet
it
e

Disorder softheRespi rat orySy stem andHI V/AIDS

Relatedi sordersoft her espiratorysy stem andHI V/ AIDS
Tubercul osisisthemostcommonoppor tunisti
cinfect i
onassociatedwi t
hHI V
wor l
dwi de.Tuber culosisi sani nf ect
ionbyt hetuber culosi
sbacterium that
predomi nant l
yaffect st hel ungs, butitcanspr eadt hrought hebloodandl ymphnodes
tother estoft hebodyi npeopl ewi thHI V.
Thedi seasecanst rikepeopl ewithHI Vnomat t
erwhatt heleveloftheCD4count ,which
meanst hatTBcanof tenoccury earsbef oreot herpr oblemsassoci atedwi t
hHI V
develop.
Pneumocy sti
sCar i
nii Pneumoni a(PCP)
Thisist hemostcommonoppor tuni
st i
cinfecti
ont hatoccur swithAI DSt hefungusthat
causest hePCPi nfect ioni sspr eadt hroughbr eathingorcoughi ng.Sy mpt omsinclude
cough, fev er
,tr
oubl ebr eat hingandl ossofwei ght.
Cryptococci Meni ngitis
Thisiscausedbyf ungusandi tisthemostcommoncent ralner
voussy stem i
nfecti
on
associat edwi t
hHI V.Meni ngiti
sisani nfl
ammat i
onoft hemembr anesandf l
uid
surroundi ngthebr ainandspi nal cord.
Theparentsmaypassundesir
ablecharact
eri
sti
cstotheof
fspr
ingsi
nceonl
yone
i
ndiv
idualorgani
sm i
sinv
olv
edi nasexualr
eproduct
ion

Compet
it
ionf
orresourcessuchasf
oodandshel
termayoccurduet
olar
genumberof
or
gani
smsbeingproduced

FORM THREE

1.
KINGDOM PLANTAE,
DIVI
SIONCONI
FEROPHYTA(
CONI
FERS)
General andDi sti
ncti
veFeat uresoft heDi visi
onConi f
erophyta
Explai
ngener alanddisti
nctivef eaturesoft hedivi
sionconifer
ophy t
a
Divi
sionConi ferophytaortheconi f
er sbelongtoKi ngdom Plantae.Theseplantsare
gymnosper msmeani ngnon- f
lower i
ng.Theyar enon-fl
oweringbutseedbear ingplants.
Theyhav evascularti
ssues.Theyar ewoodypl antsmaj or
itybeingev er
greentrees.Few
vari
etiesar eshrubs
Whatar et hegener al
anddi stinctiv
ef eaturesoftheDi vi
sionConiferophyta?
General characteri
sti
cs

Theyhavesecondarygrowthwhoset hi
ckeni
ngcanbeobser
vedi
ncr
osssect
ionofa
st
em reveal
i
ngannual r
ings.SecondaryGrowt
histher
esul
tofgr
owt
hLat
eral
Meri
stems(VascularCambium &Cor kCambium).

MostofthemembersofConif
erophyt
ali
veincool
cli
mat
eswher
etheyf
orm ev
ergr
een
f
orest
s.Theykeept
hei
rleav
esy ear
-r
ound.

Theyhav
eal ar
geamountofi
nter
nodal
elongat
ionwhi
chal
l
owst
hem t
ogr
owf
ast
er
thant
heotherhi
gherpl
ant
s.

TheyareXeromorphi
c,achar
acter
ist
ict
hathel
ptopr
otectt
hem f
rom excessi
vel
ossof
waterandther
efor
eadaptsurv
ival
inext
remehabi
tat
s.

Mostar
elar
get
reeswhi
l
eaf
ewar
eshr
ubsandot
hersmal
lpl
ant
s.

Mostoft
hem hav
ehar
dbar
kswhi
chpr
otecti
nnersof
twood.

Di
sti
nct
ivechar
act
eri
sti
cs

Coni
fer
sar
enon-
fl
ower
ingbutseedpr
oduci
ngpl
ant
s.

Theyhav
eseedsbor
ninconesshapedst
ruct
uresr
athert
hani
nfr
uit
s.
Theyar
egy mnosper
mswhichmeannaked-
seedpl
ant
sbecauset
heypr
oduceseedsi
n
conesr
athert
haninsi
deanembr
yo.

Theleavesareneedl
e-shapedandhav
eat
hickcut
icl
eforpr
otect
ionandt
odecr
ease
waterloss.

TheStructureofPinus
Descri
bet hestructureofpi nus
Pinesareev er
green, coniferousresi
noustr
eesgr owing3– 80m tall
.Thebarkofmost
pinesi
sthi ckandscal y.Theyhav eneedlel
ikeleaves.
Pinesareamongt hemostwel l
-knownconifer
oust reesi
nt hewor l
d.Theyt hr
ivein
temperatemount ainousr egions,butcanal
sosur vi
vei nt
ropicalspotsinthenorthern
hemisphere.Pinesl i
ver elat
ivel
ylongti
met hanotherconiferousplants.Theymayl i
ve
between100and1, 000y ears

TheSt em:Thebarkofmostpi
nesi
sthickandscaly
,butsomespeci
eshavet
hin,f
laki
ng
bark.Thebranchesarepr
oducedi
nregularwhor
lsappear
ingl
i
kearingofbr
anches
ari
singfrom t
hesamepoint.

Leaves:Across- secti
onofpinest em hassev eralconcent ricri
ngswi t
hdistinctborders
betweeneachr ing.Thecenteroft hestem i scalledpi th.Theser i
ngsarecal l
edannual
ri
ngsbecauset heygr owseasonal lyandt heyhel papl antt oundergosecondar y
thi
ckening.Gener all
yadultpineshav eneedl e-shapedl eaveswhicharegr eenand
photosynthetic.Theleavesar einbundl esorcl usters.Thel eaves(cotyl
edons)on
seedli
ngsar ebor neinawhor l of4–24.Juv enileleav es,whichfoll
owi mmedi atel
y
aft
erseedlings, havesingl
e,greenl eavesar r
angedspi r al
l
yont heshoot.Theyal sohav e
non-photosy ntheti
cscaleleav es,simi
lart obudscal es.Theyar earr
angedspi ral
lyli
ke
thejuveni
leleav es.

Cones:Aconeisanor ganofpinesthatcontai
nsthereproducti
vestr
uctures.Thewoody
coneisthefemalecone,whichproducesseeds.Themal econes,
whichpr oducepol
l
en,
areusuall
yherbaceousandmuchl essconspicuous.Explai
ntheadvantagesand
di
sadvantagesoftheDivisi
onConiferophy
taTheadv antagesanddisadvantagesoft
he
Divi
si
onConi f
erophyta

TheAdv ant
agesandDisadv
antagesoftheDi
vi
sionConif
erophyt
a
Expl
aintheadvant
agesanddisadvant
agesoft
hedivi
sionconif
erophy
ta
AdvantagesofConi
fer
s

Conifer
sar ever
yimportantf
oroureconomybecauseoft hei
rsoftwood,whi
chisused
forpaperandt i
mber,
aswel lascedarwhi chmanypeopleusef ort
heirhomesbecause
ofitsbeautyandresi
stancetoinsects.Theyhavealargeeconomicuseassoftwoodin
furni
tur
e.Intemperat
eandt r
opicalregions,t
heyar
ef ast
-gr
owingsoftwoodsthatwil
l
all
owhar vest
ingincl
osesuccession.

Decor
ati
onandcer
emonyManypi
nespeci
esmakeat
tr
act
iveor
nament
als.Theyar
e
pl
ant
edinpar
ksandl
argergar
dens.Somevar
ieti
esaresuit
abl
eforsmall
erspaces.
Pi
nesar
ealsocommer
ciall
ygrownandhar
vestedforChr
ist
mastrees.

Asmedici
ne,
Pinesandcy
pr essarer
ichi
nv i
tami
n;t
hei
rbr
anchesconesandoi
l
scanbe
ext
ract
edandusedasnut
rientsuppl
ements.

Duet
oit
ssof
ttext
ureconi
fer
sar
ewi
del
yusedt
omanuf
act
urePl
aywood.

Asotherhi
gherpl
ant
sconi
fer
sar
esour
ceofheatener
gy,
usedasf
ir
ewoodand
char
coal.

Thi
ckf
orest
sofconi
fer
sfor
m gr
eenbel
tst
hatmodi
fyt
hecl
i
mat
e.

Coni
fer
sfor
m al
argear
enaf
orBi
ologi
cal
resear
chEcol
ogi
cal
studi
es.

Fooduses: Somespeci eshav elargeseeds,call

edpinenutsthatarehar vestedandsol d
forcookingandbaking.Thesof t
,moist,whitei
nnerbark(cambium)f oundcl ingingto
thewoodyout erbarkisedibleandv eryhighinvit
aminsAandC.I tcanbeeat enr awi
n
sli
cesasasnackordr i
edandgr oundupi ntoapowderf oruseasbr eadflour.Also
WhitePinesar eri
chinVitaminAandC; f
lourcanbemadef r
om thePi netree'sinner
bark.Bychewi ngbar
kofpi ney oucanel i
minatebadbreath.Pinescanr educet hepain
ofskininfect
ionsbyapplyingwar m pinesap.

DivisionAngi osper mophy ta(Fl ower ingPl ant s)

Gener al andDi stinct i
veFeat ur esoft heDi visionAngi osper mophy ta
Explaingener alanddi st i
nctivef eat uresoft hedi vi
sionangi osper mophy t
a
Angi osper msar ef l
ower i
ngpl ant sunderki ngdom Pl ant aeanddi vi
sion
Angi osper mophy ta.Thi sgr oupofpl ant si ssomet imescal l
edMagnol i
ophy ta.
Angi osper msar et hemostabundantl andpl ants.Likegy mnosper ms, angiosper msare
seed- produci ngpl antsbutt heyar edi st ingui shedf r
om gy mnosper msbyt heir
char acteristicofpr oduci ngf lower s.Thesepl antspr oducef ruit
st hatcont ai
nseeds
i
nst eadofconesl i
kei tisi ngy mnosper ms.Thet erm angi osper m meansapl antthat
producesseedswi thinf r
uits.
Angi osper msl if
ecy cle:Theov aryhasov ul
est hatcont ainmega- spor ocyte.Mega-
spor ophy tehasf ourhapl oidmegaspor es; threemegaspor esdi sintegrateandt he
remai ningonedi v i
desbymi tot i
cdi vi
si onst opr oduceei ghtnucl eiinanembr yosac.The
threenucl eiar eor gani zedi ntot heeggwher ebyonecel l i
st heeggcel l
;thet woot hers
areegghel per s.Al thought heset hreecel l
sl ookar esi mi lar, onlytheeggcel lconti
nues
todev el
opt oanembr y osac.Theembr y osacatt hisst agei sthef emal egamet ophyte
ormega- gamet ophy t
e.
Pollinationandf ertili
zation:Thepol l
enf rom t heantheri st ranspor t
edt ot hest i
gmaofa
fl
ower .Int hest igmapol l
ent ubeemer ges.Themat ur emal egamet ophy tethereforeisa
germi nat edpol l
engr ain,pol l
ent ubeandt hreesper m nucl ei.Thepol lentubegr ows
downwar dt owar dt heov aryt hr ought hest yleandpenet ratest heembr yosac.Af ter
dischar gingi tscont ent soneoft hesper m nucl eif
useswi tht heeggnucl eusandf orma
zygot e,theot hersper mf useswi tht hepol arcel l
oft heov ary ,f
or mingt heendosper m
nucleus.Thi si swhati sknownasdoubl efert
il
izati
on.Fer ti
lizationinangi osperms
beginsv erysoonaf terpolli
nat i
on.
Note: I
ngy mnosper ms, fert
il
izationcanoccurupt oay earaf t
erpol li
nati
on.
Doubl eferti
lizati
on:Doubl eferti
li
zationisadistincti
vechar act erist
icoftheangi osper ms
andr esultsinapol yploidendosper mt i
ssue.Indoubl ef er
ti
lizationeachov ul
er eceivesa
poll
ent ubet hatdeli
verst wosper m cel
l
st otheembr y osac.Onesper mferti
li
zest he
eggcel ltof ormt hediploidzy gote,whil
etheot hersper mf er t
il
izest hecentralpolarcell
toformt riploidendosper m.Af t
erdoublef er
til
i
zat i
on,theov uledev elopsintoaseedand
theov aryintoaf r
uit
.
Gener alfeaturesofangi osper ms
Theybearf lower swhichar erepr oducti
vestructures.Fer t
il
izationt akesplacebet ween
maleandf emal efl
owerbypol li
nat i
onthatincl
udesi nsectpol l
inati
on, windpollinati
on
andani mal pol l
inati
on.

Angi
osper
mshav
eunder
groundr
ootaswel
lasaer
ial
shootsy
stem.

Angiosper
mshavever
ywel l
-dev
elopedconduct
ingtissues.Theset
issuesi
ncl
udet
he
xyl
em andthephl
oem ar
rangedinform ofv
ascularbundles.

Theyhav
eroott
hathel
psabsor
pti
onofwat
erandmi
ner
alsf
rom t
hesoi
l
.

Mostoft
hem hav
eleav
est
hatcar
ryoutphot
osy
nthesi
s,sot
heyar
eaut
otr
ophs.

Theyhav eal
ter
nati
onofgener ati
on,Sporophyt
egenerati
onal
t ernat
ewithgamet ophyt
e
generat
ion.Thesporophytei
st hedominant,di
ploi
dstageandi sthemorev i
sibl
eform
oftheplant,
witht
hel eav
es,stems,roots,andfl
owers.Gametophy t
egenerati
onis
reducedanditisf
oundwi thi
ntheov ar
yandant her
.

Di
sti
nct
ivef
eat
uresofangi
osper
ms

Themostobv i
ousdi
sti
ngui
shi
ngfeat
ureofangi
osper
msi
sthepossessi
onof
repr
oduct
ivestr
uct
urescal
l
edfl
owers.

Theybearseedsencl
osedi
nacar
pel
(thef
rui
t)
.Theseedsar
ethef
ert
il
izedov
ules.

Theyhaveendosperm pr
oducedaf
terf
ert
ili
zat
ionandbeforet
hezygot
eunder
goi
tsf
ir
st
di
visi
on.Endosper
m hasnouri
shi
ngfunct
ion,i
tnouri
shestheembr
yo.

Theyhavedoublef
erti
li
zati
onwherebyeachovul
er ecei
vesapoll
entubethatdeli
vers
twosperm cel
l
stotheembr yosac.Onesper
mf er
tili
zestheeggcel
ltoformthediploi
d
zygot
e,whil
etheotherspermfert
il
izest
hecent
ralpolarcel
ltof
ormtripl
oidendosperm.

Thei
rhapl
oidgametophytei
sconf
inedi
nsi
detheovar
y(f
emale)orant
her(
mal
e)oft
he
fl
ower,
unl
ikethef
ree-li
vi
nggametophy
tesofmostot
herpl
ants.

Theyhav
econduct
ingt
issuesphl
oem andxy
lem.Unl
i
kegy
mnosper
mswhi
chhav
e
xy
lem t
rachei
dangi
osper
mshasxy
lem v
essel
s.

TheCl assesoftheDivi
sionAngi ospermophy t
aandtheirDisti
nct
iveFeatur
es
Outli
net hecl
assesofthediv i
sionangi osper
mophytaandt hei
rdist
inct
ivefeat
ures
Divi
sionAngiospermsisdividedi nt
ot woclasseswhichareMonocot yl
edonaeand
Dicotyl
edonae.Thesetwocl assesar edisti
ngui
shedfrom eachotherbytheir
mor phologyandanatomy .
FeaturesofClassMonocot yl
edonae

Monocot
shav
eonecot
yledon(
oroneseedl
eaf
)

Monocot
shav
ebr
oadl
eav
eswi
thpar
all
elv
enat
ion.

Monocot
shav
efi
brousr
ootsy
stems.

Thefl
oral
part
sinmonocot
soccuri
nthr
ees,
ormul
ti
pleoft
hree.PMonocot
slack
cambi
um secondar
ygr
owth.

Monocotshavescat
ter
edv
ascul
arbundl
esi
nthei
rst
ems.
Typi
cal
exampl
eofmonocot
i
samai zepl
ant.

Feat
uresofCl
assDi
cot
yledonae

Di
cot
shav
etwocot
yledons(
ort
woseedl
eav
es)
.

Di
cot
shav
enetv
enat
ion.

Di
cot
shav
etapr
ootsy
stem

Di
cot
sfl
oral
par
tsoccuri
nfour
sandf
ivesandmul
ti
pleoff
ourorf
ive.

Di
cot
shav
ecambi
um secondar
ygr
owt
h.

Di
cot
shav
evascul
arbundl
esar
rangedi
ntoar
ing.ATy
pical
exampl
eofdi
coti
sabean
pl
ant
.

TheSt r
uctureofRepresentat
ivePlantsUnderEachClass(Monocot
yledonaeand
Dicoty
ledonae)
Descri
bet hestr
uctur
eofr epresentat
ivepl
antsundereachcl
ass(Monocotyledonaeand
Dicoty
ledonae)
Struct
ureofMonocotyledonaeandDi cotyl
edonaepl
ants
AdvantagesandDisadvantagesofDi
vi
sionAngi
osper
mophyta
Expl
ainadvantagesanddisadvant
agesofdi
visi
ondngi
osper
mophy
ta
AdvantagesofAngiosper
ms

Agri
culture.Agri
cult
uredependsonangi osperms.Angi osper
mspr ovi
dehumanf ood.
Example; pl
antsbelongingtograssfamily(grains),
aret hemosti mportantfoodstocks.
Theyincluderice,maize,wheat,bar
ley
, mill
et,sugarcaneandsor ghum.Legume
provi
desbeans, severalvar
iet
iesofnutsandsoy .Alsoofpot atoes,t
omat oes,and
peppers,pumpki ns,
mel onsandv ar
iet
iesofv egetablestoincludecabbageandl et
tuce.
Manyf rui
tsoranges,lemonsandgr apefruit
sar eangiosperms.

Li
vest
ock.Plant
sbelongi
ngtograssfamil
yaretheworl
dnumberonefeedsofl
ivest
ock.
Manytypesofgrassl
andinAfr
icaareei
thergraz
edbycatt
leorwil
danimal
s.Al
so
al
mostallf
eedsconsumedbyhumanar ealsousedbydomesti
canimal
sasfood.

Wood.Angiospermsprov
idedi
ff
erentvar
iet
iesofwoodforfur
nit
ure,
paperandbui
ldi
ng
mater
ial
s.Carpentr
yandmasonrydependslar
gelyonangi
ospermsforbot
hsoftand
har
dwood.

Text
il
e.Di
ffer
entvari
eti
esoffiber
sincl
udingcot
ton,f
lax,andhempareimportantr
aw
mater
ial
sfortext
il
eindust
ry.Cott
onisthewordfir
stclassmater
ial
forcl
othes.

Medici
ne.Manyorgani
cdrugsar
ecomi ngf
rom angi
osperm her
bs.Theyareei
ther
i
ndustr
ialmadeorcanbeutil
i
zedinit
srawform.Todayiti
sbeli
evedthather
bsform
t
hebestmedicinewhenusedinthei
rfr
eshfor
mt hanwhenindustr
ial
made.

Fl
ori
cul
tur
e.Flower
sfrom angiosper
mshavegreatsoci
alsi
gni
fi
canceastheyareused
i
ndif
fer
entkindsofceremony.Rosesfori
nst
ancearethemostsol
dflowersandthey
ar
ehi
ghl
ypur
chasedandusedi
nweddi
ngandbur
ial
cer
emoni
es.

For
estr
y.For
est
ryi
sthefi
eldofstudywhosebasedependsonbothangi
osper
msand
gymnosper
ms.Manyfor
estsfor
m greenbel
tsthathabi
tdi
ff
erentv
ari
eti
esofpl
ant
s.

Ecology.Angi
osper
msprovi
deawiderangeofhabi
tat
sfordi
ff
erentspeci
esof
organisms.Theyal
soser
veaspr
imaryproducer
sofener
gy.

Cli
mate.Angi
osper
msareusedtomodi
fycl
imat
e.Gr
eenbel
tsar
eest
abl
i
shedi
nor
der
toabsorbcar
bonandr
educeglobal
war
ming.

Touri
sm.Manysit
esoftour
ism ar
eplant
sori
ented.Ecot
our
ism fori
nst
ancedepends
l
argel
yondi
ffer
entpl
antspeci
esthathostdi
ff
erentki
ndsoflandani
mals.

Di
sadv
ant
agesofAngi
osper
ms

Toxins.Somepl ant
sarepoisonouswheneatenbyhumanandot herani
mals.They
causedeat htohumanandot herli
vi
ngorganisms.Somecassav avar
iet
iesar
eagood
exampl e.Theyhavecy
anideacidthati
nhibi
tscel
lul
arrespi
rat
ion.

Dr
ugs.Someangi
osper
mv ari
eti
esar
edrugst
hatcanbeabusedwhent
aken.Exampl
es
ar
emarij
uana,
cocai
ne,
tobaccoandsomecaf
fei
nevari
eti
es.

Weeds.Someangi
osper
mvar
iet
iesar
ebadweeds;
theyr
educecr
opy
iel
ds.Some
weeds

Mov ement
ConceptofMov ementandLocomot i
on
TheConceptofMov ementandLocomot ion
Explaint heconceptofmov ementandl ocomotion
Mov ementr eferst ochangeofposi ti
onandpost ur
e.Therefor
ethechangeofpositi
onof
bodypar tssuchasl i
mbsandot herbodyparts.
Locomot ionist hemov ementorchangeofposi ti
onoft hewholeor
ganism f
rom one
pl
acet oanot her .
Butnor mal lyorgani smshav edifferentki
ndsofmov ement .Pl
antsshowmov ementbut
donotshowl ocomot i
on.
Sincelocomot ioni nvolvescoordinati
onbetweenner vousmuscularandskel
etalsyst
em
andal lthesesy stem enabletheor ganism t
olocomote.
TheI mpor t
anceofMov ementinAni malsandPlants
Explaint heimpor tanceofmov ementi nanimalsandpl ants
Animal sandpl ant smov eaboutt o:

Fi
ndamat
eandt
orepr
oduce
Escapedanger

Seekandcapt
uref
ood

Toseekshel
ter
,asui
tabl
ehabi
tat
/cl
i
mat
e

Toav
oidcompet
it
ionf
orf
ood/
wat
er,
li
vi
ngspaceet
c

Fi
ndwat
er/
soi
lnut
ri
ent
s,andhol
dleav
est
ogetmaxi
mum sunl
i
ght

Seekandcapt
uref
ood

Obt
ainsuppor
t

Prot
ectthemsel
vesf
rom damagef
rom:
touch/
pressur
e,pai
norsuddent
emper
atur
e
change

Di
sper
seseeds

Mov ementoft heHumanBody ,theHumanSkel etalSystem

TheSt ructur
esofHumanSkel eton
Descr ibethest r
ucturesofhumanskel eton
Thecont racti
onandr elaxationofmuscl escausemuscul armovementi nvert
ebrat
e
organi smssuchasman.Themuscl eswor ktogetherwithskeletalsystem tosupportor
al
lowmov ementtooccur .BONES, CARTI LAGE, JOINTSANDMUSCLES
TheFunct ionsoftheMaj orComponent soft heHumanSkel et
onandt heirAdaptat
ions
Explaint hefuncti
onsoft hemaj orcomponent softhehumanskel etonandt heir
adapt ations
Maj orComponent soft heHumanSkel etoni ncludeBones, Car
til
age,JointsandMuscl es
Bones
Bonesconsi stofliv
ingcel l
sembeddedi nahar dsubstancemademai nly:Thebonesare
attachedt ogetheratt hejointsbyt oughf lexi
blefibersknownasl i
gament s
Bonesar eclassif
iedint olong, short,
irr
egul arbonesandf l
at.

Shor
tbonesthesear
eshortbones,whi
chsupportwei
ghtal
l
owi
ngf
ormanysmal
l
er
movements.Exampl
ebonesont hehumanfeet
.

Longbonesthesearestr
ong,hol
l
owandl i
ghtcontaini
ngspongyboneatt
heend.And
spongybonehasopenspaceandholes,whichcontainredmarr
ow,whi
chiswherer
ed
cel
lsaremade.Examplebonesonthelegsandarms.

Fl
atbonesthesearebones,
whichsuppor
tandpr
otectbodyor
gans,
thesecompr
ises
ri
bs,
breast
bone,shoul
derboneset
c.

Ir
regul
arbonesthesebonesareforsuppor
tandsuchbonesar
ever
tebr
aeal
sohuman
earhasthr
eetinyir
regul
arbones,whi
chconductsound.
Carti
lage
Besidesbones, theskeletalsystem hast i
ssuecalledcar
ti
lage.It'
sthestr
ongflexibl
e
ti
ssuet hatgi vesshapet osomepar tsofthebody
Thecar tilagekeepsbonesf rom gri
ndingagai nsteachot
her, bet
weenv er
tebr
ae
carti
lagedi sksactasshockabsor ber s
Beforebi rthbonesar emademost lyofcar ti
l
agewhosecel lsabsorbcalci
um afterbir
th
toproducebones
Joints
Thehumanskel etonhasaboutsev entymov ablej
oint
s.
PivotJoi nt:Thi
sisthet y
peofj oint
,whi chall
owsonebonet ot wi
stagai
nstanother
NB.Joi nti sthepointwher etwoormor ebonesmeet
Pivotjointal l
owsmov ementi nseveraldir
ections
Hingej ointisthejointwhichal l
owsmov ementi nonedir
ectionExampleelbow

Funct
ionsofSkel
etoni
ncl
ude:
Thehumanskel
etonpr
ovi
desmechani
cal
suppor
tfort
hebody

Pr
otecti
onfori
nter
nalorganse.
g.skel
etonofheadpr
otect
sthebr
ainwhi
l
echestbones
pr
otectsof
torganssuchastheheart

Skel
etonf
unct
ionsasf
ramewor
kforanchor
ingt
hemuscl
es

Skel
eton,
toget
herwi
thmuscl
es,
funct
iont
obr
ingaboutmov
ementi
nanor
gani
sm

MusclesandMov ement
TheConceptofMuscl es
Explai
ntheconceptofmuscl es
Amuscl eisat i
ssueconsisti
ngofcel lsthathavet hecapacitytocontr
actandexerta
pull
.Musclesar emadeupofspeci ali
zedt i
ssues,whichareknownascont r
acti
le
ti
ssues.Whent heset i
ssuescontracttheybecomeshor terandt i
ghter
,asaresul
tthey
causemov ement .Allmuscl
esar emadeupofel ongatedcellscall
edmusclefi
bers.
TypesofMuscl es
Ment i
ontypesofmuscl es
Therearethr eekindsofmuscl esint hebodyofamammal .Thesemusclesareskelet
al
muscles(vol untary
),smooth( i
nvoluntar
y )musclesandcar diacmuscles.
HowMuscl esFaci l
it
ateMov ement
Demonst r
at ehowmuscl esfacil
it
atemov ement
Musclesareat t
achedt obonesatt wopoi nts:

Atonepoi
ntamuscl
eisusual
l
yat
tachedt
oani
mmov
abl
eboneandot
herendt
oa
movabl
ebone.

Muscl
esmaybeatt
acheddi
rectl
yori
ndi
rect
lybymeansoftendons.Tendonsar
etough
whi
ti
shcor
dsoff
ibrousmat
erial
swhi
chconnectaboneandamuscl e

Muscl escancontr
actandrel
ax,butnotexpandwhenmuscl
econtr
act
sitbecomes
shorterandthi
ckerandhence,exer
tsapulli
ngfor
ceonbonetowhi
chiti
sattachedata
pointofinser
ti
on.

Whenamuscl
erel
axes,
itl
engt
hensandbecomest
hinner

Mostmusclesactinpai
rsi
nsuchamannerthatwhenonememberofthepai
r
cont
ract
stheothermemberrel
axes.Thi
smeansthatt
heynev
ercont
ractorr
elaxatt
he
sametime

Muscl
esacti
ngi
npai
rsint
hismannerar
eknownasantagonist
icmuscl
es.Onemember
oft
hepai
riscal
l
edext
ensorwhi
l
et heot
hermemberi
stheflexor

Thef i
gur
ebel
owshowshowt hetwomusclesoft
heupperarmst
hati
sthebi
cepsand
tr
icepsmuscl
esbr
ingi
ngaboutthebendi
ngandst
rai
ght
eningoft
heli
mb.
Whent hetri
ceps( ext
ensor )muscl
econtract
sthel
imbi
sstr
aightened.Thecont
ract
ion
ofthetri
cepsisaccompani edbyther
elaxati
onoft
hebi
ceps(fl
exor).Whenthebi
ceps
musclecontractsthear m bends.
TheStructur
eofMuscl es
Descri
bethest r
uct ur
eofmuscl es
Str
uctureofmucl es

Adaptat
ionsofDiff
erentTypesofMusclest
othei
rRoles
Expl
ainadaptati
onsofdiff
erentt
ypesofmuscl
estothei
rrol
es
Skel
etalMuscles

Thesear
ethemuscl
es,
whi
char
eat
tachedt
obonesoft
heskel
eton

Theskel
etal
muscl
escont
ractpower
ful
l
yandf
ati
guequi
ckl
y

Thei
rcontr
act
ionsar
econt
rol
l
edbyt
hebr
ainf
ort
hisr
easont
heyar
ecal
l
edv
olunt
ary
muscles

Funct
ionofSkel
etal
Muscl
es

Skel
etalmuscl
esar
econcer
nedwi
tht
hemov
ementoft
hel
i
mbsandpar
tsoft
he
skel
eton
Smoot
hMuscles
Smoot
h(i
nvol
untar
y)muscl
esaref
oundonthewal
l
sofi
nter
nal
organssuchas
al
i
mentar
ycanal
,bl
oodvessel
sandbl
adder
.

Thesemuscl
esar
emadeupofcel
l
swhi
cht
aperatbot
hends(
spi
ndl
eshaped)

Smoot
hmuscl
escont
ractsl
owl
y

Thecont
ract
ionoft
hesmoot
hmuscl
eisi
nvol
unt
ary(
iti
snotcont
rol
l
edbyt
hebr
ain)

Functi
onofSmoot
hMuscl es
Thesmoothmuscl
es,whichareformedindiff
erentorganscontr
actandrel
axtocause
mov ement
sofmater
ial
sthroughthem.Example:perist
alsi
sinal
imentar
ycanalcauses
mov ement
soft
hemat er
ial
sthroughthecanalwiththehelpofsmoothmuscles.
Cardi
acMuscles
Thisi
sthet
y peofmuscl
e,whichi
sfoundonlyi
ntheheart
.Thesemuscl
esar
emadeup
ofmusclef
iberswhi
chbranchandconnectt
oeachotherl
ikeanet
work.
Funct
ion

Cont
ract
ionofcar
diacmuscl
escausest
hehear
ttokeeponpumpi
ng(
i.
e.hear
tbeat
)

CausesEffectsandPr eventi
v eMeasur esofMuscl esCr amps
Explai
ncausesef fect sandpr eventi
vemeasur esofm cr amps
Amuscl ecrampi sani nvol
unt ar
yandf orcibl
ycont ractedmuscl et hatdoesnotr el
ax.
Thecrampmayi nv olveapar tofmuscl e,theent i
remuscl eorsev eralmusclesthat
usuall
yacttogether .Anyoft hemuscl esthatar enotatourv oluntarycontrolcancramp.
Somet i
mesi toccurswhent hebodyl ackssal tespeciallyforthosepeopl ewhowor k
hardinhotweat hert heysweatal otandgetpai nfulcrampsi nt heirlegs,
armsor
stomach.
CausesMuscl eCr amps
Therearebasicall
yt womaj orcausesofmuscl ecrampst hatar e:

Lackofwat
erorsal
tint
hebody

Lackofoxy
geni
nthemuscl
es(
inadequat
eoxy
genat
ionofmuscl
es)

Pr
event
ionofMuscl
eCr
ampa

Cr
ampsfrom poorbreat
hing(
lackofoxy
gen)canbei
mpr
ovedbyr
api
dbr
eat
hingas
wel
lasst
ret
chingthemuscles

Amuscl ecr
ampfrom l
ackofwaterorsal
tcanbetr
eat
edbystr
etchi
ngthemuscl
esand
dr
inki
ngmanyglassesofwater
,whichcontai
nsal
tsoast
orepl
acetheamountofsal
t
l
ostinthebody

TreatmentofMuscl eCramps
Applyi
ngasof tmassageont hecr ampedmuscl e,stretchingthemuscl eandappl y
ingoil
ointmentont heaf fectedarea, cant reatamuscl ecr amp.
Mov ementi nPl ants
TheConceptofMov ementi nPl ants( Mov ementofCur vature)
Explai
nt heconceptofmov ementi npl ants(mov ementofcur vatur
e)
Generallyplantsdonotshowl ocomot ion( movementoft heent i
reorganism).Howev er
,
mov ementofi ndivi
dualplantor gansi spossi bl
eandmodi fi
edbysensi t
ivit
yoftheplant
toexternalstimul i
.
Plantmov ement sinresponset oi nt
er nalstimuliar
eknownasspont aneousmov ement.
Exampl esoft hesemov ement sar emet aboli
ccondi t
ions,diseasecondi t
ions,v
exages
andpar entalinfl
uenceThosemov ement sshownbypl antsinr esponsetoexternal
stimul
iar eknownasi nducedori rri
tablemov ement s.
TypesofMov ementExhi bit
edbyPl ant s
Ment i
ont ypesofmov ementexhi bit
edbypl ants
Nor
mal
l
yther
ear
etwot
ypesofpl
antmov
ement
s,whi
char
e:

Spont
aneousmov
ement

I
nduced(
ir
ri
tabl
e)mov
ement

SpontaneousMov ementi spl

antmov ementi nresponsetointer
nal st
imul
i.Exampleof
thesemov ementsaremet abol
iccondit
ions,diseaseconditi
ons,vexagesandpar ent
al
i
nf l
uences
InducedorIr
rit
abl
eMov ementisthetypeofpl antmov ementshownbypl antsin
responsetoexter
nalstimuli
.Light
,temperature,gravi
ty,
touch,waterandchemical
substancesareexamplesofinducedmov ement .
Inducedmov ementsincludenasti
cmov ement ,tacti
cmov ementandt r
opi
cmov ement.

Asummaryoft
het
ypesofmov
ement
sshownbypl
ant
sinr
esponset
ost
imul
i
.
STI
MULI

Li
ght

Chemi
cal
s

Wat
er

Temper
atur
e

Cont
act

Gr
avi
ty

Gr
avi
tact
icorGr
avi
taxi
s

Tr
opicMovementsi
nPlants
Tr
opicmovementsarethegr
owthmovementsshownbyafixedpartofast
ati
onar
y
pl
anttowar
dsorawayfrom ast
imul
uscomingfr
om onedi
recti
on.Tropi
cmovements
ar
ealsoknownastropi
sm movement
s.
Tropi
c( t
ropi
sm)i sgrowt
hmov ements,whicht
akeplaceatav eryslowpace.The
growthmov ementiscausedbyani ncreasedordecr
easedr ateofgrowthonthesideof
theorgan,whichisundert
hei nfl
uenceofthesti
mulus,wit
hr especttot
heopposit
eside.
Thisresul
tsingrowthincur
v atur
e.
Therearevari
oust y
pesoftropicmov ements,t
hesetypesare:

Phot
otropi
sm orphot
otr
opi
cwhi
chi
sagr
owt
hmov
ementshownbypar
tofaf
ixedpl
ant
i
nresponsetoli
ght

Hy
drot
ropi
sm (
Hydr
otr
opi
c)whi
chi
sgr
owt
hmov
ementi
nar
esponset
owat
er

Thi
gmot
ropi
sm (
Thi
gmot
ropi
c)whi
chi
sthegr
owt
hmov
ementi
nresponset
otouch

Chemotr
opism (
Chemot
ropi
c)whi
chi
sagr
owt
hmov
ementmadebypl
ant
stowar
ds
chemi
cals

Ther
mot
ropi
sm (
Ther
mot
ropi
c),
agr
owt
hmov
ementshowni
npl
ant
sinr
esponset
o
heat
.

Coor di
nati
on
Inthistopicy ouwi l
llear naboutconceptofcoor dinat
ion, nervouscoor dination
i
nhumans, senseor gans, drugsanddr ugabusei nr el
at i
ont oner v
ouscoor dinati
on,
andcoor di
nat i
oni nplant s.
ConceptofCoor di
nation.
TheConceptofCoor di nat i
oninOr gani sms
Explaintheconceptofcoor di
nationinor gani
sms
Coor di
nati
oni sthewor kingtogetheroft hevari
ousor gansofanor ganism ina
systemat i
cmannersoast oproduceapr operr
esponset othest imul i
.Without
coordinati
ont hebody becomesdi sor der lyanditmayf ai
l t
of uncti
on
properly.
Coor dinati
oni st hewor kingt oget herofthev ariousor gansofanor gani
sm ina
systemat i
cmannersoast oproduceapr operr
esponset othest imul i
.Without
coordinati
ont hebody becomesdi sor der lyanditmayf ai
l t
of uncti
on
properly.
Coor dinati
oni st hewor kingt oget herofthev ariousor gansofanor gani
sm ina
systemat i
cmannersoast oproduceapr operr
esponset othest imul i
.Without
coordinati
ont hebody becomesdi sor der lyanditmayf ai
l t
of uncti
on
properly.
Coor dinati
oni st hewor kingt oget herofthev ariousor gansofanor gani
sm ina
systemat i
cmannersoast oproduceapr operr
esponset othest imul i
.Without
coordinati
ont hebody becomesdi sor der lyanditmayf ai
l t
of uncti
onpr oper l
y .
Thecoor dinationinsi mpl emul ti
cell
ul arani malstakespl acet hroughner vous
systemonl y.Thecont rol andcoor dinat ioni nhi
gherani mal scalledv ert
ebrates( i
ncludi
ng
humanbei ngs)t akespl acet hroughner v oussystem aswel lashor monal sy stem call
ed
endocr i
nesy stem.Coor dinati
oninpl ant si sunderthecont r
ol ofhormones.
All thel ivingor gani sms( pl ant sandani mal s)r espondandr eactt ochangesi n
theenv ironmentar oundt hem.Thechangesi nt heenv ironmentt owhi chthe
organi smsr espondandr eactar ecal l
edst imul i( singul ar: stimul us) .Thel ivi
ng
organi smsshowr esponset ost i
mul isuchasl ight ,heat ,col d,sound, smel l
, t
ast e, touch,
pressur e, pai n,wat er ,andf or ceofgr av ity,et c.Theabi li
tyt oper cei ve, interpretand
respondt ost i
mul i iscal ledi rri
t abil
ityorsensi tiv i
t y.
Ther ear et wot ypesofst i
mul i:ext ernal andi nter nal .Ext er nal stimul iar eassoci at ed
wi ththesur roundi ngenv ironmentsuchaswi ndt emper atur e,light ,pr essur e, touch,
wat erandgr avity.I nter nal st i
mul ioccurwi t
hi nt heor gani sm, forexampl e,adecr easeor
ani ncr easei nt heamountofwat erandgl ucosei nt hebl ood. Ther ear et wot ypesof
stimul i:ext ernal andi nt er nal .Ext er nal st i
mul iar eassoci at edwi tht hesur r
oundi ng
env ironmentsuchaswi ndt emper atur e, l
ight ,pr essur e, touch, wat erandgr avity.Int ernal
stimul i occurwi thi nt heor gani sm, forexampl e, adecr easeorani ncr easeint heamount
ofwat erandgl ucosei nt hebl ood. Ther ear et wot ypesofst imul i
: ext er nalandi nter nal.
Ext er nal stimul iar eassoci at edwi tht hesur roundi ngenv ironmentsuchaswi nd
temper at ur e, l
ight ,pr essur e, touch, wat erandgr av ity.Int er nal stimul i occurwi thint he
organi sm, forexampl e, adecr easeorani ncr easei nt heamountofwat erandgl ucosei n
thebl ood. Ther ear et wot ypesofst imul i:ext er nal andi nt er nal.Ext er nal sti
mul iare
associ atedwi ththesur roundi ngenv ironmentsuchaswi ndt emper atur e,l
ight ,pressur e,
touch, wat erandgr av ity.I nt ernal st i
mul ioccurwi thint heor gani sm, forexampl e, a
decr easeorani ncr easei nt heamountofwat erandgl ucosei nt hebl ood.
Whenanor gani sm det ect sast imul us, itinitiatesar esponse.Ar esponsei sa
behav iour al ,
phy siol ogi cal ormuscul aract ivityi nit i
at edbyast imul us.Forexampl e, ifa
mant ouchesav er yhotut ensi l acci dent ally, hequi ckl ypul lshi shandawayf rom t hehot
utensi l.Her e,heati st hest imul usandt hemanr eact s( responds)bymov i
nghi shand
awayf rom t hehot ut ensi l
.Si mi larl
y ,whent hesuni sbr i
ght ,wecl oseourey es.I nt hi s
case, l
ighti st hest imul usandwer eactbycl osi ngourey es.Li kewi se, whent heamount
ofwat eri nt hebl ooddr ops, thepi t
ui tarygl andsecr etesanant i-diur et i
chor mone( ADH)
whi chst imul atest her eabsor pt ionofwat eri nt heki dney s.
Mul ticel l
ul aror gani smsdet ectst i
mul ithr oughsenseor ganscal ledr ecept ors.A
recept or isasenseor gan( e. g.ey e)orsensor yner veendi ng( e.g.i nt heski nori nt ernal
organ) whi chr ecei v esst imul iandset sner v ousi mpul ses.I mpul sesar eelectrical
transmi ssi onsorchemi cal stimul ithatar esentf rom t her ecept ort ot hecoor dinat ing
sy stem i nt heor gani sm.Theor ganst hatr espondt ot hest i
mul iar ecal l
edef fect or s.A
coor dinat ori sanor gan( e. g.t hebr ainandspi nal cor d)t hatr ecei vesmessagesf rom t he
recept or s,transl at est hem andsendst hei nf ormat ionbackt oanef fect orforact ion.An
effect ori samuscl eorgl andwhi chr ecei v esi mpul sesf rom ner v es, brai norspi nal cord
andr espondst ot hem.Responsei st heend- act ion, suchasamuscl econt ractingt o
causet hemov ement oft hear m.Thedi agr am bel owi llust ratest hef iv ecomponent sof
coor dinat i
oni nmammal s.

NervousCoordi
nat
ioninHuman, Neurons
TheStruct
ureofMotorSensoryandRelayNeur
ons
Descri
bethestr
uct
ureofmot orsensor
yandrel
ayneur
ons
Neur ones
Neur onesar ener vecel l
s.Theycar r yinformat i
onast i
nyel ectri
calsignals.A
neur oneconsi stsofacel l
body( withanucl eusandcy t
oplasm) ,dendr i
testhatcar ry
elect ri
cal i
mpul sest ot hecell,andal ongaxont hatcar r
iest heimpul sesawayf rom the
cell.Theaxonofoneneur oneandt hedendr i
tesoft henextneur onedonotact uall
y
toucheachot her.Thegapbet weenneur onesi scal l
edt hesy napse
Struct ur eandf unct ionsofneur ones
Thedi agr am bel owshowsat ypical neur one: inthiscase, amot orneur one.Ithas
ti
ny br anchesateachend( dendr i
tes)andal ongf ibre(axon)t hatcar r
iesthesi gnalsor
ner vousi mpul ses.Theaxoni ssur roundedbyaf attylayerknownast hemy eli
nsheat h.
Thi shelpst oprot ectt heneur oneandal l
owi mpul sest otrav elf
aster.Thesheat his
producesby Schawnncel l
s.Themy el i
nsheat hhasnodes( NodesofRanv ier)thatspeed
upt ransmi ssionofner vousimpul ses.Thecel lbodyconsi stsofcy toplasm encl osi
ng
thenucl eus.Ther ear eal soot heror ganel lesi nthecy toplasm suchasmi tochondr i
a
that suppl yener gyt of ormet abolicf unct i
ons.
Sy napses
Wher et woneur onesmeet ,t
her ei sat i
nygapcal l
edasy napse.Si gnalscrosst his
gapusi ngchemi cal s( neur ot
ransmi tters)r el
easedbyaneur one.Whent hechemi cal
diffusesacr osst hegapi tmakest henextneur onet ransmi tanelect r
icalsignal.The
transmi ssionof ner vousi mpul sesacr osssy napsesoccur st hus:

Anel
ect
ri
cal
impul
set
rav
elsal
onganaxon.

Thi
str
iggersthener
ve-
endi
ngofaneur
ont
orel
easechemi
cal
messenger
s
cal
l
edneurotr
ansmit
ter
s.

Thesechemi
cal
sdif
fuseacrossthesynapse(
thegap)andbi
ndwi
thr
ecept
ormol
ecul
es
onthemembraneofthenextneuron.

Thereceptormol eculesonthesecondneuronbi
ndonlytothespeci
fi
c
chemical
sreleasedf r
om thefi
rstneur
on.Thisst
imul
atesthesecondneur
ont
otr
ansmi
t
theel
ectr
icalimpulse.
Typesofneur ones
Ther earethr eet y
pesofneur onesnamel ymot orneur one, sensor yneuroneandr el
ay(
or
i
nter mediate)neur one.Eachoft heseneuroneshasadi fferentstructureand
performsdi fferentf unctions.
Mot orneur one
Amot orneur onei saner v ecellt
hattransmitsimpul sesf rom thecent r
alnervous
system( CNS)t otheef fectororganssuchasmuscl esorgl andswher eresponseismade.
Thecel lbodyofamot orneuronei satoneendoft heneur oneandl i
esent i
rel
ywi t
hint
he
centralnervoussy stem ( seethedi agr
am abov e).
Sensor yneur one
Asensor yneur onei saner vecellthattr
ansmi tsimpul sesf r
om t hereceptorstothe
CNS. Sensor yneur oneshav ethei
rcellbodiesof ftheaxonandout sidethecentral
nervoussy stem.
Relay( i
ntermedi ateori nter)neurone
Ar elayneur oneconv eysmessagesbet weenneur onesi ntheCNS.Rel ayneurones
arelocatedi ntheCNSbet weent hesensoryandt hemot orneur ones.
Centr
alNervousSystem ( CNS)
TheMeaningofCent ralNerv ousSy st
em
Giv
et hemeaningofcent ralnervoussy st
em
TheCNSi sthepartofthener voussystem consi
sti
ngoft
hebrai
nandspinal
cord.
I
tcoordi
natesall
theneur alfunctions.Thechartbel
owshowssubdi
vi
sionsofthe
nerv
oussystem.
Thebr ai n
Thehumanbr ainisaspeci al
i
zedor ganthati sultimatelyr esponsi bl
ef orall t
hought
andmov ementt hatt hebodypr oduces.Thi sal l
owshumanst osuccessf ul
lyinteractwi t
h
thei
renv ironment ,bycommuni catingwi thot hersandi nter actingwi t
hi nanimat eobj ects
nearthei rsurroundi ngs.Ifthebr aini snotf unctioningpr oper ly,theabili
tytomov e,
generat eaccur atesensor yinf
or mat ionorspeakandunder standl anguagecanbe
damagedaswel l.
Thebr ai nhasmanydi f
ferentpar ts.Eachpar thasauni quef unct i
onthatal lows
humansobser veandi nteractwi tht heirenvironmentef f
ect ively.Thef oll
owingar epar t
s
ofthehumanbr ainandt hei rf
unct ions:
Cerebr um
Thecer ebrum i sthel ar
gestpor ti
onoft hebr ain,andcont ainst oolswhi char e
responsi blef
ormostoft hebr ain'
sf unction.Itisdi vi
dedi nt ofoursect ions:thet empor al
l
obe, theocci pitallobe,par i
etallobeandf r
ont allobe.
Parietal Lobe: Locat edint hecer ebr alhemi sphere, t
hislobef ocuseson
compr ehensi on. Visualfunct i
ons, l
anguage, r
eadi ng,i
nternal st i
mul i
,tactil
esensat ion
andsensor ycompr ehensi onar emoni tor edher e.
Tempor al Lobe: Thet empor al lobecont rolsv isual andaudi torymemor ies.I t
i
ncl udesar east hathel pmanagesomespeechandhear ingcapabi l
iti
es, behav i
oural
element s, andl anguage.I ti sl ocat edi nt hecer ebr alhemi spher e.
Occi pital Lobe: theocci pi tal l
obei slocat edi nt hecer ebral hemi spher ei nt hebackof
thehead.I thel pst ocont rol vision.
Cer ebel lum
Thisi scommonl yr efer redt oas" thel ittlebr ain‖ .Thecer ebel lum cont rolsessent ial
body funct i
onssuchasbal ance, post ur eandcoor dinati
on, allowi nghumanst omov e
proper l
y andmai nt aint hei rpost ure.
Limbi csy stem
Thel imbi csy stem cont ai nsgl andswhi chhel pr elayemot ions.Manyhor monal
responsest hatt hebodygener atesar eini tiat
edi nt hisarea.Thel imbi csy stem includes
theamy gdal a, hippocampus, hy pot hal amusandt halamus.
Amy gdal a: Theamy gdal ahel pst hebodyr espondst oemot i
ons, memor iesandf ear.
Hippocampus: Thi spor tionoft hebr aini susedf orlearningmemor y,
speci fical lyconv er ti
ngt empor arymemor iesi nt oper manentmemor ieswhi chcanbe
storedwi thi nt hebr ain.
Hy pot hal amus: Thehy pot hal amusr egi onoft hebr aincont rolsmood, thirst,hunger
andt emper atur e.I tal socont ainsgl andswhi chcont rolthehor monal processes
throughoutt hebody .
Thal amus: Thet hal amusi sl ocat edi nt hecent reoft hebr ain.I thelpst ocont rol
theat tent ionspan, sensi ngpai nandmoni torsi nputt hatmov esi nandoutoft hebr aint
o
keept rackoft hesensat ionst hebodyi sf eeli
ng.
Brainst em
Allbasi cl ifef unct ionsor iginat eint hebr ainst em, i
ncludinghear tbeat ,blood
pressur eandbr eat hing.I nhumans, t
hi sar eacont ai
nst hemedul l
a,mi dbr ai nandpons.
Mi dbrai n: Thi spar toft hebr ainhel psr egul at
ebodymov ement ,visionandhear ing.
Pons: Theponsi nter pret si nf ormat iont hati susedi nsensor yanal ysisormot or
cont rol.Theponsal socr eat est hel ev elofconsci ousnessnecessar yf orsl eep.
Medul la: Themedul l
aormedul laobl ongat ai sanessent i
al por ti
onoft hebr ain
stemwhi chmai nt ainsv i
t al bodyf unct ionssuchast hehear trat eandbr eathing.
Thedi agr am bel owshowsandsummar izest hebasi cfunct ionsofdi fferentpar tsof
thebr ain.
TheComponentsoftheCentr
alNervousSy st
em andthei
rFuncti
ons
I
dentif
ythecomponent
softhecentr
al nerv
oussy st
em andthei
rfunct
ions
Thetablebel
owsummar i
zesthest
ructureandfuncti
onsofthemajorcomponent
sof
thebr
ain.
TheSt ruct
ureoft heSpinalCordandBr ain
Describethestructureofthespinalcordandbr ain
Spinalcord
Thespi nalcordfuncti
onspr i
maril
yinthet r
ansmi ssi
onofneur alsi
gnal
sbetween
thebrai
nandt her estofthebodybutal socontainsneuralci
rcuit
sthatcan
i
ndependent ly
cont r
olnumer ousref
lexesandcent ralpat
terngenerator
s.I
tcar
ri
esout
twomai nf
uncti
ons:

I
tconnectsalargepartoftheper
ipheral
ner
voussyst
em tot hebrai
n.I
nformat
ion(
nerve
i
mpulses)reachi
ngt hespi
nalcor
dt hr
oughsensor
yneuronsi st
ransmi
ttedupi
ntothe
br
ain.Si
gnalsari
singinthemotorareasoft
hebrai
ntrav
el backdownthecordandleave
i
nthemot orneurones.

Thespi
nalcor
dalsoactsasaminorcoordi
nat
ingcent
rer
esponsi
blef
orsome
si
mpler
efl
exesli
kethewit
hdr
awalref
lex.
Thei nt ermedi ateneur onescar ry i
ngi mpulsest oandf r
om specificr eceptor sand
effector saregr oupedt oget heri nspi naltract s.
Thedi agr am showsv arioussect i
onsoft hespi nal cordandt hefunct ionsofeach
section.
Per i
pher alNer v ousSy stem ( PNS)
TheMeani ngofPer ipher alNer v ousSy stem
Givet hemeani ngofper ipher al Ner vousSy stem
Theper i
pher al ner voussy stem i smadeupofanet wor kofnervesl i
nki ngv ariouspar t
s
ofthebodyt ot hebr ainandspi nal cord.Itincl udest hecranialnerves, spinal ner v
es
andthei rr ootsandbr anches, per i
pher alner ves, andneur omuscul arj unctions.
Theper i
pher al ner voussy stem ( PNS)hast wocomponent s: t
hesomat icnerv ous
systemandt heaut onomi cner voussy stem.ThePNSconsi stsofal loft hener v esthatli
e
outsidet hebr ainandspi nal cord.
TheComponent soft hePer i
pher al NervousSy stem andThei rFunct ions
Identifyt hecomponent soft heper ipheral ner voussy stem andthei rfunct i
ons
Thesomat icner voussy st em i smadeupofner v
est hatconnectt ov oluntar y
skeletal muscl esandt osensor yr ecept ors.I tiscomposedofaf ferentner v est hat
carryinf ormat iont othecent ral ner voussy stem ( spinalcor
d)andef ferentner vest hat
carryneur alimpul sesawayf rom t hecent ral ner voussy st
em.Thi ssy stem isr esponsible
forthei nv olunt arycont rol oft heskel etalmuscl es, bonesandsenseor gans.
Theaut onomi cner v oussy stem i sf urthersubdi videdintosympat het ic
andpar asy mpat heticner v oussy stem.

Thesympathet
icnervoussystem acti
vat
esthe‗ f
ightorf
li
ght'
responseundersuddenor
st
ressf
ulci
rcumstances,f
orinstancesbyrai
singtheheartr
ateanddilat
ingt
hepupil
s.

Theparasy
mpathet
icner
voussystem hel
psthebodyret
urntonor
mal
act
ivi
tyaf
ter
an
emergency
,whi
chconserveener
gyandr epl
eni
shesthesyst
em.

Toget her,t
heset wosy stemsr egul atehomeost asiswi thi
nthebody-onepr epari
ng
thebodyf oraction,andt heot herr epair
ingt hebodyaf t
erward.
ReflexAct i
on
TheMeani ngofRef l
exAct i
on
Givet hemeani ngofr ef l
exact ion
Whenar eceptorisst i
mul ated, i
tsendsasi gnaltothecent r
alnervoussy stem, where
thebrainco-ordinatesther esponse.Butsomet i
mesav eryquickresponsei sneeded,
onet hatdoesnotneedt hei nvolvementoft hebrain.Thisisarefl
exact ion.
Ther efl
exactioni sar apid, involunt ar
yresponset oacer tai
nsti
mul us.Ther outethat
i
sfollowedbyi mpul sesdur ingar eflexactioniscal l
edar efl
exarc.
Reflexactionsar erapidandhappenwi thoutust hinking.Forexampl e,youwoul d
pull
y ourhandawayf rom ahotf lamewi thoutthinkingaboutit.Thedi agram below
showsasi mpli
fiedreflexar c.
Thi
siswhathappens:

r
ecept
ordet
ect
sast
imul
us-changei
ntheenv
ironment

sensor
yneur
onesendssi
gnal
tor
elayneur
one

mot
orneur
onesendssi
gnal
toef
fect
or

ef
fect
orpr
oducesar
esponse

Theabov eprocessappear st obeal ongonebut ,i

nr eal
it
y,theprocesst akesav ery
shortti
me.I thappenswi thinseconds.
Thewayt hei r
isinoureyeadj uststhesizeoft hepupi li
nresponset obrightordim
l
ighti
sal soar efl
exact i
on.Ithappenswi thoutourt hinki
ngandbey ondourcontrol.
TheNeur onicPathofaRef l
exAct i
on
Describet heneuronicpat hofar ef
lexact i
on
Ar ef
lexact i
oncanei therbesi mpleorcondi t
ionedr efl
ex.
Simpleref l
exact i
on
Anexampl eofasi mpl erefl
exf oundi nhumansi sthepupi lr
efl
ex,wher ethepupi l
of
theeyeget slargeri
ndi ml i
ghtandsmal lerinbrightlight
.Theey eneedst ocontr
ol the
amountofl i
ghtenteringitindi ff
erentli
ghtcondi t
ions.Indim conditi
ons,mor el
ightis
all
owedt oentersothatacl earimagecanbef ormedont heret
ina.Inbri
ghtcondi t
ions,
l
essl i
ghti sall
owedt oent ersot hatther eti
naisnotdamaged.
Condi ti
onedr eflexact i
on
Acondi tionedr eflexi ssomeact i
onorf eel i
ngt hati slearnedi nr esponset oa
speci f
icsi tuat ionorst i
mul us.
ARussi ansci ent istcal l
edPav lovt r
aineddogst oexpectf oodwhenev erheranga
bell.
Thedogsev ent ual
lypr oducedsal ivawhent heyhear dt hebel lring.Thedog
sali
v atesnat ur all
ywhengi venf ood.Pav lovr ungabel leveryt imet hedogswer etobe
givenf ood. Aft ermuchr epetit
iont hedogssal i
vatedwhent heyhear dt hebellri
nging,
evenwhent her ewasnof ood.Thi si sanexampl eofacondi tionedr ef lex.
Thedogswer econdi ti
onedt osal ivatewhent hebel l r
ang.Ar i
ngi ngbel ldoes
notnor mal l
ycausesal i
v ati
oni ndogs.Howev er,whent her i
ngi ngbel lbecomesa
secondar y stimul us, itdoescausesal ivation, event hought hedogwi llnotbeablet oeat
thebel lasf ood.
Thisi snowcal l
edacondi t
ionedr efl
ex.I nacondi ti
onedr efl
ext hef inal
response( sal ivat i
on)hasnodi rectconnect i
onwi tht hest i
mul us( ri
ngi ngbell
).
vAnot herexampl eofacondi t
ioned( l
ear ned)r eflexi swhent hedr i
v ercomesacr oss
ahur dleont her oadsuchasadi tchorapedest r
ian.I nsuchci rcumst ances,thefi
rst
thi
ngt hedr iverwi l
l doist omov ehislegt owar dst hebr akepedal toappl ythebrakes.He
haslear nedt odot hisact i
onf orsol ongt hathef indshi msel fappl yi
ngt hebrakeinany
ofsuchci rcumst ances.
TheDi ff
er encebet weenSi mpl eRef l
exandCondi tionedRef lexAct ion
Distingui shsi mpl er efl
exf rom condi t
ionedr eflexact ion
Differencesbet weencondi ti
onedr efl
exact ionandsi mpler ef l
exact ion
Condi tionedr ef l
ex Simpl er eflex
1Iti nvolv esmor et hanonest imul i Requi resonl yonest imul us
2Inv olvest hebr ai n Most l
yi nvolvet hespi nal cor d
I
ti sani mmedi ateact ion( not imet o I tisani mmedi ateact ion( not imeto
3
l
ear n) learn)
4Iti sacqui redi none‘ slife Itisinbor n
Modi f
yingar ef l
exr esponse
Insomeci rcumst ancest hebr aincanmodi fyar ef l
exr esponse.I tdoest hi
sbysendi ng
animpul seal ongamot orneur onoft her ef l
exar c.Thi senabl esus, f orexampl e,
tohold
ahotdi nnerpl atewhennor mallywewoul ddr opi t.

SenseOr gans
TheMeani ngofaSenseOr gan
Explainthemeani ngofasenseor gan
Senseor gansareor gansofthebodyt hatdetectandrespondtochangesi n
theenvironment( sti
mul i
)soast osur vi
ve.Therearefivesenseor gansinourbody :
eyes,ears,nose,tongueandski n.Wer eceiveav ari
etyofinfor
mat ionfr
om the
env i
ronment aroundust hroughthesenseor gans.Thesenseor ganscontai
nr eceptors.
Ar eceptorisacell (
oragr oupofcells)inasenseor ganwhi chissensit
ivetoapar ti
cular
typeof sti
mul us(orapar t
icul
artypeofchangei ntheenvir
onment )suchasl i
ght,sound,
smel l
,tast e,heat ,pressur e, et c.Thedi fferentsenseor ganscont ainrecept or sfor
det ectingdi fferentst i
mul i
.
Theey eshav el ightr ecept or s( whi chcandet ectl i
ght ),ear shav esoundr ecept ors
(whi chcandet ectsound) ,nosehassmel l recept ors( whi chcandet ectsmel l)
,tongue
hast ast erecept ors( whi chcandet ectt ast e)wher easski nhasr ecept orsf ordet ecting
touch, pr essur e, heat( orcol d)andpai n,et c.
Now, l
etusl ookatt hest ruct ur eandf unct ionsoft hef ivesenseor gansi nt he
humanbody .
Ty pesofSenseOr gansandThei rRel at i
vePosi t
ion
Ident ifyt ypesofSenseor gansandt hei rrelat i
v eposi ti
on
TheSt ructureofEachSenseOr gan
Descr i
bet hest ruct ureofeachsenseor gan
Thehumaney e
Theey ei stheor ganf orv isi on.Theey eisoneoft hemostcompl expar tsoft he
body .
Thedi f
fer entpar tsoft heey eal lowt heey etot akei nlightandper cei veobj ects
aroundusi nthepr opercol our , det ailanddept h.Thi sal lowspeopl etomakemor e
i
nf ormeddeci si onsaboutt hei renv ironment .Ifapor t
ionoft heey ebecomesdamaged,
youmaynot beabl et oseeef fect i
vely .Youmayev enl osey ourv isi
oncompl etely.Parts
oft heey eandt hei rf unct ionsTher ear esev er al phy sical andchemi calelement sthat
makeupt heey e.Thet abl ebel owshowsdi ffer entpar t
soft hehumaney eandt hei r
funct ions. Eyepar tDescr i
pt ionandf unct ion( s) CorneaThecor neaist heout er,
transpar entcov eringoft heey e.Thi slay erpr ot ectst heey ef r
om el ement st hatcoul d
causedamaget ot hei nner par tsoft heey e.Thecor neaal sohel pst of ocusl i
ghtont he
retinaatt hebackoft heey e. Scl er aThescl er ai scommonl yr eferredt oast he" white"of
theey e.I tprot ect stheey eandmai ntainst heshapeoft heey ebal l
.PupilThepupi l
appear sasabl ackdoti nt hemi ddleoft heey e.Thi sbl ackar eai sact uall
yahol et hat
takesi nl i
ghtt oenabl et heey ef ocusont heobj ectsi nf rontofi t
.Thepupi l
,thus, cont r
ols
theamountofl ightt hat ent er st heey e.Iri
sThei r
iscont ainst hepi gmentwhi chgi vest he
ey eitscol our.I thasr adial Inter nal st r
uct ur e
Partsoftheeyeandt hei rfunctions
Thereareseveralphy sicalandchemi cal element sthatmakeupt heey e.Thet able
bel
owshowsdi fferentpar tsoft hehumaney eandt hei
rfunctions.
Eyepart Descript i
onandf unction(s)
Thecor neai stheout er,transpar entcov eri
ngoft heey e.Thi slayer
protectst heey efrom el ement st hatcoul dcausedamaget othei nner
Cornea
partsoft heey e.Thecor neaal sohelpst ofocusl ightont her eti
naatt he
backoft heey e.
Thescl er ai
scommonl yrefer r
edt oast he" white"oftheey e.Itpr
ot ects
Scler
a
theey eandmai ntai
nst heshapeoft heey ebal l
.
Thepupi lappear sasabl ackdoti nthemi ddleoft heey e.Thi sblackar ea
i
sact ual l
yahol et hattakesi nl ighttoenabl etheey ef ocusont heobj ects
Pupil
i
nf r
ontofi t.Thepupi l,thus, controlstheamountofl i
ghtt hatenterst he
eye.
Thei r
iscont ai
nst hepi gmentwhi chgivestheey eitscolour .I
thasr adi al
I
ris
andci r
cul armuscl est hatcont rolthesizeofthepupi lbydi l
ationand
 cont ract i
on.Thi sal lowst heey et ot akei nmor eorl essl ightdependi ng
onhowbr i
ghti tisar ound.Thei risal lowsmor el ighti ntot heey ewhent he
env ir
onmenti sdar kandal lowsl essl ighti nt ot heey ewhent he
env ir
onmenti sbr ight .
Thisi samembr anet hatcov erst hecor nea.I tist hinandt ranspar entso
Conj
unct
iva ast oal lowl ightt oent ert heey e.I tist oughandpr ot ect st heey efrom
mechani cal damage.
Thesegl andsar el ocat edont heout ercor nerofeachey e.Theypr oduce
Lacr
imal tearswhi chhel pmoi st ent heey ewheni tbecomesdr y ,andf lushout
gl
ands par ti
cleswhi chi rr
itat et heey e.Ast ear sf lushoutpot ent i
al lydanger ous
i
rritants, itbecomeseasi ert of ocuspr oper ly.
Thisi sat ranspar entst r
uct uref ill
edwi thaj elly-likesubst ance.Thel ens
focusesl i
ghti ntot her etina.I tishel di npl acebyt hesuspensor y
l
igament sat tachedt ot heci li
ar ymuscl es, whi chal l
owt hel enst ochange
Lens
shapedependi ngont heamountofl ightent eringt heey e.Thr ought he
cil
iarymuscl es, thel ensbecomest hi ckert of ocusonnear byobj ect sand
thinnert of ocusondi st antobj ects.
Ret i
nai st hesensor yt issuet hatl inest hei nnerl ayeroft heey e.Itist he
l
ay eroft heey ewher ei magesar ef or med, andi ti sconnect edt otheopt ic
Ret
ina
ner vet hatt ransmi tst hei magest ot hebr aint obei nt erpr eted.Ther etina
i
smadeupmi ll
ionsofphot or ecept or sknownasr odsandcones.
Cili
ar ybody ,alsocal l
edci li
ar ymuscl es, isar ing- shapedt issuewhi ch
holdsandcont rolst hemov ementoft heey el ens, andt hus, i
thel pst o
Ci
l
iar
ybody
cont rol theshapeoft hel ens.Theci l
iar ybodycont ainsgl andul arcel l
s
whi chsecr etet heaqueoushumour .
Thesuspensor yl i
gament sat tacht hel enst ot heci l
iar ymuscl es.When
theci li
ar ymuscl escont ract ,theypul lthesuspensor yl i
gament sandt he
Suspensor
y l
ensget sl ongandt hint oaccommodat er ay sofl ightf r
om di stant
l
igaments object s.Whent heci l
iar ymuscl esr el ax, ther ei sl esst ensi onont he
suspensor yl igament sandt hel ensbecomesmor espher ical inshape.
Thisenabl est heaccommodat ionofl i
ghtr ay sf rom nearobj ect s.
Thechor oi dliesbet weent her etinaandt hescl er a,whi chpr ov idesbl ood
Chor
oid suppl yt ot heey e.Justl ikeanyot herpor tionoft hebody ,thebl oodsuppl y
givesnut ri
tiont ot hev ariouspar tsoft heey e.
Thev it
r eoushumouri st hegel l
ocat edi nt hebackoft heey ewhi chhel ps
i
thol di tsshape.Thi sgel takesi nnut r
ient sf rom t heci l
iar ybody ,aqueous
Vit
reous
humourandt her etinal vessel ssot heey ecanr emai nheal thy .Thegel in
humour
thev itreoushumouri st ranspar entt oal l
owl ightt ogett ot her eti
naand
alsohel psmai nt aint heshapeoft heey ebal l.
Theaqueoushumouri sawat er ysubst ancet hatf il
lst heey e.The
aqueoushumourgi vest hef rontoft heey ei tsshapeaswel lasnour ishes
Aqueous
thecor neaandl ens.Thi sl i
qui disdr ainedt hrought heSchl emm canal so
Humor
thatanybui l
d- upi nt heey ecanber emov ed.I ft heper son’ saqueous
humouri snotdr ainingpr oper ly,s/ hecandev elopgl aucoma.
Opt
icner
ve Opt icner vei sacr ani al ner vewhi chcont ai nssensor yneur ones.The
 neuronest ransmitimpulsesf rom ther odsandconesoft her eti
natothe
brainforinterpr
etati
on.Theopt i
cner veexitstheey eatt hebl i
ndspot .
Itislocatedatthepointwher et heopt icnerveleavest heey e.Thebl i
nd
Bli
ndspot
spoti snotsensiti
vetolightbecausei thasnor odsorcones.
Thef oveaist hecentr
emostpar toft hemacul a*.Thist inyar eais
responsibleforourcentral,
shar pestv isi
on.Aheal thyf ov eaisimpor t
ant
forreading,watchingtel
ev i
sion, dri
vi
ng, andotheract iviti
est hatrequir
e
Fovea
theabi l
it
ytoseedet ail
.*
Smal l andhighl ysensi
tivepar toft her eti
na
responsiblefordetail
edcentr alvisi
on.Ther eti
nai sthev erycent reofthe
macul a.
Adaptati
onsoftheey etoitsfuncti
ons
Theey ei
sadaptedt oit
sf uncti
onsbypossessi ngthef oll
owingf eatures:

Conj
unct
iva,
cor
neaandl
ensar
etr
anspar
entt
oal
l
owl
i
ghtt
opasst
hrought
hem.

Scl
erot
icl
ayeri
smadeupof(col
l
agen)f
ibr
es;
itmai
ntai
nsshapeofey
ebal
l
/pr
otect
sthe
eyefr
om mechani
cal
damage.

Corneaistr
anspar
entandcur
vedt
husr
efr
act
sli
ghtr
aysandal
l
owsl
i
ghtt
o
passthr
ough.

Choroi
d(alay
erofat
issue)hasbl
ackordar
kpi
gment
sthatpr
eventi
nter
nal
ref
lect
ions
ofl
ighti
ntheeye.

Theey econtai
nsbloodvessel
sint
hechor
oidsl
ayert
hatsuppl
yoxy
genandnutr
ient
sto
theeye,gi
vingtheeyeenergyt
operf
ormit
sfunct
ion,
andremovest
hemetabol
i
cwastes
from t
heeye.

Retinai
smadeofphot
oreceptorsknownasrodsandcones,
whi
cht
rapl
i
ghtr
ays
toenabl
etheey
etodoit
sf uncti
onofvisi
on.

Yell
owspot(fovea)hast
hehi
ghestconcent
rat
ionofconesf
oraccur
ateand
sharp,
cent
ral
v i
sion.

Opt
icnerv
ehassensor
yneur
onesf
ort
ransmi
ssi
onofner
vei
mpul
sest
othebr
ain
(
for
int
erpr
etat
ion)
.

Lensisbi
convexandmadeupofel
asti
c,t
ransparentmat
eri
alwhi
chadj
ust
stof
ocusf
ar
ornearobj
ect
sandall
owsli
ghtr
aystopassthrough.

Suspensor
yli
gament
sar
efi
broust
ohol
dthel
ensi
npl
ace.

.Thecili
arybodycontai
nscil
i
arymuscl
eswhicharecont
racti
let
of orcont
roll
i
ng
thecurv
atureandhencefocall
engt
hofthel
ens.I
talsocontai
nsglandsthatsecr
ete
theaqueousandvit
reoushumours.
Their
isisopaqueandcont
ract
il
eforcont
rol
l
ingt
heamountofl
i
ghtent
eri
ngt
heey
e(by
adj
usti
ngthesizeoft
hepupil
).

Ocul
armuscl
escoor
dinat
eey
emov
ementsot
hatbot
hey
escanf
oll
owamov
ingobj
ect
t
ogether
.

Theeyel
idcov
er saney
eandpr
event
sitf
rom mechani
cal
damageandi
nvasi
on
byf
orei
gnbodies.

Eyelasheshel
ptopreventdustandsmal
li
nsect
sorpar
ti
clesf
rom ent
eri
ngt
heey
eby
tr
appingthem ont
heirhai
rs.

Thepresenceofaqueousandvi
tr
eoushumour
shel
pstheeyet
obendl
i
ghtr
ayst
owar
d
ret
inatoprocesst
hesignal
andsendimpul
set
othebr
ain.

TheFunctionsofSenseOrgansandthei
rAdapti
veFeatures
Expl
ainthefunct
ionsofsenseorgansandt
heiradapti
vefeatur
es
Adaptati
onsoftheeyetoit
sfuncti
ons
Theey ei
sadaptedtoit
sfuncti
onsbypossessi
ngt hefol
l
owingf eat
ures:

Conj
unct
iva,
cor
neaandl
ensar
etr
anspar
entt
oal
l
owl
i
ghtt
opasst
hrought
hem.

Scl
erot
icl
ayeri
smadeupof(col
l
agen)f
ibr
es;
itmai
ntai
nsshapeofey
ebal
l
/pr
otect
sthe
eyefr
om mechani
cal
damage.

Corneaistr
anspar
entandcur
vedt
husr
efr
act
sli
ghtr
aysandal
l
owsl
i
ghtt
o
passthr
ough.

Choroi
d(alay
erofat
issue)hasbl
ackordar
kpi
gment
sthatpr
eventi
nter
nal
ref
lect
ions
ofl
ighti
ntheeye.

Theey econtai
nsbloodvessel
sint
hechor
oidsl
ayert
hatsuppl
yoxy
genandnutr
ient
sto
theeye,gi
vingtheeyeenergyt
operf
ormit
sfunct
ion,
andremovest
hemetabol
i
cwastes
from t
heeye.

Retinai
smadeofphot
oreceptorsknownasrodsandcones,
whi
cht
rapl
i
ghtr
ays
toenabl
etheey
etodoit
sf uncti
onofvisi
on.

Yell
owspot(fovea)hast
hehi
ghestconcent
rat
ionofconesf
oraccur
ateand
sharp,
cent
ral
v i
sion.

Opt
icnerv
ehassensor
yneur
onesf
ort
ransmi
ssi
onofner
vei
mpul
sest
othebr
ain
(
for
int
erpr
etat
ion)
.

Lensisbi
convexandmadeupofel
asti
c,t
ransparentmat
eri
alwhi
chadj
ust
stof
ocusf
ar
ornearobj
ect
sandall
owsli
ghtr
aystopassthrough.
Suspensor
yli
gament
sar
efi
broust
ohol
dthel
ensi
npl
ace.

.Thecili
arybodycontai
nscil
i
arymuscl
eswhicharecont
racti
let
of orcont
roll
i
ng
thecurv
atureandhencefocall
engt
hofthel
ens.I
talsocontai
nsglandsthatsecr
ete
theaqueousandvit
reoushumours.

Their
isisopaqueandcont
ract
il
eforcont
rol
l
ingt
heamountofl
i
ghtent
eri
ngt
heey
e(by
adj
usti
ngthesizeoft
hepupil
).

Ocul
armuscl
escoor
dinat
eey
emov
ementsot
hatbot
hey
escanf
oll
owamov
ingobj
ect
t
ogether
.

Theeyel
idcov
er saney
eandpr
event
sitf
rom mechani
cal
damageandi
nvasi
on
byf
orei
gnbodies.

Eyelasheshel
ptopreventdustandsmal
li
nsect
sorpar
ti
clesf
rom ent
eri
ngt
heey
eby
tr
appingthem ont
heirhai
rs.

Thepresenceofaqueousandvi
tr
eoushumour
shel
pstheeyet
obendl
i
ghtr
ayst
owar
d
ret
inatoprocesst
hesignal
andsendimpul
set
othebr
ain.

Thehumanear
Theeari stheor ganofhear ingandmai ntai
ningbal anceandpost ure.Theout er
earprotrudesawayf rom t heheadandi sshapedl i
keacupt odi rectsoundwav est oward
thetympani cmembr ane, whi cht ransmi tsvibrati
onst ot heinnereart hroughaser i
esof
smal l
bones( ossicl
es)i nt hemi ddleearcal ledt hemal leus,incusandst apes.Thei nner
ear,orcochl ea,isaspi ral
-shapedchambercov eredinternal
lybyner vef i
brest hatreact
tothev i
brat i
onsandt r
ansmi ti
mpul sest othebr ainv i
at heaudi t
or ynerve.Thebr ain
combi nest heinputofourt woear st odet er
mi net hedirecti
onanddi stanceofsounds.
Thei nnerearhasav est i
bul arsy stem for medbyt hreesemi circularcanal sthat
areapproxi mat el
yatr i
ghtangl est oeachot herandwhi charer esponsiblef ort hesense
ofbalanceandspat i
al ori
ent ation.Thei nnerearhaschamber sfill
edwi thav iscousf lui
d
andsmal lparti
cles(otol i
ths)cont ainingcalcium car bonate.Themov ementoft hese
parti
clesov ersmal lhaircel lsint hei nnerearsendssi gnalst othebr ainthatar e
i
nterpretedasmot i
onandaccel eration.Thef igurebelowshowst heinternalstr uct
ureof
themammal i
anear.
Adapt
ati
onsoft
hemammali
aneartoit
sfuncti
ons
Theeari
sadapt
edt
oit
sfunct
ionsbypossessi
ngthef
oll
owi
ngf
eat
ures:

Theouterear(pi
nna)isafl
apofti
ssuewhichcol
l
ect
ssoundwav
esanddi
rect
s
themi
ntotheinnerearvi
atheaudi
tor
ycanal.

Thelini
ngofaudi
torycanalcont
ainswax-secr
eti
ngcel
l
swhichproducewax.Thewaxi
n
thecanaltr
apsdustpart
icl
esandot herf
orei
gnbodi
esandhenceprotect
sthei
nner
deli
catepart
sofanearfrom mechanicaldamageormicr
obi
ali
nfect
ions.

Theeardr um i
sthinandmembranous,af
actthatenabl
esittovi
brat
ewhen
soundwav eshiti
tbefor
econver
ti
ngthewavesintovi
brat
ionsandpassi
ngt
hem ont
o
theearossicl
esinthemiddl
eear.

Theearossi
cl
es(mall
eus,
incusandstapes)actasalev
ersyst
em whi
chcan
movefor
wardandbackwar
dt oampli
fyandtransmitv
ibr
ati
onstot
heovalwi
ndow.
TheEustachi
ant
ubeisholl
ow, afactwhichall
owsairi
nandoutoft
hemi
ddl
eear
toequal
i
zethepr
essurebetweentheinsideandoutsi
deoft
heear
drum—whichi
mprovesthedrum‘sabil
it
yt ovi
brat
e

Thecochl eaiscoil
edtoincreasethesur f
acear eaforsoundrecepti
on.I
tal
so
cari
esauditorynerveswhichtransmitsoundimpul sestothebrainfor
i
nterpretati
on.pi
nnaeardrumskullbonesemi-cir
cularcanal
sauditor
ycanal
eust
achian
tuberoundwi ndowcochl
eaaudi t
orynerveI
nternalstr
uctur
eoft hehumanearoval
wi ndow

Thepresenceoffl
uid-
fi
ll
edvesti
bul
arapparat
us( semi
-ci
rcul
arcanal
s,saccul
us,
andut
ricul
us)i
ntheinnerearf
acil
it
atesbal
ancingofsoundwhent hefl
uidisdi
spl
aced.

Thet ongue
Thet onguei sanor ganresponsi bl
ef ortaste.Itisthepr i
mar yor ganoft ast
e( gust ation),
asmuchofi t
suppersur faceiscov eredint astebuds.Thet ongue' suppersur f
acei s
alsocov eredwi thnumer ousl i
ngual papil
lae.Thet onguei ssensi ti
v eandkeptmoi stby
sali
v a,andi sr i
chlysuppliedwi thner vesandbl oodv essels.
Ther ecept orsf ortaste,call
edt ast
ebuds, aresituatedchi eflyinthetongue, butt hey
arealsol ocat edint heroofoft hemout hneart hephar ynx.Theyar eabl etodet ectf our
basict astes:sal t
y,sweet ,bi
tter,andsour .
Gener al
ly,thet astebudscl oset ot
het i
poft hetonguear esensi ti
vetosweetand
saltytastes, wher easthosei nthebackoft het onguear esensi tiv
et obi t
tertastes.The
tastebudsi nt hesidesoft het onguear esensi t
ivetosourt astes.Atthebaseofeach
tastebudt her eisaner vethatsendst hesensat i
onst othebr ai
n.Thesenseoft ast e
funct i
onsi ncoor di
nationwitht hesenseofsmel l.
Thenumberoft astebudsv ar i
essubst anti
allyfrom indiv
idual toindividual,
but
great ernumber sincreasesensi tivi
ty.Women, i
ngener al,hav eagr eaternumberoft aste
budst hanmen.Asi nthecaseofcol ourbl i
ndness, somepeopl eareinsensitivet osome
tastes.
Adaptat
ionofthetonguet
oit
sfuncti
ons(
asasenseorgan)
Thetongueisadaptedtoi
tsf
unct
ionsbypossessi
ngt
hefol
lowi
ngf
eat
ures:

Thetonguehastastebudswhi
chhel
pitt
orespondt
hest
imul
isuchassweet
,
bi
tt
er,
sourandsalty
.

Att
hebaseofeacht
ast
ebudt
her
eisaner
vet
hatsendst
hesensat
ionst
othebr
ain.

Thehumannose
Thenosei stheor ganresponsibleforthesenseofsmel l.Thecav i
tyofthenoseis
l
inedwi t
hmucousmembr anest hathavesmel l r
eceptorsconnectedt otheolf
actor
y
nerve.Thesmel l
sthemselv esconsistofv apoursofv ari
oussubstances.Thesmel l
receptorsint
eractwit
hthemol eculesoft hesev apoursandt ransmitthesensati
onsto
thebrain.Thesmel l
receptorsaresensiti
v etosev entypesofsensat i
onsthatcanbe
characteri
zedascamphor ,
musk, fl
ower ,
mi nt,ether
,acrid,orputr
id.Thesenseofsmell
i
ssomet
imestempor
aril
yl
ostwhenaper
sonhasacol
d.Dogshav
easenseofsmel
l
t
hati
smanyti
mesmor esensi
ti
vet
hanman'
s.

Whenwewantt o―smel l
‖foodwedr awairhi
ghupintothenasalcavitywhere
thechemical
scomei ntocontactwi t
hhairsonthesensorycel
ls.Di
f f
erent
chemicalsst
imulatediff
erentsensor ycel
lsandner
vousimpulsesar esetupwhi chpass
alongthever
vest othebraintobei nterpr
eted.
Whenournosei sbl ockedwithcol d,ourfoodmaybecome―t asteless‖becausewe
nolongersmelli
t.
Adaptati
onsofthenoset oit
sf uncti
ons
Thenosei sadaptedt oit
sfunct i
onsbypossessingthefoll
owingfeatures:

Thereareol
factoryner
ves,
whichcar
ryi
mpulsef
rom t
henoset
otheol
fact
oryl
obesof
thebrai
nforint
erpret
ati
on.
Thehumannose

Presenceofmucus-
secr
eti
ngcel
l
s,whi
chpr
oducemucust
hatkeept
hesur
faceof
thenosemoist
.

Presenceofhai
rsinthenosehel
psthenosetotr
apdustparticl
esandot her
forei
gnbodi
es.Whent hemucusisbl
ownoutfrom t
henose,itcarr
iesthedustand
otherf
orei
gnbodieswithi
t,t
husprev
ent
ingtheol
factor
yorgansfrom damage.

Thehumanski
n
Theskinistheoutercov eri
ngofthebody.I
nhumans, i
ti sthelargestorganof
thei
ntegumentarysystem.Theski nhasmulti
plelayer
sofect oder mal t
issueandguar
ds
theunderl
yi
ngmuscl es,bones,li
gamentsandinternal
or gans.Itprotectsusfrom
microbesandtheelement s;hel
psregul
atebodytemper ature;andper mitsthe
sensati
onsoftouch,heat,andcold.
Theskinhasthreelayers:

Theepider
mis,
theout
ermostl
ayerofski
n,pr
ovi
desawat
erpr
oofbar
ri
erandcr
eat
esour
ski
ntone

Thedermis,
beneat
htheepi
der
mis,
cont
ainst
oughconnect
ivet
issue,
hai
rf
oll
i
cles,
and
sweatgl
ands

Thedeepersubcut
aneousl
ayer(
hypoder
mis)i
smadeoff
atandconnect
ivet
issue.

Theskin‘
scol
ourispr
oducedbyspeci
alcel
lscal
l
edmelanocyt
es,
whi
chpr
oduce
thepi
gmentmelani
n.Mel
anocyt
esarelocat
edintheepi
der
mis.

Theskincontai
nssensorynerv
eendingswhicharer
ecept
ors.Theyar
esensit
iveto
pain,
pressur
e,t
ouch,heatandcol
dness.Whenthenerv
eendingsarest
imul
atedthey
setupnervousi
mpulseswhicharesenttot
hespinal
cordorbrai
ntobeint
erpret
ed.
Funct
ionsofski
n

Regulati
on:Theskinpl
aysanimport
antr
olei
nregul
ati
onofbodytemperat
ureinan
organism t
hushelpi
ngtokeepthebodyt
emperat
ureconst
ant(
endother
mic).

Theski
nmanufact
uresvi
taminDthr
oughexposur
etosunlight
.Ergost
erol
int
hef
att
y
l
ayeroft
heski
nconvert
sintovi
tami
nDundertheinf
luenceofsunli
ght.

Theskinpr
oducesmel
ani
nthatpr
otect
sthebodyf
rom ul
tr
avi
oletr
adi
ati
onswhi
chcan
causeski
ncancer
.

Theski
nact
sassensor
yor
ganduet
othepr
esenceofv
ari
ousner
veendi
ngs.

Prot
ecti
on:
Itpr
event
smi
cro-
organi
sm andot
herf
orei
gnmat
eri
alsf
rom ent
eri
ngt
he
body.

Excreti
on:
Sweatgl
andsproducesweat
,whi
chget
sri
dofexcessheat
,wat
er,
sal
ts,somecar
bondioxi
deandurea.

St
orage:
Fati
saf
oodst
orei
ntheder
mis.

Adapt
ati
onsoftheskint
oit
sfunct
ions(
asasenseorgan)
Thehumanskinisadapt
edtoi
tssensor
yfunct
ionsbyhav
ingt
hef
oll
owi
ngf
eat
ures:
I
thast hehai
rerectormusclewhichcont
rolswhet
hert
hehai
rst
andser
ectorl
i
esdown
dependingonthetemperatureofthesur
roundi
ng.

I
tissuppl
i
edwi
thner
veswhi
chconv
eyi
mpul
sest
otheCNSt
obei
nter
pret
ed.

Presenceofbloodvessel
s(inthedermis)whichdi
latewhenthebodytemperature
i
shi ghtof
acil
it
ateheatl
ossbyr adiat
ionandconst
rictwhenthet
emper at
ureislow
toreduceheatl
oss.Thebloodv essel
salsosuppl
ynut r
ient
sandoxygentotheskin
andr emov
eexcretor
yproducts.

Theski
nhassweatglandswhichproducesweattohelpcoolt
hebody.Dur
ingahotday
,
thegl
andsproducesweat(
thr
oughsweatpor es)
.Evapor
ati
onofthesweatusest
he
bodyheatandhencehel
pstocooldownt hebody.

DrugsandDr ugAbusei nRel at i

ont oNer v ousCoor dinati
on
TheMeani ngofDr ugsandDr ugAbuse, i
nRel ationt oNer v ousCoor dinati
on
Explaint hemeani ngofdr ugsanddr ugabuse, inr elati
ont oner vouscoor dinat i
on
Drugs
Adrugi sanychemi calsubst ance, nat ur al orsy nt heti
c,thathasknown
physiol ogi cal effectsonhumansorot herani mal s.Foodsar egenerallyexcludedf rom
thi
sdef ini t
ion, i
nspi t
eoft heirphy siol ogi cal effect sonani mal speci
es.
Mostdr ugs, bothusef ul andhar mf ul, mayaf fectt hebody( especiallythebr ain),
byal
t eringt hener v ecells'nat uralreact iont othesechemi cal s,orbymi mickingt he
body '
snor mal compounds.
Somedr ugssl owdownt hepassageofst i
mul ibyaf fecti
ngner vecell membr anes,
andot her sactl i
keneur otransmi tt
er s, per hapspassi ngst rongerorl onger-l
ast ing
i
mpul ses.Assucht heymayal terthewaysensor yinformat ionisprocessed, oraffectt
he
thi
nki ngpr ocess.
Sti
mul ant sar edr ugswhi chspeedupt heact ionoft hebr aine.g.caf f
eine,foundi ntea
andcof f ee.Sedat i
v esar edr ugswhi chsl owdownt heact i
onoft hebr ai
ne.g.al cohol.
Evenoneal cohol icdr i
nkwi l
l hav esomeef fectont hebrain.
ProperWay sofHandl i
ngandUsi ngDr ugs
Outl
inepr operway sofhandl ingandusi ngdr ugs
Properuseandhandl ingofdr ugs
Whenusi ngandhandl ingdr ugst hef ol lowi ngpr ecaut i
onsmustbeobser ved:

Av
oidt
aki
nganydr
ugwi
thoutdi
agnosi
ngt
hedi
seaseandpr
escr
ipt
ionbyt
hedoct
or.

Alwaysstayawayf
rom peerpr
essur
esanddr
ugaddi
ctst
oav
oidcopy
ingt
hei
r
badhabi
ts.

Keepyour
sel
fbusywit
hanumberofact
ivi
ti
essuchasspor
tsandgames,
readi
ngbooks,
et
c.Remember‗anidl
emi
ndisthedevi
l
‘sworkshop‘
!
Repor
tanycaseofdr
ugabuseort
raf
fi
cki
ngt
oconcer
nedaut
hor
it
ies.

Form acounsel
l
ingcl
ubt
oadv
isepeopl
eespeci
all
yyout
hsonhowt
okeepof
f
fr
omdr ugs.

I
fonef
eel
saddi
cted,
s/heshoul
dseekadv
icef
rom heal
thof
fi
cial
s.

Nev
ert
akeadosemor
eorl
esst
hatwhathasbeenpr
escr
ibedbyt
hedoct
or.

Complet
etheprescri
beddoseevenaft
ery
oustar
tfeeli
ngwelloraft
erthesy
mpt omsof
thedi
seasehasdisappear
ed.
9.Keepal
ldr
ugsoutofreachofchil
drenanddrugaddi
cts.

Drugaddi ction
Drugaddi ctionr ef
er stot hecompul siveandr epeat eduseofi ncreasingamount sof
drugswi t
ht heappear anceofwi thdr awal sy mpt omswhendr uguseceases.Whi l
edr ug
useof tenbegi nsasawayt oseekr ecr eat i
on, theaddi ct
iv epr oper ti
esoft hedrugmake
anaddi ctcrav eforitper manent ly.Thi scompul si
oni suncont roll
ableandmayi nterf
ere
withaper son‘sev erydayl if
e.Ev enwhent heef fectsofdr ugsar edamagi ngtoaper son‘
s
body andr el
at i
onshipswi thfri
ends, fami lymember sandco- wor kers,theconst antneed
foradr ugof t
enov er comesanyr ational thinking.
Thehumanbodyhasi tsownabi li
tyt opr oducesomechemi calsf orit
s
proper functioning.Thecont i
nueduseoft hedr ugsuppr essest hebody ‘
sabi l
it
yto
producet hesechemi calsordi mi nishesi tspr oduct ionbecauset hesechemi calare
repl
acedbyt hedrug. Thebodyt hususest hedr ugasasubst i
tutef orit
sownnat ural
chemi cal s.Sincet hesechemi calsar enol ongerpr oduced, t
hebodyper ceiv
est hatit
needst hedr ugf oritsfunct i
oning.Ther efore,aper soncr av esf orthedr ugsomucht hat
s/hef eelscannotl ivewithoutt akingi t.Att hislev elthedr ugabuserbecomesaddi cted
tothedr ug.Thi siscalleddr ugaddi ction.
CausesandEf f
ectsofDr ugAddi ct i
on
Explaincausesandef f
ect sofdr ugaddi ction
Likemanyment alhealthdi sorders, sev er alcausesmaycont r
ibutet odev el
opmentof
drugaddi ct i
onanddependence.Someoft hecausesofdr ugabuseandaddi ct
ion
i
ncludet hefol l
owing:

Somepeoplet
akedrugstoavoi
dphysi
caloremot
ional
pai
n,di
scomf
ort
,
st
ress,
bor
edom,anxi
etyanddepr
essi
on.

Somepeoplealsotakedr
ugsasawayt
ofor
getpr
obl
emsandl
i
fehar
dshi
ps
they
exper
ienceinl
i
f e.

Recr
eat
ion:
Druguser
sbel
i
evet
hatt
aki
ngdr
ugsmaket
hem ‗
feel
bet
ter
‘andl
i
vel
y.

Peerpr
essur
eleadspeopletodrugsoastocreat
easenseofbel ongingandf
it
ti
ngi
nthe
peergr
oup.I
t‘
softensai
dt hatt
eensusedrugswhenthei
rfr
iendsdo.Usingdr
ugsal
l
ows
thesey
oungpeopletofi
tinwiththei
rpeer
sandblendinwit
hthecr owd
.Desir
eforanewexperi
enceandarousal:
Somepeoplej
ustt
akedrugsas
an‗exper
iment‘
tof
indouttheexper
iencethedr
uguser
sfeel
,butbadl
yendupbecomi
ng
drugaddi
cts.

Lackofl
ifeandsoci
alskil
l
s,forexampledrugresist
anceskil
lsthatwoul
dhelpaperson
l
earnhowt osaynooravoidbadinfl
uence.Peoplewhoar eeasytocopyhabit
sfrom
other
s,i
rr
especti
veoftheoutcomeofthegi v
enhabit,caneasil
ygetint
odruguse.

Effectsofdr ugabuseandaddi cti

on
Effectsofdr ugabuseandaddi cti
on
Manyi l
legalchemi calshav eext r
emeef fectsont hefuncti
onoft hebr ai
n,e.g.some
drugscausehal l
ucinations-obj ectsar oundy oumaychangecol our,
shapeandsi ze,or
youmay seeandexper iencet hingst hatar enotthereatall
.Suchexper i
encesmaycause
fear,depression,andment aldisorder s.Most l
y,t
hesesubst ancesal t
erone'sper cept
ion
ofrealit
y.
Drugspr oduceav arietyofshor t
-t
erm ef fect
s,butthemostcommonones
i
ncl udeincreasedhear trate,highbl oodpr essure,di
zziness,t
remor s,moodchangesand
paranoi a.I
nhighdosages, ther i
skf ormor edangerouseffectsincreases,andt he
potent i
al f
orhear t
attack,stroke, r
espi r
atoryfail
ureandcomai ncreases.Thev arious
effectsofdr ugabusei ncludet hef oll
owing:

Drugsconfusethement
alfacult
iessothatmanydrugusersdi
einaccident
s,
orover
doseonthechemicals.Dr
ugscanal soi
nducethem dodanger
ousactiv
iti
es
suchasunsafesexorr
ecklessdriv
ing.

Manydr
ugsinduceaf
eel
i
ngofdependency(
addi
cti
on)andar
eli
nkedwi
th
cr
imi
nal
act
ivi
ty.

Solventabuse(
sni
ff
ingglue,
li
ght
erf
uel
,et
c.)-onwhi
chonecaneasi
l
yov
erdose-
can
causedeathbyheartf
ail
ure.

Othersubstancescani ncidentall
yaffectthebody'
s"t
hermostat"-locatedin
thehypothal
amus( r
efertoat opiconhomeost asi
sandosmor egulati
on)andcause
death,f
oll
owingdi sr
uptionoft hebody '
stemperat
urecontr
olandr egulati
onofthe
body'swatercontent.Even"legal"chemicals,
suchasalcohol(
a" social
"drug!
),
haveadverseeffectsont hebody .

Theycanl
eadt
oaggr
essi
veness,
cri
me,
viol
enceanddi
vor
ce.

Sharingofneedlesusedt oinjectdrugsint
ot hebloodstream causeHIVinfect
ions
andhepati
tisamongt headdi cts.Li
kewise,becausedr ugsimpairone‘
sjudgement,it
canleadtounprotect
edsexandhencebecomet hecauseofcont ract
ingother
sexuall
ytr
ansmitteddiseasesl i
kesy phi
l
is,
gonor rhoea,chlamydiaandherpes.

Drugsar
ev eryexpensi
vet
opurchase.Theref
ore,
theaddi
ctsspendmuchoft
hei
rmoney
ondrugsattheexpenseofot
herfamilyneeds.
Manydrugaddict
sareweakandsotheycannotpart
ici
pat
einin-
come
gener
ati
ngacti
vi
ti
es.Thi
sleadst
opover
ty,afactwhi
chcanleadtofai
l
uret
omeetone‘
s
basi
cneeds.

Drugaddicti
onamongwomencanl eadt obi
rt
hdefect
swhi chincl
udegivi
ngbi
rth
tosmallorpremat urebabiesorcauset hebabytohavewithdrawalsymptoms,
bir
thdef
ectsorl earningandbehaviouralprobl
ems.Addit
ional
ly,i
ll
i
citdr
ugsmay
contai
nimpurit
iest hatmaybehar mf ultounbornbaby

Medical
concer
nsli
kedepr
essionandanxiet
ycansever
elyint
err
uptt
headdict
‘ssoci
al
andprof
essi
onall
i
fe,l
eadi
ngtomoodswi ngs,chr
oni
cfati
gueandadimi
nishedinter
est
i
nformerhobbi
esandimport
antli
feev
ents.

Preventi
veandCont rolMeasuresofDr ugAbuse
Suggestpreventi
veandcont rolmeasuresofdr ugabuse
Drugabusei saseriouspsycho-soci
ologicalproblem oft
endiff
icultt
obecur ed.The
bestwaytoav oi
dtheset r
agediesistonev erstar
tt aki
ngdrugs.Howev er,nowadays
specifi
ctr
eatmentsar eavai
l
ablefordifferentt
ypesofment alil
lness.Aregular
,
prolongedandsi
ncer etr
eatmentisrequi r
ed.Socialther
apyorrehabili
tat
ionhasgota
verysigni
fi
cantr
ole.Thefoll
owingactiviti
escanbedonef orthecontrolofdrug
addicti
on:

Earlydet
ect
ion,
treat
mentandr
ehabi
l
itat
ionofdr
ugaddi
ctscanhel
pmi
nimi
ze
theprobl
em.

Parentsshoul
dsetawarm andfri
endl
yat
mospher
eathomesot
hatt
hedr
uguser
s
canfeeleasyt
ocooper
atewith.

Mot
ivat
ionoft
headdi
ctst
omakeupf
ordet
oxi
fi
cat
ion.

They
out
hshoul
dbemot
ivat
edt
ogeti
nvol
vedi
nthef
ightagai
nstdr
ugabuse.

Educat
ingt
hecommuni
tyaboutt
hepr
obl
emsofdr
ugaddi
cti
on.

Enf
orcementofl
aws,
rul
esandr
egul
ati
onf
ort
hecont
rol
andsuppl
yofdr
ugs.

Theschool
cur
ricul
ashoul
dcontai
ncour
sesaboutt
hedr
ugaddi
cti
onanddr
ugabusei
n
det
ail
(li
ket
hetopicyouar
ereadi
ngnow).

Variouseff
ectsofdrugaddict
ionmustbeadv er
ti
sedthr
oughnewspaper
s,
radi
o,tel
evi
sion,
magazine,social
media,andmanyothermedi
asoast omaket
he
problemknownt oasmanypeopl easpossibl
e.

Theexper i
enceofdruguser
scanbeadver
ti
sedt
othepeopl
ethr
oughmediat
omaket he
generalpubli
cawareoftheeff
ect
sofdr
ugssoastodi
scour
agethosewhomight
thi
nk
ofstart
ingtakingdr
ugs.
Locat i
onoft heDi f
fer entEndocr i
neGl andsi ntheMammal ianBody
I
dent i
fylocat ionoft hedi f
fer
entendocr i
negl andsi nthemammal i
anbody
THEENDOCRI NESYSTEM
Theendocr inesy stem i sacollecti
onofgl andst hatpr oducehor moneswhi ch
regulatemet abol ism, growthanddev elopment , t
issuef unction,sexualfunct i
on,
reproduction,sleep, andmood, amongot herfunct i
ons.Thegl andsar elocatedinvari
ous
partsoft hehumanbody .Thefunctionoft hesegl andsi stor eleasevarioushor mones,
andasawhol e,theyar emostcommonl yreferredt oast heendocr inesy stem.These
glandsar epi tuitarygland, hypothalamus, thymus, pinealgland, t
estes,ov ari
es,t
hyr
oid,
adrenal glands, parat hyroidandpancr eas.Thel ocat i
onoft hesegl andsi nthehuman
bodyi sasshowni nt hedi agr
amsbel ow.

TheroleofHormonesproducedbyeachEndocr
inegl
and
Expl
aintherol
eofhormonesproducedbyeachendocr
inegl
and
Thehor monesreleasedbygl andsoft heendocrinesyst
em regul
atet
hefunct
ionsof
many cel
lsandorgansasi ndicatedint hefol
lowingtabl
e.
Disorder
sofHor monal Coordinati
oni nMammal s
Outli
nedisorder
sofhor monalcoordinationi
nmammal s
Causesofendocr i
nedi sor
ders
Thecausesofendocr inedisordersaret ypi
call
ygroupedint
otwocategor
ies:

Endocri
nediseaset
hatresul
tswhenaglandpr
oducest
oomuchort
ool
i
ttl
eof
anendocri
nehormone,cal
ledahormoneimbal
ance.

Endocr
inedi
seaseduet
othedev
elopmentofl
esi
ons(suchasnodulesort
umour
s)
i
ntheendocr
inesyst
em,whi
chmayormaynotaff
ecthormonelevel
s.

Theendocrine'sfeedbacksy stem hel

pscont rol t
hebalanceofhor monesin
thebl
oodstream.Ify ourbodyhast oomuchort ooli
ttl
eofacer tai
nhormone, t
he
feedbacksystem signal
st heproperglandorgl andst ocorr
ecttheprobl
em.Ahor mone
i
mbal ancemayoccuri fthisfeedbacksy stem hast r
oublekeepi
ngt heri
ghtlevelof
hormonesint hebloodstream,orifyourbodydoesn' tcl
earthem outofthebloodstr
eam
properl
y.
I
ncreasedordecr easedlev el
sofendocr inehormonemaybecausedby :

Apr
obl
em wi
tht
heendocr
inef
eedbacksy
stem.

Di
sease.

Fai
l
ureofagl
andtosti
mulat
eanot
herglandtorel
easehor
mones(forexample,
apr
obl
em wi
ththehy
pothal
amuscandisrupthor
moneproduct
ioni
nthepitui
tar
ygl
and)
.

Agenet
icdi
sor
der
,suchasmul
ti
pleendocr
inemeopl
asi
aorcongeni
tal
hypot
hyr
oidi
sm.

I
nfect
ion.

I
njur
ytoanendocr
inegl
and.

Tumourofanendocr inegland.
Mostendocrinetumorsandnodules(l
umps)ar
enon-
cancerous.Theyusuall
ydonot spr
eadtootherpart
softhebody.However
,atumoror
noduleont hegl
andmayi nterf
erewit
hthegland'
shormoneproducti
on.

Ty pesofendocr inedisorders
Ther ear emanydi ff
erenttypesofendocr inedi sor
ders.Maj ori
tyofendocrine
disor derscauset heendocr i
neglandst opr oducet oomuch( hyper
secret
ion)ort oo
l
ow( hy posecret
ion)ofagi venhormonef rom apar ti
culargland.Commonpr oblems
thatresul tfr
om ov ersecr
etion(hypersecretion)orunder secret
ion(hy
posecr et
ion)of
givenhor monesf rom giv
enendocr ineglandsar eexpl
ainedbel ow.
PITUI TARYGLAND
Hy per secreti
onofgr owthhor mone: Gigantism inchil
drenandacr omegal yinadults.
If
thepi t
uitar yglandpr oducest oomuchgr owt hhor mone, achi
ld'sbonesandbody
partsmaygr owabnor mal l
yfast.
Hy posecr etionofgr owt hhor mone: Pitui
tar ydwarfism -ift
heconditi
onoccur s
duringchildhood, itslowsdownl ongbonegr owth.
Hy persecr etionofADH: Causesincr easedr eabsorpt i
onofwat eri
nthekidney
tubulesleadi ngtopr oduct i
onofal it
tleurinebutwhi chismoreconcent r
ated.
Hy posecr etionofADH: Lesswat erisabsor bedfrom t hegl
omer ul
ifi
lt
ratebackto
thebody ,leadi ngtopr oductionofl argev olumesofdi l
uteuri
ne.Thisiscall
eddiur
esi
s
andi sasy mpt om ofdi abetesinspidus.
THYROI DGLAND
Hy perthyroidism

Grave'sdi
sease:Themostcommoncausef oranov er
acti
v ethyr
oidisan
autoimmunedisordercal
ledGrave'
sdi
sease.Grav
e'sdisease,consider
edan
autoimmunedi sease,
showselevat
edweightl
oss,nervousness,excessi
veper
spi
rat
ion,
nervousness,
highmetaboli
crateandr
apid,i
rr
egularheartbeat.

Exopht
hal
mos:
prot
rusi
onoft
heey
ebal
l
scausedbyoedemat
oust
issuebehi
ndt
heey
es.

Hy
pot
hyr
oidi
sm

Cret
ini
sm (i
nfant
il
ehypot
hyr
oidi
sm)-showsstunt
edgrowt
h,t
hickenedf
aci
alf
eat
ures,
abnormalbonedevel
opmentandmentalr
etar
dati
on.

Myxedema-lowmetaboli
crat
e,l
ethar
gy(acondi
tioncharact
erizedbyext
remefat
igue
ordr
owsiness,
orpr
olongedsl
eeppatt
erns.
),wei
ghtgain,
increaseinbodyf
lui
ds.

Goi
tr
e-abnor
mal
growt
hoft
het
hyr
oidgl
and.

PARATHYROI DGLAND
Hy perpar at hyroi dism: demi neralizationofboner esulti
ngi npossi blebonedef ormityand
fracture, andst onesi nt heur i
nar ytract
Hy popar at hyroi dism: decr easedpl asmacal cium levelswhi chcanl eadt osever e
muscl etetany( acondi ti
onchar acterizedbyorr esulti
ngf rom uncont roll
edmuscl e
spasms) .
PANCREAS
Hy perinsul inism: Thel i
v erisov erstimulatedt oconv ertexcessgl ucoset oglycogen
andf atsf orst orage.Thi sl eadst ol owgl ucoseconcent rationi nthebl ood, acondi t
ion
calledhy pogl y cemi a.Thi scondi tionr esult
sinl ackofgl ucosedel i
veryt othebr ain
causi ngdi sor i
ent at i
on, unconsci ousnessandev endeat h( usual lyther esultofan
ov erdoseof i
nsul i
n) .
Hy poinsul inism: Under -secr et
ionofi sulincausesv eryli
ttlegl ucoset obeconv ert
ed
toglycogenandf ats.Thi sr esultsinel evatedglucosel ev el
si nt hebl oodandur ine.
Thecondi tioni scal ledhy perglycaemi a,
andi sasy mpt om ofdi abet esmel li
tus.Ov er
ti
me, di abet i
csexper i
encev ascul arandneur alproblems.Secondar i
ly,poorcirculati
on
may l
eadt ogangr ene, blindness, kidneydamageandi mpot ence.
ADRENALGLAND
Hy per secr et i
onofcor ticost eroids: Cushi ng' ssy ndrome-changesi ncar bohy drat e
andpr ot einmet abol i
sm r esul tingi napuf fyappear ance.
Hy posecr et i
onofgl ucocor ti
coi dsandmi ner alocor ti
coi ds: Addi son‘ sdi sease- sy mpt oms
oft hedi seasei ncl udef at igue, st omachupset ,hypogl y caemi a, sodi um andpot assium
i
mbal ance, dehy dr ation, hy potensi on, andr api dwei ghtl oss.Deat hoccur swi thlackof
treatment .
Hy per secr et i
onofadr enal ine: hy per tensi on, obesi ty,headache, increased
hear tbeat ,weakbones, hy per gly caemi a, ner vousness, sweat ingandear l
yonsetof
sexual dev elopment .
Hy posecr et i
onofadr enal ine: l
owbl oodpr essur e,fatigue, muscul arweakness,
muscl ewast i
ng, inabi li
t yt owi thst andst r
ess, andi ncr easeddar kpi gment at ionoft he
skin.
OVARI ES
Hy per secr et i
onofoest r ogen: Causesdecr easedsexual desire, heav ymenst r
ual f
low
andi ncr easedwei ghti nf emal es.
Hy posecr et i
onofoest r ogen: Causesf ail
ur eoff emal est odev elopsome
secondar ysexual char act eristics, poordev elopmentoft her epr oduct iveor gans, li
ver,
kidneyandl ungs.
TESTES
Hy per secr et i
onoft est ost er one: Causesmal est ohav ef emal ef eaturessuchas
enlar gedbr east sandawi depel v i
s.
Hy posecr et i
onoft est ost er one: Causesf ailureofmal est odev elopsome
secondar ysexual char act eristics, poordev elopmentoft her epr oduct iveor gansand
weakbonesandmuscl es.
THYMUS
Notr esponsi bl
ef oranyef fectsofhy poorhy persecr etionoft hy mosi n.
PINEAL
Notr esponsi bl
ef oranyef fectsofhy poorhy persecr etionofmel atoni n.
Coor di nat i
oni nPl ant ,ConceptofTr opi candNast icResponses
TheConceptofTr opicandNast icResponses
Expl aint heconceptoft ropi candnast icresponses
COORDI NATI ONI NPLANTS
Bot h, plant sandani mal sr eact( orr espond)t ov ariousst imuli ar oundt hem.But
themet hodofr eact ingt ost i
mul iisnotsi mi larinpl ant sandani mal s.Theyr eactt o
stimul iindi fferentway s.Forexampl e, plant sbendt owar dslightbutani mal sdonotbend
towar dsl ight .Theani mal amoebar eact st ot hepr esenceoff oodbymov i
ngt owar dsthe
foodpar ticle.
Thepl ant sdonothav eaner voussy st em andsenseor gansl ikeey es, ears, ornose,
etc.,l
iket heani mal s, butt heycanst il
l senset hi
ngs.Thepl antscansenset hepr esence
ofstimul i li
kel i
ght , grav ity, chemi cal s, wat er, andt ouch, etc.,andr espondt ot hem.
They senset hesest i
mul ibyusi nghor monesi nthem.
Thest imul i likelight ,gr av ity,chemi cal s,wat er,andt ouch, et
c., ar ecal led
env ironment alchanges.So, wecanal sosayt hatt hepl ant scoor dinat etheirbehav i
our
agai nst env ironment al changesbyusi nghor mones.Thehor monesi npl antsdonotact
thesamewayasi nani mal s.
Thehor monesi npl antscoor dinat et hei rbehav i
ourbyaf fectingt hegr owt hofa
plant.Andt heef fectongr owt hoft hepl antcanr esul tint hemov ementofapar toft he
plantlikeshoot( stem)orr oot ,etct owar dsacer tainst imulus.
Exper iment st oI nv estigatet heEf fect sofTr opi candNast i
cResponsesi nPl ants
Car r
youtexper i
ment st oinv estigat et heef fect soft ropi candnast icr esponsesi npl ants
Plantsr eceiv eandr espondt oav ariet yofst imul ithatar eimpor tanttot heirsur vivalin
theenv i
ronment .Theser esponsesal lowt hepl ant st osur vive,grow, dev elopand
reproduce. Themov ementofpl ant si nt hedi rect ionofst imul usisknownas' tropism' .
Tropi smsar egr owt hr esponsesofpl ant st hatr esul tincur vaturesofpl antor gans
towar dorawayf r
omcer tainst i
mul i.Tr opi smscanbeposi ti
v e,inwhi chcaset hepl ant
willbendt owar dast i
mul us, ornegat i
v e, i
nwhi chcaset hepl antwi llbendawayf rom a
stimul us.
Theot hermov ement sshownbyt hepl antsar eassoci atedwi t
ht hegr owt hoft he
plants. Forexampl e, t
heshootsy stem mov est owar dssunl ightandt her ootsy stem
towar dsear th. Thus, thepl ant sal sor espondt ot heirenv ir
onment .
Impor t
antt ropi smsi nplant si ncl udephot otropi sm, geot ropism,
hydrot ropism, chemot ropism andt higmot ropism.
Phot ot ropism
Phot ot ropism i st het endencyf orpl antor ganst obendi nresponset oadi rectional
l
ightsour ce.Forexampl e,lightst reami ngi nawi ndowf rom onedi rectionwi l
l often
causet hest emsofpl ant spl acednear byt obendt owar dthewi ndow, aposi t
ive
phot otropism.
Mostpl antshoot sar eposi ti
v elyphot ot ropicbecauset heyt endt ogr owt owar ds
l
ight.Mostr oot sar enegat iv elyphot otropi cbecauset heyawayf rom light.
TheI mpor tanceofTr opi candNast icResponses
Explaint heimpor t
anceoft ropicandnasticresponses
I
mpor tanceofphot otropi sm
Phot otropism isi
mpor tantt oplantsbecauseofi tenablestheplantleavest obe
placedunderdi rectsunl i
ghtt oabsorbmaxi mum lightsoast ocar r
yout
photosy nt
hesiseff
ectively.
Geot ropism
Geot ropism isthemov ementofapar toftheplanttowar dsgravit
y.Inmostpl ants,
rootsgr owdownwar dwi thgr avi
tywhileshootsgrowupwar dagainstgrav i
ty.Wit
hin
hours,theshootofapl antpl acedoni t
ssidewi l
lusuallybendupwar dandt herootswi
l
l
benddownwar dast hepl antreori
entsitsdi
recti
onofgr owt hinresponset ogravi
ty.
Mostpl antrootsgrowt owar dsgravi
tyandar esaidtobeposi ti
velygeotropic.
Most shoot sgrowawayf rom gravit
yandar esaidbenegat ivel
ygeot r
opic.
I
mportanceofgeotr
opi
sm
Geot
ropismsareimpor
tantt
opl
ant
sbecauseoft
hef
oll
owi
ngr
easons:

I
tenabl
est
hepl
ant
stosendr
oot
sint
othegr
oundhenceanchor
ingt
hepl
antf
ir
mly
int
o
t
hesoil
.

I
tenabl
espl
antr
oot
stoabsor
bwat
erandmi
ner
alsal
tsf
rom t
hesoi
l
.

Negat
ivegeotr
opism exhi
bit
edbytheshootenabl
estheshoottogrowupwar
ds,andi
n
sodoi
ng,exposestheplantl
eavestomaximum sunl
i
ghtforeff
ecti
vephot
osy
nthesi
s

Hy drotr
opism
Hy drotr
opism i
st hemovementofaplantorpartofaplantt
owar dswat er.Plant
rootsnormallygrowtowardsmoist
ure.Theyarether
eforeposit
ivelyhydrotropi
c.Ify
ou
plantaplantnearawatersourcesuchasporouspotorr i
ver
,ther oot
swi llalwaysgrow
towar dswater.
I
mportanceofhydrot
ropi
sm
I
tenablest
heplantstoabsor
bdi
ssol
vedmi
ner
alsandwat
er.Wat
eri
snecessar
y
f
orvar
iousfunct
ionssuchas:

Phot
osy
nthesi
s

Numer
ousphy
siol
ogi
cal
react
ionst
hatt
akepl
acewi
thi
npl
antcel
l
s.

Tur
gorpr
essur
e,whi
chai
dsi
npl
antsuppor
t.

Di
ssol
uti
onofmi
ner
alsal
ts.

Chemot
ropi
sm
Anexampl eofposit
iveandnegat ivechemo- tr
opism i
sshownbyapl ant‘
sroots;t
he
rootsgr owt owar
dsusef ul miner
alsdisplayi
ngpositi
vechemo- t
ropism,andgrowaway
fromhar mfulaci
dsdisplayingnegativ
echemo- t
ropi
sm.
Chemot ropism i
sthemov ementorgr owt hofanorganism orpartofanorganism
i
nr esponset oachemical sti
mulus.Duringtheprocessofferti
li
zati
onthemov ement
ofpollent ubetowardsov uleduetosecr eti
onofasugar ychemicalintheovaryis
anexampl eofchemot ropism
I
mpor tanceofchemot ropism

I
tenabl
estheplanttoabsor
bmi ner
alsal
tsfrom thesoi
lwhent
her
oot
sgr
ow
t
owardsbenef
ici
alchemical
ssuchasfert
il
izers.

Negat
ivegeotr
opi
sm,suchaswhenpl
antroot
sgrowawayfr
om t
het
oxi
ns,
enabl
est
he
pl
antt
osur v
ivebyav
oidi
ngcont
actwi
thsuchhar
mfulchemi
cal
s.

.I
tfaci
l
itat
est
hef
ert
il
izat
ionpr
ocessi
nfl
ower
ingpl
ant
s.
Thigmot ropism orhaptot r
opism
Thigmot ropsimr ef
erst onon-directi
onalmov ementswhi chtakeplacenei t
hert owar ds
nor awayf r
om thest i
mul us.Thebestexampl eofnasticmov ementi sfoldi
ngand
droopingof l
eavesofMi mosapudi caplantwheni tsleavesar etouchedwi thfi
nger sor
anyobj ect.Theleavesfoldev enwhensway edaboutbywi nd.Alsothespeci al
izedt ouch
-sensit
ivetendri
lsofmanyv iningplants,suchaspea, wil
lbendt owardt hesider eceivi
ng
at ouchstimulus.Continualstimulati
oncanl eadtothecoi l
ingofthet endri
laroundan
object,
whi chenablesv i
ningpl antstograspobj ectsonwhi cht heycancl i
mb
I
mpor
tanceoft
higmot
ropi
sm

Thigmot
ropi
sm enabl
escrawli
ngpl
antstocl
imbuphi
gherpl
ant
sandexpose
thei
rl
eav
estosunli
ghtforopt
imum phot
osyt
hesi
s.

I
tenabl
estheinsect
ivor
ousplant
ssuchast
heVenusf
lyt
rapt
otr
api
nsect
sand
di
gest
them t
oobt ai
nnutri
ent
s.
shar
e

Excreti
on
ConceptofExcr etion
TheConceptofExcr etion
Explaintheconceptofexcr etion
Chemi cal r
eact i
onsoccuri nthecel lsofliv
ingor gani smsal lthet i
met ocar ryoutt heli
fe
processes.Thesum oft heser eacti
onsi scal ledmet abol i
sm.Met abolism produces
usefulpr oductsaswel last oxic(poisonous)by -
pr oduct s.
Theset oxicsubst anceshav et ober emov edast heyar ehar mf uli
fallowedt o
accumul ate.Ther emov al ofmet aboli
cwast epr oduct sf rom t hebodyofanor ganism i
s
knownasexcr etion.
Themaj orexcret or ypr oduct sar ecarbondi oxi de,excesswat er ,
andni trogenous
compoundsl i
keammoni a, urea, uri
cacid,et c.Car bondi oxideandwat erar eproducedi n
theprocessoft i
ssuer espi rati
on.Ni t
rogenouscompoundsar ef ormedf rom the
breakdownofpr ot einsandami noacids.Wat erandsal tsi nexcessoft hebody ’
sneeds
arealsoexcr eted.
Otherexcr etorypr oduct si ncludechemi calsf rom medi cines, toxicsubst ances, and
cir
culati
nghor monest hathav eal r
eadyser vedt hei rpur pose.Wewi lll
ear nhow
met abolicwast esgetel imi nat ed.
Inconcise, excretioni sthepr ocessbywhi chwast epr oduct sofmet abolism andot her
non-usef ulmat erialsar eel i
mi natedf r
om anor gani sm.
Exampl esofExcr et oryPr oduct sEli
minatedbyOr gani sms
Giveexampl esofexcr etor ypr oductsel i
minat edbyor gani sms
Livi
ngor ganismsexcr etev ariousexcr et
orypr oduct sofdi versechemi cal nature.The
fol
lowingar eexampl esofexcr et
oryproduct sexcr etedbyl i
vingor ganisms:

Carbondioxi
de:Thisi
saby -
productofr
espir
ati
onofbothpl
ant
sandani
mal
s.Iti
s
excret
edthroughtheporesofthestomatainpl
ants(someoft
hecar
bondi
oxi
de
producedbyrespir
ationi
susedinphotosynt
hesis)
.Inman,
car
bondi
oxi
deisel
iminat
ed
fr
om thebodybyl ungs.

Water:Theconcent r
ati
onofwat erincellsmustbekeptwi thi
nnar rowli
mi t
s.Tool i
tt
leor
toomuchwat ercanhav eanegat i
v eeff
ectontheosmot i
ccondi ti
oninandar oundt he
cell
.Therefor
e, i
thastober egulated.Pl
antcel
lsareprotectedfrom bursti
ngbyt heir
cell
wal l
s.Animalsdonothav ecellwall
s,andwil
lbursti
ftheyhav etoomuchwat er
.
Excesswat erislostfr
om thesur f
aceofgaseousexchangei nbothplantsandani mals.
Inmammal s,waterisalsolostt
hroughsweatandt hroughosmor egul
ationcontr
ol l
edby
thekidneys.

Urea:Thisisacompoundpr oducedi nmammal sfrom t

hebr eakdownofexcessami no
acids.Ami noacidscannotbestoredbecausethei
raccumul ati
oni stoxi
c.Theyare
thereforeconvertedi
ntoalesstoxicsubst
ance.Thisprocessoccur sintheli
verandis
call
edde- aminati
on.Ammoniaisconv er
tedtoureabytheliver.Ureaistr
ansportedby
bloodt othekidneyswheretheyareexcret
ed.Thekidneysar ealsousedt oremoveuri
c
aci
d,wat
er,
excesssal
ts,
excesshor
monesandbi
l
epi
gment
s.

Cal
cium oxalat
e:Thisi
sawast emateri
alproducedbyplant
sandisst
oredasan
i
nsol
ublecry st
all
inest
ructur
einthecel
ls.Calci
um oxal
atei
sstor
edinagi
ngleav
es,
st
emsandr oots,fl
owersorfr
uit
s.

Oxygen:Throught heprocessofphotosynthesi
s,oxygenisproducedasaby -
product.
Someoft heoxy genisusedf orrespir
ati
on,andt heremai
nderisexcretedthr
ought he
stomataoft heleaves.
Inplants,
somewast esubstancesarestoredinpart
soft heplant
thatar
edead.Exampl esofthisarethetannini
nt hebarkoftreessuchasmangr oves
andthedy esi nt
hehear t
woodoft reessuchasl ogwood.Thepur poseofthestorageof
wastemat erialr
angesf r
om protect
iontoadecr easedri
skofbeingconsumed.

Excretioni nHuman
Themai nexcr et orysyst em i nhumansi st heur i
nar ysy stem.Theski nalsoact sasan
organofexcr etionbyr emov ingwat erandsmal lamount sofur eaandsal ts(assweat ).
Theur inar ysy stem i ncludesapai rofbean- shapedki dney sl ocatedi nthebackoft he
abdomi nal cav i
ty .
Excretor yOr gansi nHumanBei ng
Ment i
onexcr et or yorgansi nhumanbei ng
Therear especi alorgansconcer nedwi t
hr emov al ofexcr et orypr oductsfrom thebody .
Suchor gansar ecal ledexcr etor
yor gans.Theexcr etoryor gansi nanani mal sbodyar e
thekidney ,theski nt hel ungsandt hel iver.Thef oll
owi ngt ableshowst heexcret ory
organsandt hepr oduct st heyexcr ete.
Thet ablebel owsummar i
zesexcr etor ypr oductsinhumansandt heor gansconcer ned
withexcr eti
onoft hepr oductandt hemodeofexcr eti
on.
Modeof
Excretor ypr oduct Organ
excr eti
on
Carbondi oxi de Lungs Exhal ation
Kidney sUr i
ne
Ureaandexcessmi neral salts
Skin Sweat
Kidney sUr i
ne
Excesswat er Skin Sweat
Lungs Wat erv apour
Bil
epi gment s( from br eakdownof
Liver Faeces
haemogl obi n)
Acompar i
sonbet weendi fferentexcr etorypr oductscanbemade.Fol lowingist he
compar isonbet weendi fferenttypesofexcr etor
ypr oduct s:
Wast e Adv ant ages Disadv ant ages Habi tatExcr et
edby
Marineandf resh
Toxi cinconcent rated
Producedwi thl i
ttle waterinvert
ebr at
es,
Ammoni a solut i
on.Excr eti
ont ake Wat er
ener gy bonyfishes,
placei nl otofwat er
amphibians
 Lesstoxi cthan
Adultamphi bians,
ammoni a.Less RequiresmoreenergytoLand,
Urea turt
les, mammal sand
waterisneededt o pr oduceit Sea
bonyf ishes
excret
ei t
Reptil
es, bi
rds,
Veryli
ttl
ewat eri
s Requi resconsi
derabl
e
Uri
cAci d Land i nsect s,gastr
opods
usedf oritsexcret
ionenergytoproduceit
(snail
sandsl ugs)
Relati
velynont oxi
c.
Ari
d
Guanine Lesswat erisused Mor eenergyi
sneeded Scorpions,Spiders
habi
tat
toexcretei t
Theexcretoryorgansi nhumansbei ngsmayconv ent
ionall
ybeputi nt
ot wogr oups
namely,primaryandaccessor yorgans:
Pri
mar yexcretoryor gans

Kidneys:
Kidneysar ebean-shapedorgansofareddi
shbrowncolourt
hatar efoundinthe
sidesofthev er
tebralcol
umn.Oncet hebodyhasextract
edwastesfrom food,itsends
thewastest othekidneys.Thekidneysfi
lt
ert
hewast es,
incl
udi
ngurea,saltandexcess
wat er
,whichareflushedoutoft hebodyasuri
ne.

Skin:Theskinper f
ormsitsexcretoryfuncti
onviathesweatglands.Thesear ecoil
ed
tubulessur r
oundedbybl oodcapill
ari
es.Theseglandsproducesweatt hatcontains
mi neralsalt
s,excessoi
ls,water,andtracesofureaandlacti
cacidfrom thesurrounding
bloodv esselswhicharethenexcr et
edoutoft hebodythroughsweatpor es.Thet ubul
es
extendi ntosweatductswhichopenont hesurfaceoftheskinaspor es.Sweati
ngal so
helpst ocool t
hebodydur i
ngev aporati
on.

Lungs:Thelungsar everyi
mpor tantexcr
etoryor
gansastheyexpelcarbondioxidef
rom
thebodyv i
aexhal ati
on.Thelungsusecellsknownasalveoli
toremov ethecarbon
dioxi
defrom ourbl ood.Other
wise,thecarbondi
oxidewouldaccumulateandhav ea
detri
mentaleffecttoourbody .

Accessor
yexcr
etor
yor
gans

Liver:Althoughconsideredasecondaryoraccessor yexcr etoryorgan,theliverplaysa

vitalpar ti
nkeepingthebodycl ean.Ami noacidsar etheend- productofpr oteins.Excess
ami noaci dscannotbest or
edi nthebody .Theyar etakenf rom theguti ntothel i
verby
thehepat i
cpor t
alvei
n.Theliverconvertsthem i ntousef ulcarbohy dr
ates( storedinthe
form ofgl ycogen)andammoni a.Ammoni aisv erypoisonousandmustber emov ed
from t hebody .Theli
verconvertsammoni aintoahar mlesscompoundcal ledur ea.Urea
dissolv esinthebloodandist r
ansportedintot heki dneyv iathehepat i
cv einwher eitis
remov edascomponentofur i
ne.Harmf ulpoisonsandchemi cal
st hatareei t
her
producedi nthebodyorconsumedar ebr okendownanddet oxi
fi
edbyt heliver.

Gallbl
adder:Al
thoughthegall
bladderdoesnothaveahighlysi
gni
ficantroletoplayin
t
heexcr etor
ysy st
em, i
tdoeshav eafunct
iont
hatassi
ststheoverallpr
ocess.Bi l
e,a
l
iquidproducedbyt heli
vert
obr eakdownwaste,i
sfir
ststoredi
nthegal lbladder.When
needed,i
tisdi
schar
gedint
othesmal
li
ntest
inewhoser
olei
stobr
eakdownf
ats,
ethanol
andotheraci
dicwast
es.

Uri
narybladder:
Thewastef l
uidthati
scr
eatedint
hel i
v erandcol
l
ectedinthekidneyi
s
tr
ansferr
edintotheuri
narybladderwher
eitist
empor aril
ystor
edunti
ltheindi
vi
dual
uri
nates.Theuri
narybl
adderpr ovi
desashortt
erm soluti
onforst
ori
ngurineinthebody
unti
li
tisulti
matelydi
scharged.

Uret
ers:
Theureterstubesofsmoothmuscl efi
bretr
ansf erl
iqui
dwastefr
om thekidneys
i
ntotheuri
narybladder.Theuri
neismov edwithper
istalti
cmov ement
swhichforcethe
uri
neawayfrom thekidneys.Theureter
salsohaveureterovesi
calv
alv
eswhichensur e
thewastef
lui
ddoesnott r
avelbackintotheki
dney.

Urethr
a:Theuret
hrar unsthroughthepeni si
nmal es,
andservesasacarr
ierofsemen
aswellasurinefortheirul
ti
mat edischargeoutofthebody.Theuret
hrat
ubeisshort
er
i
nf emalesandisjustabov ethevaginalopening.

Lar geintest
ine:
Foodpar ti
clesareabsor bedintothebloodst ream v i
at hesmall i
ntest
ine.
Theundi gestedsubst ancesaret r
ansferredtothelargeintestinewhi chessential
ly
ser vesasast or
ageor ganf ortheexcretoryproducts.Thedescendi ng, ascendi
ngand
tr
ansv ersecolonsalsof aci
lit
atetheabsor pt
ionofleftovervit
ami ns,wat erandsalt.The
distalstrai
ghtsecti
on( knownast herectum)isusedf orthest orageofwast eproducts
(f
aeces)bef oretheyar eexcretedf r
om thebodyv iatheanal canal withthehelpof
i
nt ernalandexternalsphincters.

TheUr i
narySystem anditsAdapt
iveFeat
ures
Descri
bet heuri
narysystem andi
tsadapt
ivefeat
ures
Theurinarysyst
em isasy st
em concer
nedwithproducti
on,stor
ageandremovalof
uri
ne.Inhumans, i
tismadeupoft hetwokidneys,ur
eter
s,bloodvessel
sthatj
oint
hem,
uri
narybladderandurethra.
Thehumanur inarysy stem
Eachki dneyisconnect edt oaur inarybladderbyat ubecalledtheur eter.Asurineis
for
med, i
tpassest hrought heur etertot heur
inarybladderwherei ti
sst oredtempor ari
l
y.
Belowt hebladderisat ubecalledur ethrawhichissurroundedbyar ingofmuscl es
cal
ledsphi nct
ermuscl es.Theur ethrai sacanalthatcarri
esurinef r
om t hebladderand
expelsitoutsi
det hebody .Theur ethrapassesur i
newhensphi nctermuscl esrelax.
Thekidney s:
Kidney sarebean- shapedor gansthataredeepr edincol ourlocatedont he
dorsalpartoftheabdomi nalcavity.Mammal shav eonepai rofkidney s.Kidneysarethe
pri
ncipleorgansoft heur inarysy st
em.
Functionsoftheki dney s

Theyfi
lt
erbl
oodt
oremov
ewast
esandr
eabsor
busef
ulsubst
ancessuchaswat
erand
sal
ts.

Theymai
ntai
nappr
opr
iat
ewat
er-
sal
tbal
ancei
nthebl
ood.

Theyregul
atetheaci
d-basebal
ancesucht
hatt
hepHofbl
oodr
emai
nsatabout7.
4for
properf
uncti
oningoft
hebody .

Theyar
eimpor
tanti
nregul
ati
onofbl
oodpr
essur
e.

Theyproduceer yt
hropoi
eti
n,calcit
ri
olandanenzymecalledrennin,whichi
sinvolv
edin
theformationofthehormone, angi
otensi
n,whi
chraisesbloodpressure.Er
ythr
opoiet
in
i
sahor monet hatspeedsupt heprocessofthefor
mat i
onofr edbloodcell
sinthebone
mar r
ow.Cal ci
tr
ioli
sanacti
vef orm ofvi
taminDwhichincreasestherateofcal
cium
reabsorpt
ionforboneformati
on.
Struct
ur eoft hekidney
Eachki dneyi sencl osedi nat hi
n, fi
brouscov er
ingcalledt hecapsul e.Theki dneyhas
threedistinctr egi
ons, namel ythecor tex ,medullaandpel v i
s.Thecor texisthe
outermostl ay eroft hekidney .Themedul l
aisthemi ddlel ayeroftheki dney,normal l
y
redincol our.Thepel visi
st hespacei nsidetheki dneywhi chcol l
ectst heurineand
l
eadsi ttot heur eter.Theur eterpassesur inetotheur inarybladderwher ei
ti sstored
beforeitisr el
easedoutt hrought heur ethrainthegeni tal
s.
Eachki dneyi ssuppl iedwi thoxy gen-r
ichbl oodf r
om ther enal art
ery.Deoxy genated
bloodisr eturnedt ot heci r
cul atorysyst em from thekidney sviather enalvein.Blood
enteri
ngt heki dney sf r
om t her enal arteryarerichinwast emat er
ials,andbloodexi ti
ng
thekidney sf r
om t her enalv einisdef i
ci entinthesewast emat eri
als.

Structureofthekidney
Thenephr on
Eachki dneyismadeupofnumer ous, coil
edexcr etorytubulesknownasnephr ons,and
collecti
ngductsassociatedwithtinybl oodv essels.
Anephr onconsi st
sofal ong,coi
ledt ubule,andt heMal pighiancorpuscle.Thetubuleof
thenephr onisdiff
erenti
atedi
ntot hepr oximal conv ol
utedtubule,l
oopofHenl eandt he
distalconvolut
edtubule.Thedistaltubuleopensi ntothecol l
ecti
ngduct .
Att heproximalendoft henephronist heMal pi
ghiancor puscle,whichconsist
sof
Bowman’ scapsuleandt hegl
omer ulus.Bowman’ scapsul eisadoubl e-wall
ed,cup-l
ike
structurewhichsurroundsthedensenet wor kofbl oodcapill
ariescall
edt hegl
omer ulus.
Struct ureoft henephr on
Ther ei sabr anchoft her enal ar ter y,
theaf ferentar teriol
e, enter i
ngt hesmal lcup-li
ke
spaceoft heBowman’ scapsul easanet wor kofbl oodcapi ll
aries.Thi snet wor kisknown
ast hegl omer ul
us.Emer gingf rom t hisnet wor k,thecapi ll
ar i
esr e-
unitetof orm asmal l
arteriole, knownast heef ferentar teriol
e.Ast heef f
erentar teriolecont i
nuesi ttwines
aroundt hepr oximal anddi st al conv olutedt ubul e.Theef fer entar t
eriol
edi videsi nto
capillariesatsev eralpoi nt sal ongt hel engt hoft het ubules, absor bi
ngv ari
ous
subst ances.Thesecapi l
lariesev ent uallyr euni t
et odr ainint ot herenal vein.Theef fer
ent
arteriolei ssmal l
erthant heaf f erentar teriole.Thi sdi ff
erencei ndiamet erhel pst or ai
se
thegl omer ul
arpr essur eandai dsi nul traf il
tration.
Someani mal sdonothav eawel ldev elopedki dney ;theymayhav estructurescal l
ed
nephr idia.Ani mal ssuchasear thwor mst hatar esimpl etube- likestructureshav e
nephr idiat hathav ethesamer ol east hemor ecompl exnephr onsi ntheki dney s.
ThePr ocessofUr i
neFor mat ion
Explai nt hepr ocessofur inef or mat ion
Thebl oodf rom theaf fer entar teriole, whi chent erstheBowman’ scapsul e,isr i
chin
nutrient ssuchasgl ucose, fat tyaci ds, ami noaci ds,v i
tami ns, protei
ns, ureaandex cess
salts.Anephr oni sthest ruct ur al andf unct i
onal unitofaki dneywhi chisconcer nedwi th
excret ionandhaemost asis.
Thet hr ee( 3)disti
nctst agesofur inef or mat ionar e: (1)glomer ularfil
tr
at i
on, (2)tubular
reabsor ptionandsecr eti
on, and( 3)wat erconser vati
on

Gl
omer
ularfi
l
trati
on:
Fil
tr
ati
onoccursi
ntheglomer
ulus(pl
ural
;gl
omeruli
).Becausethe
l
umenoftheaffer
entart
eri
olei
ssigni
fi
cant
lysmal
l
erthantheeff
erentar
teri
olether
eis
alargeamountofpr essureinthegl omerulus.Thi spr essuref or
cesf orcespl asma, t
he
l
iquidportionoft heblood,throught hecapillarywal l
si nthegl omer ul
us.Thepl asma
containswat er,
glucose, aminoaci ds,ur
ea, sal t
s,uricacid,vitamins,andhor mones.Red
bloodcellsandpr otei
nsareretainedinthebl oodcapi ll
ariesbecauset heyaret oolarge
topasst hrought hewal l
.Thisprocessi scalledul tr
a-fil
trati
onandt hef l
uidwhi ch
passesintot heBowman’ scapsul eisknownast hegl omer ularfi
lt
r at
e.Thegl omerular
fi
ltr
atecollectsint hecapsuleandent ersther enaltubuleatt hepr oxi
mal convolut
ed
tubulewhichi scoi l
edtoincreaset hesurfacear eforreabsor pti
onofsubst ances.

Reabsor pti
onandsecr etion:Theef f
er entar t
eriolebranchesi ntocapi l
lari
eswhi ch
surroundt hepr oxi
mal conv olut edt ubul e.Ther e,glucose, ami noacids, vitami ns,
hormonesandabout80%ofsodi um chl ori
deandwat erarer eabsor bedi nt othebl ood
capi l
lari
es.Onl ythesubst ancest hatar eusef ul tothebodyar ereabsor bed.Thi sis
referredt oassel ectiv er eabsor ption.Nor mally100%ofgl ucosei sreabsor bed.Bl ood
cellsar enotr eabsor bedduet ot hei rlargemol ecul arsize.Reabsor pt i
oni nv olvesbot h
diffusionandact iv
et r anspor t(agai nstconcent r
ati
ongr adient),whichusesener gyinthe
form ofATP.Thewast e-cont ainingf lui
dt hatremai nsaf terreabsor ptioni surine.
Tubul arsecr eti
oni st hepassageofcer t ai
nsubst ancesoutoft hecapi l
l
ar iesdirectly
i
nt ot herenal tubules.Tubul arsecr etioni sanot herwayofget ti
ngwast emat erialsint
o
theur i
ne.Forexampl e, drugssuchaspeni ci
ll
inandphenobar bit
alar esecr etedi ntothe
renal tubulesf rom thecapi l
laries.Ur eaandur i
caci dt hatmayhav ebeenr eabsor bedare
secr eted.Excesspot assi um ionsar eal sosecr etedint otheur ine.Tubul arsecr et i
ons
alsomai ntai
nt hepHoft hebl ood.

Wat erconser vation: Inthedistal convolutedtubul e,waterisreabsorbedintothebl ood

byosmosi s.Thet ubul eisalsohi ghlycoiledtoi ncreaset hesurf
acear eafor
reabsor pti
on.Thegl omer ul
arf i
ltrat
ethenf lowsi ntot hecoll
ecti
ngtubuleswher emor e
wateri sreabsor bed.Thef i
l
tratenowcal ledurinef lowsintothecollecti
ngductt heni nto
thepel visoftheki dney .I
tthenf lowsint otheur eterandi stemporaril
ystoredint he
bladder.Wheni tget sfull
,impul sesaresentt othebr aintocreateanawar enessoft he
presenceofur inei nt hebladder .Aper sont henf ell
st heneedtour i
nateandt hebl adder
muscl escont ract, sphinctermuscl esrelaxandt heur i
neisexpell
edv iatheurethra.Urine
format i
oni sessent ialformai ntaini
nghomeost asis,whichistheabili
tyofthebodyt o
mai nt
ainconst anti nternalenv i
ronment .
Reabsorpt
ionandsecret
ionbythenephr
on
Adaptat
ionsoftheur
inarysyst
em t
oitsfunct
ions

Theuri
nar
ysyst
em hasalar
geaff
erentart
eri
ole,
andnarrowef
fer
entar
ter
iol
e,whi
ch
al
lowsbui
ldupofpr
essur
e,thusf
acil
i
tati
ngult
ra-f
il
tr
ati
on.

Theglomeruluscapi
l
lari
esar
ehighl
ycoi
ledandsemi
per
meabl
e,causi
ngabui
l
dupof
pressur
eintheglomerul
ushenceul
tr
afi
l
trat
ion.

Thegl
omerul
arcapi
ll
ari
esaresemiper
meable(t
ubul
eal
sosemi per
meable)toal
low
sel
ect
ivemovementofmater
ial
sinandoutoft
henephr
on(
selecti
vereabsor
pti
on).

Thetubul
es’epi
thel
i
um isthin(1cel
lthi
ck)t
or educedif
fusi
ondi
stanceforf
ast
er
passageandhencereabsorpti
onofmateri
als;
andt heyareandl
eaki
erthannor
mal
capi
ll
ari
es.

I
tisconnectedtoacol
lect
ingduct,
whichchannel
sthefil
tr
ate(ur
ine)outoft
henephr
on
t
ot heur
etertoall
owforconti
nousfunct
ioni
ngofthenephron.

Theproxi
malconv
olutedtubuleandt
hedist
alconv
olut
edtubulear
ecoi l
edsoast o
i
ncreaset
henephrons’
slengthandhencemoresurf
acear
eaf oref
fi
cientreabsor
pti
on
tot
akeplace.

TheBowman'
scapsul
eiscup-
shapedt
opr
ovi
demaxi
mum sur
facear
eaf
orf
il
tr
ati
on.
Thet
ubul
eissuppl
i
edwi
thanet
wor
kofbl
oodcapi
l
lar
iesf
ormaxi
mum r
eabsor
pti
on.

Thenephr
onsar
enumer
ousi
nnumberf
oref
fi
cientexcr
eti
onofwast
epr
oduct
s.

Compl icat i
onsandDi sorder softheExcr et
or ySy stem
CommonCompl i
cationsandDi sorder
soft heExcr etor ySy stem
Ment ioncommoncompl icat i
onsanddi sordersoft heexcr et or
ysy stem
Alar genumberofmedi cal conditi
onsofv aryingi ntensi t
yar eassoci atedwi t
hthe
excret orysy stem.Ifthesear enotaddressedi mmedi ately,theymayev enpr ovetobe
fatalandcl aim one’
sl ife.Weneedt obewel lacquai ntedwi t
hthemostcommonl y
occur ringdi seasesofexcr et or
ysy st
em alongwi tht heirdescr i
ption,sy mptomsand
effectiv et r
eatmentmeasur es.Thet abl
ebel owshowssomeoft hecommon
compl icationsanddi sor dersoft heexcretorysy stem, theircauses, sympt oms,effects
andpr ev entiv
emeasur es.
TheCauses, Symptoms, EffectsandCont r
ol Measur esofCommonCompl i
cati
onsand
Disor der soft heExcretor ySy stem
Explai nt hecauses, sy mpt oms, eff
ectsandcont rol measur esofcommoncompl icati
ons
anddi sor dersoftheexcr etorysystem
Disor der soft heExcretor ySy stem
Prev ent
ion/
treatmen
Disease Cause( s) Sympt oms Ef fects
t

Damaget o Oedema
thekidney ( swel lingof
duet o thel egs,
Avoidpot assium-
accidentor ankl es, f
eet,
ri
chfoodsl ikecitrus
compl icati
on f aceor
Bonedamage, f r
uit
s, bananas,
sdur i
ng handsdue
muscl e i
nstantcof fee,
surger y toexcess
paralysis, peanut sand
fl
uids)
Kidney( r
enal)fail
ure abnor mal heart chocolate
Lowbl ood
–f ai
lureoftheki dney rhythm, lossof
volumedue Hi ghl evels
tofunctionadequat el
y memor y, painin Mayr equireaki dney
toexcessi v e ofur eai n
duetopar ti
al orenti
re thebackorsi de tr
anspl ant.
bleeding blood
destructi
onof andi fnott r
eated
l
eadi ngt o
nephrons earli
er,canl ead Medicat i
onse. g.
Poori ntake v omi ti
ng,
todeat hi fit phosphor us-
offluids nausea,
i
nv olvesbot h l ower i
ng
wei ghtl oss,
kidney s medicat i
ons.
Medi cation, bl oodi n
forexampl e,ur ineor
Dial
ysis
diureti
cs diffi
cul tyin
("waterpi l
ls")urinat i
ng
maycause
excessi ve Lossof
 wat
erl
oss

Obst ructi
on
ofr enal
artery,
causi ng
blockingof
bloodf lowto
theki dneys

Ki
dney
st
ones

Chronic
diseasesthat
gradually
causet he
kidneysto
stop appet
it
e
functi
oning

Dehy drat
ion
from lossof
bodyf lui
d
(forexample,
vomi ti
ng,
diarr
hoea,
sweat i
ng,
fever)

Prostate
cancermay
blockthe
urethr
aand
preventthe
bladderfrom
empt yi
ng

Lackof Exteme Mayl

r eadto Taki
ngabal anced
vi
tamins pai
nand ki
dne yfai
lur
e di
etthatisl
owi n
di
ffi
cult
yin prot
ein,
nitr
ogenand
Ki
dneyst
ones sodi
um
I e ur
nadequat i
naton Toxi
i cit
ydueto
i
ntakeof uri
nest ay
ingin
water Paininthe theb odyfora Dr
inki
ngpl
ent
yof
owback l
l ongt ime water
 Cert
aintypes
ofdrugs

Decr easei n
and/ orsi
de,
urinev olume
groin,or
and/ oran
abdomen
excessof
Av oidbev eragesthat
stone-
Bloodi nt
he cont ai ncaffeineli
ke
formi ng
urinedueto cof fee.
subst ances
damageof
i
nt heur i
ne. Severebackpai
n
theinside Sur gical tr
eatmentt o
wal l
softhe remov ethest ones
Dehy dration Surgeryand
kidney,
from r educed medicati
onsare
ureteror Mayr equirekidney
fl
uidi nt akeor expensive
urethra transpl ant
strenuous
exer cise
Nauseaand Medi cations
vomi ti
ng (painki ll
ers)
Obst ruct ion
tot hef lowof
Chi l
l
sand
urine
fever
I
nfect
ionin
t
heurinar
y
t
ract

Frequentor Drinkingal otof

i
ntense fl
uids
urgeto
uri
nate Mai ntainingt oi
let
even hygiene
thoughl i
tt
le
Medi cat
ionsare
comesout Compl eteur i
nat i
on
expensive.
Bact er
ial wheny ou
Ur
inar
yt r
act i
nf ecti
onin do Cleansegeni talarea
Painand
i
nfect
ions(UTI
s) theur i
nary befor esex
nuisancedueto
tract Paindur i
ng
urget ouri
nat
e
uri
nation Urinateaf tersext o
fr
equent l
y.
fl
ushawayany
Painor bact eri
at hatmay
pressurein hav eent eredy our
thebackor urethra
l
ower
abdomen Keepgeni t
alareadry
bywear ingcot ton
 Cloudy ,
dark,
bl
oody ,
or
strange-
smel l
ing
uri
ne

Feeli
ng
ti
redor
underwearandloose
shaky
-f
it
ti
ngclothes
Fev eror
chill
s( a
signt he
i
nf ection
mayhav e
reached
your
kidney s)

Al
coholand
vi
ral
hepati
ti
s
BandC Avoidi
ngexcess
consumpti
onof
Sev
erecir
rhosi
s
Att
ackby al
cohol
i
sfatal
bacter
i and Lossof
al
vi
ruses weight Av oidingf at t
yfoods
Livercirrhosis:a Easybruising,
conditioninwhi ch yell
owingoft he
Parasites Poor Lowsal tintake
l
ivercel l
sdegener at
e skin
suchasl iver appeti
te
andar er eplacedby (j
aundice) ,
i
tching
fl
ukesand Eat i
ngv aried,easi
ly
scartissue, causi
ng ,andfatigue.
schistosoma Abdomi nal digest i
bl ef ood
theliv
ert oshr i
nk,
pain
harden, become Oedema, ascit
es
Obst r
uction Plent yofr est
fi
brousandf ai
lto (accumul ati
onof
ofthegal l Bl ood
functi
onnor mally fl
uidinthe
bladder stai
ned Medi cal t
reat ment
abdomi nal
vomit
cavit
y),andl i
ver
Exposur eto Li
v ert ranspl anti
n
cancer
chemi cal caseofsev ere
poisonssuch ci
r rhosi s
assili
caand
asbest os

Hepati
ti
s:I
nfl
ammat
io
noftheli
ver I
tisav
iral Nausea Mayl
eadt
oli
verHy
gieni
cpr
ocessi
ng
 offood
disease–v ir
u
si s
Fat i
gue Properdisposal of
transmi tt
ed
sewage
throughbody
Abdomi nal
fl
uidssuchas
discomf or
tf ai
lure Treatmentofwat er
saliva,blood
andsemen
Jaundice I fnottr
eat
ed Properhandingof
earlymayl
eadt
obl ood
Ther ear efi
ve
Dar kbrowndeat h
mai ntypesof
urineand Screeni
ngbl ood
hepat i
tis:A,
whi t
ish beforetr
ansf usi
on
B, C,D,andE
faeces
-plusty pesX
Usingsteri
li
zed
andG
needlesandsy r
inges

Bl
oodin
ur
ine.

Frequent
St
opsmoki
ng.
uri
nar ytract
i
nfect i
ons,
Avoi
dexposur
et o
Noty etvery pai nful
i
ndustr
ial
chemical
s.
clearbuta ur i
nat i
on
numberof andur get o
Eatheal t
hyf oods-
reasonssuchur i
nat e
Expenseson choosel ow-fat,l
ow-
assmoki ng, without
medicati
on. cholesteroldiett
hat
radiation, act ual fl
ow.
i
ncludespl entyof
Bl
adderCancer par asiti
c
Pain-reduces fr
uit
sand
i
nf ection, Wei ghtor
thequali
tyof vegetables.
exposur eto appet i
te
l
ife.
chemi cals l oss.
Avoiddehydrat
ionby
(car ci
nogens)
i
ncreasingyourfl
uid
maycause Abdomi nal
i
ntake,part
icul
arl
y
thedi sease. orback
water.Waterdi
lut
es
pain,
cancer-
causing
persistent
chemicals.
rai
sed
temper atur
eor
anaemi a.
Excr et ioni nPl ant s
Ty pesofExcr et oryPr oduct sEl imi nat edbyPl ant s
Ment i
ont y pesofexcr et or ypr oduct sel imi nat edbypl ant s
Excr et ionoccur sinpl ant sandani mal sast heybot hhav ewast epr oduct st ober emov ed
from t hei rbodi es.Compar edt oani mal s, pl ant sdonothav eawel l-
dev el opedexcr etory
sy stem t ot hr owoutni trogenouswast emat er ials.Thi si sbecauseoft hedi fferencesi n
thei rphy siol ogy .Ther efor e, plant susedi ff erentst rategi esf orexcr etion.
Plant sel imi nat esomewast et hr oughdi ffusi on.Dur ingt heday , excessoxy gengas
producedbyphot osy nt hesi si sr eleasedt hr ought hest omat a.Car bondi oxi depr oduced
byr espi rat ioni snor mal lyusedupdur i
ngphot osy nt hesi s.Atni ght ,howev er ,as
phot osy nt hesi ssl owsdown, car bondi oxi dei snotusedupasf astasi ti spr oduced, and
i
ti sr eleasedasawast epr oduct .Pl ant sal sopr oduceoxy genasaby -pr oductof
phot osy nt hesi s.Theoxy gent hati snotusedf orr espi rat ioni sal soexcr et edt hrought he
stomat a.
Excesswat erev apor atesmost lyf rom st omat aandal sof rom t heout ersur faceoft he
stem, fruits, etc., t
hr oughoutt heday .Thi spr ocessofget tingr idofexcesswat eris
cal l
edt ranspi rat i
on.
Manypl ant sst oreor gani cwast epr oduct si nt hei rper manentt issuest hathav edead
cel l
s, e.g. ,inhear t
wood.Pl ant sal sost or ewast ewi thi nt hei rleav esorbar ks.These
wast esar eper i
odi cal l
yr emov edast hel eav esandbar ksf al lof f.
Someoft hewast epr oduct sar est oredi nspeci al cel l
sorcel l
ul arv acuol es.Var ious
wast epr oduct ssuchast anni ns, essent ial oi l
s, gums, resi ns, et c. ,
ar epr oduceddur i
ng
cat abol icpr ocesses.Teal eav escont aint anni n.Tanni nsar ef oundal soi nt hebar ksof
trees.
Thel eav esofmanypl ant s,likeEucal yptus, lemon, etc. ,cont ainessent ial oils.The
coat i
ngofor angesandl emonsandt hepet alsoff lower sl iker oseandj asmi neal so
cont ainoi ls.Somepl antwast esar est or edasat hick, whi t ef l
ui d.Youmayhav eseen
whi tef l
ui doozeoutwheny oupl uckapapay aoraf i
gorot herpl ant s.Thi swhi tefluidis
cal l
edl at ex.
Gumsar eagr oupofst i
cky ,wat er -sol ubl ewast esf oundi nt hecommongum t ree.
Resi nsar eanot hergr oupofwast esf oundcommonl yi nt hest emsofconi fers( e.g.,pine,
fi
r) .
Alkal oidsar eagr oupoft oxicwast epr oduct s.Butsomeoft hesear eusef ul tous.
Qui ni neandmor phi near emedi cinesder iv edf rom al kal oi dsst or edi nCi nchonabar kand
opi um poppyf lower sr espect i
v ely .Caf fei nef oundi ncof feeseedsandni cot inei n
tobaccol eav esi sal soal kal oids.
Plant sal soel imi nat ewast ebyt heaccumul at ionofwast ei nt hev acuol esoft heagi ng
l
eav ecel ls.Thesel eav eswi llev ent ual l
ydi eandf al lof f,r emov ingwast ei nt hepr ocess.
Thi spr ocessi scal ledabsci ssi on.
Or gani caci ds, whi chmi ghtpr ov ehar mf ul topl ant s, oft encombi newi t
hexcesscat i
ons
andpr eci pi tateoutasi nsol ubl ecr yst alst hatcanbesaf el yst or edi npl antcel l
s.Cal cium
oxal at ecr yst alsaccumul at ei nsomet uber sl ikey am.
Aquat i
cpl ant sl osemostoft hei rmet abol icwast esbydi rectdi f fusioni nt ot hewat er
sur roundi ngt hem.Ter rest rialpl ant sexcr et esomewast ei nt ot hesoi lar oundt hem.
Inplants,breakdownofsubstancesi
smuchsl owerthaninani
mals.Plant
sdonothav
e
special
izedexcr et
oryor
gansforther
emov al
ofmet aboli
cwastes.
Plantsdonotneedaspeci ali
zedexcr
etor
ysy stem l
i
keinanimalsbecauseoft
he
foll
owingr easons:

Ther
ateofpr
oduci
ngwast
epr
oduct
sinpl
ant
sismuchl
ower
.

Mostexcr
etor
yproductsfrom pl
antsar
eremovedbydiff
usionthr
oughthestomat
aor
l
enti
cel
s.Lent
icel
sareareasinwoodystemswher et
hecellsar
eloosel
ypacked
al
lowi
nggaseousexchangeandr emovalofwast
eproducts.

Themajorexcret
oryproductsofplant sar
ecar bondioxi
de,oxy
genandwat er.These
product
sarerecycl
ed.Forexampl e,theoxygenr el
easedasabypr oductduring
photosy
nthesi
s,i
susedi nrespir
ationbyani malsandplant
s.Thecarbondi oxide
rel
easedduri
ngrespir
ati
oni susedf orphotosynthesi
sbytheplant
s.Wat erisrel
eased
i
ntotheatmospherewher eitent
erst hewatercy cl
e.

Pl
ant
sproducel
esspoisonoussubst
ancescompar
edt
otheni
tr
ogenouswast
es
pr
oducedbyani
mals.

Plant
shavelargevacuol
eswhi
chst
orewastesubstancesoft
enaccumulat
ingat
concent
rat
ionsthatl
eadtocr
yst
alf
ormat
ioninform ofoil
dropl
etsorgr
anules.

Plant
scanalsostoret
hewast epr oductsi
norgansthataredesti
nedtofal
lordi
eoff.So
theycanbeexcret
edviaabscission.Otherwast
emat eri
alsuchasresi
ns,sapsand
l
atexesaref
orcedoutfrom t
hei nteri
orofsomeplantsbyhy dr
ostat
icpr
essurei
nsi
de
theplant
.

TheI mpor t
anceofCommonExcr et
oryProductsofPl ants
Explaintheimpor t
anceofcommonexcr etor
ypr oductsofpl ants
Havey ouev ernoticedsticky,milkyoroil
ysubst ancesbei ngoozedf rom t
hebarkof
tr
ees?Thesear eexcretorypr oductsandmayber esi
ns, gums,latexandorother
excretor
ypr oducts.Thesepr oduct smaybepoi sonous.Howev er,manyhav efounduse
i
nev erydaylifeofhumans, suchasl at
exwhi chisusedt oproduceglovesandclothi
ng.
Thet abl
ebel owshowsf unctionsofsomepl antwastepr oduct
s.
Product( waste) Pl antsour ce Useandef fects

Treatment/t
anni
ngofhidesandskinsinto
l
eather,i
.e.i
tcombineswit
hanimalprotei
ns
Deadti
ssuesofplant
s
toform acomplexcompoundwhi chisnot
suchasacacia,
1.Tanni
ns easil
ybrokendownbyanimal pr
oteases.
coni
fer
s,coff
eeand
mangroves.
Iti
susedi nthemanufact
ureofi
nksand
dyes.

2.Al
kal
oids:
Areni
tr
ogenousexcr
etor
ypr
oduct
sinpl
ant
sandoccuri
nvar
iousf
orms-
Commonal kal
oidsincl
ude:
(a)Caff
ei neand - Cof
feefr
uit
sandtea - Mil
dstimulantstoincr
easementalact
ivi
ty
theophi
linet l
eaves andreducef ati
gue.
-Adrugforthet r
eatmentofmal
aria.
-An
(b)Qui
nine -Barkofci
nchonat
ree.
addit
iveindrinkstoactasast
imulant.

Av er
yexpensivedr
ugf
orl
ocal
anaesthet
ics.

Apainki
l
lerandalsogi
vesgr
eatment
aland
(
c)Cocai
ne -Leav
esofcocapl
ant
phy
sicalst
rengt
h.

Note:Over
dosemayleadt
ohal
l
uci
nat
ions,
anxi
etyandevendeat
h.

Manuf
act
ureofdr
ugssuchaspai
nki
l
ler
s.

Resul
tsinrelat
ion,t
alkat
iveness,
and
-Fr
uit
s,fl
owersand great
erappreci
ationofsoundandcolour
.
l
eavesofcannabis
(
d)Cannabi
s
sati
va(bhangor Decr
easedper
for
manceinconcent
rat
ion,
marij
uana) i
ntel
l
ectual
andmanual
tasks.

Overdoseef
fect
sar
esi
mil
art
othatof
cocaine.

Manufactur
eofdrugslikemorphi
neand
(
e) codei
nebothofwhichar eeff
ecti
ve
-Opi
um poppy
Opi
ates(
mor
phi
ne) pai
nki
ll
ers,muscl
erelaxant,
cough
suppr
essants,
andanti-
diarr
hoeal
.

Manufactureofinsecti
cidesandnar
cot
ic
drugs(drugsthatsti
mulatesleepor
sti
mulateaf eel
ingofrel
axati
onandmask
(
f)Ni
cot
ine -
Tobaccol
eav
es. thesensationofpain)
.

Acommoncauseofrespi
rat
oryandcar
diac
di
seases,
duet
otarf
rom i
tssmoke.

-
Epi
car
pofpawpaw -
Hasprot
eol
y t
icact
ivi
tyhenceusedasa
(
g)Papai
n
f
rui
ts(
especi
all
yraw)
. meatt
ender
izer.
-Root
soft
hecr
ocus
(
h)Col
chi
cine I
nter
fereswit
htheprocessofcel
ldi
vision
plant
.
r
esult
ingint
omutati
ons;andthususefuli
n
 pl
antbr
eedi
ng.

I
tisal
socar
cinogeni
c(cancer
–causi
ng)
.

(
i)Pyr
ethri
ns -
Flower
sofpy r
ethr
um Maki
ngofi
nsect
ici
des
(
j)Khat(mir
aa) -
Leavesandtwigsof
-
Usedasasti
mulant
.
mir
ungi) t
he“khat”pl
at

-
Rubbert
ree Manuf
act
ureofshoesol
es,
tyr
es,
etc.
3.Lat
ex
Sapodi
l
a Manuf
act
ureofchewi
nggum.

Mostar
eedi
bleandt
hususedt
othi
cken
f
oodsandcr
eams.

Gum fr
om sapodil
l
aisusedt
omake
Dif
fer
entpl
ant
ssuchas
chewi
nggum.
4.Gums Arabi
cghat
handcarob,
acaci
atr
ee,et
c.
Agarext
ract(agum)fr
om al
gaeisusedasa
growt
hmedi um t
ocult
uremi
croorgani
sms.

I
tisal
sousedt
omakecoughmedi
cine.

-Petalsandl eavesof
Ext
ract
edformaki
ngdy es.
vari
ouspl ants,andare
5.Ant
hocy
ani
ns
most lyred,blueor
UsedinmakingPHindi
cator
s.
purple.
6.
Digi
tali
s Manufactur
eofdrugsusedfortreat
mentof
-
Foxgl
ove
gl
ycosides hear
tdiseasessuchasdigi
toxi
n.
-Cer
taint
reestemsli
ke
7.Renni
n -
Manuf actur
eofvarni
shandgum.
thecasuari
natree
-Fl
owersorleavesof Manuf actureofper
fumeandoint
mentf
or
8.Oi
l
cert
aintr
ees. i
nsectbites.
shar
e

Regulati
on
ConceptofRegul ation
TheConceptofRegul ation
Explai
ntheconceptofr egul ation
Livi
ngorganismsar esubj ectedt owidev ari
ati
onsi nt emperature,li
ght,acidi
ty,salini
ty,
windspeeds, avail
abil
ityofwat ermi neralsandnut ri
ents.Theseenv i
ronment alfactors
createashifti
ngext er
nal set ti
ngt owhi chor ganismsmustadj ustordi e.
Thecentralproblem foral i
vingt hingist omai ntai
nast eadystateinternal
lyinthef orce
ofanof t
enhar shandf luct uatingext ernal environment .
Homeost asisisthemai nt ainingofaconst antcondi tionofthei nt
ernal envi
ronmentof
thebodybyr egulatorypr ocess.ORI tisthemai ntenanceofconst antinter
nal balance
despitefl
uctuati
oni ntheext ernal environment .
Regulati
onist heprocessofcont rol
li
ngt hei nternalbodyenv ir
onmentandneeds.For
thebodyt ofuncti
onpr oper l
yt hingsneedt ober egulatedinthebody .
Reasonst hatshowi mpor tanceofr egulat i
on

Mai
ntai
ningf
avor
ablecondit
ionsuchaspHandr
equi
redi
oni
cconcent
rat
ionf
ort
he
f
unct
ioni
ngofcel
ls,
tissuesandorgans.

Enabli
ngorgani
smst
ogetr
idofbodywast
esandusel
essmat
eri
alsf
orexampl
eexcess
waterandsalt
s

Enabl
i
ngor
gani
smst
ogetr
idofexcessmat
eri
alsf
orexampl
eexcesswat
erandsal
ts

Ensur
ingsur
viv
aloft
heor
gani
sms

Var
iousTy pesofRegul
ation
Menti
onv ari
oustypesofregul
ati
on
Thefol
lowingarethetypesofregul
ati
on:

Temper
atur
eregul
ati
on(
ther
mor
egul
ati
on)

Bl
oodsugarr
egul
ati
on

Osmor
egul
ati
on

TemperatureRegul
ati
oninAnimals
TheConceptofTemper at
ureRegulat
ioninAni
mals
Expl
aintheconceptoftemperat
ureregul
ati
oninani
mal
s
HEATGAI NBYANI MALS
Ther
earet hreewaysofheatgai
nbyani mal
s:
Met
abol
i
sm off
oodst
uff
s

Shi
ver
ing

Absor
pti
onofsol
arr
adi
ati
on

EATLOSSBYANIMALS
Ani
malsl
oseheatt
hrough:

Convect
ion–Thi
sisf
lowofheatf
rom t
hei
nter
iorofanani
mal
’
sbodyt
oext
eri
ori
nthe
sur
rounding

Sweati
ng/
Evapor
ati
on–Thi
soccur
swhenani
mal
loosewat
erv
apourf
rom t
hei
rbody
sur
face

Conduct
ion–Thi
sist
ransf
erofheatbyphy
sical
cont
actbet
weent
wobodi
es

Br
eat
hingout

Pant
ing

Sal
i
vat
ion

Def
ecat
ion

Ur
inat
ion

Practical
Acti
vit
iestoDeter
mi neTemper atur
eRegulati
oninMammals
Carryoutpracti
calact
ivi
ti
estodetermineTemper at
ureRegul
ati
oni
nMammal
s
Activ
ity1
Carryoutpracti
calact
ivi
ti
estodetermineTemper at
ureRegul
ati
oni
nMammal
s
TheMechani sm ofTemperatureRegulati
oninMammal s
Describethemechanism oftemperatureregulat
ioninmammal s
Ectothermicani
malsgainheatby:

Met
abol
i
sm off
oodst
uff

Sol
arr
adi
ati
on

Cont
ract
ionsofbodymuscl
es

Eachspeciesofectothermicanimal hasit
sownopt i
mum temper
atur
edur
ingwhi
ch
metaboli
cacti
vit
iescant akeplace.
Thegraphbelowshowst herel
ationshipbetweenext
ernal
temper
atur
etoi
nter
nal
temperat
ureinEctothermicanimal
Whent
heenv
ironmenti
sov
erheat
edect
other
ms:

Ectother
micani
mal
sexampl
efi
shmi
grat
etopl
aceswi
thamor
esui
tabl
etemper
atur
e
forthem

Useofshade–snakes,
frogs,
li
zar
dst
akeshadet
oav
oidbei
ngov
erheat
ed

Pant–t
urt
lesandt
ort
oisepantdur
inghotdayt
olooseexcessheat

Whent
heenv
ironmenti
sov
ercool
edect
other
ms:

Bur
row–t
oadsbur
rowdur
ingcol
dcondi
ti
onst
oav
oidov
ercool
i
ng

Bask–snakes,
li
zar
dsandchamel
eonsbaski
nthesunt
orai
set
hei
rbodyt
emper
atur
e

Soci
albehav
ior–beescl
ust
ert
oget
hert
orai
sebodyt
emper
atur
e

Fl
ext
hei
rbodymuscl
ese.
g.py
thonf
lexi
tsmuscl
esandcoi
leggsdur
ingcol
dcondi
ti
on

Useofmetaboli
cheat–beescont
ract
sthei
rmuscl
esusi
ngpr
iorf
lyi
ngi
ncool
weat
her
tor
aiset
heirbodyt
emperatur
e.

Endother
micani
malsgainheatonl
ythr
oughmetabol
i
sm off
oodsubst
ances.The
temperat
urer
angesoftheseani
malsareasf
oll
ows:

s35oC–40oC
Mammal

Bi
rds40oC–45oC

Eachspeci
esofendot
her
micani
mal
hast
hei
rownopt
imum t
emper
atur
edur
ingwhi
ch
metaboli
cacti
viti
esoccurforexamplehomo-sapi
ens36.7oC,Housefowl41oC
Temperatur
eregulationinendot
her
mi cani
malsisaphysiol
ogicalpr
ocess.I
tis
cont
rol
ledbyhy pothalamusandcontai
nstwothermoreceptorshotandcoldcent
ers.
Whentheenv i
ronmenti sOVERHEATED:

Dur
inghotcondi
ti
onshotcent
eri
nthehy
pot
hal
amusi
sact
ivat
edbyi
ncr
easei
nbl
ood
t
emperatur
e.

Hypot
halamususesner
veimpulsesandhor
monesaser
rorsi
gnal
stoact
ivat
e
r
esponsesthati
ncr
easeheatl
ossfrom t
hebody
.

Exampl
esoferr
orsi
gnal
sthatact
ivat
eresponsest
hatcauseheatl
osssot
hatt
hecor
e
temper
atur
eisbr
oughtt
oit
ssetpointare:

Sweati
ng–Sweatgl
andssecr
etesweatandsweatpor
esopen.Sweatev
apor
atesatt
he
sur
faceofski
nwi
thheat
.

Vasodi
lat
ion–Vasodi
lat
ioni
sthei
ncr
easeofsi
zeofthebl
oodv esselsneartheski
n
sur
facesothatt
heheati
slostbyr
adi
ati
onasaresul
tofdi
rectcontactofvessel
swith
ski
n.

Fl
att
eni
ngofbodyhairs:Hai
rer
ect
ormuscl
esont
hesur
faceoft
hebodyr
educe
i
nsul
ati
onsothatheatlossi
ssi
mpli
fi
ed.

Pant
ing–Thisisaprocessofopeni
ngmout
hsandhangi
ngoutoft
ongue.Dogsdot
his
pr
ocess.Pant
ingcausesheatl
ossbyev
apor
ati
on.

Closi
ngofstuntvessel
s,apr
ocessdonebywhal esclosi
ngofstuntvessel
sdi
rect
s
mostofcorebloodtoreacht
heskinandincreasepressuregr
adientbet
weentheski
n
andtheenvi
ronmenthenceheatisl
osteasi
lytotheenv i
ronment

Whentheenv
ironmentisOVERCOOLED:
Exampl
esofcorrect
ivemechani
sms,
whi
chconser
vebodyheat
,ar
e:

Shi
ver
ingi
sar
efl
exshaki
ngofmuscl
es.Thepr
ocessr
esul
tsi
ntogener
ati
onofheat
.

Erect
ionofskinhai
rs:
hairerect
ormuscl
eserectcausi
ngt heski
nhai
rtost
andand
coll
ectai
raroundthem whichactasi
nsul
ati
onforheatloss.

Vasoconst
ri
cti
onofbl
oodcapil
lari
es:Vasoconstr
ict
ionisapr
ocessofnar
rowingthe
bl
oodcapil
lar
iesl
eadi
ngtotheskin.Thi
sint ur
nreducesthet
emperat
uregradi
entofthe
bodyandenvir
onmentandheatlossdecreases.

Openi
ngofshuntvessel
s,aprocessdonebywhales.Openi
ngofshuntv
esselsand
backt
otheint
ernalbl
oodcir
culati
on.Thepr
ocessreducesheatl
osstothesurr
oundi
ng
I
ncreaseinmet abol
icacti
vit
y.Anincreaseinrespi
rat
ioni
saff
ectedbyanincr
easein
thy
roxi
nsecretion.Duri
ngcoldcondit
ions,hypothal
amussti
mulati
nghormonewhichin
tur
nstimulat
est hesecret
ionofthyr
oxinhormonewhi chi
nfl
uencesfastr
espi
rat
ion
henceanincreaseinheatgain.

EFFECTOFOVERHEATI NG
Ifthecor et emperat
urer
isesabove40oCt hether
mo-regul
ati
ngmechani
sm backdown.
Positivef eedbackoccur
sandaper songoesi nt
oastateofhypot
her
miaandsuf f
ers
heatst roke.
EFFECTOFOVERCOOLI NG
Ifthecor et emperat
urefal
l ow32oCt
sbel hepulserat
eweakens.Thepat
ientbecomes
sluggish.Thi scondi
ti
oniscall
edhypothermia.
VARI OUSWAYSMAMMALSAREADAPTEDFORCOLDANDHOTCLI MATIC
CONDI TIONS
Adapt ationofhumanbei ngsincol
denv i
ronment:

Pr
esenceofhai
rIncol
dcondi
ti
onshairer
ectormuscl
eserectcausi
ngt
hest
il
lhai
rto
st
andandcoll
ectai
rar
oundthem whi
chactsasinsul
ati
onforheatl
oss

Possessi
onofheatunderepi
der
mis:
fati
sabadconduct
orofheat
,thuspr
event
sheat
l
oss

Abil
it
yofnarrowi
ngski
nbloodcapi
l
lari
es:
humanbeingsconst
ri
ctski
nbloodcapil
l
ari
es;
thi
sreducestheamountofbl
oodpassi
ngcloset
otheski
n.Thi
sprevent
sheatlossby
convect
ion.

Abi
l
itytoshiv
er:Duri
ngcoldcondi
ti
onshumanbei
ngsar
eabl
etoper
for
minv
olunt
ary
musclescontr
acti
ons,shi
ver
inggener
ateheat

Behav
iour
alAdapt
ati
ons

Wearingofheavybl
ackclot
hes:Duri
ngcoldcondi
ti
onshumanbei ngputonheavy
cl
othes,exampl
essweatersandcoats.Heav
yclot
hescreat
elayerofairbet
weenthe
body’
ssur f
aceandthecl
othes.Tr
appedairi
sabadconductorofheat.

Usefheati
ngsystemsinhousesHumanbeingsdur
ingcol
dcondi
ti
onsuseheat
ing
syst
emsofdif
ferentt
ypestowarm housessot
hatt
heycanmakethei
rli
vi
ngcondit
ions
comfor
tabl
e.

Adapt
ati
onsofhumanbei
ngsi
nhotcl
i
mat
e

Abil
it
yofflat
teni
ngofskinhai
r.Dur
inghotcondi
ti
onshumanbeingsrelaxhairerect
or
musclesthesecausebodyhai
rtoli
eflatonthebodysur
faceandreduceinsulat
ionso
thatheatl
ossisaff
ected

Abi
l
ityofwi
deni
ngt
hesi
zeoft
heski
nbl
oodv
essel
sDur
inghotcondi
ti
onshuman
beingscanent erastateofvasodi
lati
onwher et
heskinbl
oodvessel
sneart
heski
n
surfaceexpand.Vasodilat
ionenablesexcessheatt
oleav
ethebodybyradi
ati
onasa
resultofdi
rectcontactofvessel
swi t
htheskin

Possessi
onofsweatgl andsSweatgl
andssecr
etesweatont
hebody
’ssur
facet
hrough
sweatpores.Excessheatisl
ostwhensweatevapor
ates

Behav
iour
alAdapt
ati
on

UseofShade:Duri
nghotcondi
ti
onshumanbei
ngst
akecov
eri
nshadear
east
oav
oid
bei
ngoverheated

Wear
ingofl
i
ght
-whi
tecl
othesTheser
educeabsor
pti
onofheatdur
inghotcondi
ti
on

Useofai
rcondi
ti
oner
sAi
rcondi
ti
oner
sreduceexcessheati
nhouses

Adapt
ati
onsofabl
uewhal
eincol
denv
ironment

Possessi
onofairCi
rcul
armusclesnearthebodysur
face(bet
weenendot
hermi
cand
epi
dermis)Ci
rcul
armusclesneart
hebodysur f
aceshuntt
hebloodawayfr
om t
hebody
sur
faceduri
ngcoldcondi
tionst
henpreventheatl
ossbyconvect
ion

Possessi
onofbladder(f
atl
ayerinsi
det
heepider
mi s)
.Bl
adderact
sasathermal
i
nsulat
or.Bl
addercontr
olst
heflowofheatf
rom thebodycoretot
hebodysurf
ace.The
pr
ocessoccursduri
ngcoldconditi
on

Adapt ati
onofbl uewhaleduringwar m condi
ti
on
Possessi onofcircul
armuscl esneart hebodysurface( i
.e.betweenendothermicand
bladder)wher etheanimal i
ssur roundedbywar m seaci r
cularmusclesopenblood
vesselsneart hebodysurface.Thi sall
owsanani mal togetr i
dofexcessbodyheat .
Adapt ati
onofsmal lmammal se.g.squi r
rel
sandbat sdur i
ngcoldcondit
ion
Adapt ati
onofsmal lmammal se.g.squi r
rel
sandbat sdur i
ngcoldcondit
ion.
Dur i
ngcol dconditi
onssquirr
el sandsomebat sspendt hewi nt
erinastateofdormant
stateofhi ber
nationinwhicht heyappeart obeasleepanddur i
ngwhichnof oodiseaten
Hibernationtakesplaceinbur rows.Thet emperat
ureoft heseanimalsfall
sbelow
normal .Thechemi calact
ivi
ti
esi nt hebodygov er
ysl owusi ngfoodstor
edasf atand
glycogen.

Osmoregul
ati
oninMammal s
TheConceptofOsmoregul
ati
on
Expl
aint
heconceptofosmoregul
ati
on
Osmoregul
ati
onisthemaint
enanceofconst
anti
nter
nal
sal
tandwat
erconcent
rat
ioni
n
anor gani
sm.ORI tistheprocessbywhi cht heosmot i
cpr essureofbloodandt
issue
fl
uidiskeptconst ant.
Osmot icpressureofbl oodandt i
ssueflui
dofanani mal i
sexposedast hedepr
essionof
fr
eezingpoi nti
nrelationtothehabitati
nwhi cht
heanimal l
ives.
FactorswhichAf fectstheContentsofSal tandWat eri
nt heBody
Ment i
onfact or
swhi chaf f
ectst
hecont entsofsaltandwat erinthebody
Factorsaff
ect i
ngcont entofsaltandwat erinthebl
oodi nclude:

AmountofwatertakeninthebodyLar geintakeofwatercausesbloodtohavetoo
muchwaterwhil
ef ewerint
akescausesl esswaterint
hebl ood.I
tisadvi
sedtotaketwo
l
it
ersequi
val
enttoeightglassesofwat erperdayfort
hebodyt ofuncti
onproperl
y.
Peopl
ewhoarev eryacti
vemi ghtneedmor ethanthat
.

Cli
maticcondi
ti
onDuri
nghotweathert
her
eisi
ncr
easedsweati
ngwhichcauselossof
waterbyevapor
ati
onthusr
educedamountofwat
eri
ntheblood.Thevi
ceversaoccur
s
duri
ngcoldweather
.

Amountofsal ttakenintothebodyPutt
ingl
esssal ti
nf oodcausesreducedsal
tint he
bloodwhileputt
ingtoomuchsal tinf
oodcausesi ncreasedamount sofsal
tinthebl ood.
Moder at
eamount sofsal tshoul
dbetakentoomuchsal ti
snothealthyasitmayleadt o
highbloodpressure.Excesssalt
scausethekidneytowor kharderasitisr
esponsible
forremovingexcesssaltsf r
om t
hebody.

Hor
monalAbnormal
it
ies:WhenlessADHi
spr
oducedi
tleadst
oincr
easedcont
entof
wat
eri
nthebloodandvicever
sa.

Bloodsugarr
egulat
ion:Thehormonesfoundinthepancr
easint
heLangerhanscont
rol
regul
ati
onofbloodsugarinthebody.Thesehor
monesareinsul
i
nandglucagon.

Insul
i
nhor mone:Thi
sisthehormone,whichi
sproducedfrom theB-cel
l.Thishormone
i
ssecr et
edwhent her
eisal ar
geamountofbloodsugarinthebody.Insulinpr
omot es
conversi
onofbloodsugarintogly
cogenandstoredi
ntheliverandskeletalmuscles.
Insul
i
nf or
cestheuptakeofglucosebybodycell
stoproduceenergy.

Gl
ucagonhor mone:Thisi
st hehormone,whichissecret
edduet othelowerlev
elof
gl
ucoseinbloodsugar.ThisGlucagonsti
mulatesli
vercel
lstor el
easeglucoseint
othe
bl
oodstream.Glucagonstimulatesl
iv
ercell
storeleaseglucoseintotheblood
st
ream.AlsoGlucagonsti
mul at
esabsorpt
ionofglucosefrom theil
eum.
BloodSugarRegul at
ioninMammal s
TheMechani smsofRegul ati
ngSugarLevelintheBlood
Explai
nthemechani smsofr egul
ati
ngsugarleveli
ntheblood
Bloodsugarregulati
onisthemaintenanceofar el
ati
vel
yconstantbloodglucoselev
elof
thebody.Theendpr oductofdigest
ionofcarbohydrat
eismainlysimplesugarsor
glucose.
Glucoseisabsorbedf r
om theali
mentarycanalacti
vetr
anspor
tintot hebl
oodstream.
Hencet hebloodsugarlevel i
nt hebl oodrisestotheextentthatregul
ationofiti
s
necessary.
Bloodsugarinmammal si sregulatedusi nghor mones,whichareinsul
inandGl ucagon.
Thesehor monesaresecr etedbyaspeci alizedgroupofpancreaticcel
lscalledi
slet
sof
Langerhans.Thealphacel l
soft hei slet
sofLanger hanssecretesGlucagonwhi l
ethe
betacellssecret
esInsul
in.
Whent hebloodsugarlevel ri
sesi nt hebodyi nsul
ini
ssecreted.Theinsulinaccel
erates
theentryofglucoseint
ot heliverandmuscl estobeconvertedintoGlycogen.
Glycogenisstor
edf orfutur
eusei ntheliv
erandmuscl es
RoleofGlucagoni nBloodSugarRegul ati
on
Glucagonissecretedinresponset oadeclinei
nbloodsugarl evelint hebloodst r
eam.
Glucagonpromot estheconv er
sionofGlycogentogl ucoseandi nhibitst
heoxi dati
onof
gl
ucosei ntheli
ver.
Howev erift
helevelofbloodglucoseislow, gl
ucagonst i
mulatest heconv ersi
onof
ami noaci
dsintoglucose.Thegl ucoseformedisreleasedint
ot hebl oodst r
eam.
NOTE:
Fai
l
ureofapancr
east
osecr
etei
nsul
i
nandgl
ucagonr
esul
tst
oadi
seasecal
l
ed
Di
abet
esMell
i
tus
REPRODUCTI
ON
Repr oductionistheabil
it
yofli
vingor ganismstofor
m newi ndivi
dual
soft hesame
speci esfrom thosealr
eadyinexistence.Here,
thenewor ganismsreplacet hosethat
havedi edandsol i
feconti
nues.Itcanal sobedef
inedast heprocesswher eby
organi smspr oducenewindivi
dualsoft hesamespecies.Iti
soneoft heimpor tant
featur esofli
vingthi
ngs.

Ty
pesoft hereproducti
on
Therearetwot ypesofr epr
oduct
ion,
namel
y
1.sexualreproducti
onand
2.asexualreproducti
on.

Sexual Reproduct i
on
Thisisat ypeofr eproductioninwhi chnewor ganism isproducedwhenamal egamet e
fuseswi t
haf emalegamet e.Sexual repr
oducti
oni nvolv
esthefusionoftwogamet es.
Thepr ocessoff usionofgamet esi scal l
edferti
l
ization.
Theset wogamet esdi ff
erinform andf uncti
onandeachi sproducedfrom adiff
erent
organ.Inanimal sthegamet espr oduci ngorgansar ecall
edgonads.Theseincludethe
ovari
esandt estes.Infloweringpl antst r
uct
uresconcer nedwiththeproducti
onof
gamet esaret heov ari
esandant hers.Thet estesandant hersproducethemale
gamet eswhi l
eov ariesproducet hef emalegamet es.
Mer i
tsofSexual Reproduction

I
tensur
esgenet
icst
abi
l
ity

I
tensur
esper
pet
uat
ionofl
i
fe

I
tbr
ingsv
ari
ati
on

Leadst
othei
nter
act
ionamongor
gani
sms

Demer
it
sofSexual
Repr
oduct
ion

Of
fspr
inghav
eagr
eatchanceofi
nher
it
ingdi
seasesf
rom t
hepar
ent

Ther
epr
oduct
iont
akesl
ongt
ime

I
tneedsener
gy

Thesexual
repr
oduct
ionpr
oducesf
ewnumber
sofof
fspr
ing

I
tdependsonpr
esencesoft
wopar
ent
s

I
tleadst
ogr
eatchanceofspr
eadi
ngdi
seases
I
ttakesal
ongt
imeunt
ilof
fspr
ingar
epr
oduced

Asexual Reproducti
on
Thisisthet ypeofreproductionwher ebypr oduct ionofoffspri
ngi
sf r
om single
organism withouttheproduct ionofgamet es.Ther eisnof usi
onofgamet es.
Exampl esofor gani
smswhopr oduceasexual lyar eamoebaandbact er
ia.Asexual
reproductioninvol
vesonl yonei ndivi
dualor ganism.Thatmeansnochangeofgenet i
c
mat eri
alispassedf r
om apar enttoanof fspring.Theof fspri
ngareal
soi denti
calt
othei
r
parents.
I
nt hiskindofr epr
oduction,insameor ganisms, bodypartsuchasroots,stemsor
l
eav esmaybecomer eproduct i
v ebodyorgans.
Dependi ngont hetypeofor gani smsasexual r
epr oduct
ionmaybeofdi fferentf
ormsor
way ssuchas:

Fi
ssi
on

Spor
ulat
ion/
Spor
efor
mat
ion

Buddi
ng

Fr
agment
ati
on

Veget
ati
vepr
opagat
ion

Bi
nnar
yFi
ssi
on(
Spl
i
tti
ng)

Sucker
s

Bul
bil
s

Binar
yFission(Spl
itt
ing)
Thisi
sanasexual reproducti
oninwhichanorgani
sm di
vi
desint
ot woequalpar
ts,
whichareidenti
caltoeachother.
Eachpartthengrowst oattai
ntheor
iginal
sizeoft
heparentcel
landhencebecomea
separat
eandi ndependentorgani
sm.
Fragment ati
on
Thisisaf orm ofasexual r
epr oducti
oninwhi chor ganisms( parent)breaksint
otwoor
mor eparts.Fragment sgrowanddev elopintoanewor ganism withidenti
calf
eatur
esas
theparent.Exampl ewor mssuchasNemat odesandf l
atwor ms.
Sporulat
ion/Spor eformati
on
Sporulat
ionisasexual reproduct i
onbyt heuseofspor es.Thespor edev el
opsfrom
singl
ecel lasar esul
tofmi tosis,for
mingast r
uctureknownasspor angium.Whent he
sporangium istrulydevel
oped, t
hewall bur
stst oreleaset hesporeswhi chwhenplaced
i
nsui t
ablear eatheygermi nateintonewor ganisms.
Otherorganisms, whichrepr oducebyspor ulati
on, arefernsandmosses.

Budding
Buddingisatypeofasexualrepr
oducti
oni nwhichanewor ganism ar
isesasan
outgr
owth(bud)oftheolderorgani
sm (parent
).Thebudlaterseparat
esfrom t
hepar
ent
andgrowstobecomeani ndependentorgani
sm toat
tai
nt hesizeoftheparent
.
Examples:yeastandhydr
a
Somefloweri
ngplant
sreproducethr
oughthef
ormat
ionofst
ruct
urecal
ledbuds.Root
s
mayform suchbuds,l
eavesorundergr
oundst
emsandsuchbudssprouttofor
m new
i
ndependentplant
s.

Vegetati
vepropagat i
on
Veget ati
vepr opagationi saform ofasexual reproductionfoundi nplantsi nwhichabud
growsanddev elopsint oanewpl ant.Thedet achedpl ant,root,stem orleavesatsome
stagesgr owsanddev elopsintoanindependentpl ant.
Artifi
cialvegetablespr opagati
on:Thisi svegetativ
epr opagat i
on,whichoccur sthr
ough
man’ smani pulation.Mancanl ear
nfr om plants’naturalvegetativ
epr opagationandcan
i
nt erveneandmakepr opagati
onofpl antsarti
fici
ally
.
Nat uralvegetati
v epropagat i
on:Veget at
ivepropagat i
oninv olv
esdi f
ferentpar t
sof
plantsasdi scussedbel ow.Suchas:
Bulb
Int hi
st y
peeachbudgr owstof or
m ashoot ,
whi chproducesanewbul batt heendof
thegr owingseason.
Bul bisamodi f
iedunder gr
oundshoothav i
ngf reshstrongl eaves
 Tubers
Thesear eshortswol
lenundergr
oundstorageorgansfor
medf r
om astem orar oot.
Newt ubersaremadeatt heendofthegrowingseasonbutdonotari
sef r
om oldt uber
s.
Stem tubers
Thesear eshortswol
lenundergr
oundstems, whi
chstorefood,
suchasstarch.Nor mal
ly,
yam plantsfor
m anumberoft uber
seachofwhi chcanrisetoanewplant.Suchnew
plantconti
nuestoli
veaftert
hedeathoftheparent.

Roottuber
s
Theseareswol
lenadventi
ti
ousundergr
oundroots.Rootst
uber
ssuchassweet
potat
oesandcassavastor
et hei
rfoodi
nroottubersanddonotbearl
eav
esorbud.
 Rhi
zomes
Thesearehor
izontal
l
ygrowi
ngundergr
oundstems,bear
ingl
eav
es,
budsand
advent
it
iousr
oots.Exampl
esar
elil
i
es,fer
nsandgrass.

Stolons
Theseareslenderstems, cr
eepi
nghorizont
all
yastheygr
owal
ongt
hegr
oundsur
face.
Examples:
st r
awberries,
blackcur
rantandoxali
s.
 Suckers
Theseareshorthori
zontalbr
anches,ari
singf
rom t
hemainstem orj
ustbel
owground
l
evel.Sucker
scontai
nf oodreser
ves.Examples:
Bananas,
sisal
andpineappl
es

Taproot
Ataprooti
sthemainroott
hatar
isesf
rom ar
adi
cal
.Tapr
oot
smaybecomeswol
l
enand
actasstor
ageorgans.
 Til
ler
s
Thesear
ecol l
ectionofshoot s.Gr
assplantsconsi
stofanumberoft i
l
lers.Eachtil
ler
hasanumberofl eav
es, whi
char i
sefr
om thestem ofnodesatt hebaseoft heleaves.
Leaves
Someplantssuchascact uspropagat
ev eget
ati
veusingleaves.Whent heleavesfallof
f
fr
om aplanttheydev el
opadv enti
ti
ousrootsandbuds,whichlatermaygr owand
devel
opintomat ureplants.

Mer
it
sofAsexual
Repr
oduct
ion

Asexual
repr
oduct
ionr
esul
tsi
ntoani
ndi
vi
dual
wit
hthesamegenet
icconst
it
uti
onas
thei
rpar
ent.

I
tsof
fspr
ingmat
uresf
ast
ert
hansexual
l
yrepr
oducedor
gani
sms

I
tdoesnotdependonpr
ocessesofpol
l
inat
ion,
seedorf
rui
tdi
sper
sal

Demer
it
sofAsexual
Repr
oduct
ion

Asexual
lyr
eproducingorganismsareatagr
eatr
iskt
oper
ishorgetdest
ruct
edwhen
envi
ronmentalcondit
ionsareunf
avorabl
e

Theparentsmaypassundesir
ablecharact
eri
sti
cstotheof
fspr
ingsi
nceonl
yone
i
ndiv
idualorgani
sm i
sinv
olv
edi nasexualr
eproduct
ion

Compet
it
ionf
orresourcessuchasf
oodandshel
termayoccurduet
olar
genumberof
or
gani
smsbeingproduced

MEIOSI SANDREPRODUCTION
Reproducti
oni
nvolv
esthetr
ansmi ssi
onofgeneti
cmat er
ial
sfrom onegener
ati
ont
othe
nextinsur
ingt
hatspeci
essurv
ive.Theprocessofrepr
oducti
oninvolv
esmeiosi
s.
Meiosi
sisthetypeofcel ldivi
sion,whichoccur
si ntherepr
oducti
veorganstopr
oduce
sexcell
sknownasgamet es.
Int
histypeofcelldi
visi
ont hepar entcel
lshasdiploi
dnumberofchromosomes.
Howeverthedaughtercell ar
isi
ngf rom t
hecelldi
v i
sionhasthehal
fnumberof
chr
omosomesacondi t
ionknownashapl oidst
ate.
Theref
oremeiosisreducest hechr omosomesnumberi nt
ohalfmeansfrom 2nt
on.

THESI GNIFICANCEOFMEI OSI SINRELATI ONTOREPRODUCTI ON

Meiosisl eadstothef ormat i
onofr eproducti
vecell
s( Gamet es)suchasov aand
spermseachwi t
hhalfnumberofchr omosomesoft hepar entcel
lsinorgani
sms
repr
oduci ngthr
oughsexual reproducti
on.
Iti
nvolv esthepossibil
ityofexchangeofpi ecesofgenet i
cinformati
onbet ween
thepat ernalandmat ernalchr omosomesofeachpai rleadingtonew
combi nat i
onofcharacter i
sti
csi nthegamet es.
Itbr
ingsaboutv ari
ati
onwhent hemember sofeachpai rofchromosomesar e
separat edfrom eachot herindependently(Random assor t
ment )
Meiosi
sl eadst onewcombi nat i
onofgenest hroughtheprocessofi ndependent
assort
mentofchr omosomesoccur ri
ngdur i
ngmei osi
sI

Meiosi
sinvolvesnumberofprocessesfrom prophase,metaphase,
anaphaseand
tel
ephase.Therearetwomeioti
cdivisi
ons,t
hef i
rstandtheseconddivi
sion.Al
lthe
abovenamedpr ocessesoccuri
nbot hthefi
rstmeioticdi
vi
sionandthesecondmei ot
ic
div
isi
on.
Fir
stMeioti
cDi v
isi
on
Thefir
stdivi
sionofmeiosi
sconsistsof:

Pr
ophaseI

Met
aphaseI

AnaphaseI

Tel
ophaseI
TelophaseI
ProphaseI
DuringprophaseIt
hef
oll
owi
ngev
ent
soccur
.

Thenucl
eusdi
sappear
sandt
hecent
ri
olesi
fpr
esentmi
grat
etot
hepol
es

Chr
omosomescondensesandt
hespi
ndl
eisf
ormed

Asprophaseproceedhomologouschromosomescomet ol
i
esi
debysi
deandt
her
e
af
terbecomeintert
winedbytheprocesscal
l
edsynapsi
s

Thr
oughsy napsi
shomologouschr
omosomesisrefer
redt
oascrossi
ngover
.Thepoi
nt
atwhichhomologouschr
omosomesexchangegeneti
cmater
ial
sisknownas
chi
asmat a
Ear
lyProphaseI
Thefoll
owingevent
soccurduri
ngear
lypr
ophase:

Chr
omosomescont
ract
,thi
ckeni
ng,
shor
teni
ngandbecomemor
evi
sibl
e

Nucl
eusdi
sint
egr
ateanddi
sappear

Mi
dPr
ophaseI

Homol
ogouschr
omosomescomet
oget
her(
synapses)f
ormi
ngabi
val
ent

Lat
ePr
ophaseI

Chr
omat
idscr
ossov
erbychi
asmat
awhi
chr
esul
tsi
ntoexchangeofgenet
icmat
eri
als

Met
aphaseI

Bi
val
enthomol
ogouschr
omosomesmov
est
otheequat
oroft
hespi
ndl
e

AnaphaseI

Thet
wohomol
ogouschr
omosomespar
tcompanyandmi
grat
etoopposi
tepol
esoft
he
spi
ndl
e

Thecentr
omeresoft
hehomol
ogouspai
rsmi
grat
etowar
dst
heopposi
tepol
eswher
e
theyar
eattr
act
ed.

Tel
ophase

Thechr
omosomesr
eacht
hei
rdest
inat
ion

Thespi
ndl
eappar
atusesbr
eaksdownanddi
sint
egr
ates

Thent
henucl
eusmembr
aner
efor
msar
oundeachsetofchr
omosomes

Thecel
lconst
ri
ctsacr
osst
hemembr
aneanddi
vi
desi
ntot
wo

Tel
ephaseImaket
heendoft
hef
ir
stmei
oti
cdi
vi
si
on.

Att
heendoft
hispr
ophasethenumberofchr
omosomesi
neachcel
li
shal
fthe
chr
omosomesnumbercel
l.

Thi
sist
her
easonwhyf
ir
stmei
oti
cdi
vi
sioni
sref
err
edt
oasReduct
iondi
vi
sion

Secondmeioti
cdivi
sion
ProphaseII
Centri
olesr
epl
icat
esandanewspi
ndl
eappar
atusesf
ormed

MetaphaseI
I
Chr
omosomesmi
grat
etot
heequat
orft
hespi
ndl
e
AnaphaseI
I

Si
sterchr
omat
idspar
tcompanyandmi
grat
etoopposi
tepol
esoft
hecel
l

Tel
ophaseI
I

Thespi
ndl
eappar
atusesdi
sappear
s

Thenucl
eusr
epai
rsandanewnucl
eusmembr
anei
sfor
medar
oundeachsetof
chr
omati
ds

Thechr
omat
idsuncoi
landt
hecel
ldi
vi
desi
ntot
wo

Chromosomesr
egai
nthei
rthr
eadlikest
ruct
ureandthecel
lenteri
nter
phase.Mei
osi
s
resul
tsi
ntot
hef
ormati
onoffourdaught
ercell
seachwit
hhaploidsetofchr
omosomes

Itshoul
dbest
ressedthatt
hefourdaughtercel
l
sfor
medhast
hehal
fnumberof
chromosomespresenti
ntheori
ginal
parentcel
l.

REPRODUCTI ONINFLOWERI NGPLANTS, THESTRUCTUREOFTHEFLOWER

Somepl antsuseflowerstoreproduce.Thef lowerscont ainall
thepartsneededf orthe
reproduct i
onprocess.Sexualreproductioninfloweringplantstakesplaceintheflower.
Withinaf lower,t
hereareusuallystruct
ur esthatpr
oducebot hmal egametesand
femalegamet es.
TheSt ructureoftheFlower
Af l
ower ingplanti
sanangi osperm, whichisanypl antthatproducesaf l
owerorf rui
t.
Thesol epur poseofthefl
oweri stoal l
owt heplanttor epr
oduce.Eachpar tofthef l
ower
playsar ol
einthest
epsofr eproduct
ion.Therearemalegamet esandfemalegametes.
Theyar ebothdir
ect
lyinvolv
edwi t
hsexual r
eproducti
on.Poll
enmayspr eadfr
om pl
ant
toplantbutcanonlyreproducewiththesamespeci esofplants.Let
'st
akealookatthe
diff
erentpart
softheflower.

Str
uctur eofaf l
ower
STERILEPARTS
Let'
sst artwit
hthesteri
lepart
softheflower,
orthosepart
sthatareneit
hermalenor
female.Thesest er
il
epartsarenotdir
ectl
yinvol
vedinthefer
ti
li
zat
ionprocess.
Technically
,afloweri
ngplantcanrepr
oducewi t
houtthem;however,
theydoplay
i
mpor tantrolesinhel
pingwithrepr
oducti
on.

Pedicel:
Thepediceli
sasmall
stal
korst
alk-
li
kepartbear
ingasinglefl
oweri
nan
i
nflorescence.TheSomef
lowershav
enostalkandaredirect
lyat
tachedt
othest
em of
theplant.

Receptacle:
Ther eceptacl
eistheplaceont hestem wheref l
oralorgansori
ginat
eand
att
ach.I
tistheaxi s(stem)towhichthef l
oralorgansareattached.Inmostangiosper
ms,
fl
oralorgansareat t
achedi nal
ternat
ingsuccessivewhorls.Awhor l i
sanarr
angement
ofsepals,petal
s,leaves,sti
pul
esorbr anchesthatradi
atefrom asi ngl
epoi
ntand
surr
oundorwr aparoundt hestem.

Sepals:
Sepalsarethepar tst
hatlookl i
keli
tt
leleavesthatcov erthef l
owerbefor
ei t
blooms.Theycupt hef l
owert oprotecti
twhileitgrows.Sepal saremost lygr
eenandi n
mostf l
owerstheyr esembleleaves.Af l
owerbudi sprotectedbysepal s.Coll
ect
ivel
y ,
all
ofthesepalsformt hecalyx.
Sepalsmaybehai ry,f
orexampl einr oses,orsmooth,for
exampleinhibiscus.Somef l
owershav esepal-l
ikestr
ucturesbeneat hthecalyxknown
asepicaly
x,forexampl ethehibi
scusf l
ower.
Petals:
Pet al
sar ethedeli
cateandusuall
ybrightl
ycol ouredpartthatgivestheflowerit
s
character.Flowershav emorethanonepetal,andt heflowerpetalsarecollecti
vel
y
call
edt hecor ol
la.Thecolourandscentatt
ractstheagent sofpol l
inat
ionsuchasbi rds
andinsect s.Fusedpet al
sform acor
oll
athatcanbet ubularorfunnel-
shapedasi nt he
fl
ower sofsweetpot atoandpumpkinplant
s.Someoft hepetalsoflegumi nousplants
arekeel-l
ikeandt heyenclosestamensandcar pels.Sepalsandpet al
sar ecoll
ecti
vely
ref
erredtoast heperiant
h.

Repr oduct i
vePar tsoft heFlower
Thef l
oweri st her eproductiveuni tofsomepl ants( angiosperms) .Partsoft hefl
ower
i
ncl udepet als, sepals,oneormor ecarpels(thef emal er eproducti
v eorgans),and
stamens( t
hemal ereproductiveor gans).
Thef emal erepr oduct i
veorgans
Thepi sti
listhecol l
ectivetermf ort hecarpel(
s) .Acar pel i
sact ual
lythreepar t
sf used
i
nt oone: sti
gma, styl
e, andov ary .Thest i
gmai satt het opoft heflower.Iti
sst i
ckyt o
catcht hepollen.Eachcar pelincl udesanov ary( wher etheov ulesar eproduced;ov ul
es
aret hef emaler eproductivecel l
s, theeggs),ast yl
e( atubeont opoft heov ary)
,anda
sti
gma( whichr eceivest hepol lendur i
ngferti
lizati
on) .
Theov aryisatt hebaseoft hef lower .From theov ary,extendsat ubularstructurecall
ed
thest yleandont het opoft hest y l
ei sasurfacer ecept ivetopol l
encal l
edthest i
gma.
Thest igmacant akemanydi fferentf orms,mostoft hem desi gnedt ohelptrappol l
en.

Femalepart
sofafl
ower
Thefemalepar
tsoft
hefl
owerar
edi
scussedi
ndet
ail
bel
ow:

Ov ary:
Theov arycontainsov ul
es.Ov ulesareunf ert
il
izedfemalegamet es.Theposi t
ion
oft heovaryinrelat
iont ot
her ecept aclevar i
esf r
om onef lowertoanother.Theov ar
y
coul dbeeithersuperi
orori nferi
ori nrelat
iont otheposi t
ionofthereceptacle.A
super i
orov ar
yisonet hatispositionedabov et hereceptacle,f
orexamplet heovaryofa
beanf lower.Aninferi
orovar yisonet hatisposi t
ionedbeloworencl osedwi t
hinthe
receptacle.Examplesar etheov ariesofar oseandabl ackjackfl
ower .

St
y l
e:Thestyl
eisal ongtubethatat
tachesthesti
gmatotheovary
.Thelengt
hofthe
st
ylev ar
iesfrom onefl
owertoanother.Thisl
engthdet
ermi
nestheposi
tionoft
he
st
igma.Int hemai zepl
ants,
thestyl
eandt hesti
gmahandoutsi
dethefl
ower.

Sti
gma:Thesti
gmaisagl
andularst
ickyst
ruct
ureatthet
ipofthecarpel
.Thesti
gmai
s
theti
ssuei
ntowhi
chthepol
lengrai
nsaredeposit
ed.Thebranchesofthest
igma
cor
respondtothenumberofcar
pel
s.Fi
vebr
anchesoft
hest
igmai
ndi
cat
ethepr
esence
off
ivecarpel
s.

Themalereproducti
veorgans
Themalepartsofaf l
owerconsi
stofoneormorestamens.Stamensarethemale
repr
oducti
vepartsoffl
owers.Astamenconsi
stsofananther(whi
chproducespoll
en)
andafil
ament.Thepollenconsi
stsoft
hemalereproduct
ivecel
ls;
theyf
erti
li
zeovul
es.

Malepart
sofaf l
ower
Thefol
lowingi
sadetai
leddescr
ipt
ionoft
hef
emal
epar
tsoft
hef
lower
.

Fi
l
ament:
Thefi
l
amentisaslenderstal
kt hatsuppor
tst
heant
her
.Thef
il
amentmay
ar
isef
rom t
her
ecept
acleorthepetal
s.Itsupportst
heant
her
.

Anther:
Theantheri
satt
achedtotheapexoft hef
il
ament
.Itpr
oducest
hepol
l
engr
ains
thatcontai
nthesper
m neededforf
ert
il
izat
ion.

Ty pesoff l
owers
Flower sareclassif
iedeitherascompl eteorincomplete.Completefl
owershavesepal
s,
pet al
sstamensandcar pels.Af l
owerwi t
hbot hstamensandcar peli
ssaidtobe
bisexual.Thehibiscusfloweri sbi
sexual.
Incompl etefl
ower slacksomeoft hefl
oralparts.Fl
owersthathavecarpel
sonlyare
referr
edt oaspi sti
l
latefl
ower s.Fl
ower sthathavestamensonlyar er
eferr
edtoas
stami natefl
ower s.

POLLI
NATI
ON
Pol
li
nationisthetr
ansf
erofpoll
engrai
nsfrom theant
herstothesti
gmaofaflower.
Pol
lengr ai
nsfrom t
heanther
sarecarr
iedtothesti
gmabywi nd,i
nsect
sorbi
rds.These
ar
er ef
erredtoastheagentsofpol
li
nati
on.Poll
i
nati
on,animport
antstepi
nthe
reproductionofseedpl ants,i
sthetr
ansferofpollengrai
ns( malegametes)from the
mal ereproductiveor
gant othefemalereproductiveor
gant hatcontai
nstheov ul
e
(femalegamet e)ort
ransfersitt
otheovuleitself
.
Polli
nati
oni saveryi
mpor tantpar
toftheli
fecy cl
eofaf l
ower ingpl
ant.I
tispartofthe
sexual r
epr oducti
onprocessoff l
oweri
ngplants,whichresultsinseedsthatwill
grow
i
nt onewpl ants.

Ty
pesofPol
l
inat
ion
Pol
l
inat
ioncanei
therbesel
forcr
osspol
l
inat
ion:

Selfpol
l
inati
on.
Thi
sist
het
ransf
erofpol
l
engr
ainsf
rom t
heant
her
stot
hest
igmaof
thesamef l
ower
.

Crosspol
l
inat
ion:
Thisi
sthetransf
erofpol
l
engrai
nsf
rom t
heant
her
soft
hef
lowert
o
thesti
gmaofanotherf
lowerofthesamespeci
es.

Disadvantagesofselfpolli
nati
on:Apot enti
al drawbacki st
hatbothgamet escome
from t
hesamepar ent.I
ftheplantiswelladapt edt oastabl
eenv i
ronment ,the
producti
onofuniform offspri
ngmaybeadv antageous.Howev er,
inbreedingwillr
esult
andiftherearedisadvantageousrecessivechar acteri
sti
csi
nt heparent,theyaremuch
mor el
ikel
yt obeexposedt haniftheplantcr oss-poll
i
nates.
Advantagesofcrosspol l
inati
on:Cross-
poll
inationislessrel
iableandmor ewasteful
thanself-
poll
inat
ion,butiti
sgenet i
call
yfavour ablebecausegenesar etransfer
redand
vari
ati
onincreases

Fact
orst
hatf
avourcr
osspol
l
inat
ionandhi
ndersel
fpol
l
inat
ion

Dioeci
ouspl
ant
s:Someplant
shav ef
lowerst
hatar
eonlymal
e-theyhaveonlyst
amen.
Otherpl
ant
softhesamespecieshav
ef l
ower
sthatar
eonlyf
emale-theyhav
eonly
carpel
s.

Monoeciouspl
ant
s:Somef l
owersonaplantar
eonl
ymale;ot
herf
lower
sonthesame
pl
antareonlyf
emale.So,
selfpol
l
inat
ioni
savoi
dedbyadif
fer
enceint
heti
mingoft
hei
r
devel
opment.

Prot
andry
:Anther
sonsomepl ant
smat ur
efi
rst
.Pol
l
inat
ionofi
mmat
urest
igmaont
he
sameplanti
stheref
orenotpossi
ble.

Pr
otogy
ny:
Thest
igmasmat
uref
ir
st.

Sel
f-
incompati
bil
it
y:Poll
i
nat i
oncanoccurbutt
hepol
l
ent
ubedoesn'
tgr
owwel
l
,ifatal
l
,
sonof er
ti
li
zat
iontakesplace.

AgentsofPol
li
nat
ion
Theseareorgani
smsorphy sicalcondi
ti
onst
hatfaci
l
itatetransferofpol
l
engrai
nsf
rom
theanther
stosti
gmas.Plants,beingimmobi
le,
normallyrequireagentsf
ort
he
tr
anspor tofpoll
en, whichar ecommonl ywi nd,insect
s,bir
ds,mammal s(bats,r
odent s,
pri
mat es),andwat er.I
nsect sarethemostcommonani mal sthatwillpoll
inateacar pel.
Themai nagent sofpol li
nationarewind,insectsandbi r
ds.
Windpol li
natedflowers
Wind-polli
natedflowersar ealsothoseflower swhosepol l
enist r
ansf err
edbywi ndf rom
antherstost i
gmas.Wi ndpickspollengrainsfrom theanthersandt ransfersthem tot he
sti
gma.
Str
uct ur
eofawi nd-polli
natedflower:
Theant hersandst i
gmaofwi nd-poll
inatedfl
ower s
areexposed.Thi smakessi teasyforwindt oblowt hepollenthatcant heneasi l
yland
ont hestigma.Flower sofgr assesarear epresentati
veofwindpol l
inatedf l
owers.

Adaptati
onsofwi nd-
pol
l
inat
edf l
owers
Fl
ower sthatdependonwindforpoll
inat
ionareadapt
edi
nvar
iousway
s.Pl
ant
sthatar
e
pol
li
natedbywi ndhavethef
ollowingcharact
eri
sti
cs:

Smallpetal
swithexposedant hersandsti
gma.Insomeplantst
hepetal
sareoft
en
absentorhavedull
-colouredpetal
sthatdonotatt
racti
nsect
sorbi
rds.Thepet
alsand
sepal
sarev er
ysimilarinshapeandsize.

Largeant
her
swhichproducelar
geamountsofpoll
engrai
ns.Ver
ylargequanti
ti
esof
pol
lenarepr
oducedt
oi ncr
easechancesofpol
l
inat
ionasmuchwillbelostwhi
lebl
own
about.

Anthersar
eloosel
yatt
achedt
othef
il
ament
sandhangf
reel
ytoal
l
owt
heant
her
stobe
easil
yshakenbythewind.

Thepoll
engrai
nsaresmall,
smoot
h,dryandl
ighti
nweightandtheref
oreeasi
lycarri
ed
i
ntheairbywind.Somepoll
engr
ainshavebl
adder
-l
ikest
ructur
esthatcont
ainair
,thus,
i
ncreasi
ngthei
rbuoyancy
.

Featheryst
igmaswi
thal
argest
ickysur
facesot
heyar
emor
eli
kel
ytocat
chpol
l
enf
rom
theair.

Lar
geandf eat
herysti
gmas,fr
eel
yhangi
ngoutofthef
lower
s,whi
chpr
ovidealar
ge
sur
faceareaonwhichthepoll
engrai
nscanl
and.Thesti
gmamaybebranchedorhai
ry
toi
ncreasethesurf
acearea.

Long,
hai
ryst
ylet
oexposet
hest
igmaout
sidet
hef
lower
.

Nonect
arpr
oducedbecauset
heyi
snoneedt
oat
tr
actpol
l
inat
orst
othef
lower
.

Notscent
edast
hef
lower
sdonotat
tracti
nsect
s.

Fi
l
amentsgr
owlongsost
amenshangoutoft
hef
lowerandshakei
nthewi
ndt
o
di
sper
sepol
l
en.
Wi nd-poll
i
natedf l
ower
Insect-pol
li
natedflowers(bees,moths,but
ter
fl
ies)
Insect-pol
li
natedflowersarealsorefer
redtoasent omophil
ousf
lower.Thet
erm
ent omophilousisderiv
edf r
om thewordentomophi ly
-whichmeanstobecarri
edby
i
nsect s.Featuresofinsectpol
li
natedfl
owersincludethefol
lowi
ng:

Large,
bri
ghtl
y-
colour
edpetal
swhichatt
racti
nsect
s.Fl
owerst
ruct
uremaybeadapt
ed
foronepar
ti
cularofi
nsect
,al
lowi
ngthem tol
andandfeed.

Usual
l
yscent
ed;
ther
efor
etheyat
tracti
nsect
stot
hef
lower
.

Nectar
ineswhi
chcont ainnectar
,forexample,mangof l
owershav
enectar
inesf
rom
whichbeescol
lectnectarformakinghoney,andwhi l
edoingsotr
ansf
erthepol
len.The
i
nsectsaregui
dedtot henectari
nesbyt henectargui
des.

Sti
ckysti
gmathatinsectscomei nt
ocontactwit
handdeposi
tpol
lenwhi
lecol
l
ecti
ng
nectar
.Thepol
lengrainspickedbyinsect
sfrom ot
herf
lower
ssti
ckont
othesti
gma.

Thesti
gmaandant her
sareheldf
irmlyinposi
ti
onwit
hinthefl
ower .Thi
sensur
est
hat
whenani nsectlandsonaf l
ower,t
hestigmaisnotbr
oken.Thestigmaandanther
sar
e
l
ocatedinsidetheflowerwherepol
linat
orsaremorel
ikel
ytopickuppollen.
Theant
her
sar
esmal
li
nsi
zeandpr
oducef
ewbutl
argepol
l
engr
ains.

Thepoll
engr
ainsarefai
rl
ylar
ge,heavy,sti
ckyandwit
hsmal
lspi
nes.Thi
senabl
est
hem
toadher
etobodiesofpol
li
nator
s(insectsorbi
rds)
.

Abeecol
l
ect
spol
l
enoni
tsbodyasi
tfeeds

Flowerpoll
i
nat
edbybi r
ds:
Bir
dspol l
inat
eflowerswhent heysear
chf ornect
ar.Birds
suchassunbir
dshavelongslenderandsli
ght l
ycurvedbeaksthattheyusetopr obeint
o
theflower
.Pol
lengr
ainsst
ickont hebeak.Thepol l
engrainsar
edeposi t
edont he
stigmaofanot
herfl
owerofthesamespeci esbythebir
dast hebir
df eeds.
Abi
rdf
eedi
ngonnect
ar

FERTI LIZATI ON
Fer til
izat ioni stheuni onoft hemal eandf emal egamet est ofor m azy got e.Pollenmust
fertili
zeanov uletopr oduceav i
abl eseed.Fer ti
li
zationstartswhenapol l
engr ainlands
ont hest igma.Onl yaf t
erpol lination, whenpol l
enhasl andedont hest i
gmaofasui table
fl
oweroft hesamespeci es,canachai nofev entshappent hatendsi nt hemaki ngof
seeds.
Af teramal e'
spol l
engr ainshav elandedont hest i
gmadur ingf ert
ili
zat ion, poll
ent ubes
dev elopwi thinthest yle,burr owingdownt ot heov ary,wheret hesper mf erti
li
zesan
ov um ( aneggcel l
),intheov ule.Apol l
ent ubeemer gesf r
om t hegr ain, i
tsgr owt hbei ng
cont r
ol ledbyt hetubenucl eusatt het ipoft het ube.I tmaygr owdownwar dsin
responset ochemi calsmadebyt heov ary(ar esponseknownaschemot ropism) .
Inapr ocesscal ledf ert
ili
sation, thet wogamet esjoinandt heirchromosomescombi ne,
sot hatt hef erti
li
sedcel lcont ainsanor mal compl ementofchr omosomes, wit
hsome
from eachpar entflower .Thef erti
lisedov ulegoesont oform aseed, whi chcont ai
nsa
foodst or eandanembr yot hatwi l
l latergrowi ntoanewpl ant .Theov ar ydev elopsi ntoa
fruittopr otecttheseed.Somef lower s,suchasav ocados, onlyhav eoneov uleint heir
ov ary, sot heirfrui
tonl yhasoneseed.Manyf lower shav elotsofov ulesi nt hei
rov ar y,
so
thei rfrui tcont ainsmanyseeds.
Ther ear e2t ypesofseeds.Somear eendosper micwhi l
eot hersar enon- endosper mi c.
Inendosper micseedst hef oodr eser veist heendosper m,whi chisout sidet hepl ant
embr y o.Exampl esoft hist ypeofseedar emai zeandwheat .Non- endosper micseeds
havefoodr
eser
vewi
thi
nthecot
yledon(
s)oft
hepl
antembr
yo.Thi
soccur
sinbr
oad
beans.

Pr
ocessofFer
ti
li
zat
ioni
nFl
ower
ingPl
ant
s
Duringthegr owthandext ensi
onoft hetube,
thegener ativ
enucleus,behi
ndthetube
nucleus,div
idesbymi tosistoproduce2mal ehaploidsper m nuclei
.Thepol
lentube
enterstheov ul
ethrought hemicroPy l
eandpenetratest heembr yosacwall
.Then,the
ti
poft hetubebur st
sopen, thetubenucleusdisi
ntegrates,cr
eatingapassageforthe
malenucl eiandwhatf ol
lowsiscalleddoublefer
til
izati
on

1malegamet
efuseswitht
heeggcel
ltopr
oduceadi
ploi
dzy
got
ewhi
chunder
goes
mi
tosi
stofor
m adipl
oidembr
yo.

1malegamet efuseswithboththepolarnuclei
toproducethet
ripl
oidpri
mary
endosperm nucl
eus.Thetr
ipl
oidnucl
eusunder goesmitosi
stoformt heendosper
m.
Theendosperm stor
esfoodmat er
ial
st hatt
heembr youti
li
zesforgrowthandduri
ng
germinat
ion.

Thepr ocessoffer
til
i
sation
I
mmedi atel
yaft
erfert
il
izat
iont
heov
ulebecomest
heseedandt
heov
arybecomest
he
fr
uit.
Thisiswhathappens:

Thezygotedivi
desmanyt i
mesbymi t
osistoproduceanembryo.I
tdi
ffer
enti
atesto
becomeapl umul
e(youngshoot
),
radi
cle(
youngroot)andei
ther1or2coty
ledons(
seed
l
eaves).I
tisatt
achedtothewalloft
heembr y
osacbyasuspensor .
Theprimaryendosperm nucleusdivi
desmanyt i
mesbymi t
osistopr
oduceendosper
m
ti
ssue.I
nsomeseedst hisendospermi safoodstor
eforl
aterusebytheseed.I
nother
s
i
tmaygr adual
lydisappearast hecot
yledonsdevel
op.

Toaccommodat eallt
hisgrowththeembryosacexpandsandthenucel
l
usi
scr
ushed
outofexi
stence,
giv
ingitsnutr
ient
stotheembryoandendosperm.

Thei nt
egumentssurr
oundingtheembryosacbecomethet
oughandpr ot
ect
ivet
est
a
(seedcoat).Themicr
opyleremainst
houghsothatoxy
genandwatercanbetakeni
n
duringseedgerminat
ion.

Thewat
ercont
entoft
heseeddecr
easesdr
ast
ical
l
ysot
heseedi
spr
epar
edf
or
dor
mancy.

Theov arywallbecomestheper
icar
p-thefrui
twall
,thewholeovarynowbei ngthefrui
t.
Thef uncti
onofthefrui
tist
oprotectt
heseedsandt oai
dinthei
rdisper
sal,e.g.byan
animal.Thatiswhytheycanbebr i
ght
lycolouredandsweet;ani
malswilleatthem and
scattertheseedseit
heratthet
imeofeatingorwhent heyarepassedoutoft hegutin
defecati
on,unharmed.

Adet
ail
edaccountofwhathappensaf
terf
ert
il
isat
ioni
sgi
venbel
ow:
Format i
onoft hetesta:Thet est
ai salsor eferr
edtoast heseedcoat .Thetwo
i
ntegument soft heembr yosacf uset oform oneseedcoat .Theseedcoatt hickensand
hardens.Somet i
mest heout erintegumentf or
mst hehardt hicktest
awhi letheinner
i
ntegumentr emai nsthinandt r
anspar ent.Thet hi
ntransparentinnerintegumenti s
ref
erredtoast het egmen. Thetest aprotectstheseedagai nstdehy drati
on,physical
damageandi nvasionbymi croorganisms.Themi crophyleper mit
soxy genandwat ert
o
entertheseeddur ingger mination.Thehi lum isascaront het estathatmarksthepoi nt
ofattachmentt othef r
uit.

Thefor
mationoftheembryo:Theeggcellnucl
eusfuseswit
hthemalenucl
eust
ofor
m
azygot
e.Thezygoteundergoesmitosi
st of
ormt heembry
o.Anembryoisa
rudi
mentar
yplantcompri
singtheplumule,r
adi
cleandcotyl
edons.

Formati
onoftheper
icar
p:Theovarywal
lbecomesthi
ckandswel lsupwi
thf
ood
subst
ances.Theper
icar
pdev el
opsfr
om theovar
ywall.Theper
icarpi
sof
tentheedi
ble
l
ayeri
nf r
uit
s.I
nmaturefrui
titmaydryuporremainf
leshy.

Disint
egrat
ionofthefloral
part
s:Thesepal
s,pet
als,
sti
gmaandsty
lewither
,dryupand
fall
off.I
nsomecases, someofthefl
oralpar
tsmaybecomefl
eshyandf or
m partoft
he
frui
t.Thefr
uitr
etainsscarsatt
hepointsofatt
achmenttot
hepedi
celandstyl
e.

REPRODUCTI
ONI
NMAMMALS
Femal
eRepr
oduct
iveSy
st em
I
nhumans,l
i
keani
mals,femaler
epr
oduct
ivesy
stem i
scomposedof
:

Ovar
ies:Ovaryi
ssit
uat
edneareachki
dney
.Ov
arypr
oducesov
a,est
rogenand
pr
ogesteroneasfemal
esexhormones.

Fal
l
opiantube:
Iti
salsoknownaseggtube/ovi
duct,
iti
saf
unnel
shapedopeni
ng.
Fer
ti
li
zat
ionnormal
lytakespl
acewi
thi
nthistube.

Uterus:
Thet wof all
opi
antubesunitetofor
m anexpandedt ubul
arorgancalleduterus
womb.I tistherethatfer
ti
li
zedovaimplantanddevelopint
oanembr yo.N.B.Pl
acent ai
s
formedasanembr yodevel
ops,soast oal
lowpenetrat
ionofnutri
ents,gases(oxygen
andcarbondi oxide)andwasteproductsofmetabol
ism Anembr yoreceivesnutri
ent
andoxy gengasesf rom mater
nalbloodcir
cul
ati
onandgi veoutwast eproductthrough
placent
ai nt
omat er
nalbl
oodsy st
em.

Vagina:Thisistheposteri
orpar
toft hefemaler eproducti
veductconnect ingtheuter
us
withtheexteri
or.Iti
sinthi
sregi
ont hatspermsar edeposit
ed.N. B.Placentawithan
endocrineatthelastperi
odofpregnancy ,
itsecretesprogesteronelikeovaries,
which
preventproduct
ionofov aandcontracti
onsoft heut er
inewalls.

MaleRepr
oduct
iveSyst
em
Themalemammal repr
oduct
ivesy
stem i
scomposedof
:

Test
icl
es:Thesearesit
uat
edinapouchofskincall
edscr
otum.Theyproducesper
ms
asendocr
ineglanditpr
oducessecr
etesmalesexhormonecall
edtest
oster
one.
Test
oster
oneinfl
uencesmalesecondarychar
act
eri
sti
csduri
ngpubert
yinmales.

Sper
m duct
: I
tIsatt
achedt
oeachtesti
cle,i
tact
sasatemporaryst
oref
orsper
ms.Each
epi
didy
misleadsint
oaductcal
ledsperm ductorv
asdidef
erens.
Vasdef
erens:
Ist
hest
ruct
ure,
whi
chcar
ri
essper
msawayf
rom t
heepi
didy
mist
openi
s

Seminalvesicl
esandpr ost
ategl
ands:
Thesear esit
uat
edjustbelowtheur
inarybl
adder
andtwost r
ucturescal
ledseminalv
esicl
es.Eachseminalvesi
clehasatubewhichleads
tothesperm duct.Ar
oundt hej
unct
ionofurinarybl
adderandurethr
aisaglandcal
led
prost
ategland

Gamet eFor mati

onandFer ti
li
zation
Gamet eformation:Puber ty
Onav erage,femaleattainpuber t
y( SexualMat ur
it
y)whent heyare14y earsoldand
malewhent heyare16y earsold.Inbot hsexes,att
ainmentofpuber tyisaccompani ed
bycertainbehavioral
changesaswel lasdev el
opmentofcer tai
nstructures.
Thosechangesar eknownassecondar ysexualcharacter
isti
cs.
NB:Puber tycanbedef inedast heper iodwhenmal e/f
emal echangesf rom chi
ldhoodto
adul
thood.Thesechangesar einfluencedbysexhor monest hataretestoster
onein
males,progesteroneandest r
ogeni nfemal es.

Secondar
ychar
act
eri
sti
csi
nmal
es:

Hai
rsont
hei
rchi
nsandpubi
cregi
on

Shoul
der
swi
den

Voi
cedeepens

Paymor
eat
tent
iont
ofemal
esex

Secondar
ychar
act
eri
sti
csi
nfemal
es:
Enl
argementoft
hemammar
ygl
andandhi
ps

Deposi
ti
onoff
atwhi
chgi
vest
hem mor
eroundappear
ance

Dev
elopmentofpubi
chai
r

Menst
ruat
ioncy
cle

Paymor
eat
tent
iont
omal
es(
youngmen)

NB: Atpuber tysexor gansbecomef ullyfunct ional i

nmal esandf emales.
Gamet ef ormat i
on: Duri
ngpuber tystagei swhenbot hmal esandf emalesar eableto
producef er t
ilecel lswhi chuni t
ed( ofmal eandf emale)cancausepr egnancy .
Iti
sbel iev edt hatf emal egamet esar epr oducedbef orepuber tybutaf terpubertyis
whent heyar ef ullymat ur
edandf ert
ilewhi l
emal egamet eatlargear epr oduceddur ing
andaf terpuber tyt hatiswhencancausepr egnancywhenuni tedwi thfemal egamet e.
ThePr ocessesofOv ul
ati
onandMenst ruati
on
Explaint hepr ocessesofov ulationandmenst r uati
on
Ovulation: Itref erst othereleaseofov a/ovum f rom ovar
iestot heut erus.Iti
sexpect ed
tooccuratt hemi ddl eofthemenst r
uat i
oncy cle.
Menst ruat ionCy cl e:Thiscanbedef inedast heper i
odbet weenoneandnextmenst rual
cycl
e( 28day s)
Menst ruat ion: Thi si sthedischar geofmucus, epi t
heli
alcell
sandbl oodt hroughv agina
(3-
5day s)
NB: Themenst ruat ionandl iberationofov aev ery28day sal t
ernat esbetweent het wo
ovarieswher ebyi nhumansi scal ledmenst rual cycl
eandi nnon- humanmammal si s
call
edoest ruscy cle.
ThePr ocessofFer ti
li
zati
onPr egnancyandChi ldBirth
Explaint hepr ocessoff er
til
izati
onpr egnancyandchi l
dbirth
TheMenst r
ual Cy cle

Att
hebegi
nni
ngoft
hecy
cle,
themenst
ruat
ioncant
akepl
acebet 5or7thday
ween3-
fr
om t hef irstday .Att hi
sper i
odt hesecr eti
onoff emal esexhor monesar everyl
owbut
i
ncr easeaf termenst ruationst ops.
Aftermenst ruati
onoest rogensecr etionincreases, fol l
i
clesti
mulatinghormone
secretedt oencour agepr oduct ionofov ari
anf oll
icle.
Luteinizinghor monei sformat urat i
onandov ulati
onoff ol
l
icl
ewhi l
eoest r
ogenprepares
(t
hickeni ng)t heut erinef ori mpl ant at
ionwhenf ertil
izationtakesplace.
Atthe14th( mi ddle)dayi swhenov ulationcant akepl aceandsecret i
onofprogester
one
i
ncr easessoast ot hickent heut erinewal lr
eadyf orpr egnancy.
NB: Ifnof er ti
li
zationoccur s,thecy cl
est art
sagai n.
Placent a:Thi sisthepor t
ionofut erus, whichisinv adedbyt hevil
l
iandt hethi
ckened
portionoft hechor ion.Thechor i
onl i
keamni oni sat hinmembr anebuti thasathick
portioncal ledv il
l
i,finger-likepr ojecti
on.
Umbi l
i
cal Cor d

I
tconnect
sthedev
elopi
ngembr
yot
opl
acent
atot
hemat
ernal
bloodsy
stem

I
tcar
ri
est
woar
ter
iesandav
einofbl
oodci
rcul
ati
onofanembr
yo

ANembr
yousesumbil
ical
cordforgasexchange,
recei
vingnut
ri
ent
sandr
emov
alof
wast
epr
oduct
svi
aplacentai
ntomaternalbl
oodsystem

Bi
rt
h

Itst
art
sbyasuddenfal
lint
helevelofoestr
ogenandprogest
eroneresul
ti
nginperi
odi
c
contr
acti
onsofmuscul
arwal
lsoftheuteruswhi
chcausepainscall
edlabourpai
ns

Undert
hei
nfl
uenceofhor
monesachi
l
disgi
venoutt
hroughv
agi
na

Copul
ati
on

Whenamal
eissexual
l
yst
imul
ated,
thespongypeni
sisf
il
ledwi
thbl
oodandbecomes
er
ect.Theer
ectpenisi
sinser
tedintothevagi
naandmovedbackandfor
th,
thi
s
movementsti
mulatessenseorgansinthepeni
sandej
acul
ati
onoccur
s.

Ejacul
ati
onref
erst
otherel
easeofsper
mint
othev
agi
na;
itcancausepr
egnancywhen
thefer
til
esper
m uni
teswit
hfer
ti
leova.

Ferti
li
zat
ion:I
tcanbedef inedastheprocessofunit
ingmaleandf emalegamet est o
form azygote.Thesper msremainaliv
eforupto48hourswhi leovaremainsalivefor
upt o36hour s.
Pregnancy:I
trefer
st othesit
uati
onwhenaf emal
econcei
v es.Thati
sfert
il
izat
iont akes
placetoform zygote.Soonafterzygot
eisformedit
scellstart
stodivi
deintomanycel ls
call
edembr yo.Itt
akes3- 5daysforthezygotet
oreachtout er
usfori
mplantati
on.

I
mpl
ant
ati
on:

Ref
erst
othepr
ocesswher
ebyanembr
yoat
tachesi
tsel
ftot
heut
eri
newal
l

I
ttakes3–5day
stoi
mpl
antf
ull
y

Af
teri
mpl
ant
ati
onenv
elopei
sfor
med,
theout
erchor
ion,
inneramni
on

Bet
weent hesemembranesofenveloptherear
eflui
dscall
edchori
onicfl
uidsand
amniot
icflui
dsr
espect
ivel
y,bot
hfluidsactasshockabsor
bers,
protect
ingembryof
rom
phy
sicaldamage

FACTORSWHI CHMAYHI NDERFERTILIZATION

Anor mal coupl
et hati
stryi
ngtost
artafamil
ywi l
lusual
lybesuccessf
ulaft
erafew
mont hs.Howev er,atl
eastonei
ntencouplesdonotconceiveaft
erayearormoreof
tr
ying.
Therear emanyr easonswhycouplescan’
tproducechil
dren,
someoft hem ar
e:

Ov
aar
enotr
eleasedi
nnor
mal
mont
hlycy
cle

Thef
all
opi
ant
ubesmaybebl
ocked/
twi
sted

Thewomenmaymakeant
ibodi
est
hatdest
royt
hesper
m

Thev
asdef
erensmaybebl
ocked

Ahi
ghpr
opor
ti
onoft
hesper
m pr
oducedar
eabnor
mal

Ver
yfewsper
msar
epr
oducedi
noneej
acul
ati
on

Way
sofov
ercomi
ngt
hesepr
obl
ems

I
n–Vi
tr
oFer
ti
li
zat
ion(
IVF)
Fer
ti
li
tyDr
ugs

Ar
ti
fi
cial
Insemi
nat
ion

THECONCEPTOFARTI FICI
ALINSEMI NATIONANDI TSIMPORTANCE
Art
if
iciali
nsemi nati
on,alsoknownasAI ,i
sapr ocedur eusedt otreatinfer
ti
li
tythat
i
nvolvesdirectinser
tionofsemeni ntoawoman' swomb.I tisapr ocessor i
ginal
lyused
onli
v est
ockt hathasbeenadapt edforhumanuse.I nhumanuse, thesper m coul
d
ori
ginatefrom thewoman' smalepar t
ner,
unlesst hemal eisinfer
tileorthereisnomale
part
ner( i
.
e.singlewomanorwomani nsamesexr el
ati
onship).
Themostcommonl yusedmet hodofar t
if
ici
alinsemi nat
ion,isIUI( I
ntr
auteri
ne
I
nsemi nati
on),asithast hebestsuccessrat
e.Ot hertypesofAIar e:

I
UTPI(
Int
raut
eri
net
uboper
it
oneal
insemi
nat
ion

I
CI(
Int
racer
vical
insemi
nat
ion)

I
TI(
Int
rat
ubal
insemi
nat
ion)

Arti
fi
cialinsemi nat
ionisbenefi
cialtocouplesorindi
vidual
sinmanyci
rcumstances.For
exampl eacoupl emaybepr oducinghealt
hysperm andeggsbutnotnecessari
lybeable
tohavei ntercourse(maybeduet oamedi calconditi
on).Someot
herscenar
ioswher e
art
if
ici
al inseminationcoul
dbebenef i
cial
areli
stedbelow.

Awomanmaywanttor ai
seachil
dalone-i
nthi
scaseshewoul
drequestasper
m
donort
obear
ti
fi
ci
all
yinsemi
nated.

Thefemalemaybei nfert
ileduetocerv
icalfact
ori
nfer
ti
li
ty-t
hecervi
xissupposedto
produceamucust hathelpsspermtravelt
ot hewomb.Withcervi
calf
actori
nfer
ti
lit
y,the
cervi
xiseit
hernotproducingenoughofthismucus,ori
tisproduci
ngmucuscont ai
ning
sperm ki
l
li
ngsubstances.

Thewomanmaybesuf ferngEndomet
i ri
osis-thisiswhencell
sfrom t
hewombl i
ning
st
arttogrowinplacestheyshoul
dnotwithinthewoman'sreproducti
vesystem e.
g.
ovar
iesorfal
l
opiantubes.Oneofthepossibleresult
softhi
scondit
ionisinf
ert
il
ity
.
Art
if
ici
ali
nseminati
oncanbesuccessfuli
nmi l
dt omoderat
ecasesoft hi
s.

Thef emalecoul
dhavesemenall
ergy-t
hisisrar
ebutcanst i
llhappen,
duetocert
ain
prot
ei nsi
nthesper
mt hewomanmaysuf feranal
ler
gicreact
ionwhent hesper
m makes
contact.Wit
hIUImostoft
heprot
einswouldberemov edbeforesperminser
ti
on.

Themal
eisunabl
etopr
oduceenoughsper
mforsuccessf
ulf
ert
il
izat
ion.

Themanisi ent(
mpot erect
il
edy
sfunct
ion)
-andwoul
dther
efor
ebeunabl
etoper
for
m
sexual
int
ercour
se.
Themal ecouldbeinf
ert
il
easaresultofamedi caltr
eat
ment-sometreat
mentscar
ry
theriskofi
nfert
il
it
ye.
gradiot
her
apy.Beforethetreat
mentt
hemal ewouldhav
ebeen
giventhechancetofr
eezesomeofhi ssperm.

Thecoupl ecoul
dbei nsamesexr
elat
ionshi
p-t
wowomenwhowanttorai
seachi
ld
togetherwouldusespermfr
om adonor,whi
choneoft
hewomenwoul
drecei
vevi
a
arti
fi
ciali
nseminat
ion.

Reasonforinf
ert
il
it
ycannotbedeter
mined-IUImayberecommendedtoacouplet
hat
cannotconcei
veevenifnounder
lyi
ngreasonfort
heinf
ert
il
it
ycanbeident
if
ied.

MULTI PLEPREGNANCI ES
Mul t
ipl
epr egnanci esrefert
oasi tuati
onwhenmor et
hanoneovum i
srel
easedintot
he
reproductivetractofthef emale.Ont hisoccasi
oniti
spossi
blef
ormorethanoneovum
tobef erti
li
zed, consequentlyseveralviabl
eembr y
osmayentert
heuter
uswherethey
areimpl antedanddev el
oped.
TheCausesofMul ti
plePregnancies
Explainthecausesofmul ti
plepregnancies
Mul t
ipl
epr egnanci esmayoccurnat urall
yorari
seasaresul
tofr
epr
oducti
vetechnol
ogy
i
nv olvi
ngf ert
il
itydrugordur i
nganI VFpr ogram.
CausesofMul t
iplePregnanciesInclude:

Mor
ethanoneov
um r
eleasedi
ntot
her
epr
oduct
ivet
rack

Onef
ert
il
izedov
um spl
i
tti
ngupi
ntomor
ethanoneembr
yor
esul
ti
ngt
otwi
ns

Diff
erencebet weenIdenti
calTwinsandFrater
nalTwins
Identi
calTwins:Thesear eful
lyi
denti
calsi
ncetheycomef r
om asinglefert
il
izedov
um,
whichhasspl itt
ogivetwoorf ourembryosanddev el
opingtogivebabies.Theyhave
thesamesexandappear ance.
Frater
nal Twins:Result
ingwhenmor ethanoneov um (ova)arer
eleasedatat i
meand
arefert
il
ized.Theymayhav ethesamesexbutnoti denti
calatal
l
.

Di
sor
der
sofRepr
oduct
iveSy
stem
Reproductivesystem istheonedeal i
ngwiththebirt
hofachi l
d.Wehavetwot ypesof
reproducti
vesystems, whi charemal ereproducti
vesyst
em andfemalereproducti
ve
system.Themai nfunctionofr eproduct
ivesystem i
stofusethegametecausing
fert
il
izat
ion.Conservingt hebabyi namot her’
swombt i
l
lthedayofbeari
ngachi l
d.Also
i
st heonepr ovi
dingbi r
th/bear i
ngofachi l
d.
Therearemanydi sorderst hataff
ectthereproducti
vesystem.Thesepr
oblemsmaybe
foundinbothmal eandf emalereproduct
ivesystems.Disordersaf
fect
ingmale
reproduct
ivesystem areImpotence,PrematureEjacul
ati
on,Inf
lammationand
Autoimmuni t
y.Femaledisordersofthereproducti
vesystem areDamaget ot
he
Ov i
ducts(i
nfl
ammat ion),Pel
vi
cI nf
lammatoryDiseases(PID),Congeni
talMal
for
mat
ion
andFunctionalDisor
der.

TheCausesandEf f
ectsoftheReproducti
v eSyst
em Di sorder
s
Malereproducti
vesystem disor
ders
Impotence
Thisistheinabi
li
tytoachiev
eormai ntai
nanerectionoft hepeni
s.Amal
ecoul
dnot
erectthepeniseventhoughhewi l
ltouchthesexor gans.
CausesofI mpotence

I
mpotencei
susual
l
ypsy
chol
ogi
cal
dist
urbance.I
tmayoccuranyt
imedur
ingt
hel
i
fe
t
imeofamale

St
rongal
cohol
consumpt
ionanduseofdr
ugs

Di
seasesal
somaycausei
mpot
ence

Ef
fect
sofI
mpot
ence

I
mpot
encecausesf
ail
urei
nper
for
mingt
hesoci
alact
,thusonecannothav
echi
l
dren

Maycausepsy
chol
ogi
cal
dist
urbancest
otheper
son

I
fani
mpot
entper
soni
nmar
ri
ed,
impot
encemayl
eadt
othebr
eakoft
hatmar
ri
age

Itmayleadt
othecont
aminat
ionofdi
seasessuchasHI
V/AI
DS,
gonor
rheawhena
coupl
egetoutofmarr
iaget
ogetsexualsat
isf
act
ion

Prematur
eEjacul
ati
on
Prematur
eejacul
ati
onisthesituati
onwhereamanr eachesor
gasm befor
epenetr
ati
on
ofthepeni
sintot
hef emal
et r
ack.Beforei
nsert
ingpeni
sintot
hefemaletr
ackthemale
ej
aculat
edlongti
meout si
dethef emaletr
ack.
Causesofprematur
eejaculat
ion

Fear
,anxi
etyandsomet
imesi
sthef
ir
stt
imet
ohav
esexual
int
ercour
se

Psy
chol
ogi
cal
fact
orsmayal
sol
eadt
oapr
obl
em

Ef
fect
sofpr
emat
ureej
acul
ati
on

Theper
son(
mal
e)f
ail
stosat
isf
yawoman

Mayl
eadt
othebr
eakageofmar
ri
agewhenawomanf
indsanot
hermal
eforsexual
sat
isf
act
ion

Maycausepsy
chol
ogi
cal
dist
urbancesi
ntheman’
smi
nd

Autoimmunity
Thisisasit
uati
oninwhi
chant i
bodi
esaremade,whichat
tacksownsperm,thus
reduci
ngthenumberofsperms.Itmayleadtohavesmal
lnumberofspermsinthe
sperm st
orearea.
CausesofAutoimmunit
y:Ant
ibodi
esreactt
oone’sownsperm.Iti
snotexactl
yknown
whatcausesautoimmunit
y.
Effect
sofAutoimmuni
ty

I
tcausesi
nfer
ti
li
tyt
oaper
son

Maycausepsy
chol
ogi
cal
eff
ect
stot
heper
sonwhosuf
fer
ingf
rom t
hispr
obl
em

Nomor
epr
oduct
ionofchi
l
dren

I
nfl
ammat i
on
I
tisthecondi
tioni
nwhicht
heuret
hrai
sbl
ocked.I
tal
l
owsnomov
ementofsper
m out
ofthepeni
sandalsotheur
ine.
Causesofinf
lammati
on

Maybecausedbyswel
l
ingoft
hepr
ost
ategl
and

Al
soi
nfl
ammat
ionmaycauset
hepr
obl
em

Ef
fect
sofi
nfl
ammat
ion

I
nfl
ammat
ionmayl
eadt
ost
eri
l
ity(
inf
ert
il
it
y)

Maycausepsy
chol
ogi
cal
probl
emst
otheper
son

Maycausesev
erepainduri
ngsexual
int
ercour
seasone/
manwant
stoej
acul
atebut
sper
msfail
topassthroughur
ethr
a

DISORDERSOFTHEFEMALEREPRODUCTI VESYSTEM
DAMAGEOFTHEOVI DUCTS( INFLAMMATI ON)
Oviductofthef emal emaybebl ockedandcausest hefemal eorganst odofertil
i
zat i
on
ofanov um
Causesofdamagest otheOv i
duct( i
nfl
ammat i
on):I
tmaybecausedbyt heinfections
duet odif
ferentdiseases.Thei nfecti
onsmaycausescar r
ing,thusleadingtopar ti
alor
compl et
eblockageoft heov i
duct.
Effectsofdamaget ot heOviduct(Infl
ammat i
on):
Itcausesinferti
li
tytothefemal e.A
femalemaynothav etheabi l
it
yt ocarry
/concei
veachi l
dduet of ai
lur
eoff ert
il
izationof
aneggi nthef all
opiant ube.
PELVI CINFLAMMATORYDI SORDER( PI
D)
Thisisthepel vi
cinfecti
oncausedbybact eria.Thiscondi
tioncausesdamaget othe
oviducts.
Itoccurscommonl ytowomenwi t
hmanysexual partner
sandwomenwhouse
thecoilcont r
acepti
vemet hod
EffectsofPI D:
Thecondi ti
onmayl eadtoinfertil
i
ty.Awomanmayf ail
tobearachil
dand
i
fshedoessot hechildwillnotbenor mal
CONGENI TALMALFORMATI ON
Somewomenar ebornwi thblockedov i
ductorwi t
hnout erus(itmostl
yhappensinver
y
fewcases)
Causesofmal formation:
Thisisawomanbor nwi t
hdisordercausedbyproblemsinthe
reproducti
vesy stem
FUNCTI ONALDI SORDERS
Thisisacondi ti
oninwhi chawomanf ail
s/unabl etoexperiencesexualpl
easur
eduring
thesexual act
Causesoff uncti
onaldisorders

Thecausemaybepsy
chol
ogi
cal

Al
somaybebi
ologi
cal
one

Ef
fect
soff
unct
ional
disor
der
s

Maycausesomeonet
ost
ayawaynotconduct
ingsexual
int
ercour
se

Mayl
eadt
oendi
nmar
ri
age

Possi
bleRemediesofReproduct
iveSyst
em Disor
der
Suggestpossi
bler
emediesofreproduct
ivesy
stem di
sor
der
Treat
mentofImpotence

I
fthecausesofi
mpot
encear
epsy
chol
ogi
cal
,counsel
i
ngmayhel
ptocur
eit

I
fthecausei
sbi
ologi
cal
,onehast
oat
tendhospi
tal
formedi
cal
checkup

Tr
eat
mentofpr
emat
ureej
acul
ati
on

Counsel
i
ngi
sthemostef
fect
ivewayt
obeadopt
edt
otr
eatt
hepr
obl
em

Medi
cal
treat
mentmaybeappl
i
edt
ost
opt
hepr
obl
em

TreatmentofAutoimmuni t
y
Thisdisorderi
smor edif
fi
cultt
otreat
Treatmentofinfl
ammat i
on
One/manshoul dhavetoseekmedi caladv i
ceorint
erv
ent
ion
Treatmentofdamaget otheOv i
duct(I
nflammat i
on)
Surgeryisthemosteffecti
vewayoftreatingthi
sprobl
em.
Tr
eat
mentofPI
D

I
fawomanfeel
sshehasPI
Dsheshoul
dhav
etogot
othehospi
tal
fort
her
ight
t
reat
ment

Abst
aini
ngf
rom manysexual
par
tner
ssoast
oov
ercomemor
einf
ect
ions/
probl
em

Tr
eat
ment
off
unct
ional
disor
der
s

Counseli
ngist
hemostef
fect
ivewayt
hatmaybeusedt
ohel
pthepat
ientr
egai
nthei
r
conf
idence

Pat
ient
smaygot
othehospi
tal
forf
urt
herchecksandt
reat
ment

Compl
i
cat
ionoft
heRepr
oduct
iveSy
stem
Mostwomengi vebi
rthnormal
lyandperf
ectl
ybutsomepr obl
emscananddooccurin
thei
rreproduct
ivesy
stem andcauseseff
ectstothenewlyfor
medembr yo.
The
probl
ems/ compli
cat
ionsareabort
ion/
miscarr
iage,
ectopi
cpregnancyandsti
l
lbi
rt
hs
alsobreechbir
th.

Miscarri
age:
Thisisthelossofadev el
opi
ngembr y
obef or
esi xmonthsar
eov er
.
Medicall
y,miscar
riageisconsi
deredasthenatur
alaborti
on.Itmayresul
tfr
om foetus
notbeingful
lydeveloped,f
ail
ureoftheembryotoimplantproper
lyorduetodefor
med
embryo.

EctopicPregnancy :
Occasionallythefert
il
izedovum fai
lst
oreachtheuter
usandinst
ead
i
mpl antselsewher einther eproducti
vetrack.Forexampl
eitcanbeimplant
edinthe
fal
l
opi antubeinsteadofut erus.Thissit
uationisknownasectopi
cpregnancy.
Onl
y1out
of50,000ect opi
cpr egnanciesmaybedel iver
edsafely
.

Abortion:
Referst
ot heprematureterminati
onofpregnancy.Abor
ti
onmayoccur
naturall
y(miscar
ri
age)orbei nduced.I
nducedAborti
onistheabort
iont
hatisdeli
berat
ely
broughtoutformedi calr
easons.SpontaneousAbort
ioi
st heki
ndofabort
ionthatoccurs
withouthumansormedi cal
inter
venti
on.Thatisnotinducedinanyway.I
tisalso
refer
redt oasmiscarri
age.

BreechBi rth:
Thisi
sthesituat
ionwher eababyisbor nf
eetorbut
tocksfi
rst.Insuch
cases, durati
onofdeli
veryiscri
ti
cal,t
oofastdeliv
erymayresul
tindamageandt oolong
deliver
ymaycauseoxy gendeprivati
onandifleftforal
ongti
memayr esulttodeathof
thebaby .Sometimesitbecomesnecessar ytoremov et
hebabybyothermeanssuchas
forceps( surgi
calt
ongs)orCaesar i
an(C)secti
on

Caesar
ianDel
iver
y:Thisi
sther
emovalofthebabyf
rom t
heuter
ususingsur
gical
means
thr
oughmakingani nci
si
onint
heabdominalandut
eri
newal
l.Caesar
iandel
i
verycanbe
donewhenei
thert
hebabyistoobi
gtopasst
hefemal
erepr
oduct
ivest
ruct
uresort
he
mother
’sr
epr
oducti
vest
ructur
esar
etoosmall
.

Ot
hercompli
cati
onst
hatoccasi
onal
l
yar
iseduri
ngchi
l
dbirt
handgener
all
yrequi
re
managementbyanobst
etr
ici
anmaybedescr
ibedasfol
l
ows:

Non-progressi
onoflabour(l
ong-ter
m contract
ionswithoutadequat
ecervi
cal
dil
ati
on)i
s
generall
ytreat
edwithcervi
calprost
aglandingelorint
ravenoussynt
heti
coxyt
oci
n
preparat
ions.I
fthi
sisinef
fecti
veCaesar i
ansectionmaybenecessar y
.

Fetaldi
str
essist
hedevelopmentofsignsofdi
str
essbythechil
d.Thesemayi
nclude
ri
singordecr
easi
ngheartbeat(moni
toredoncar
diot
ocography
).Sheddi
ngofmeconi
um
i
nt heamniot
icfl
uidandothersi
gns.

Non-pr
ogr essionofexpul si
on(theheadorpresentingpartsarenotdeliver
eddespite
adequatecont r
acti
ons);t
hiscanrequir
einter
ventionssuchasv acuum ext
racti
on
for
cepsext ractionandCaesariansecti
on.I
nthepastagr eatmanywomendi eddur i
ng
orshortl
yaf terchil
dbir
thbutmoder nmedicaltechniquesav ai
l
ableinindustr
ial
ized
countr
ieshav egreat
lyreducedthist
otal
ly.

Unantici
patedheavybleedi
ngduringoraf terchil
dbir
thi
spotenti
all
ylet
halnpl aces
withoutimmediateaccesstohigh-levelemer gencycar
e.Heavybloodlossleadsto
hypovolemicshock,i
nsuffi
cientperfusi
onofv i
talor
gansanddeathifnotrapidlyt
reat
ed
bystemmi ngthebloodlossandbl oodtr ansfusi
on.

CausesofCompl
i
cat
ionsoft
heRepr
oduct
iveSy
stem
Ot
hercompli
cati
onst
hatoccasi
onal
l
yar
iseduri
ngchi
l
dbirt
handgener
all
yrequi
re
managementbyanobst
etr
ici
anmaybedescr
ibedasfol
l
ows:

Non-progressi
onoflabour(l
ong-ter
m contract
ionswithoutadequat
ecervi
cal
dil
ati
on)i
s
generall
ytreat
edwithcervi
calprost
aglandingelorint
ravenoussynt
heti
coxyt
oci
n
preparat
ions.I
fthi
sisinef
fecti
veCaesar i
ansectionmaybenecessar y
.

Fetaldi
str
essist
hedevelopmentofsignsofdi
str
essbythechil
d.Thesemayi
nclude
ri
singordecr
easi
ngheartbeat(moni
toredoncar
diot
ocography
).Sheddi
ngofmeconi
um
i
nt heamniot
icfl
uidandothersi
gns.

Non-pr
ogr essionofexpul si
on(theheadorpresentingpartsar
enotdeliver
eddespite
adequatecont r
acti
ons);t
hiscanrequir
einter
ventionssuchasv acuum ext
racti
on
for
cepsext ractionandCaesariansecti
on.Inthepastagr eatmanywomendi edduring
orshortl
yaf terchil
dbir
thbutmoder nmedicaltechniquesavai
labl
einindustr
ial
ized
countr
ieshav egreat
lyreducedthist
otal
ly.

Unantici
pat
edheavybleedi
ngdur i
ngorafterchi
ldbi
rt
hi spot
enti
all
ylethalnplaces
withoutimmedi
ateaccesstohigh-l
evelemergencycare.Heavybl
oodl ossleadsto
hypovolemi
cshock,i
nsuffi
cientper
fusi
onofv i
talor
gansanddeat hifnotrapidl
ytr
eat
ed
byst
emmi
ngt
hebl
oodl
ossandbl
oodt
ransf
usi
on.

Wayst oMi ni
mizetheOccurr
enceofCompli
cati
onsandDisor
dersoft heRepr
oductiv
e
Syst
em
Suggestway stomi ni
mizet
heoccurr
enceofcompli
cat
ionsanddisordersoft
he
repr
oduct i
vesystem
Thef ol
l
owi ngarethewayofmini
mizi
ngoccurr
enceofcomplicat
ionsanddisorder
sof
thereproducti
vesystem.

St
op/
mi ni
mizi
ngamountofalcoholt
hatwetake/
dri
nkmaykeepusawayfrom
i
mpotenceandot
heri
nfect
ionsthatmayleadtodi
sorder
sinr
epr
oduct
ivesyst
ems

Practi
cingdif
ferentduti
es/
acti
vit
iesandparti
cipat
ingi
nexerci
sesal
sospor
tsand
gameshel pstor educepsy
chological
probl
emswhi chmayleadtodi
sor
dersint
he
reproduct
ivesystem

Medicalcheckupbetweenthepartner
swhowantt
ogetmar
ri
edtoknowtheirRhesus
f
actors,bl
oodgroups,i
nfect
ionsandHIV/
AIDSi
nordert
omi
nimi
zethedeathor
miscarr
iageduri
ngpregnancy

Gett
ingear
lyt
reat
mentofanyi
nfect
ionsl
i
kegonorrhea,sy
phi
l
is,bi
l
har
ziasi
s,whi
chmay
causedamagetothef
all
opi
antubesanduret
hrai
nmal eandfemal
e.

Sexual
i
tyandSexual
Heal
thandResponsi
bleSexual
Behav
iour
Sex
ual
i
tyi
ncl
udesfondnessorr
eadi
nessforori
nter
esti
nasexualact
ivi
ty.
Sex
ual
i
tyi
sthefunct
ionofwhol
epersonal
i
tybegi
nsatbir
thandendatdeathi
tincl
udes:

Howy
ouf
eel
abouty
our
sel
fasaper
son

Howy
ouf
eel
bei
ngamanorwoman

Howy
ougetal
ongwi
thmemberoft
hesameoropposi
tesex

I
talsoincl
udesgeni
tal
andr
epr
oduct
ivepr
ocessessuchasi
nter
cour
seandchi
l
d
beari
ng

SocialCul
turalFactor
sInfl
uenci
ngSexualBehavi
ourinDif
fer
entAgeGr oupsofPeopl
e
Ment i
onsocialcult
uralf
actorsi
nfl
uenci
ngsexualbehavi
ouri
ndiff
erentagegroupsof
people
SexualBehav i
ourinChil
dren
Factorsi
nfluencesexualbehavi
ori
nChildr
en:

St
artati
nfant
rywhenchi
l
drenshownt
hei
rownbodi
es
Al
sosexual
i
tyi
sshownatear
lyage(
playage)

Chi
l
drenal
sodoandl
ear
nfr
om t
hei
rfel
l
owchi
l
drenondi
ff
erentsexual
mat
ter
s

Educat
ion–i
nschool
andcommuni
ty

I
nit
iat
ionr
it
es

Rel
i
giousbel
i
efs

MassMedi
a

Economi
cst
atus–bot
hpoorandr
ich

SexualBehavi
ouri
nAdolescent
s
Factor
sinfl
uencesexual
behavi
ouri
nadol
escent
s:

Ear
lymar
ri
age

Soci
alpr
essur
e(t
radi
ti
onofbei
ngi
ndependent
)

Dr
ugaddi
cti
on–i
tcanst
imul
ateordepr
esst
hesexual
pract
ice

Peerpr
essur
e

Educat
ion–school
andcommuni
ty

Mor
aldecay

Mar
ri
agebr
eakdownandpr
obl
ems

Pov
ert
y

MassMedi
a

Lackofpr
opergui
danceandcounsel
i
ng

Diff
erenceBet weenResponsi bleandI rr
esponsibl
eSexual Behavi
ourandThei rImpact
onOnesel fFami l
yandCommuni t
y
Diff
erenti
ateresponsibl
ef rom ir
responsiblesexualbehavi
ourandt heiri
mpacton
oneselffamil
yandcommuni ty
Responsiblesexualbehav i
oursar ethebehav i
ours,whichareacceptableinthesoci
eti
es
toeli
citortri
ggersexual acti
vit
ylikemar ri
age.
I
rresponsibl
esexual behav i
orsaret hosebehaviour
sofani ndivi
dual,whicharenot
acceptablebyf amil
yaswel l
associ eti
es,exampleuseofal coholanddrugs( dr
ug
addicti
on)andpr osti
tut
iont otri
ggersexual act
ivi
ti
es.
Ef
fect
sofirr
esponsi
bleSexual
Behav
iour
Toanindi
vi
dual:

Becomingpr
egnantatat
enderage,
thusl
osi
ngt
heoppor
tuni
tyofbei
ngof
fi
cial
l
y
marri
edorcont
inui
ngwit
hstudi
es

Bei
ngindangerofcont
ract
ingf
atal
vener
eal
diseasesuchassy
phi
l
is,
HIV/
AIDS,
gonor
rheaet
c.

I
tmayl
eadt
odeat
h,whenani
ndi
vi
dual
tri
est
oabor
tanunwant
edpr
egnancy

Get
ti
ngar
esponsi
bil
i
tyofcar
ingf
oraf
ami
l
yatanear
lyage

I
tcandegr
adethepersonal
it
yofaper
son.Forexampl
epr
ost
it
utesorr
api
stshav
eno
pl
acet
oputthei
rfacesinsomesoci
eti
es

Tof
ami
l
y

Br
eakageofmar
ri
age

Leadt
oconf
li
cti
nthef
ami
l
yormar
ri
age

Lossofpar
ti
cul
arr
elat
ivei
fhe/
shecont
ract
sdi
seasel
i
keHI
V/AI
DS

FamilyPlanningandCont racepti
on
TheConceptofFami lyPl
anni ngandCont racept i
on
Expl
aint heconceptoff ami l
yplanningandcont r
acepti
on
Familyplanningisadeci sionmadebyaper sonf r
eelyonhowmanychi l
drenheorse
maywantt ohav eandwhensheorhewant st ostop.
Contraceptionreferstoprev ent
ionofconcept i
ont hati
sprevent
ionorprevent
ingt he
fusi
onoft hemal egamet ewi t
hthef emalegamet e.Bir
thcontr
olisbr
oaditincludes
measur estakent opreventbi r
thaft
erf ert
il
izati
on.
Therear etwomet hodsusednamel yAr t
if
icialfamilypl
anni
ngmet hodsandNat ural
famil
ypl anningment hods.

Ar
tif
ici
alFamil
yPlanningMethodsi
ncl
udessteri
l
izat
ion,
oral
cont
racept
ives,
int
ra-
ut
eri
nedev i
ces,
Norplant,
diaphr
agm andcondoms

Natur
alFamil
yPlanni
ngMethodsi
ncl
udesr
hyt
hm,
thebasal
bodyt
emper
atur
eand
wit
hdrawal(
coit
usint
err
upt
)

Soci
alPr
act
iceswhi
chEnhanceFami
l
yPl
anni
ng
Statesocialpr acti
ceswhi chenhancefamil
yplanning
Socialcultur
al practices,whi
chenhancefamil
ypl anni
ng,i
ncl
udethenat
uralmethodsof
familyplanning, whichare:
Abstinence
Thisreferstot heav oidanceofsexuali
nter
courseorcanbedefinedasr
efusalby
sexuallyacti
v emal eandf emaletohavesexualinter
cour
se.
AdvantageofAbst i
nence

I
tist
hemostef
fect
ivemet
hodofpr
event
ingconcept
ion

Theappr
oxi
mat
edr
ateoff
ail
ureoft
hismet
hodi
szer
oper
cent

Disadv antagesofAbst i
nence
I
ti ssaidt obeunr eal
isticformanyt opr acticethismethod
Rhy thm Met hod(CalendarMet hod)
Thi sismodi fi
edfrom abst inence.Ni ntercour seisdoneduri
ngthefert
ileper
iod.These
day scanbecount edori dent i
fiedbycount i
ngt hedaysbetweenmenstrualperi
odand
alsobyobser vi
ngcer tainassoci atedphy sicalchangessuchassmal l
changesi nbody
temper ature.Awomanmayal sokeepawr itt
enchartofhermenstr
ual cycl
eforcert
ain
mont hsandi staughthowt odet erminet henumberofday seachmont hwhensex ual
i
nt ercoursemustbeav oided.Tot alabstinencei sabout7daysinamont h.
Adv antagesoft heRhy thm Met hod

Themet
hodi
ssai
dtobenat
ural
andwi
del
yaccept
abl
e

I
thasnocost

I
tissai
dtobe77-
87%ef
fect
ive

Di
sadv
ant
agesofRhy
thm Met
hod

Theappr
oxi
mat
efai
l
urer
atei
s20%

I
trequi
resgoodknowl
edgeandgoodr
ecor
dkeepi
ng

I
tal
sor
equi
resaper
iodofabst
inence

I
rr
egul
ari
tyoft
hemenst
rual
per
iod(
cycl
e)

Temper atureMet hod

Thismet hodi sbasedont hechangesofawoman’ sbody ’
stemperatur
eduet oher
menst r
ual cycle.Thetemperatureissai
dtodropduri
ngthemenst r
ualperiodand
remainslowunt ilt
herel
easeofanov um.Ari
seintemperaturei
snotedatov ul
ati
onand
sexualintercourseshouldbeav oidedatt
hist
imeifconceptioni
snotintended.
Advantagesoft heTemper at
ureMet hod
Themet
hodi
ssai
dtobe76-
80%ef
fect
ive

I
tcost
snot
hing

I
tdoesnotr
equi
ref
it
ti
ngandr
egul
archeckups

Di
sadv
ant
agesoft
heTemper
atur
eMet
hod

Theappr
oxi
mat
efai
l
urei
ssai
dtobe20-
24%

Sper
msr
eleasedt
oaf
emal
etr
actaf
ewdaybef
oreov
ulat
ionmaysur
viv
eunt
ilov
ulat
ion

I
rr
egul
ari
tyoft
heov
ulat
ionmaycausef
luct
uat
ionoft
emper
atur
e

Bil
l
ingMet hod(Ovul
ati
onMet hod)
Thismethodisbasedont hefactthatt
hesecret
ionfrom t
hefemal
et r
actchanges
noti
ceablyduri
ngthecourseofhermenstrual
cycle.Theappear
anceofcl eart
hin
mucusi nfemalet
ractsecret
ionsatovul
ati
onisnotedandsexuali
ntercoursei
sav oi
ded
duri
ngthesetimes.
AdvantagesofBil
li
ngMet hod

I
tissai
dtobe76-
80%ef
fect
ive

I
tcost
snot
hing(
iti
scheap)

I
tdoesnotr
equi
ref
it
ti
ngandr
egul
archeckups

DisadvantagesofBi l
li
ngMet hod
Regulari
tyofov ul
ati
onmaycausef luct
uati
onoft emperature
CoitusInter
rupti
on( wit
hdrawal)
Coitusinter
rupti
onorwi thdrawali
sanothernaturalmethodofbirt
hcontroli
nwhicha
malewi thdr
awshi spenisf r
om afemaletractbefor
eejaculati
on.Thi
smet hodi
soneof
theoldestmet hodsofbirthcontr
ol.Coit
usinter
rupti
onrequiresunusual
degreeofwi
ll
power .
AdvantagesofWi t
hdrawal

Themet
hodi
scost
less

I
tisr
eli
abl
efor76-
80%whenpr
act
iced

Di
sadv
ant
agesofWi
thdr
awal

Themet
hodr
equi
ressomedegr
eeofwi
l
lpower

I
thasahighf
ail
urer
ateincasef
lui
drel
easedf
rom t
hepeni
sjustbef
oreej
acul
ati
on
maycont
ainvi
abl
esperms
Sper
msmayl
eakf
rom peni
sbef
orei
swi
thdr
awal
evenwi
thoutej
acul
ati
on

Arti
fi
cialMet hodsofbir
thcontrol
Barri
erMet hods
Thesemet hodspreventsper
msf rom enter
ingthef emaletr
act
.Thesemet hodsi
nclude:
Condom: Thisisat hi
nrubbersheath,
whichpr eventsspermsfr
om enteri
ngintot
he
femaletract.Malecondom iswornov eranerectpenisduringi
nter
courseandprevents
spermsf rom beingrel
easedintothefemaletractthatwayprevent
inguni
onofsperm
andov um.
AdvantagesofCondoms

Condomsar
esai
dtobe85%t
o93%r
eli
abl
ewhenusedpr
oper
ly(
handl
edwi
thcar
e)

Theymayhel
ppr
event
ionofsexual
l
ytr
ansmi
tt
eddi
seasessuchasf
ungal
inf
ect
ion

Theyar
echeapandeasi
l
yandobt
ained

Di
sadv
ant
agesofCondoms

Condomscant
earandl
eak.I
nsuchcasest
heybecomeusel
ess

Acondom maysl
i
pof
fthepeni
saf
tercl
i
max

Condomsmaydi
sruptt
heactofl
ovemaki
ng(
reducesensat
ion)

Femal
eCondoms
Femal
econdomsar
eequi
val
entt
omal
econdomsi
nthat
:

I
tisat
hinr
ubbert
ubewi
thacl
oseendwhi
chf
it
sinsi
det
hef
emal
etr
act

Femal
econdomsarerel
ati
vel
ynew,
sonotmuchisknownaboutthem.Theygi
vea
womansomecontr
olandaresai
dtohav
etheadv
antagesasthosefthemalecondoms

Diaphragm
Thisisanot herbarr
iermethodthatpreventsenter
ingofsper
msi ntothef
emaletract
.A
di
aphr agm isaf l
exi
blerubber
,whichfit
sov erthecerv
ixandpreventsent
ryofspermto
uterus.Iti
sappl i
edwithcontr
acepti
vejell
y( cr
eam)orspermici
dalchemical
s,whichki
ll
sperms.Adoct ormustprescri
bethismet hod.
Advant agesofDiaphragm

Themet
hodi
ssai
dtobecheap

I
tcanbei
nser
tedaf
ewhour
sbef
oresexual
act

Di
sadv
ant
agesofDi
aphr
agm
Thedi
aphr
agm mustbef
it
tedbyadoct
orandt
rai
ningi
srequi
redf
ort
hewomant
ofi
tit

I
tdi
srupt
sspont
anei
ty

I
toccasi
onal
l
ycausespai
nint
heabdomen

I
tneedscheckupaf
terev
erysi
x(6)mont
hs

I
tshoul
dbel
efti
npl
acesi
xhour
saf
teri
nter
cour
se

Sper mi
cidal
Thesear echemicals,whichki
ll
ssperms.Spermi
ci
dalfoam,orsper
mici
dalj
ell
yis
placedinanapplicator,
whichisinsert
edandempti
edintot
hefemaletr
actj
ustbefor
e
sexualinter
cour
se.Theseki l
lsperm andbl
ockcer
vix.
Adv ant
agesofSper micidal

I
tischeap

I
tisef
fect
ivef
oraboutanhour

Di
sadv
ant
agesofSper
mici
dal

I
tismessy

I
thasahi
ghf
ail
urer
atei
fusedoni
tsown

Thepi l
l
Thisisoneoft hemostwidelyusedcontr
acept
ivemethods.Thepil
li
sanor al
contracepti
vebysy nt
het
icoestr
ogenandprogester
onetakendail
ybyt hefemale.
It
functi
onbysuppr essi
ngthenormalrel
easeofgonadotr
opinsfrom t
hepitui
tar
y.These
synthetichor
monespr ev
enttheovul
ati
onprocess,t
hushinderi
ngferti
l
izati
on.
Advant agesofthepil
l

Thepi
l
lissai
dtobev
eryef
fect
ivei
.e.i
tisabout98%successf
ul

Awomanhascont
rol
overt
hemet
hod

I
thasnoi
nter
fer
encewi
thsexual
int
ercour
se

Di
sadv
ant
agesoft
hepi
l
l

I
tisnotsui
tabl
eforal
lwomen.Ther
emaybei
ncr
easedr
iskofbl
oodcl
ott
ingi
nsome
women

I
tisnotr
ecommendedf
orol
derwomenorwomenwhosmoke
Shortt
erm si
deef
fect
soft hepi
ll
incl
udenausea,
wei
ghtgai
n,t
issueswel
l
ing,
flui
d
ret
enti
onandminorheadaches

TheImportanceofMaleInvol
vementi
nFamil
yPlanni
ng
Outl
inetheimport
anceofmaleinvol
vementi
nfamil
yplanni
ng
Peoplegoforfamil
yplanni
ngorcontr
olf
oranumberofreasons.Amongt
hesear
e:

Toensur
ebothpar
tnersar
ehealthyandobserv
emedicalmeasur
est
hatar
eadv
ised,
gi
vi
ngenoughti
mef oramother
’sful
lrecov
eryaft
ergi
vi
ngbirt
h

Abi
l
ityt
ocat
erf
ort
heneedsofmanychi
l
dren

Coupl
esdeci
det
opr
act
icechi
l
dspaci
ngsot
hatt
heycancat
erf
ort
hei
rneeds

Helpstoi
mprovetheheal
thofamot
herbyhelpi
ngwoment oavoi
dpregnancyatear
ly
age,unwant
edpregnanci
esandt
obecomepregnantatl
ateageof35years

I
mpor
tanceofFami
l
yPl
anni
ngandCont
racept
ion

Somefamil
ypl
anningmet
hodshel
ptopr
eventt
het
ransmi
ssi
onofHI
Vandsexual
l
y
tr
ansmi
tt
edinf
ect
ions

Fami
l
ypl
anni
ngr
educest
heneedf
orunsaf
eabor
ti
on

Famil
ypl
anni
ngr
einf
orcespeopl
e’
sri
ght
stodet
ermi
net
henumberandspaci
ngoft
hei
r
chi
ldr
en

Fami
l
ypl
anni
nghel
pst
obui
l
dtheheal
thofamot
her

Famil
yplanni
ngenabl
est
hecoupl
etobeabl
etohandl
ethef
ami
l
ybycat
eri
ngt
othe
needsoffamil
y

Mat ernal andChildCar e

TheConceptofMat er nal andChi l
dCar e
Explaint heconceptofmat er nalandchi ldcar e
Apr egnantmot herneedsal otofcar eandconsi derati
onforthebestofherheal t
hand
thatoft hechi l
d.Basical l
yther ear etwot y pesofcaregiventopregnantmot her.These
arepre-nat alandpost -natal care.Thecar egi v
enbef or
ebirt
hiscall
edpre-natalcareand
thecar egi venduri
ngbi rt
hi scallednat alcar e.Butapregnantmotheralsoneedsacar e
andsuppor taf
terbi
rthoft hechi ld;thiskindofcar eandsupportprovi
dedaf terbir
this
call
edpost -nat
alcare.
Mat ernal careduri
ngpr egnancy( Pre-natal car
e)
Pre-natal caremeansbef or ebi r
th;therefor epre-
natalcar
emeansacar egiventoa
pregnantwomanbef or edel ivery.
Thi
ngst
obedonebyapr
egnantmot
her

Vi
si
tant
e-nat
alcl
i
nicf
orcounsel
i
ng

Mai
ntai
ngener
albodycl
eanl
i
nessal
lthet
ime

Hav
eenoughr
est

Wearl
ose-
fi
tt
ingdr
essesandl
owheel
edshoesf
orcomf
ort

Eatwel
lbal
anceddi
etcont
aini
ngal
lty
pesoff
ood

Thi
ngst
obeav
oidedbyapr
egnantmot
her

Doi
ngt
ir
esomeandmanual
wor
k.Exampl
eli
ft
ingheav
yloads

Taki
nganymedi
ci
nenotpr
escr
ibedbyt
hedoct
or

Taki
ngdr
ugssuchasal
cohol
,ci
gar
ett
eswhi
chcoul
dbedet
ri
ment
alt
otheunbor
nbaby

Ti
ghtcl
othesandhi
ghheel
edshoes

Avoi
dsit
uati
onsleadi
ngt
ochancesofcontr
acti
ngv
ener
eal
diseasessuchasgonor
rhea,
sy
phil
isandAIDSwhichmightaf
fectt
hebaby

Av
oidst
ressf
ulsi
tuat
ion

Careduri
ngnatalperi
od
Natalper
iodistheperi
odwhent hepregnantmothergi
vesbi
rt
htothechi
ldshehas
beencarryi
nginherwombf oraboutninemonths.Anumberofthi
ngsneedtobe
consi
deredduri
ngnatalper
iod:

Anexpectantmotherneedstoundergol
aborundersuper
visi
onofat
rai
nednur
seor
tr
ainedbi
rthat
tendantwhenevert
hisispossi
ble

I
fanycompl i
cati
onsoccurthatcannotbesolv
edbyei
theratr
ainednurseoratr
ained
bi
rthatt
endantari
ses,anexpectantmot
hershoul
dber
eferr
edtot heheal
thcent
eror
hospi
talformedi
calassist
ance

Mostbirt
hsareperf
ectlynor
mal butprobl
emscananddooccur
.Whenpr obl
emsari
se,
moderndeli
veryf
acil
it
iesortechni
quessuchasCaesar
eansect
ionandvacuum
ext
ract
ionareused.Careshouldbetakennott
odamageanyorganofthebabyort
he
mother

I
ncaseanewbornbabyi
spre-
matureappr
opri
ateser
vicesshoul
dbegi
vent
oitsoast
o
hel
pitaccompl
i
shanormal
patter
nofgrowthanddevelopment
Post -
natalser v
icestot hemot herandt hechild
Thesear ecar eandser vi
cesprov i
dedtot hemot herandt henewbor nchildafterbir
th.
Afterbirt
hamot herhasanot herbigresponsibil
ityandr oleofbr east-f
eedingt hechild.
Alsoamot hershoul dat t
endpost -nat
al cl
ini
cformedi calchecksandi mmuni zati
onof
thechildBal anceddi etshouldbesuppl iedtoal actatingmot hersoast oensur ethat
sheget senoughnut rit
ionforherbenef i
tandul timat elythatoft hechild.
Propernut r
itionwi l
lhelphertor estor
et heti
ssuewor noutdur i
ngt henatalper i
od.This
helpsalsot henewbor nbabyt ohav eenoughmi lkfrom i t
smot her.Theheal t
hofbot h
themot herandherchi ldshouldbeser iouslytakencar eof .
Childhealthcar e
Mot hersshoul dbreast -
feedthechi l
dwhenev erpossi ble,mot her’
smi l
ki sbetterthan
anyot herfoodbecauseoft hefoll
owing:

I
tcont
ainsant
ibodi
est
hatar
emuchneededt
othechi
l
d

I
ncaset
hemot
herhasnoheal
thpr
obl
emssuchmi
l
kisf
reef
rom cont
ami
nat
ion

Mot
her
’smil
kal
socont
ainsmuchpr
otei
nsandv
itami
nswhi
char
ever
yimpor
tantf
or
t
hechi
l
d’sgr
owt
h

Br
eastmil
kiseasi
lydigest
edthanothermi
lkexamplebott
ledmil
k.Ther
efor
echi
l
dren
whotakemil
kfrom t
heirmotherr
arel
ysuff
erfr
om consti
pati
on

Mother
’smil
kissai
dtocontai
nsomechemi
cal
swhi
chhel
pindev
elopmentoft
he
ner
voussyst
em oft
hechil
d

Regul
arattendanceofpost-nat
alcl
ini
cfort
hechildi
sv er
yimportant
.Thechi
ldshoul
d
al
sogetimmuni zedagai
nstdif
fer
enti
nfect
ionsanddiseasessuchaspoli
o,measl
es
andotherdiseases

Themothershoul
df ol
lowmedical
adviceonhowt
ohandl
ethechi
l
dandi
ncaseofany
probl
emsreporti
ttotheper
sonnelconcer
ned

Soci
al-
Cultur
alFactor
swhichAff
ectMaternal
andChil
dCareint
heFamil
yand
Communi t
y
Menti
onsocial-
cult
uralf
actor
swhichaf
fectmater
ial
andchi
ldcar
eint
hefamil
yand
communi t
y
Theseincl
udethefoll
owing:

FemaleGenit
alMutil
ati
on(FGM) :
Thi
sisthepr
act
iceofci
rcumcisi
ngwomen.I ti
ssaid
tohaveef
fectsduri
ngchil
dbir
th.I
tcauseswomentoexperi
encepain,
bleedi
ng,and
shockandmayl eadtoi
nfect
ion.

LocalBel
ief
:Thesearecert
ainl
ocalbel
i
efsandtaboossuchasbanni
ngwomentoeat
cert
ainty
pesoff oodssuchasprot
einri
chfoods,
whichcoul
dhelptobui
l
dthei
rheal
th
andthatofthechil
d.
Workingespeci
all
yhardworksuchascul
ti
vati
on:Har
dworkmaycausesev
eral
pr
oblemst othepregnantwomansuchasmiscar
ri
ageorpai
n.

AlcoholConsumpti
onduringpr
egnancy:I
nmostcul
tur
alpracti
cest
akingalcoholi
s
consider
edasanor malbehavi
our.Butal
cohol
duri
ngpregnancyaf
fectsboththeheal
th
ofthemot herandt
hatofthechil
d.

Appropri
ateWay sofProvi
dingMaternal
andChi
l
dCareforPeopleLi
vingwit
hHIV/
AIDS
(PLWHA
Suggestappropri
atewaysofprovi
dingmater
nal
andchi
l
dcar eforpeoplel
i
vingwi
th
HIV/AI
DS( PLWHA)
Theseincl
udet hefol
l
owing:

Toensur
efr
equentmedi
cal
checkupf
orbot
hmat
ernal
andchi
l
d

Toensur
etheygetwel
lbal
anceddi
et

Av
oidshar
ingshar
pobj
ect
sli
ker
azorbl
ades

Counsel
i
ngi
nor
dert
ohel
pthem deal
wit
hthei
rfeel
i
ngsofl
ossandgr
ief

Toav
oiddi
scr
imi
nat
ionf
orpeopl
eli
vi
ngwi
thHI
V/AI
DS

Ensur
etheuseofpol
i
tel
anguagewhenpr
ovi
dingcar
etot
hem

Wear
ingofgl
oveswhencl
eani
ngt
hei
rbodi
esandcl
othes

FORM FOUR

1.
GROWTH
Growt hisani ncreaseinsize/massorgr owthi sthepr ogressivedevelopmentofl i
vi
ng
thi
ng, especiall
ythepr ocessbywhi cht hebodyr eachesi t
spoi ntofcompl etephy si
cal
development .
Thegr owt hprocessi snotast eadyone; somet i
mesgr owt hoccur srapidly
,atot her
ti
messl owly
.Indiv i
dualpatter
nsofgr owt hvarywi del
ybecauseofdi ff
erencesi n
heredityandenv ironment .
Whent herateofcel li
ncreaseishighert hanther ateofcellloss,growthisr eferredtoas
posit
ivegr owth.Whent herateofcellincreaseisl owerthant herateatwhi chcel lsare
l
ostf r
om t hebody ,theorganism decreasesi nsizeandwei ght.Thi
sisal sor eferredto
asnegat i
vegrowt h.Several
Int
ernalf
act or
saffect
inggr
owthi
nhumans
Thesearet hefact
orswhichar
eassociat
edwit
hgeneti
cmake-upofanorgani
sm plus
allt
heotherprocesseswhicht
akeplaceint
heorgani
sm’sbody.Thesef
act
orsincl
ude
thefol
lowing:

Heredit
y:Aper son’sphy sical developmenti sstronglyaffectedbyt heirgenesi nheri
ted
from t
heirparents.Par ent ’
sgenespr edeterminethel i
mitsofani ndividual’sheightand
othercharacteri
sti
csi ncludi ngt hev ari
abili
tyi
ney ecol our,haircolour, bodycomposi t
ion,
andskintone.Wi thphy sical attr
ibutessuchashei ght,parents’genesdi ctatetherange
ofheighttheiroff
spr i
ngcanobt ain.Thev ari
abil
ityinheightisar esul tofmanyext ernal
factor
sint heenvironmenti ncl udingnut r
iti
onandev entsduringt hechi ld’
sgr owth.

Hormones: Humangr owthisaff

ectedbybi ochemicalproductssuchashormones.
Hormonesar er
egardedasgrowth-promotingsubstances.Probablyallt
heendocri
ne
gl
andsinfluencegrowth.Mostofthehor monesaresecr etedbytheendocri
neglands
andplayasi gni
fi
cantrol
einregul
atingthepatter
nofgr owt handdevelopmentasper
i
nstr
uctionsofthegenes.Examplesoft hesehormonesandt hei
ractionsar
easf ol
lows:

Somat otr
ophin:Themosti mport
anthormonecont roll
i
nggr owthfrom bi
rt
hupt o
adolescencei sgrowthhormoneorsomatotrophi
n.Thi sisapolypept
idesecretedbythe
pit
uitar
y.Ithelpsingrowthofbonesandtherebyi
ncr easestheheightofpersons.Ital
so
causesanov eral
lgrowthrat
eofmostoftissuesincludingbrai
n.

Thy r
oidhor mone: Thishor monepl aysav i
talr
olethroughoutthewhol eperi
odofgr owth.
Theact i
vit
yoft hethy r
oiddecr easesgraduall
yfrom bir
thtoadolescence.Inlow
secretionoft hehor mone, skeletalmaturi
ty,
dentalmat ur
it
yandgr owthofthebr ainar
e
allaffected.Dur i
ngadol escenceanewphaseofgr owthoccur sunderthecontrolof
steroidhor monessecr etedbyt headrenal
sandgonads.Thegonadsofbot hsexes
secreteest rogensinsmal lquantit
iesfr
om thetimeofbi r
thonwar ds.Atpubertythe
oestrogenl evel r
iseshar pl
yingi r
lsandtoamuchmor eli
mi t
edextentinboys;thesex
diff
erencesi spossi blyduet oani nhi
bit
oryhormonesecr etedbythesemi ni
ferous
tubulesoft het esti
cle.

Test
oster
one:Testost
erone,
producedbythet
est
icl
e,isi
mpor
tanti
nst
imul
ati
nggr
owt
h
andi
tisresponsibl
eforthegreat
ergrowt
hofmuscles.

Gonadotr
ophi
ns:Gonadotr
ophinsareresponsibl
eforthegrowthoftheovari
esand
test
is,
andlat
eron,thesecret
ionofestrogensandtestost
eroneresponsi
blef
orthe
growthanddevel
opmentofsecondarysexchar act
ers.

Exter
nal
factor
saffect
inggr
owthinhumans
Growthi
salsoaff
ectedbyexter
nalf
act
orswhi
chi
ncl
udet
hef
oll
owi
ng:

Nutri
ent
s: Gr
owthisclosel
yrel
atedtonutr
it
ion.Asuff
ici
encyoffoodisessenti
alf
or
normalgrowth.Anadequatesupplyofnut
ri
entsisnat
ural
lyessent
ial
forthenormal
growthofhumansandt heneedv ari
eswit
hthephaseofdev el
opment.Forexample:
Zincplaysapar tinpr oteinsy nthesi sandi saconst it
uentofcer t
ainenzy mes.A
defi
ciencyofzi nccausesst unt i
ng, interferencewi thsexual developmentandf alli
ngout
ofhair;I
odineisneededf orthemanuf actureoft hethyroidhor mones;Bonewi llnot
growpr operlywi thoutanadequat esuppl yofcal ci
um, phosphor usandot herinor ganic
constit
uent ssuchasmagnesi um andmanganese; Ir
oni srequiredforthepr oduct ionof
haemogl obin;Vitami nspl ayani mpor t
antpar tingrowth.Vitami nAisthoughtt obe
controltheactivitiesofost eobl asts.I nv i
tami nCdef ici
encyt heinter
cellularsubst ance
ofbonei sinadequat elyformed.Vi t
ami nDdef i
ciencyisthecauseofr i
cket s.
Malnutriti
ondur ingchi ldhooddel aysgr owt h,andmal nutri
ti
oni ntheyear sproceedi ng
adolescencedel ay st heonsetoft headol escence.Mal nutri
ti
onmayal sor esultto
di
seaseswhi chdecr easet heappet iteori nt erf
erewithdigestionandassi mi l
ation.A
majorit
yofmal nour ishedchi l
dr enf ailtoachi evethei
rfullgeneticpotentialofbody
growthandar ethusst untedorwast edorbot h.

Diseases: Di
seasesarealter
ati
onofthenor
malbodyfunct
ions,
disor
dersormorbid
condi t
ionsofthemind.Diseasessl
owdowngrowthinhumansandot herani
mals.A
childthatsuff
ersfr
om diseasesver
yof t
eni
sli
kel
ytohavehisgrowthstunt
edor
retarded.Suchachil
dmayenduphav i
ngasmall
bodyordeformedbodyparts.

Cult
uralfact
ors:Thephysicalgrowthofhumanbei ngsi sdefi
nit
elyaff
ectedbycult
ural
fact
ors.Cult
urediff
ersfrom ethni
cgrouptoethnicgr oup.Thebodygr owthdi
ff
erences
corr
elat
ewi t
hv ari
edcultur
algroups.Thephysi
cal growt hoft
hebodyf oll
owssome
adaptat
ionsindiff
erentgeographical
areasofdist
ributionofthegroups.

Socioeconomi cfactors:Socioeconomi cinfluenceonhumangr owthi salsoawel l

knownf actor.Chi l
drenf rom diff
er entsocioeconomi clevel
sdi ff
erinav eragebodysi ze
atallages.I tiscleart hatgrowt hoft hechi l
drenandadul tsinthosef ami l
ieswi t
hgood
fi
nancial statusi salway sgoodcompar edt ot hecaseinpoorf ami l
ies.Howev er,growth
dif
ferencesar emor ecloselyrelatedt othehomecondi ti
onst hant othest ri
ctl
y
economi cstat usoft hefami l
ies.Sizeoff ami l
yexertsanindir
ecti nfl
uenceont herateof
growth.I nal argef ami l
ywithl i
mi tedincomet hechil
drendonotgetpr opernutri
ti
on.As
aresultt hegr owt hisaf f
ected.Thenumberofchi l
dreninthef ami l
yexer t
sanef fecton
thechildren’sr ateofgr owth.Chi ldreninlargef amil
iesareusual l
ysmal l
erandl i
ghter
thanchi l
dreni nsmal lfamil
ies.Possi blythisisbecausei nlargefami l
ieschildr
ent endto
getlessi ndividual careandat tention.

Int
ernal f
actorsaf fectinggr owthinpl ants
Theinternal f
act or
st hati nfl
uencepl antgrowt hincludefoll
owing:
Hereditaryfactors
Heredityfactorsar einternal f
actorst hataffectthegr owt
hofpl ants.Theyaffectthe
physicalappear anceandt hesizeofapl ant
Hereditaryunitscal l
edgenesar efoundi nchromosomesi nsidethenucl eusofallplant
cel
ls.Theseuni t
scont rolthevariouschar acteri
sti
csofpl antssuchasf lowercolour
numberoff l
oral parts,growt hpatternandsoon.Genesar epassedf rom par
entst ooff
spri
ng.Forexampl e,tallplant
spr oducet alloff
springandshor tplantsproduceshor t
off
spr i
ng.
Growt hhormones
Certainhormonessuchasgr owt hhormonesar eknownt oaff
ectgrowth.Hor monesare
chemi calsubst ancesthati
nfluencephy siologicalprocesses.Drasti
cchangesi nthei
r
concent r
ationsi nthebodywi l
l,t
herefore,affectgrowt h.
Therear esev eralknowngr owthhormones.Someoft hem, li
keauxins,cyt
okininsare
growth-promot i
ngwhileothersli
keabsci ssicaci dandet hyl
enear egrowthinhibi
tor
s.
Mostoft hegr owthregulat
orsaresy nthesizedbypl ant swhil
eaf ewar esyntheti
cin
nature.Thet ablebelowsummar i
zest heroleofcer tainplanthormonesongr owthof
plantsandseeds.
Hor mone Rolei nplantgr owth

Pr
omot
escel
ldi
vi
sion

Pr
omot
escel
lenl
argement

Pr
omotesresponseofshot
sandroot
sto
st
imul
isuchaslight
,wat
erandgr
avit
y

Pr
omot
egr
owt
hofadv
ent
it
iousr
oot
s

I
nducespar
thenocarpy(
for
mat
ionoff
rui
ts
wi
thoutf
ert
il
izat
ion)

Causesf or
mat i
onoftheabscissionlayeratthe
baseoft heleafstalk,
leadi
ngtof al
li
ngofl eaves
I
ndol eaceticaci
d(IAA)—themainauxin.(absci
ssion).
Othert hreeauxinsseem tohaverat
her
mar ginalimportanceforpl
antsin I
nhibit
sdev elopmentofl at
eralbuds,thus
natural envi
ronments. promotingapi caldominance

Causesf
ormati
onofcall
usti
ssue.Cal
l
usti
ssue
for
msatthesit
eofaninj
urytobri
ngabout
heal
ingi
ntheplant
.

Contr
olsdiv
isi
oninthev
ascul
arcambi
um and
xyl
em dif
fer
enti
ati
on.

Usedast
her
oot
inghor
monesi
nst
em cut
ti
ngs.

2-
4Disusedasanher bi
cidet
oki
l
lbr
oadl
eaf
,
di
cot
yledonousweeds.

Pr
omot
esf
lower
ingi
npi
neappl
es.
 Pr
omotecel
ldi
vi
si
onandelongat
ionof
i
nter
nodesi
ndwarfpl
ant
s.

I
nducepar
thenocarpybyi
nit
iat
ingf
ormat
ionof
i
ndol
eacet
icacid(I
AA)

Pr
omot
elat
eral
buddev
elopment

I
nhi
bitdev
elopmentofadv
ent
it
iousr
oot
s
Gi
bber
ell
i
ns
I
nhibi
tfor
mati
onoft
heabsci
ssi
onl
ayeront
he
l
eafpeti
ole

Pr
omot
eger
minat
ionofseeds

Ithelpsininduci
ngseedger minati
onby
breakingseeddor mancyandiniti
ati
ngt
he
synthesisofhydrolasesenzy
mesf ordi
gest
ing
reservefood.

St
imul
atecel
ldi
vi
sion

St
imul
atef
ormat
ionofcal
l
ust
issue

Pr
omot
efl
ower
ing

Br
eakseeddor
mancy

Pr
omot
efor
mat
ionofadv
ent
it
iousr
oot
s

Cy
toki
nins Pr
omot edev
elopmentoflat
eral
budsby
i
nhi
bit
ingapi
caldominance.

Lowconcent
rat
ionofcl
ytokini
ninducescel
l
el
ongat
ionandcausesageingofleaves

Hel
pi nt
heproduct
ionofnewleaves,
chl
oropl
ast
s,andadvent
it
iousshoots.

Hel
pindel
ayi
ngsenescencebypr
omot
ing
nut
ri
entmobi
l
isat
ion.

Et
hyl
ene(
ethane) Pr
omot
esr
ipeni
ngoff
rui
ts
 Causesfor
mat i
onofcal
l
ust
issue,
leadi
ngt
o
fal
l
ingoffr
uitandl
eaves

St
imul
atesthi
ckeningofthest
em whi
l
e
i
nhi
bit
ingst
em elongati
on

Hel
psi
nbr
eaki
ngseedandbuddor
mancy
.

Promotesr
oot
-gr
owt
handf
ormat
ionofr
oot
hair
s.

i
nducesseeddormancybyinhi
bit
ingseed
germi
nat
ion,gr
owthofstems,andsprout
ingof
buds

Causesf
rui
tsandl
eav
est
ofal
l(absci
ssi
on)
Absci
sicaci
d(ABA)
Pr
omot
esf
lower
ing

Sti
mulat
eapical
domi nancebysuppr
essi
ng
devel
opmentoflat
eralbuds

St
imul
atesst
omat
alcl
osur
edur
ingwat
erst
ress

Synt
het
icpl
anthor
monet
hatpromot
es
I
ndol
ebut
yri
caci
d
el
ongat
ionofst
emsandr
oots

Apical domi nance

Anapi cal budi sf oundatt het opoft hepl ant .Apical budsar eresponsi blef orincreasein
plant’
shei ght( api cal growt h).Lateral budsar efoundont hesi desoft hepl ant.Lat eral
budsar er esponsi blef orthef ormat i
onofbr anches.Api cal domi nancei sthei nhibiti
on
ofthegr owt hofl ater albudsbyt hepr esenceoft hegr owi ngapi cal bud.Api cal
domi nancecausespl antshoot stohav eaconi calshape.
Theapi cal budpr oducesauxi nsthatdi f
fuset othel owerpar tsoft hepl ant.These
auxinsr etar dt hedev elopmentofl ateralbuds.Thel ateralbr anchesofsuchapl antar e
short.Apl antt hathasst rongapi cal domi nancegai nsmor ehei ghtincompar i
sont oi t
s
width.Thust hepl antassumesaconi cal outline.
Cutti
ngt heapexoft heshootcausest hel ateralbudst ospr out.Thedomi nancei s
overcomesi ncet hesour ceofauxi nsatt heapexi sr emov ed.Thel ateralbudsspr out,
branchesdev elop, andt hepl antassumesanumbr ell
ashape.Teabushesar epr unedso
thattheycandev elopmanysi debr anches.Rosepl ant,cypr essandbougai nv i
ll
eapl ants
arepr unedsot hatt heycanmakeagoodhedge.
External fact orst hataf f
ectgr owt hi nplant s
Theext ernal factor st hataf fectplantgr owt hi ncludel i
ght, nutri
ents, t
emper ature,
rel
ati
vehumidit
y,water,
carbondioxi
deandoxygen,soilcondi
ti
on,
biot
icf
act
ors,
and
pol
lutant
s.Eachofthesefactor
sisexpl
ainedi
ndetailbelow:

Light:Theeffectofl i
ghtongr owt hcanbest udiedundert hreeheadi ngs:li
ghti ntensi t
y,
l
ightqual i
tyanddur ationofl ight.Growt hisgener all
yfav ouredbydar kness,butl ightis
necessar ybecauseofi tsroleint hemanuf actureoff ood.Youngpl ant sgrowi ngi nt he
absenceofl ightdev el
opel ongatedt hinstemswi t
hnar rowl eav esandpoor lydev el
oped
shootsy stem.Suchpl antsar esai dtobeet iol
ated.Inweaki nt ensit
yofl i
ghtt he
i
nt er
nodesar eshor tandt heleav esar eexpanded.I nstrongi ntensit
yofl i
ght ,thepl ant
assumesanor malheight .Ver ylowlightint ensi
t yreducest her ateofov erallgrowt hof
theplant,byloweringt her ateofphot osynthesis.Growt hi nf ullspectrum ofv isiblelight
i
sf oundt obebet t
ert hant hegrowt hinanyoneoft hediffer entcolour soflight .Red
colourseemst obet hemostf avourabl ef
orgr owt h.Thedur ationofl i
ghthasa
pronouncedef fectont hegr owthofv egetativeaswel lasr epr oducti
v estructures.The
i
nf l
uenceofdur ati
onofl ightismostmar kedi ninduci ngorsuppr essingflower ing.Thi s
phenomenoni stermedasphot operiodism.

Nutri
ents:Av ai
labil
it
y ,
qualit
yandquant it
yoff oodsubst anceswi l
lautomat icall
yaffect
growth.Forgr owtht ooccurinl i
vi
ngt hi ngs, f
oodmustbebr okendownt or elease
energy.Inar easwher enutri
entsandwat erar eadequate,compet i
ti
oni sr educedand
populati
oni ncr eases.Incaseofshor tageofnut ri
entsandwat er,compet i
tionset sin
andmosti ndi vi
dualsdie.Therearedi fferentmi neralnutr
ient
srequiredf oropt i
mum
pl
antgr owt h.Thesenut r
ientsareclassi fi
edasei t
hermacr onutr
ientsormi cronutr
ients.
Macr onutr
ient saret hosenut r
ientsrequi redbypl antsinhighdoseswhi l
emi cr
onutrient
s
arethenut rientsrequiredinsmal lquant i
ties.Examplesofmacr onutrientsi nclude
ni
trogen,pot assium, magnesi um, calcium, phosphorousandsul phur.Mi cronut r
ients
i
ncludei r
on, zinc,mol ybdenum, manganese, boron,copper,cobaltandchl orine.

Temper atur e:Atmospher icandsoi lt

emper aturesar ev erycruci alf orplantgrowt hasi t
affectsmanypl antpr ocessessuchasphot osy nt hesi s,met abol i
sm, respirati
on,
transpirati
on, br eakingofseeddor mancy ,seedger mi nation, proteinsy nthesis,
translocation, andf lower i
ng.Athi ght emper aturest het ranslocat ionofmanuf actured
foodi sfast ersot hatplant st endtomat ureear lier.Growt hcant akepl acebet ween0° C
and50° C.Butt heopt i
mum t emper aturefort hegr owt hi sbet ween20°and30° C.Low
temper atur e,howev er
,isnecessar yformanypl ant st of l
ower .Di f
f erentphy si
ological
processessuchasphot osy nthesisandr espi rationar econt roll
edbyenzy mes.The
enzy mesar eaf fectedbyt emper atur
eandpH.Enzy meact i
v i
tyandt herateofmost
chemi cal reactionsgener allyi ncr
easewi t
hr i
sei nt emper at
ur e.Upt oacer tai
npoi nt,
thereisdoubl ingofenzy mat icreacti
onwi thev er y10° Ctemper atur eincrease.Butat
excessi velyhight emper atur es,denaturationofenzy mesandot herpr oteinsoccur .I
t
foll
ows, t
her efore, t
hatdr ast icchangesi nt emper at ureandpHwi ll aff
ectgr owth.

Relati
vehumi dit
y:Rel
ati
vehumi dit
y(RH)i stheamountofwatervapourintheair
,
expressedast hepropor
tion(inpercent)ofthemaximum amountofwat ervapouri
tcan
holdatcertai
nt emperat
ure.Forexampl e,anairhavi
ngarel
ativ
ehumi di
tyof60%at
27°Ct emperaturemeanst hatever
ykilogram oftheai
rcont
ains60%oft hemaximum
amountofwat erthatitcanholdatthattemperature.
Ther el
ati
vehumidit
yaffect
sthe
openi
ngandcl osingoft hest
omat awhichregulateslossofwaterfrom t
heplant
thr
oughtranspir
ationaswel l
asphot osynt
hesis.Transpi
rati
onisslowerinhumid
condi
ti
ons.Thisisbecausedi ff
usionofwaterv apouroutoftheleafsl
owsdowni fthe
l
eafisal
readysur roundedbymoi stair
.

Wat er:Asment i
onedear l
i
er,wat erisapr i
mar ycomponentofphot osynthesis.I
t
mai ntainsthet urgorpr essureorf irmnessoft i
ssueandt ranspor
tsnut r
ientsthr
oughout
thepl ant.Inmai ntainingturgorpr essure,wat eristhemaj orconstit
uentoft he
protoplasm ofacel l
.Bymeansoft ur
gorpr essureandot herchangesint hecell
,water
regulatest heopeni ngandcl osingoft hestomat a,thusregulati
ngtranspirati
on.Water
alsopr ov i
dest hepr essuretomov earoott hrought hesoi l
.Amongwat er’
smostcr it
ical
rolesist hatofasol ventformi neralsmov ingi ntotheplantandf orcarbohy drat
es
mov ingt ot hei
rsiteofuseorst orage.Gradual evaporat
ionofwat erfrom thesurfaceof
theleafneart hest omat ahelpsst abil
izeplantt emper at
ur e.

Carbondi oxideandoxy gen: Theoxy genandcar bondi oxideint heairar eofpar ti

cular
i
mpor tancet othephy si
ologyofpl ants.Oxygeni sessentiali
nr espi r
ationforthe
product ionofener gythatisutili
zedi nv ar
iousgr owthanddev elopmentpr ocesses.
Carbondi oxideisar awmat erialinphot osynthesis.Howev er,ahi ghconcent rati
onof
carbondi oxidereducesgrowt hbecauseofi t
sef fectonthecl osingofst omata,and
mai ntenanceofdor mancy .Ift
heconcent rati
onofcar bondioxidei nthepl antleafis
highert hant hesurroundi
ngai r,thest omat awillopent oleti
nmor eoft hegasf rom the
surroundi ngairsoast obal ancet heequi l
ibri
um oft hegasbet weent het womedi a(air
andl eafai rspaces).Theopposi tei sthecasei ftheconcent rationoft hegasi shi gheri
n
theai rthani ntheleaf.

Soilcondit
ion:
Thechar acteri
sti
csofsoilplayabi gpartintheplant
'sabi
lit
ytoext
ract
waterandnut r
ients.I
fplantsaretogrowt otheirpotenti
al,
thesoilmustprovi
dea
sati
sfactor
yenv i
ronmentf orpl
antgrowth.Plantgrowthisinfl
uencedbyt hesoi
l
propert
iessuchast extureorstr
uctur
e,salini
ty,acidi
ty,
waterloggi
ng,orcompacti
on.

Bioti
cfactors:Diseases,pl
antpests,weedsandharmfulsubstancesreleasedbyroots
(al
lel
opathy)affectplantgrowthdrasti
cal
ly
.Weedscompet ewi t
hplantsf ormoi
sture,
nutri
ents,
andl ight.Rootknotnematodesreduceabsorpt
ion,somor efertil
i
zeri
s
necessary.All
oft hesehav enegat
iveimpactsonplantgr
owthanddev elopment
.

Pollut
ants:
Pollutantscanhamperplantgrowth.Manypol l
utant
scomposedof
poisonousgasses( suchascarbonmonoxi de,sul
phurdioxi
de,hydrogenfl
uoride,
hydrogensulphide)arecapabl
eofrestr
aininggrowth,ev
enbr i
ngingplant
st odeath.
Pollut
antsfr
om househol dori
ndustr
ialwastesarealsoabletorestrai
nplantgrowth.

Mi
tosi
sandGr
owt
h
Mit
osisistheprocessofcel
ldivi
sionwherebythechr
omosomearedupli
cat
edand
di
str
ibutedequall
ytothedaughtercel
l
.
Theprocessofmi t
osist
akesplaceinseveralst
ages,
whi
charedescr
ibedbel
ow.The
di
agr
amsi
l
lust
rat
ethest
agesshowi
ngasi
mpl
ecel
lwi
thf
ourchr
omosomes.

PROPHASE
Thisisthefir
ststageofmitosi
s.Intheearlystagesthread-
li
kestruct
uresappearinthe
nucleus.Thesestruct
uresarethechromosomes.Wi t
ht i
met hechromosomesshor ten
andt hi
cken.Theneachoft hem spli
tsl
ongitudi
nall
yint
ot wost r
uctur
echromatids.Each
ofthechromat i
dsisheldtogetheratapointcall
edcent r
omer e.

Asthechromosomesbecomev isi
ble,
otherevent
staepl
ace.Thenucl
earmembrane
andthenucl
eusgraduall
ydisappearandanet wor
koffi
bersappear
sinthecy
topl
asm.
Thi
snetworkoffi
bersisref
erredtoasspindle.

METAPHASE
Prophaseisfoll
owedbymet aphasestages.Thenuclearmembr
anehasdisappear
ed
completelybythecel
landbecomear ranged.Thecentromer
eofeachpai
rof
chromatidsisatt
achedtoaspindlef
iber.
 ANAPHASE
Dur i
nganaphaset hecent
romeresplit
sandt hesisterchr
omat idsseparatefr
om each
other(seefigur
ebelow).Oncethesisterchromatidsseparatefrom eachother,
eachi
s
referr
edt oaschromosome.Itfol
lows, t
herefor
e,thatatthi
sst agethechromosome
numberi nthecellhasdoubl
ed.Thent hechromosomesbegi nt omov etowards
oppositesidesofthecell
.Themov ementisi nsuchawayt hatanequal numberof
chromosomesmov etoeachpoleofthecell.

TELOPHASE
Telophasebeginswhenchr omosomesr eachthepolesofthedaught
ercel
l
s.Many
eventsinthetelophasearether
everseofprophase.Thechromosomesuncoilt
he
nuclearmembr anesarounddaughternucl
eiappear,t
hespindl
eapparat
usbreakdown
andt henucl
eusr eappear
sandnuclearmembr aneformsaroundeachmassof
chromosomes.

CYTOKINESIS
Tel
ophaseisfol
l
owedbyast
agecal
l
edcy
toki
nesi
s.Thi
sist
hedi
vi
sionofcy
topl
asm.I
n
plantcell
sadel i
catemembranecall
edacellpl
atestartstoformi nthemiddl
eofthecel
l
.
Finall
yanewcel lwallf
ormsoneit
hersideoftheplate.Inthi
sway ,twonewdaughter
cellsareformed.Inani
malscel
lsthecel
lmembr anepinchest hecytopl
asm att
he
mi ddl
eoft hecel
lunti
ltwodaught
ercell
sareformed.Cy toki
nesisiscomplet
edas
telophaseends.

SI
GNI
FICANCEOFMI
TOSI
SINGROWTH

Mi
tosi
sresul
tsi
nthef
ormat
ionoft
woi
dent
ical
daught
ercel
l
s

Thedaught
ercel
l
sarealsoi
dent
ical
tot
heparentcel
l
sbecauseeachdaught
ercel
lhas
thesamenumberofchr
omosomesasthatf
oundintheor
igi
nalcel
l

Mit
osi
senabl
esanorgani
sm t
oincr
easei
nsi
zeandmai
ntai
nthesamenumberof
chr
omosomesini
tsbodycel
l

Mit
osisisal
soimport
antfort
herepl
acementofwor
noutordamagedcel
l
sexampl
ein
t
helini
ngofthegutandthesurf
aceoftheski
n

Mitosi
salonedoesnotbri
ngaboutgr
owth,whent hecel
ldi
vi
desthetwodaught
ercel
ls
areini
ti
all
yonlyhal
fthesi
zeoft
heparentcel
ls.
Thenewcel l
smustt akei
nmoremateri
alst
of or
mt headdi
ti
onal
cytopl
asm t
oproduce
ful
ly-
grown

GROWTHANDDEVELOPMENTALSTAGESI NHUMAN
Growthi sirr
ev er si
bleincreaseinsi ze.Itisusual lyaccompani edbycel ldiv
ision.Gr owt
h
canbeshownbyi ncreaseinmass, lengt h,sur
facear eaandnumber s.Dev elopment
ref
erstoi ncreasei ncompl exit
yanddi fferenti
ationoft issuesandor gans.
Humangr owt handdev el
opmentar el i
felongpr ocessesofphy si
cal,behavioural,
cogniti
ve,andemot i
onalgrowt handchange.Atev er
yst ageofli
fe,t
herear ephy sical
andpsy chologi cal changesint hehumanbody .Thepr ocesstakesmanyy earsanda
persongoest hr oughmanydi fferentgrowt hstagest or eachadult
hood, thefinalstage
ofdevelopment .Al thoughev er
yper sonexper i
encesgr owthanddev el
opmentuni quely
,
thepatternsar esi mi l
arforallhumansasshowni nthegr owthcurvebelow.I nthis
parti
culargraph, theselectedgr owthpar ametermeasur edishei
ght.

THESTAGESOFHUMANPOST–NATALGROWTHANDDEVELOPMENT
Growthanddev elopmenti nhumanscanbepr enat alorpost natal
.Prenatalgr
owthand
devel
opmentt akespl aceint hewombbef or
eababyi sborn.Postnat algrowthand
devel
opmentoccur saf terthebabyi sborn.
Eventhought het ermsgr owt handdev el
opmentar eusedi nterchangeably,t
hereare
specif
icdiff
erencesbet weent hem.Wecansum upt hedifferencesbetweengr owthand
devel
opmenti nt hef oll
owingt able.
Growth Dev el
opment
Growthreferstoi ncreaseinsi ze,hei
ght,
Dev el
opmentr eferstoi mprovementinthe
weightetc. functioningoft hebodypr ocess
Easil
ymeasur edandobser ved Cannotbemeasur edeasily
Iti
sli
mi t
ed.Startswi thbirt
ht oreach
Acont i
nuous, unendingpr ocessallt
hroughli
fe.
themaximum atmat urit
y
Concer nedwi thv ari
ousaspect sandpartsof
Limit
edtospeci ficareas
bodyandbehav iourasawhol e
Quantit
ativ
echange Qual i
tati
v eandQuant i
tati
vechange

Humanbei ngsandot hermammal sshowl imi t

edgr owth.Li mitedgr owt hi
sgr owt ht hat
ceasesatmat urit
y.Int hesecases, therefore,thegr owthcur veflatt
ensorev endecl ines
priort
odeat h.Thedecl ineisduet odecl ineinsmoot hfunct ioningoft heor gani sm,
culminat ingt odeat h.Thi siscalledsenescence.
Othermammal sandpl antsgrowt hroughoutt heirlives.Thi stypeofgr owthi scal led
unlimi
t edgr owt h.
Lympht issuegr owsv eryfastinear lyhumanl i
fesot hatitpr oducesal otofwhi teblood
cellst
of i
ghti nfection( becauset hei mmunesy stem i snotabl et ofighti nfection) .This
typeofgr owt hinwhi chor gansgr owatdi f
ferentr atesiscal ledal l
omet ri
cgr owt h.
Thepost -nat al periodi saper i
odbegi nningi mmedi atelyaftert hebi r
t hofachi ld.The
humanpost -nat algrowt handdev elopmentmaybedi vi
dedi ntof ivephasesorst ages.
Thesedi fferentst agesofpost -nat algrowt har esummar i
sedi nt het ablebel ow:
S/NoSt age Agespan
1 I nfancy From bi rthtot woy ears
(i
) Neonat al From bi rthto4weeks
(i
i) Ol derbaby From 6t o12mont hs
(i
ii
) Toddl er From 1t o3y ears
2 Chi ldhood From 3t o12y ears
(i
) Ear lychi ldhood From 3t o6y ears
From 7t o12y earsori nst r
ictsenseupt ot heonsetof
(i
i) Lat echi l
dhood
puber ty
(i
ii
) Pr e-adol escence From 10t o11y ear s
From 13t o19y ear sori nast rictsensef rom onsetof
3 Adol escence
puber tytil
ltheat tainmentofmat urity
From 20t o60y ear sori nst ri
ctsensef rom at taining
4 Adul thood
mat uritytot heageoneceasest opr oduceone' sownki nd
(i
) Ear lyadul thood From 20t o40y ear s
(i
i) Lat eadul thood From 40t o60y ear s
 Ol
dageoragei ng From 60y
earsorinastri
ctsensefr
om theendoft
he
5
(
senescence) repr
oduct
ioncapabi
l
ityst
aget i
l
ldeath

PHYSIOLOGICAL,PSYCHOLOGI CALANDBEHAVI OURCHANGESASSOCI ATEDWI TH

GROWTHANDDEVELOPMENT
Ineachoftheabovestages,
vari
ousphysiol
ogi
cal
,psy
chological
andbehavi
oural
changestakepl
ace.Thechangesthatoccuri
neachstageareexplai
nedi
ndetail
bel
ow:

Infancy
Ani nf ant( f
rom t heLatinwor dinf ans,meaning" unabletospeak"or" speechless")isthe
veryy oungof f
spr i
ngofahumanorani mal.Whenappl i
edt ohumans, thetermi susuall
y
consi der edsy nony mouswi t
hbaby ,butthelatteriscommonl yappl i
edt othey oungof
anyani mal .Whenahumanchi l
dl earnstowal k,thetermt oddlermaybeusedi nstead.
Infancyi saper iodf rom 0-2years.Thechi ldunder goesphy si
cal gr
owt hatar apidrat
e,
great erthanhewi l
l neverexperiencesubsequent ly.I
tisinterest
ingt oknowt hechanges
thatt akepl acei nthef i
rsttwoy ear s.Chil
drenatt hisstagear ev eryactiv
elearners.
Dur i
ngt hisper i
odt hebaby ’sphy siologi
calprocessesbecomeoper ati
veandf airl
ywel l
adjust ed.
Thei nf ancyst agei sdividedintot hreesub-categor i
es:(i
)neonat al,(i
i
)olderbaby ,and
(ii
i
)t oddl er.
Neonat al
Neonat al stageist hestagef rom bi r
thupt o4weeks.Newbabi esar ealsocalled
neonat es.

Phy
sical
andphy
siol
ogi
cal
changes

Atthi
sstagebabiesarehelpl
essbutcanbehaveinanumberofwayssuchascr
ying,
mov i
ngthei
rarms,legsandhead.Theycanalsostr
etchandmakeothermov
ements.
Babymov ementsarecall
edrefl
exes.Exampl
esofrefl
exesi
ncl
udemov i
ngar
ms,l
egs,
andhead,swal
lowing,andsucki
ng.

Babi
esatthi
sstagesuckany
thi
ngputi
nthei
rmout
hs.Theycanal
sogr
aspobj
ect
sput
i
nthei
rhands.

Neonatescansee, butonl
yashor
tdist
anceofabout20cm.Theycanal
sohear
,smel
l
andfeel.Theyspendmostofthei
rti
mesleepi
ng.

Theshapeofaneonat
echangessi
gnif
icant
lyf
rom bi
rt
hto4mont hs.I
nit
ial
l
y,t
hehead
andtheabdomenarebi
ggercompar
edt oot
herbodypart
s.Thebodybecomes
propor
ti
onalast
hebabygrowsup.

Theimmunesy st
em isimmatur
eandt
hebabydependsont
hei
mmuni
tyf
rom hi
sorher
mothert
hroughbreast–f
eedi
ng.
Thebabycansi
twi
thsuppor
tandcanr
espondt
osounds,
forexampl
e,smi
l
ingupon
hear
inghermot
her
’sv
oice.

Ther
ateofhear
tbeatatt
hisst
agei
sver
yhi
gh.

Behav i
ouralandpsychologi
cal changes:Babi
esatthisstageexpressthei
rfeel
i
ngs
mainlythroughcryi
ng.Theycr ytoshowhunger ,thi
rst,
pain,ti
redness,
fearand
di
scomf ortsuchaswetnappi es, cold,
alotofheat,andsickness.
Olderbaby
Thisisthestagefrom 6t o12mont hs.
Physicalandphysiol
ogicalchanges

Atsi
xmonthsababycancompl
etel
ycont
rol
his/
herheadandsi
twi
thoutsuppor
t.They
canal
sor
ollov
er.

At7monthsthebabylear
nst
ocr
awl.Thebabycanusehisorherhandst
othr
owand
poi
ntatt
hingsheorshewant
susi
nghisorheri
ndexfi
nger.

Heorshecanhol
danddr
opobj
ect
sandst
andwhi
l
ehol
dingt
hingsl
i
ket
abl
esorchai
rs.

Teet
hingoccur
satt
hisper
iod.

Fr
om 9t
o12mont
hst
hebabyst
art
stowal
k.

Atthisst
agethesi
ghthasimpr
ovedandt
hebabycanf
ocusonf
arobj
ect
sandcan
recogni
zepeopl
eatadist
ance.

Behav i
oural
andpsy chologicalchanges:Thebabyr espondstohisorherownnameand
otherwordsthatarefami l
iartohi m.Socialdev
elopmental sooccursatt hisperi
od.For
exampl e,
at9mont hs,ababycandi st
ingui
shstrangersfr
om familiarpeople.At1y ear
,
heorsheunder standsandobey ssi mplecommandsl ike“come”,“go”,“stop”,
etc.
Toddler
Thisistheagebet ween1t o3y ears.
Physicalandphysiol
ogicalchanges

Br
aindev
elopsby90%.

Ther
ateofhear
tbeati
sreducedt
oabout90-
110t
imespermi
nut
e.

Thechi
ldi
sabl
etocontrol
uri
nat
ionanddef
ecat
ionasur
inar
yandanal
sphi
nct
er
cont
rol
becomepossi
ble.

I
mmunesy
stem becomesmat
ure.

Thebabycanseeev
ery
thi
ngt
hatanadul
tcansee.
Thebabyshowssenseofcol
our
.

Al
lthe20mi
l
kteet
happearbyt
heageof2.
5to3y
ear
s

Hear
inghasdev
elopedwel
l
.

Psy
chol
ogi
cal
andbehav
iour
alchanges

At12t o14months,
thechi
l
dusesgest
urestoexpr
esshi
sorherf
eel
i
ngs,
forexampl
e,
rai
singarmswhenheorshewant
stobepickedup.

At15months,t
hechi
ldcopieswhatadul
tsdo.Forexampl
e,achi
l
dmayi
mit
atecooki
ng
bytaki
ngaspoonandsti
rr
ingiti
nabowl.

At15to18months,achil
dfeedshi
msel
forhersel
f,addr
essesother
swit
hgr
eet
ings,
cl
imbsont
ofur
nitur
e,forexampl
ebedorcouchandspeaksaf ewwords.

At19to24mont hs,achil
dl i
kestoplaywi thotherchi l
dren(soci
ali
zati
on),heorshecan
dressandundr
esshimsel forhersel
f,runorclimbst epsandwant stobeindependentat
ti
mes.Heorshet hr
owsat antr
um (angr y
)orpossi blysays“No”.Thechil
dhasal so
i
ncreasedhi
sorherv ocabular
yupt o50wor dsandst ar
tstoil
ettr
aini
ng.Heorshe
mimicssoci
albehavi
ourssuchashol dingandf eedingat oy.

At25t o36mont hs,achil

dcanpl aywithot herchildr
enandshar epl
ayingtoys,can
speakinasentence,ismor eindependent,candif f
erenti
ateboysfr
om girl
s,shows
pref
erencessuchascl ot
hesandt y
peoft oy sorgamesandknowshowt opl aydif
ferent
games.Emot i
onally
,chil
drenmayf eeljeal
ousy ,forexample,towar
dsanewbor nbaby .
Theyalsoshowf earforparti
culart
hingsfori nst
ancef earofsomeinsectsandf earof
thedarkorscarynoiseli
kethunder .

Childhood
Childhoodi saper i
odf rom 3y earsto12years.Thest agemaybedi vi
dedintot hree
stages: (i)earlychildhood( ii
)latechil
dhoodand( ii
i)pre-
adolescence.
Earlychi ldhood
Theear lychildhoody ears,3-
6y earsofage,representaremar kabl
eper i
odofphy sical
andpsy chologi caldev elopments.Iti
saper i
odwhent ruepersonali
tybeginsbut
physi caldev elopmentpr oceedsatasl owerrate.Herechildr
enbecomemor eself
sufficient,acqui rel
anguage, becomeapar tofthegr oup,becomemor eco-ordinated
andobt ainahi gherdegr eeofselfcontrol
.Atthisstage,chil
drengot okindergarten.
Physi cal andphy si
ologicalchanges

Achil
dhasgoodappet
it
eandtheref
oregr
owsrapi
dly
.Goodappet
it
eisi
mpor
tantas
chi
l
drenatt
hisagear
everyact
iveandpl
ayal
ot.

Thechi
l
dcani
dent
if
yupt
ofi
vecol
our
s.
Motorcoordi
nati
onhasdev
elopedwell,
andther
eforet
hechi
l
dcanwalk,
jumpandski
p.
Fi
nemot orski
ll
shaveal
sodevelopedandt
hechildcandr
awsimpl
efi
gures.

Psy
chol
ogi
cal
changes

Thechi
l
disv
erycur
iousandi
magi
nat
ive.

Heorsheunder
standsr
ightandwr
ong.

Heorshei
scur
iousaboutsexual
i
ty.

Thechi
l
dcanspeakf
luent
ly,
andcant
ell
hisorherageandnameandasi
mpl
est
ory
.

Latechi ldhood
Thest ageofl atechi l
dhoodst artsf
r om the7t hyearandgoesont i
llt
he12t hy ear
.You
haveal readygonet hrought hi
speri
od.Cany ouli
stsomeoft hechar acteri
st i
csoft his
peri
od?
Duri
ngt hisper i
od, phy si
calgrowthcont i
nuesatal owerratebutint el
lectual and
emot i
onal development sarerapidandv erycompl exast hechi l
dmov esf r
om homet o
theout sidewor ld.Hebegi nstoacqui rebasicskill
soff ormallearninganddev el
ops
cert
ainsoci alactivi
ties.Duringthegr eat
erpar toflatechil
dhood, thechild’sphy sical
growthcont inues,butatasl owerrat eunti
l i
tshowsasuddenspur tast hechi l
d
approachesadol escence.Hei smor eattachedt ohispeergroupsandi nterest edin
socialandgr oupact i
viti
es.Duringthisperiod,school t
askscont r
ibuteintellectual
development stoo.Thi sistheagefr om 7t o9y ears.Atthisstagechi l
drenar einprimary
school.
Physiologi calandphy sicalandchanges

Gr
owt
hremai
nsst
eady

Chi
l
drenar
ever
yact
ive

Psy
chol
ogi
cal
andbehav
iour
alchanges

Thechil
dcanassumesi
mpl
eresponsi
bil
i
tiesl
i
kel
ooki
ngaf
tert
hehousewhenpar
ent
s
arenotathome.

Thechi
l
disv
erysoci
alandl
i
kest
osoci
ali
zeandbel
ongt
ogr
oups

Heorshecanhel
pwi
thhousehol
ddut
iesl
i
kewashi
ngdi
shes,
set
ti
ngt
het
abl
eand
f
etchi
ngwater
.

Thechi
l
dli
kest
oassoci
atewi
thpeer
sofsi
mil
ari
nter
est
.

Thisi
sthet
imechi
l
drenhav
efr
iendsandbestf
ri
ends.Howev
ert
heypr
eferf
ri
endsof
thesamesex.
Chi
l
drenatt
hisst
agecanl
i
stent
opeer
’sopi
nion,
butst
il
lval
ueopi
nionsoft
hei
rpar
ent
s

Pre-adol
escence
Thisistheagefrom 10and11year
s
Physicalandphysi
ologi
cal
changes

Gr
owt
hst
art
stoi
ncr
ease

Appet
it
eincr
eases

Secondar
ysexualcharact
eri
sti
csst
artt
oshow,
forexampl
e,gr
owt
hofbr
east
sand
growthofpubi
chairandarmpithai
r.

Psy
chol
ogi
cal
changes

Chi
l
drenst
il
lpr
eferf
ri
endsoft
hesamesex

Theyst
artt
obecomei
ndependentf
rom t
hef
ami
l
y.

Chi
l
drenar
ever
ysoci
alandt
endt
oval
uepeer
s,opi
nions.

Servicesr equi
redt omeett heneedsofChi ldren
Theser vicesrequiredt omeett heneedsofachi ldcanbecat egori
zedi ntotwo:
essent i
alorbasi cservices, andsuppor ti
veser vi
ces.Essenti
alorbasicser vi
cesare
necessar yforababy ’
ssur v i
val.Supporti
veser vi
cesareser vi
cesthatwi l
lhel
pachildto
growwel lsoci
ally,emot ionallyandment ally.
Suppor ti
veserv i
cesi ncludel ove,car
eandcomf ort
,securi
ty,andtrai
ningofhabitsand
skil
ls.Olderchildrenneedt obedi scipli
ned,trai
nedt obeindependentandusef ulto
othersandber esponsi ble.Basicservicesincludehealt
hyf ood,warmth, shel
ter
,cl
othi
ng,
protecti
onagai nsti l
l
nessandi nj
ury,exerci
seandr est.

Healthyf ood:Wel l-balancednut r

iti
onpl aysamaj orr oleinthegr owthofchi l
dren.
Healthyandwel l-
bal ancedf oodshoul dbegi ventochi ldr
enf orgoodphy sicaland
ment algrowt h.Thei mprov ementofst rength,hei
ght ,growthofmuscl e,bonet issueand
bodyr esistancei scompl etelydependentont hediett hatchil
dreneat.Childrenneed
bal
anceddi et; t
heyneedt ofeedonf oodr ichinproteins, v
itamins,mineral
s,
carbohy drates,fibreandf atinadequat eproporti
ons. Chil
drenar enormallyaddi ctedto
j
unkf ood, whi chonl yharmst heiryoungbodi es.Badf oodhabitsatthisagecanmake
chi
ldrenobese, mor epr onet ohear tdiseasesandot hermaj orhealt
hr i
sks.Parent s
shouldmakesur et hattheirchildrenaref edonener gy-gi
vingfoodsaswel lasv it
amins,
mineralsandpr ot eins.Childrenshoul dnotbepr ovidedwi thjunkfoodwhi chcont ai
ns
harmf ulcholest erol andfatt hatcani mpai rthebaby ’shealth.

Protect
ionagainsti
ll
nessandinjur
y:Somediseasesandinj
uri
esmayaff
ectbabi
es
beforetheyareborn,atbi
rt
h,oraft
erbir
th.Thesemayaffectsomepar
tsofthebody
l
ikethebr ai
nsuchthatthechil
dmaybecomepar al
yzedormental
l
yret
arded.Bl
i
ndness,
forinst
ancemayaf fectt
hedevel
opmentofphysicalandsoci
alcapabil
it
iesofchil
dren.
Therear emedicalcaseswherediseasesandi
njuri
eshavecausedagr eatdealof
disabil
i
tiestochil
dren.Babi
esneedt obeimmunizedagai
nstsomepr evalentdi
seases
suchast uber
cul
osis,measl
esandpol i
o.

Exerciseandrest:Achi l
d’sbodyalsoneedsexer cise.Exerci
semakesmuscl esstr
ong.
Ital
soi mprovesflexibi
l
ityandmakest heheart,lungsandot herbodypar tswork
effi
cientl
y.Pl
ayingisaf orm ofexerci
se.Whil
et hebodyneedsexer ci
se,ital
soneeds
rest
.Muscl esgett i
redwhent heyareoverworked.Sl eepisaform ofrestforbabi
es.
Chil
dr enneedenoughsl eepf orpr
opergrowth.

War mth:Babi
esneedwarmt hforproperfuncti
oningoft
heirbodies.I
fbabi
esarekepti
n
placesthatar
etoocold,t
heysufferfr
om hy pot
her mi
a.I
fkeptintoohotenvir
onment,
theymaydev el
opheatrushanddehy drat
ion,andmayev endie.Theref
ore,
adequat
e
war mthisimpor
tantf
orpropergrowthanddev elopmentofchil
dren.

Shelter
:Childrenneedahomewher etheycanl
i
ve,benurt
ured,
play
,andbeprot
ect
ed
againstharshenv i
ronment
alcondi
ti
onssuchascoldandrai
n.Thehomeshouldbe
spacious,cleanandsafe.

Adolescence
Adolescentper iodfoll
owsl atechi
ldhoodandext endsf rom theageof13t o19.
Normal l
y, girl
sr eachadolescenceear l
ierthanboy soft heirage.Ver yoft
eni ti
scall
ed
theawkwar dagebecauseofawkwar dness, clumsinessandaccompany ingself
consciousnesswhi choccursf r
equently.Duringthistimephy sical,
ment al,
emot i
onal
andsoci al development sarecompl ete.Iti
sconsi deredast helastst epinthelong
peri
odofdev elopmentwhi chbeginsatt het i
meofconcept i
on.Byt heendof
adolescence, t
hei ndi
vidualisconsideredlegallyandsoci all
ymat ured.Heiscapableof
l
ivi
ngani ndependentl ifefr
eef rom supervisi
onandgui dance.

Phy
sical
changesinanadol escent
Dur
ingadol
escence,t
hebodi esofbot
hgi
rlsandboy
sproducehor
moneswhi
chcont
rol
manyphysi
calchanges.Thesechangesi
ncludet
hefol
l
owing:

Rapi
dgr
owt
hinwei
ghtandhei
ght
.

Theybecomev
eryener
get
icandact
ive.

Hai
rgr
owsinarmpi
tsandgroinsofbot
hboy
sandgi
rl
s.Boy
sal
sogr
owbear
dsand
somegrowhai
ront
heirchest
s.

Gi
rl
sst
artt
ogett hemenst
rual
flow(monthl
yper
iod).Ini
ti
all
ythefl
owi si
rr
egul
ar,
thatis,
i
tmaynotoccurever
ymonthbutaft
erafewmont hsitstar
tsappeari
ngeverymonth.

Thebreastsal
sost
arttogrowbi
ggeringi
rl
s.Themonthl
yperi
odonseti
ngirl
marksthe
puber
tystagewhi
chindicat
est
hatsuchaspersoni
sabletobecomeaparent
.Thi
sis
whygir
lsev
enbel
ow12y
ear
sofagebecomepr
egnantbecauset
heypr
oducemat
ure
ova.

Boy’
ssexorgansenlar
geandtheyoccasionall
yemi
tsomef l
uidfr
om thepeni
satnight
(wetdr
eams).Wetdreamsindi
catethatt
heboyhasr eachedpubertyandiscapabl
eof
becomingaparent
.Puber
tyonsetisthebeginni
ngofadolescentstage.

Boy
sdeepent
hei
rvoi
cegr
adual
l
ywhi
l
egi
rlv
oicesbecomemel
l
ow.

Someadolescent
s(boy
sorgi
rl
s)dev
eloppi
mpl
es(
acne)ont
hef
acebutt
hepi
mpl
es
cl
earl
ateron.

Psy
chol
ogi
cal
andbehav
iourchangesatpuber
ty

Adolescenceischaract
eri
zedbyanumberofphy
siol
ogi
cal
,psy
chol
ogi
cal
and
behaviourchanges.

Thechangescanbeacauseofconf l
ictononehandandpositi
vepersonali
ty
devel
opmentontheotherhand.Forexample,
adol
escent
stendt ovi
ewt heirf
ri
endsand
peersasmoreimpor
tantandinfl
uenti
althant
hei
rparent
s,guardi
ans,teacher
sorelder
s.

Posi
tiv
eper sonal
i
tydev el
opmentincl
udesopport
uni
tyt
odevel
opv ar
ioussocial
skill
s,
suchasempat hy,shar
ing,l
eadershi
pbypeersandposi
ti
vei
nfl
uencesonani ndi
vidual,
fori
nstanceonacademi cmotivati
onandperf
ormance.

Whenadolescenceisnothandledpr
oper
ly,negat
ivei
nfl
uencessuchasexperi
mentat
ion
wit
hdrugs,al
coholi
sm andsteali
ngmayoccur.Suscept
ibi
l
ityt
opeerpressur
eincr
eases
dur
ingearl
yadolescencebuti
tpeaksataroundage14anddeclinest
hereaft
er.

Onsetofpubertyi
salsocharact
eri
zedbysexuali
tyandsexualdesi
re.Therefor
e
educat
iononr epr
oducti
vehealt
hisver
yimportantatt
hisstageasadolescentsmay
fi
ndthemselvescontr
acti
ngsexuall
ytr
ansmitt
eddiseases,HIVandearlypregnanci
es.

Per
sonal
hygi
enedur
ingadol
escence

Asstatedabov
e, adolescent
sarever
yacti
veandener
geti
candaret husboundt
osweat
al
ot.Itisi
mportantthattheybat
hedail
yandchangei
ntocleancl
othes.

Whenbat
hing,
onemustpayext
raat
tent
iont
ogeni
tal
s,ar
mpi
tsandar
easbet
weent
he
t
oes.

I
fthear mpi t
ssweatal ot
,shavethepubi
chairtoreducewarmthandsweat ing.Aft
er
bathi
ng,appl ydeodoranttokil
lgermsandpreventfoulsmell(
therearedeodorantfor
ment oo).Forsweat yfeet,cl
eanbetweenthetoes,dr
ywelland,ifi
tcanbeaf for
ded,
dustthear easwithtalcum powder.Thepowderabsorbsthesweat ,
prevent
sbadsmel l
andathlete’sfoot
.
Incaseacnestr
ikes,
itshoul
dnotworr
yanybody
.Av oi
dbreaki
ngt
hepi
mplesbutjust
:(i
)
keepthefacecl
ean;(i
i)avoi
dappl
yi
ngoil
creams;and(i
ii
)avoi
ddi
ett
hatcont
ainsalot
ofoil
.

Withti
me,acnedisappear
sonit
sown.Br
eakingthepimpl
ecancausebl
ackspot
sor
i
nfecti
on.I
fitworr
iesthei
ndi
vi
dual
toapointofwishi
ngtohav
eittr
eat
ed,i
tiswi
set
o
consul
tadoctor.

Atthisstageavoidharshcr eamsast heymayr eactwiththehormonesandl eadto

damagedski n.Boysneedt okeeptheirbear
dsshav ed.Gir
lsneedt obat
hemor ethan
onceduringthemenst rualflowtoav oi
dfoulsmellofblood.Theyneedt owearsanit
ary
towelstoavoidstai
ningt heircl
otheswithbl
ood.Thesani tar
ytowelsmustbechanged
regul
arl
yt oavoi
ddev elopmentoff oulsmellandgrowthofger ms.Ifcommer ci
al
sanit
arytowelscannotbeaf for
ded,home-madepadscanbepr eparedwit
hcottonwool
coveredwithgauzeorj ustfoldi
ng

Ser
vicesr equi
redtomeett heneedsofadolescent
s.
Adolescentsrequirehealt
hyf oodfort
heirgrowi
ngbodies.Theyal
sorequi
reapeaceful
home, securi
ty,emotionalsupport
,counsell
i
ng,physi
calexerci
seandsoci
alski
ll
sthat
wil
lhelpthem resisttemptati
onsfrom peersandli
veabet t
erandaccept
edli
fest
yle.

Adul t
hood
Adul t
hoodst art
sat20- 60y ears.I
tisthelongestper i
odoft helifespan.Duringthi
s
stagephy sicaldevelopment sarefairl
ycompl ete.Butpsychologicaladjust
ment s
cont i
nuethroughoutt heent i
restage.Choosi ngalif
epartner ,
establi
shingaf amil
y,
becomi ngausef ul andpr oduct i
vemember ,etc.ar
ecrucialduringadulthood.One’s
personali
tyandachi evement sar edeterminedbyt hekindofexper ienceshehashad
duringhisear l
yy earsoflife.Adulthoodcanbecat egori
zedi ntoearlyadult
hood,middl
e
adulthoodandol dage.
Earlyadulthood
Earlyadulthood( alsocall
ed" emergingadulthood")isastageofl if
ebet ween20and40
years,whenadol escent sbecomemor eindependentandexpl orediffer
entli
fe
possibil
it
ies.Earlyadulthoodi sal
socal l
edy oungadulthoodst age.
Changesdur i
ngear l
yadulthood

Growt
hhasstopped,
onlymai
ntenanceofbodypart
s,f
orexample,
repai
rofwornout
cel
lst
akespl
ace.Apersonmaygainweightduet
odepositoff
atsbutnotduet
ogrowth
anddevel
opment.

Athisst
age,
peopl
eareintheirbestphysi
calcondit
ions,
thati
sver
yst
rong,
ener
get
ic,
havegoodmemorycapaci
ty,sharpsenses,andstamina.

Per
for
manceoft
hebodysy
stem i
sver
yhi
gh.

Peopleatthi
sstagear
ever
yambit
iousandwanttosucceed.Theyworkhar
dtomeet
thei
rgoals,f
orexampl
etof
ini
shst
udies,
getadecentj
oband/orst ar
tafamil
y
Theyar
esel
ect
ivei
nter
msofchoosi
ngoccupat
ionsorpar
tner
s.

Theyhav
ethedesi
ret
obesoci
all
yindependent
.

Middl eadul t
hood
Middl eorl at
eadul t
hoodstartsat40y earsandendsat60y ears.I
nit
ial
ly,
apersonissti
ll
veryst rongandabl etodotaskst hatrequirealotofenergy.
Theper formanceofbodyst emsi sstil
lhigh.Later,i
nthelat
eforti
esorearlyfi
ft
ies,
the
rateofdet er
ior
ationbecomessi gnif
icant.Theabi l
i
tytodotasksthatrequir
ealotof
ener gyandhi ghspeeddecr ease,sharpnessofv isi
ondecreasesandmemor yl
ossmay
occur .
Hairst artstoturngrey,
skinstartstolooseelastici
ty.Womenr eachmenopauseand
theirdesi r
etohav esexisreduced.

OldAge
Oldagest artsf r
om 60y earsandov er .I
tisconsi deredast hef i
nalstageoft henor mal
l
ifespan.Dur ingt hisper iodmanyphy sical, social,
emot ional andbehav ioural changes
takeplace.Somemenandwomenmani festsi gnswhi char eassoci atedwithol dage
from their60’sonwar ds.Theseagi ngy earsdemandahi gherdegr eeofemot i
onal
adjustment s.
Ther earecer tainpr oblemsofadj ust ment ssuchasphy sicalandeconomi cdependency ,
establi
shingnewcont act sandi nterest sandact ivi
ti
est ooccupyi ncreasedlei sureti
me.
Psy chol
ogi cal hazar dsdur i
ngthisst agei ncl udefeelingsofi nferi
orit
yandi nadequacy
resulti
ngf rom phy si
cal changesi nl i
f epat terns,feeli
ngofgui ltaboutsitt
ingi dleand
reducedi ncomet hatnecessi t
ateschangesi nlivi
ngpat t
er ns.Financialworriesandi ll
healtharecommonamongt hisage.
Asaper sonages, vari
ouschangesoccur si nhisorherbodyunt i
lherorshedi es.Some
ofthesechangesar eexpl ai
nedbel ow:

Decr
easedbl
oodf
lowt
othebr
ainanddeat
hofner
vecel
l
s.

Theabi
l
ityt
ofocusonobj
ect
s,smel
landheardecr
eases.

Hairt
urnsgr
eyasaresul
tofr
educedpr
oduct
ionofhai
rpi
gment
.Thehai
ral
so
becomesthi
nner
.Somemenmaydev el
opabaldhead.

Ki
dneyf
unct
ioni
ngsl
owsdownandt
hef
requencyofur
inat
ioni
ncr
eases.

Di
gest
ionsl
owsdownespeci
all
yfort
hosewhogetpoordi
et.

El
ast
ici
tyoft
heski
ndecr
eases.Theski
nget
slooserandwr
inkl
esdev
elop.

Bonesmaybecomeweak,
especi
all
yfort
hosewhohav
ebeent
aki
ngf
oodwi
thl
ess
cal
cium i
nyoungage.

Mendel
ayget
ti
nganer
ect
ion.
Bytheageof70,aboutt
wot
hir
dsoft
ast
ebudsi
nthemout
hdi
e,maki
ngaper
sonf
ell
l
ikefoodi
stast
eless.

Theabovefeat
uresdonotapplytoallagedpeopl
e.Heal
thyl
ifestyl
eduringyoungage
maydelayoccur
renceoftheabovefeaturesandmakeapersonleadanor malli
feeven
i
nolderage.
Ahealthyli
fest
ylei
sachievedbyeati
ngheal
thyfood,avoidi
ngsmoki ng,
al
coholi
sm,over
eating,
drugabuse,
excessivenoi
se,t
oxi
cchemi cal
s,str
essand
i
nacti
vi
ty.

Servi
cesr equiredtomeett heneedsoft heel
derly
Olderpeopleneedheal t
hyfoodt ostr
engthenthei
rimmunesy stem andreducether
ate
ofbodydet eriorati
on.Forveryoldpeopl
e,thefoodshouldbesof tenoughfort
hem t
o
chew, swall
owanddi gest.
Theyal soneedcl eanandcomf ort
abl
eclothi
ngandapl acetosleepanddol i
ght
physicalexercise.Theyneedlov e,
care,
andsuppor t
.Love,car
eandsuppor thel
pold
peoplet oavoidanger ,
lonel
inessandstress.

FACTORSWHI CHAFFECTTHERATEOFPHYSI CALDETERI ORATI ONOFHUMANBODY

ANDSERVI CESREQUI REDTOMEETTHENEEDSOFANI NDIVIDUALATEACHSTAGE
Somepeopl emayl i
veahappy ,healt
hl i
feuptotheiroldageandunt i
ltheydie.Others
getveryol dwhi l
etheyar estil
lyoung.
Someoft hef actor
saf fect
ingther at
eofdet eri
orati
onofthehumanbodyar e
psychological.Theyincludesmoki ng, al
coholi
sm, drugabuse,stressandi nacti
vi
ty.
Someot herfactorsareenv ir
onment al.Theyincl
udepoordi et
, excessi
v enoise,
toxic
chemical sandr adi
ations,diseases,andi nf
ecti
ons.Otherfactorsaregenet i
cal,f
or
example, theWer ner’
ssy ndrome.

Smoking:Smokerssuffermor eil
lnessessuchascancert hannon-smokers.Smoking
cancauselungcancer, car
diovasculardisease,ChronicObstr
ucti
vePulmonaryDisease
(COPD),andstroke.Smokingleadst opr ematurebalding,
skinwri
nkli
ngand
osteopor
osis.
Osteoporosisisacondi tioninwhichbonesbecomet hi
nandf r
agi
le,
l
eadingtofract
ures,st
oopedpost ur
e, breathi
ngproblemsandbackpai n.

Alcoholi
sm: Theabil
i
tytomet abol
i
zealcoholdecreaseswit
hage.Pr ol
ongeduseof
al
cohol l
eadst odamageoft hecentral
nervoussystem andbrainandincreasestheri
sk
ofheartstrokeandbr eastcancerforwomen. Al
coholi
sm al
soi ncr
easesthef r
equency
ofil
lnessesasi tweakensthei mmunesy st
em andcauseski dneyfail
ureand
osteoporosis.

Drugabuse:
Drugabuseweakenst
hei
mmunesy
stem andcausespr
emat
ureagi
ng.I
t
t
husreducesli
fespan.

Stress:St
ressmaycauseheartproblemsandhighbl
oodpressure.Italsocauses
i
mpai rmentoftheimmunesystem, t
husmakingapersonsickoften.Otherprobl
ems
thatmayr esul
tfr
om st
ressar
ef ai
lur
et osl
eep(i
nsomnia)
,fat
igue,ulcers,
headacheand
migraine.
Inacti
vi
ty:
Sedentaryworkandinacti
vi
tysuchasspendi
ngalongt i
mewatchingTVor
doingoffi
ceworkthatinvol
vessit
ti
ngmostofthetimeresul
tsinbeingov
erweightand
i
t sassoci
atedr
isks.Ital
soshort
enslif
espan.
Peoplewhoareinacti
vehavemore
chancesofdevelopingheal
thprobl
emssuchasobesityandhighbloodpr
essurethan
thosewhoar eacti
ve.

Poordiet:Poordi
eti
ncludesbothunder
feedi
ngandover
feedi
ng.Under
feedingcauses
malnutri
ti
onwhichreducesli
fespan.Over
feedi
ngl
eadstoobesi
tyanddiabetes.Obesi
ty
anddiabetescauseprematur
eaging.

Di
seasesandinf
ecti
ons:Pathogensproducetoxi
nsthataccel
erat
edeter
ior
ati
on.They
al
sodepri
veourbodiesofthenecessarynut
ri
entsneededforgoodhealt
h.

Chemical
sandr adi
ations:Somechemi calssuchast hosefoundi
ncosmeti
cs,
medici
nes,i
nsecti
cides,pestici
des,
foodstuff
sandspr aysmayhaveadver
seeffect
son
thehumanbody .
Thesechemi cal
sspeedupdet eri
orati
onorshort
enl
if
espan.Some
radi
ati
ons,f
orexampl eX-rays,mayaffectourli
vesbykill
i
ngbodycel
lsorcausi
ng
deadl
ydiseasesli
kecancer .

Werner’
ssyndrome:Werner’
ssyndr
omeisaveryrar
edi
seasethatcausesrapi
dageing
aft
erpuber
ty,sucht
hata20or30y earol
dpersonmayl
ooksev er
aldecadesold.I
tis
causedbygenemut at
ionandisnamedaft
eraGermansci
enti
st,Ott
oWer ner,
who
descri
bedt
hesy ndr
ome.

Gr
owt
hinFl
ower
ingPl
ant
s
Germinat
ionistheprocessbywhi chapl antgrowsfrom aseed.Themostcommon
exampleofgermi nat
ioni sthesprouti
ngofaseedl i
ngf r
om aseedofanangi osperm or
gymnosperm.Plantgr owt hissai
dt obelocali
zed.I
nt hi
scase,growthisrestr
ict
edto
cert
ainfi
xedregionslikeroottipsandshoott i
ps.Aft
ertheseedger minates,
theembr y
o
star
tstogrowasi ndicatedinthefigurebelow.Thefigureshowsgrowt hofabean
seedl
ingbetweenday2and11.
Ger
minat
ionandgr
owt
hofabeanseed
Changeswhi
choccurdur
ingseedGer
minat
ion
Ther
ear
echangest
hatoccurdur
ingseedger
minat
ion.Thesear
e:

Seedabsor
bwat
erandenl
arge

Lat
eronthet
est
aburst
sandt
her
adi
cleemer
ges.Ther
adi
clecont
inuest
oel
ongat
eand
gi
vesri
setomanyr
oots

Astheradi
cleel
ongat
es,
thepl
umul
eiscur
ved.Att
hisst
age,
youngpl
anti
scal
l
eda
seedl
i
ng.

Accompany ingt hesemor phologicalchangesar echemi calchangeswhi choccuri nside

theseed.Ast heseedabsor bswat erthef oodsar ehydrolyzedintosol ublefood.The
starchstoredi nt hecotyledonsorendosper misconv ertedtosugarbyact i
onof
diastase.Insomeseeds, lipasecat aly
zest hehydr ol
ysisoff at
st ofatt
yaci dandgl ycerol
.
Itisli
kelythatgly ceroli
sconv ertedintosugarssi nceitisnotdet ectedinger minating
seeds.Thepr oteolycti
cenzy mescat alyzethehy drol
ysisofpr oteinstoami noaci ds.
Dur i
ngger minational otofener gyisrequired.Thisener gyisderivedfrom thest ored
foodmat er
ials.Itfoll
ows, thereforethatast heseedger minatesitswei ghtdecreases.
Thisisbecauset hestoredf oodi sbeingused.Thedecr easei nwei ghtcontinuesunt i
l
theseedl i
ngi scapabl eofphot osynthesizi
ng.

Partsofaseed
Aseedi sastr
uctureformedaft
erthefer
ti
li
zati
onofanov ule.Aseedcontainst he
embr y
ooftheplant.Theembryogrowsanddev el
opsintoamat ur
eplantwhich
producesmoreseeds.Theembr yoismadeupoft heplumule,radi
cleandcoty l
edons.
Theplumuledevelopsintoashoot
.Theradicl
edevel
opsi nt
oar oot.Thecotyledons
hav enut ri
entswhi char eut i
li
zedbyt heseeddur i
ngger mi nat
ion.
Seedshav eei theroneort wocot yl
edons.Aseedwi t
honecot yl
edoni scall
eda
monocot yledonousseed.Exampl esofmonocot yledonousseedsar emaize,ri
ce,mi l
let
andwheat .Aseedwi t
ht wocot y
ledonsiscall
edadi cotyledonousseed.Exampl esar e
beans, peasandgr oundnut s
Seedssomet imeshav eaddi ti
onalnutri
entti
ssuesinf orm oftheendosper m.Theseed
coat ,alsocal ledtest a,enclosestheferti
li
zedovule.Thet estahasapor ecall
edt he
mi cropy le.Themi cropyleallowswat erandairtogetinandoutoft heseed.
Ont het estaisascarcal l
edt hehil
um.Thehi l
um mar kst hepointofat t
achmentt othe
funicle.Thef unicleat t
achest heseedt otheplacentaont heov arywall.
Thepl umul ehas
smal lleav es.Thel eavesar etherepli
caofnat ur
alleaves.Ar adicl
ei sarepli
caofa
mat urer oot.Thet estai shardandencl osestheseed, hencepr otecti
ngit.
Thef i
gur esbel owshowt hepar t
sofamonocot yl
edonousseed( maize)anda
dicoty l
edonousseed( bean) .
CONDI TIONSNECESSARYFORSEEDGERMI NATI ON
Seedsr equirecert
ai nconditionsforthem t
oger mi nate.Thesecondit
ionsar ewater,
oxygen, opti
mum t emper at
ureandl i
ght.
Wat er
Wat eri
sasol v
entr equiredforenzymat i
cacti
vities.Wat erent
erstheseedt hroughthe
micropyle.Thewat ersof tensthetestathusallowi ngtheseedt ot
akei nwat er
.The
osmot i
cpr essureint heseedcauseswat ertoent ertheseedbyosmosi s.Pressur
eis
createdintheswol lenseed, rupturi
ngthesoftenedt esta.
Theseedsr equir
ewat erfortheprocessesoutlinedbel ow:

Activ
ati
onofenzy mes:Whenseedsar eformed,mostpl antsstoreafoodr eser
vewit
h
theseed,suchasstarch,prot
eins,oroil
s.Thi
sfoodr eserveprovidesnourishmentt
othe
growingembr yo.Whentheseedi mbibeswater,
hy dr
olyticenzymesar eactivat
edand
breakdownt hesestor
edf oodresourcesint
omet aboli
callyusefulchemicals.

Mostseedsneedenoughwat
ertomoistenthem.Theupt
akeleadst
otheswel
l
ingand
thebreaki
ngoft
heseedcoat
,whichenabl
estheembryotoemergef
rom t
he
coty
ledon(s)
.

Wateri
susedtodissolv
efoodsubst
ances.Thef
oodneedst
odissol
vesoast
odi
ff
use
orgett
ranspor
tedtothegr
owthpart
softheembryoi
ntheseed.

Wateri
sneededf
ort
hedevel
opmentoft
hecellsapvacuol
es.Lar
gecel
lsapv
acuol
es
cont
ri
butet
othei
ncr
easei
nthesi
zeofcell
s,hence,
growth.

Oxygen
Oxygeni sr equir
edbyt heger minat i
ngseedf ormet abolism.I tisusedi naer obi c
respi
rati
on, t
hemai nsour ceoft heseedl ing'sener gyunt i
l itgrowsl eav es.Respi rati
on
producesener gyforpr ocessesl i
kecel ldi vi
sionandt r
anspor toffoodt ogr owi ng
regi
ons.
Oxygendi ffusesint otheseedt hrought hemi cropy l
e.Thesof tenedt est alat eral l
ows
oxygent odi ff
usedi rectl
yi ntothet issues.
Optimum Temper ature
Temper atur eaff
ect scellularmet abol icandgr owt hrates.Seedsf r
om di ff
er entspecies
andev enseedsf rom t hesamepl antger mi nateov erawi der angeoft emper atures.
Seedsof tenhav eat emper aturer angewi thinwhi chtheywi l
lgerminat e, andt heywillnot
dosoabov eorbel owt hisr ange.Manyseedsger minateatt emper atur essl ight l
yabov e
16-24°C.
Temper atur eisani mpor tantrequi rementf oract i
vati
onofenzy mes.Theenzy mesint he
seedwor kbestatopt i
mum t emper aturesi ncetheyar edenat uredbyhi ght emper at
ures
andinhibitedbyext r
emel yl owt emper atures.
Someseedsmayr equiret obef ir
stexposedt olowt emper aturesbef or etheycan
germinate.Thi sisusual lythecasei nplant sthatgr owi nt emper at
ecl i
mat es.Theseeds
needtogot hr
oughwi nterbef oret heonsetofspr ingwhent heseedsger mi nat e.
Light
Ther equir
ementofli
ghtforger minati
onv ari
esfrom planttoplant
.Somepl ant
sneed
darknesswhi l
eother
sneedl ightinvaryi
ngdegr ees.
Lightordarknesscanbeanenv ir
onment altr
iggerforgerminati
onandi satypeof
physiologi
caldor
mancy .Mostseedsar enotaf fectedbylightordarkness,
butmany
seeds, i
ncl
udingspeci
esf oundinf or
estsetti
ngs, wil
lnotgerminat
eunt i
lanopeni
ngi
n
thecanopyal l
owssuffi
cientli
ghtforgrowt hoftheseedling.

Ty pesofseedger minat ion

Ther ear et wot ypesofseedger minat ionnamel y
, hypogeal germi nat i
onandepi geal
germi nat ion.
Epigeal ger mi nat ion
Epigeal ger mi nat ioni sat ypeofger mi nationi nwhi cht hecot yledonsar ebr oughtabov e
thesoi llev el.Thi st y peofger mi nationi sseeni nmanydi cot yl
edonouspl ant s, suchas
beans, sunf lower , cast or,bean, etc.Somemonocot yl
edonouspl ant ssuchast heoni on
alsoshowepi geal ger mi nat ion.
Inadi cot yledonousseed, thepl umul eandr adi cl
ear eattachedt ot hetwocot yledons.
Thehy pocot ylelongat esr api dl
yr aisingt hecot yl
edonsi ntot heai r.Thehy pocot yl
isthe
regionoft hest em beneat ht hecot yledonsanddi rect l
yabov ethey oungr ootofa
seedl ing.Theepi cot y listher egionoft heshootofaseedl i
ngwhi chi sfoundabov ethe
cotyledonofanembr yo.
Theseedabsor bswat erandsof tenst het est a.Thecot yledonsswel landr upt ur ethe
testa.Ther adicleel ongat esandemer gest hrought heseedcoat .Root sdev el opf rom
ther adi cle.Thehy pocot yel ongat esr apidlyanddev elopsacur vat ure.Thecur vedpar t
emer gesabov et hesoi l
.Thehy pocot ylevent ual l
yst raightens, raisingthecot yledons
andt hepl umul eabov et hesoi l
.Thecot y
ledonsar eal sor eferr
edt oasseedl eav es.
Thecot yledonsenl argeandt urngr eent ocar r youtphot osy nthesi s.Theepi cot y l
elongat est husi ncr easi ngt hehei ghtoft heseedl ing.Thef i
rstfol i
agel eavesemer ge.
Thecot yledonsshr ivel ast hest oredf oodmat erialsar eusedup.Thef ir
stf oliagel eaves
enlargeandst ar tcar ryingoutphot osy nthesi s.

Epi
gealandhypogealgermi
nati
on
Hypogealger
minati
on
Hypogealger
minati
onisatypeofger
minat
ioninwhichthecoty
ledonsremai
n
under
ground.I
toccursinpl
ant
ssuchasmai ze,
pigeonpeas,
wheat,etc.
Thepar toftheembr yot hatelongatesi
stheepi coty
l.Theepicotylelongatesrapi
dly
,
rai
singtheplumul eabov ethesoi l
.Thecoty l
edonsremainbelowt hegr oundlevel
.
Theshooti spushedt hrought hesoilpar
ti
cl es.I
nmai ze,
theplumul esheat h,
knownas
thecoleopti
le,protectst heplumule.Thecol eoti
legrowstowardsl i
ght.
Thef ol
iageleavesemer get hroughthesplitendofthecoleopti
le.Thef oli
ageleaves
carr
youtphot osy nthesis.Ther adi
cleisprotectedasitemergest hroughthemai zegrai
n
byasheat hcalledcol eor hi
zae.

GROWTHREGI ONSOFASEEDLI NG
Thegr owt hoft her adi cl
eandt hepl umulecausest heel ongat ionofaseedl ing.Aradicle
developsandf or mst her oot s,whi leaplumul edev elopsandf ormst heshoot .Ther at
e
ofgrowt hcanbemeasur edatt hetipofther ootorshoot .
Cell
satt her ootandshootapi ceshav eahi ghcapaci t
yt odivide.Thedi vi
dingcel l
sar e
call
edmer i
stemat iccel l
s.Thecel l
smakeupat i
ssuecal ledtheapi calmer istem.These
cell
sr apidl
yunder gomi tosis, t
husenl argingandgi v i
ngr i
set omor ecel l
s.
Thev erycell
si ncr easet hesi zeoft heshoot sandr oot s.Thecel lsdiff
erentiatetof orm
ti
ssuest hatcar ryoutspeci ficf unctions.
Thepl antorgansel ongat e,resul t
ingingrowt hatt her ootandshootapi ces.Thi stypeof
growthi sknownaspr i
mar ygr owt h.
Themer i
stemat ict issueatt heshootapexact i
velydi vi
des, l
eadingt otheel ongationof
theshoot .Themer istemat i
ct i
ssueal sogiv esriset oleav es.Leafpr i
mor dia, f
rom which
theleavesdev el op, occuratt henodesoft heshoot s.
Thepar tofast em bet weenonenodeandt henexti scal l
edt hei nt
ernode.Theaxi l
lary
budhasmer istemat i
ct i
ssueknownast hei ntercalarymer i
stem.Themer i
st em ti
ssue
bri
ngsabouti nternodeel ongat i
on.

Howapl
antgr
owsf
rom aseed
 GENETI
CS
Geneticsisthest udyofher edi
tyandv ari
ati
onsi norganism.Throughthi
sstatement
therearetwocommonwor dst hatareheredit
yandv ari
ati
on.
Heredityisthepassi ngonofchar acteri
sti
csf rom parent
stotheoffspri
ng.
Variat
ionist heobser v
ablediffer
encesinor ganismsf rom t
hesamespecies.
Theher edit
ar ycharacter
ist
icsarepassedf rom parentstothei
roffspr
ingthrough
dist
inctunitscalledgenes.
Genesar eher editar
ymat er
ialsorfactor
s,whi chdetermineaspecifi
ccharacteri
sti
cor
trai
tinanor ganism.

COMMONTERMSUSEDI NGENETI CS
Fi
rstf il
ial generati
on( F1)
Thisist hegener ati
onar isingfrom t hecr ossingoft wopur ebr eeds
Secondf i
lialgenerat
ion( F2)
Thisist hegener ati
onobt ainedbycr ossingindividualsofthef irstfi
li
algenerat
ion.
Genot ype
Thisist hegenet i
cmakeupofanor gani sm orani ndividual
Phenot ype
Thisist heout wardappear ancedet er minedbyagene
Haploi dy( n)
Havingonesetofunpai redchr omosomesi nt henucleus
Dipl
oi dy( 2n)
Havingt woset sofhomol ogous( simi lar
)chromosomesi nt henucl eus
All
eles
I
tist heal ter
nativenumberofgenesi nthenucl eusori nthesameposi t
ion
Homol ozy gosity
Thiscont rolofachar acterbyt wodi fferentallel
esf orexampl eTT, BBorbb
Heterozy gosity
Thiscont rolofachar acterbyt wodi fferentallel
esexampl eTt ,Bbet c
.
Domi nance
Thisisacondi ti
onwher eanal lel
ecanexpr essi t
selfinthepr esencesofot herall
eles.
Exampl e: ‘
Tt’wher e‘
T’ i
st hedomi nantt hatexpr essesi t
sef f
ecti nthepresenceof‘ t
’.
Recessi v eness
Acondi ti
onwher eanal lelecanonl yexpr essitselfwhent heyar ei nhomozy gousform
butdoesnotexpr essitsef fectont hepr esenceofot herallel
es.
Mutat ion
Asuddenr andom changei nthegeneticmakeupofacel l
,causi
ngitandallcel
l
s
deri
vedf r
om ittodi
fferfrom normalcell
s.
Mutagen
Thi
si sanagentcapabl eofincreasi
ngtherateofmutat
ioninanorganism l
i
ke
for
mal dehydeandnitrousacid.
Sel
fing
I
tst hecrossingoff
spr i
ngodt hesamepai rofpar
ent
s

GENETI
CSMATERI
ALS
Heredi
tychar
acteri
sti
csarepassedf r
om parentstotheirof
fspri
ngthr
oughdisti
nct
uni
tscall
edgenes.Therearealotofgenesinanor ganism’sbody.Genesarearr
anged
i
nal i
nearmanner,makingchromosomes.
Chromosomesar ethr
eadlikest
ructuresf
oundi nthenucleiofal
lbodycel
ls.Genei
s
madeupofchemi calsubst
ancescal l
edNucleicacid.
Therearetwoty
pesofnucleicacidsfoundincells,
theseare:

Deoxy
ribonucl
eicaci
d(DNA)

Ri
bonucl
eicaci
d(RNA)

Theseacidsaremadeupofbuil
dingbl
ockscall
ednucl
eoti
des.Eachnucleot
ide
consi
stsofthreemol
ecul
esl
inkedtoget
her,
thatisapent
osesugar,phosphori
caci
d
andorganicbase.

Thest ructureandcomposi ti
onofGenet icsMat eri
als( Deoxy ri
bonucl ei
cAci dand
RibonucleicAci d)
DNAi scal ledt he“ mol eculeoflif
e”.Thisi sbecausei tdet erminest hephy sicaland
behav i
oural char acteristi
csofanor ganism.TheDNAdet ermi nesexampl ethecolourof
yourhai r
,ey es, skin,earsandnose, height,abili
tyori nabilit
ytor oll thetongueal l
.
heDNAi smadeupofmanynucl eotidest hatmaket hedoubl est randed.
STRUCTUREOFDNA
DNAi sadoubl est randedhel i
cal(spiral)mol ecularchai nofanucl eicfoundwi t
hinthe
nucleusofacel l.By“ doublestrandedhel ical”itmeanst hatt heDNAconsi stsoftwo
strands,whi cht wistar oundeachot herinaspi ralfashion.
TheDNAi smadeupofmanynucl eot i
desf ormi ngapol ynucleotidechai n.
Polynucleot i
demeansmanynucl eot i
des
Thepol ynucl eotidechai nrunsi ntheopposi t
edi rection.Eachchai ni sjoinedt otheother
bypai r
sofbases.Ther earefourbasesnamel yGuani ne(G) ,Cytosi ne©, Adeni ne(A)
andThy mine( T)
Note:
Guanineandadeni near ecol lecti
velycal l
edpur i
neswhi lecy t
osineandt hymi neare
col
lectivel
ycalledpy ri
mi dine
Guaninepai r
swi thcy tosi neandadeni nepai r
swiththy mi ne.DNApl aysakeyr ol
ein
i
nher i
tancebecausei tr eplicatesitselfduringmi t
osisandmei osis.DNAal sounder goes
changesandhasgenet ici nformationt hechar acter
isticsofaspeci es.
RNA
Thechr omosomesr eplicat edur i
ngcel l
divisi
on.Ther epl i
cationoccursdur ingmitoti
c
andmei osiscel l
divisions
Thechr omosomesdet ermi net hety peofpr otei
nsynt hesi zed.Thegenesdet erminethe
actualcharacteri
sticsoft heor gani sms.I nprotei
nsy nt hesisdeoxy r
ibonucleicacidacts
asat emplatef orthef or mat ionofr ibonucleicaci
d( RNA) .

STRUCTUREOFRNA
RNAconsist
sofonl yasinglest
randofpolynucl
eot
ide.Thepolynucl
eot
ideismadeup
ofmanynucleot
ides.Eachnucleoti
deconsist
sofanucleobase,ri
bosesugarand
phosphat
egroup.TheRNAsugari sriboseandnotdeoxyri
bose.It
snucl
eoti
descont
ain
onl
yoneoffourbasest hatare:

Guani
ne(
G)

Cy
tosi
ne(
C)

Adeni
ne(
A)

Ur
acy
l(U)

NB:
Uracy
l r
epl
acest
het
hymi
neofDNA.Soi
nthi
stheadeni
necanpai
rwi
thur
aci
lwhi
l
e
t
heGuaninepai
rswi
tht
hymi
ne.
TheRNAi
sinv
olv
edi
npr
otei
nsy
nthesi
s.Ther
ear
evar
ioust
ypesofRNA:

Messenger(
mRNA)

Tr
ansf
er(
tRNA)

Ri
bosomal
(rRNA)

Di
ff
erencebetweenDeoxy r
ibonucl
eicAci
d(DNA)andRibonucl
eicAci
d(RNA)
Di
ff
erenti
ateDeoxyr
ibonucl
eicAcid(DNA)fr
om Ri
bonuclei
cAcid(RNA)
DNAv er
susRNAcompar i
sonchart
DNA RNA

St
andsForDeoxy
riboNucl
eicAci
d. Ri
boNucl
eicAci
d.

Anuclei caci
dthatcont ainsthegenet i
c
i
nstructionsusedi nthedev elopment Thei nformationfoundinDNA
andfunct i
oningofall moder nli
ving determineswhi chtrai
tsaretobe
Def
ini
ti
on organisms.DNA' sgenesar eexpr essed,created,acti
vated,ordeacti
vat
ed,
ormani fest
ed,throught hepr ot
einsthatwhilethev ar
iousformsofRNA
i
tsnucl eoti
desproducewi t
ht hehelpof dot hewor k.
RNA.

Thebl uepr
intofbi
ological
guidel
ines HelpscarryoutDNA'sbluepri
nt
thatal i
vi
ngorgani
sm mustf oll
owt o guidel
ines.Tr
ansfersgeneti
c
Funct
ion existandremainfuncti
onal.Medium of codeneededf orthecreat
ionof
l
ong- t
erm,stabl
estorageand protei
nsfrom thenucl
eust othe
transmissi
onofgenet i
cinfor
mat i
on. ri
bosome.

St
ruct
ure Doubl
e-st
randed.I
thast
wonucl
eot
ide Si
ngl
e-st
randed.Li
keDNA,
RNA
 i
scomposedofi tsphosphat e
strandswhi chconsistofit
sphosphate
group, fi
ve-
carbonsugar( t
heless
group, f
ive-
carbonsugar( t
hest abl
e2-
stabler i
bose)
,andf ournitrogen-
deoxy r
ibose),andfournit
rogen-
containingnucleobases: adenine,
containingnucleobases:adenine,
uracil(notthy
mi ne)
, guanine,and
thymine, cy
tosine,andguanine.
cytosine.

Adeni
nel
i
nkstothy
mine(
A-T)and Adeni
nel
i
nkstour
acil
(A-
U)and
BasePai
ri
ng
cyt
osi
nel
inkst
oguani
ne(
C-G). cyt
osi
nel
inkst
oguani
ne(C-
G).

Dependi
ngonthet ypeofRNA,
DNAi
sfoundinthenucl
eusofacel
landthi
smolecul
eisfoundinacell
's
Locat
ion
i
nmit
ochondr
ia. nucl
eus,i
tscyt
oplasm,andit
s
ri
bosome.

Ribosesugari smorereacti
ve
Deoxyri
bosesugari nDNAi sless
becauseofC- OH( hy
droxyl)
react
ivebecauseofC- Hbonds.Stablei
n
bonds.Notst abl
einalkali
ne
St
abi
l
ity alkal
i
necondi t
ions.DNAhassmal l
er
condit
ions.RNAhasl arger
grooves,
whichmakesi thar
derfor
grooves,whichmakesi teasi
ert
o
enzymesto" at
tack."
be"attacked"byenzymes.

RNAissynthesi
zedf
rom DNA
Pr
opagat
ionDNAi
ssel
f-
repl
i
cat
ing.
whenneeded.

Thehel i
xgeometryofRNAisof
Theheli
xgeomet r
yofDNAi sofB-For
m.A-Form.RNAst r
andsare
Uni
que DNAi sprot
ectedinthenucl
eus,
asiti
s conti
nuallymade,br
okendown
Feat
ures ti
ghtl
ypacked.DNAcanbedamagedby andr eused.RNAi smore
exposuretoul
tra-
viol
etr
ays. resi
stanttodamagebyUltr
a-
viol
etrays.

PRI
NCI
PLEOFI
NHERI
TANCE,
CONCEPTOFI
NHERI
TANCE
GregorJohnMendel adv ancedthepr i
ncipl
esofinher
it
ance.I n1856–1863Mendel
grewandt est
edsome29, 000-peaplants.From t
hesestudies,heformulatedthelawof
segregat
ionandt helawofassor tment.
Afterhi
swor konpeas, Mendel begant oexperi
mentwithhoney bees.Howev er,
hef ai
l
ed
toproduceacl earpi
ctur
eoft heirheredit
ybecauseofdiff
iculti
esincontroll
i
ngt he
mat i
ngbehaviourofqueenbees.Mendeswor kswaslargelycrit
ici
zedandgener all
y
rej
ectedduringhisl
if
eti
me.I
twasonl
yafterhi
sdeat
hthathisworkgai
nedbroad
recogni
ti
on.Hei snowconsi
der
edthef
atherofmoderngeneti
cs,
Mendeldi
edon
January6th,
1884.

Mendel
choset
hegar
denpeasbecauseoft
hef
oll
owi
ngr
easons:

I
tissel
f-
pol
l
inat
ingbutcanbecr
oss-
pol
l
inat
ed

I
tmat
uresv
eryf
ast

I
tpr
oducesmanyseedsandhencemanyof
fspr
ings

I
thassev
eral
phy
sical
proper
ti
es

Someoft
hechar
act
eri
sti
cst
hatbest
udi
eswer
e:

Hei
ghtoft
hest
em-
tal
lordwar
fs

Text
ureoft
heseedcoat–smoot
horwr
inkl
ed

Col
ouroff
lower
s–pur
pleorwhi
te

Col
ourofpods–gr
eenory
ell
ow

Posi
ti
onoff
lower
s–axi
alort
ermi
nal

MendelianInher
it
ance
FIRSTLAW
ThislawisalsocalledMendel’sfi
rstl
awofi nheri
tanceorlawofsegr egat
ion.Thelaw
stat
es,“Anorganism’scharacter
isti
csaredeterminedbyi nt
ernalf
actorswhichoccurin
pair
”.Onlyoneoft hefact
orscanbecont ainedinasi ngl
egamet e.
Inmoder nter
mst hismeanst hatgenesoccurri
ngi npairscontr
olthecharacter
ist
icsof
anorganism butonlyonegenecanbecar ri
edinasi nglegamete.
Therearefourmai nconceptsinthislaw:

Genescanexi
sti
nmor
ethanonef
orm

Anorgani
sm i
nher
it
stwoal
ter
nat
ivef
orm ofagenef
orapar
ti
cul
art
rai
t,onef
rom each
par
ent

Duri
ngtheproducti
onofgamet
espai
rofal
l
elessepar
ate.Thuseachgamet
ehasone
al
lel
eforeachtrai
t.

Whent
het
woal
l
elesi
napai
rar
edi
ff
erentonei
sdomi
nantwhi
l
etheot
heri
srecessi
ve.
Thi
scondi
ti
oni
scal
l
edcompl
etedomi
nance.

Wheninher
itanceofonepairofcharact
eristi
csisstudi
edatat i
meitiscal
l
ed
Monohybri
dinherit
ance.
Monohybri
dCr ossesandInter
pret
ati
onoft hei
rResultsofCr
ossesandRatios
I
ll
ust
ratemonohy bri
dcrossesandinter
pretthei
rresult
sofcrossesandrat
ios

MONOHYBRI DI NHERI TANCE

Thisi sani nher itanceofonepai rofchar acterist
icortraitatat ime.
Exampl e1:
Mendel select edt allplant sandsel f-polli
natedt hem.
Consi derbel ow
char tTallxTal l
Hisr esultswer et hatal ltreeswer et all
.
Alsohecr oss- pol l
inatedt hepur ebr eedt allplantandpur ebr eedshor t(dwarf)pl
ant s.
Consi derbel owchar tTal l xdwar f
Allplant sproducedar enor mal andal soar eknownast hef i
rstfil
i
algener ati
on
(F1) .
Henceheconcl udedt hatthet allnessi ssaidtobedomi nantwhicht hegenef or
dwar fnessi ssai dt ober ecessi veint hegar denpea.Becauset hegeneofdwar fare
maskedbyt hegenef ort allness.Hy br i
di sanof fspr
ingofacr oss-betweenpar ents
showi ngunl ikechar act eristics.TestCr oss( Backcross)t hisisthecrosst hatinvolv
es
offspr i
ngsoft wodi ffer entpur el i
nes.
Interpretati
onofdat af rom Monohy bridExper imentstoDemonst rat
eMendel ’
sFirstLaw
ofI nherit
ance
Interpretdataf rom monohy bridexper i
ment st odemonst ratemendel ’sfir
stlawof
i
nher it
ance
Somecondi tionsi nhumanf oll
owMendel ianmonohy bridinherit
ance.Exampl e,a
condi t
iont hati sassoci at edwi thasi mplepai rofall
elesandar einherit
edi nMendel ian
fashion
Exampl esofsuchcondi tionsar e:

Al
bini
sm

Si
ckl
eCel
lanemi
a

Rhesusbl
oodgr
oup

Haemophi
l
ia

Achondr
opl
asi
a

DIHYBRI DINHERITANCE
Mendel conti
nuedtostudyt
heinheri
tanceoftwopai
rsofchar
acteri
sti
cs.Thi
s
i
nheritanceisknownasdihybr
idcross.
Dihybr
idCr
ossisthei
nher
itanceoftwo
characteri
sti
csinwhi
cheachiscontrol
ledbyadif
fer
entgene,
dif
ferentl
ocus.
Exampl esoftwocharact
eri
sti
cstoanor gani
sm:
Tal
lwi
thpur
plef
lower

Dwar
fwi
thwhi
tef
lower

Fr
om t
heabov
eexper
imentMendel
madet
hef
oll
owi
ngconcl
usi
ons:

Twophenot
ypesi
nther
ati
on9:
3:3:
1resembl
edoneorot
heroft
hepar
ent

Twophenot
ypesdi
dnotresembl
eanyofthepar
ent
s’phenot
ypesbuti
nst
eadhad
combi
nedthechar
act
eri
sti
csofbot
hparent
s

Rat
iooft
all
todwar
fpl
ant
swas3:
1andt
hatofpur
plef
lower
edpl
antwas3:
1

NON-
MENDELI
SM I
NHERI
TANCE
Notallinheri
tancef ol
lowsMendel ianf
ashion.Mendelonl
yconsi der
edcharact
eri
sti
cs
thatweredeter minedbysi nglegeneswit
ht woall
elesi
nwhichonei sdominantandthe
otherrecessi
v e.Laterresearchshowedthatinsomeallel
esneitheroneisdominant
overtheother.Thatcondi ti
oni sknownasco-dominanceorincompl et
edominance.

IncompleteDomi nance
Thisistheconditi
oninwhichnoall
elei
sdominantorrecessiv
ecomparedtothe
otherExamplewhenr edandwhitef
lower
edvari
esofthef ouro’cl
ockpl
antar
ecrossed,
allt
hepl antoft
heF1gener at
ionpr
oducepi
nkflower
s.

Compl etedomi nance

Compl eteDomi nancei sacondi ti
oninwhi chadominantgenecomplet
elymasks
recessivegene.Exampl e:Homozy goustallpl
antcr
ossedwiththehomozy gous
short/dwarfplant.chartshowi ngTallxDwar f
.
PatternsofInheritancet hatdevi
atesfrom Mendel’
sFir
stLawofInheri
tance
Il
lustr
atepatternsofi nherit
ancethatdeviatesfr
om mendel’
sfi
rstl
awofi nheri
tance

NON- MENDELI NHERI TANCE

Notallinheri
tancef ol
lowsMendel ianf
ashion.Mendelonl
yconsi der
edcharact
eri
sti
cs
thatweredeter minedbysi nglegeneswit
ht woall
elesi
nwhichonei sdominantandthe
otherrecessi
v e.Laterresearchshowedthatinsomeallel
esneitheroneisdominant
overtheother.Thatcondi ti
oni sknownasco-dominanceorincompl et
edominance.

I
NCOMPLETEDOMI NANCE
Thisi
sthecondi
ti
oninwhichnoall
elei
sdomi nantorrecessi
vecomparedt
otheother
Examplewhenredandwhitef
loweredvari
esofthefouro’cl
ockplantar
ecr
ossed,
all
thepl
antoft
heF1generat
ionproducepinkfl
owers.
Consi
derbel
owchartRedxWhite

I
NHERI
TANCEOFABOBLOODGROUPS
Theent irehumanpopulat
ionfallsunderfourmai nbloodgroupthatar
e–A,B,ABand
O.All
eleAandBar ecodomintwhi t
eal l
eleOisr ecessi
vetobothAandB.
Exampl e: par
ent
swithheter
ozygousbl oodgr oupAandBhav eoffspr
ingwi
thbl
ood
groupA, B,ABandOasi l
l
ustratedinthef ol
l
owi ngcross.
Phenoty peBloodgroupAxBl oodgr oupBchar t

SEXDETERMI NATIONANDI NHERITANCE

Humanbei ngshav e46chr omosomes( 23pairsofhomologouschromosome).I
never
y
bodycellofthese,twoaresexchr omosomeswhi le44arerefer
redtoasAut
osome.
Bydefini
ti
on:
Sexdeterminationref
erstot heint
erpr
etat
ionbetweenmalesexandf emal
esex.
Adiagrammat icalr
epresentati
onofhumansexdet er
minat
ionisshownbel
ow.char
t
showingcrossMal exFemal e

TheConceptofSexLi nked,SexLi mi
tedandSexInf
luencedCharacters
Thisreferstothetendencyinwhi chonechromosomecar ri
esothergenes.
Unli
keot herchromosomesi nwhi cheachofthehomol ogouschromosomescar
ri
es
genef orthesamechar acter
ist
ics,XandYdonotcar rythesamegene.

Explainconsequencesofsexpr eferenceandsexsel ect

ion
Sexpr ef
erenceandsel ecti
oni sthet endencyofpeopl etolikeonet ypeofsexmor ethan
theother.Thistendencyisv erycommoni nAfri
cancount ri
esandsomepar tsofAsi
a.
Somepeopl einafamilypreferhav ingboy sthangirl
swhi l
eot hersprefergirl
stoboys.
Thosewhopr eferboysdosoi nabel iefthatboyswillperpetuatethel i
nageandtake
careofthepar entswhenf emal esar eli
vi
ngf arawaywi ththeirhusbands.Thosewho
prefergi
rlsarguethat,gi
rl
sar ekindandmer ci
ful
;thereforetheycant akecareoftheir
parentsinoldage.
Thesexpr ef
erenceandsel ecti
oni sinfl
uencedbyanumberofsoci o-cult
uralf
act
ors.
Someoft hefactorsi
ncludet hefollowing:

ManpowerGener
ati
on:
Somesoci
eti
espr
eferboy
st ogi
rl
sbecauset
heygenerat
eweal
th
uponget
ti
ngmarri
ed.Afami
l
ywil
lgetal
otofcatt
leormoneyasbri
dalpr
ice.

Generati
onandprotecti
onofweal
th:
Somesoci
eti
espref
ergir
lsmoret
hanboys
becausegirl
swil
lprefertohav
emoresonst
hangir
lssothatt
heycansomehowbenef
it
i
ndirect
lythr
oughtheirson.

Landownershi
pInsomesociet
iesawomancannotownlandt
huspr
efer
smor
esons
thandaught
ersbecauset
heycanbenef
itf
rom t
hesons.

VARI
ATI
ONAMONGORGANI
SMS
Variat
ion,
inbiol
ogy
,referstoanydif
fer
encebetweencell
s,i
ndivi
dualorgani
sms,or
groupsoforgani
smsofanyspeci escausedeit
herbygeneti
cdiff
erences(genot
ypic
vari
ati
on)orbytheeffectofenvi
ronmental
fact
orsontheexpressionofthegeneti
c
potential
s(phenotypi
cvariati
on).Variati
onmaybeshowni nphysi
calappear ance,
met aboli
sm,fert
il
it
y,modeofr epr oducti
on, behav
iour,l
ear
ningandment alabilit
y,and
otherobv i
ousormeasur ablechar act
ers.Ifyouconsideral
mostanychar acterist
ic,you
willfi
nddiff
erencesbetweenv ariouspeopl e(orotherani
malsorplant
s)inapopul ation.

Var
iat
ionsamongOr
gani
sms
Geneti
cv ar
iati
ondescr i
besnatural
lyoccurri
nggeneticdif
ferencesamongi ndivi
dual
sof
thesamespeci es.Thisvar
iat
ionper mi
tsflexi
bil
it
yandsur viv
al ofapopul
ationinthe
faceofchangingenv i
ronmentalcir
cumstances.Consequent ly
,geneti
cvari
at i
onisoft
en
consi
deredanadv ant
age,asitisaform ofpreparat
ionfortheunexpected.Variat
ion
betweendiffer
entspeciesisalwaysgreaterthanthevari
ationwi t
hinaspecies.

Genet i
cv ariati
onsar ecausedbydi f
ferencesi nnumberorst r
uctureofchr omosomesor
bydi f
ferencesi nt hegenescar ri
edbyt hechr omosomes.Ey ecolour,bodyf orm, and
diseaser esistancear egenot ypicvariati
ons.Av ariat
ioncannotbei dentif
iedas
genot ypi
cbyobser vationoftheor ganism.Br eedi ngexperimentsmustbeper f
ormed
undercont rol l
edenv i
ronmental conditi
onst odet erminewhet herornott heal t
erationis
i
nher i
table.
Env i
ronment al
lycausedv ar
iationsmayr esultfrom onef actororthecombi nedef fect
s
ofsev eralfactors, suchascl i
mat e,foodsuppl y, andacti
onsofot herorganisms.These
variati
onsdonoti nvolveanyher editaryalt
erationandi ngener alarenottransmi ttedto
futuregener ations.

Typesofv ari
ation
Variat
ionsarecl assif
iedei
therascont inuous,orquanti
tati
ve( smoot hlygrading
betweent woext remes, wi
ththemaj orit
yofindivi
dualsatthecent re,ashei ghtinhuman
populati
ons);orasdi sconti
nuous, orquali
tati
ve(composedofwel l
-definedclasses,as
bloodgroupsi nman) .Adiscontinuousv ari
ati
onwi t
hsev er
al classes,noneofwhi chis
verysmall,i
sknownasapol ymor phicvari
ati
on.Thesepar ationofmosthi gher
organismsintomal esandfemalesandt heoccurrenceofsev eralformsofabut terf
lyof
thesamespeci es,eachcolouredtobl endwithadi f
fer
entv egetati
on, areexampl esof
polymorphicvar i
ati
on.
Continuousv ariati
on
Thistypeofv ariati
onexhi bi
tsawi derangeofdi f
ferencesf orthesamechar acteristics,
from oneextremeendt otheot her.Characteri
sti
csshowi ngcont inuousv ariationv ar yi
n
agener alway ,withabroadr ange, andmanyi nt
ermedi atev aluesbet weent heext remes.
Asamat teroff act,
ifyouconsi deral ar
geenoughsampl efrom apopul at
ion, perhaps
plot
ti
ngf requencyasahi stogram orasaf requencypol ygon, youwi llfi
ndthatmostof
thevaluesarecl oset otheav er
age( mean),andext r
emev aluesareact uall
yr atherr are.
Exampl esofcont inuousv ari
ati
onsi nhumanbei ngsi ncludewei ght,heightand
compl exi
on.Hei ghtisanexampl eofcont inuousv ar
iation.Peopl ev aryinheightf rom
veryshorttov erytall
,withmanyi ntermediateheights.

Af r
equencypol y gonf orcont inuousv ariati
on
Di scontinuousv ar i
ation
Di scontinuousv ariationi sat ypeofv ariationthatshowsshar pdi f
ferencesamong
i
ndi vidualsofaspeci es, wi
thnoi ntermedi atefor
ms.
Individualsfalli
nt oanumberofdi stinctcl assesorcat egories.Thi sisbasedonf eatur
es
thatcannotbemeasur edacr ossacompl eterange.Aper sonei t herhast he
char acterist
icornot .Ther eisnoi ntermedi at
econditi
on.
Theabi l
itytorollthet ongue( onei sei thert ongueroll
erornont onguer oller
),
fingerprints,sex( onei sei t
hermal eorf emal e)andtheABObl oodgr oupsy stem where
onecanonl yhav ebl oodgr oupA, B,ABorO.andbl oodgr oups.I npl ants,apawpawt r
ee
i
sei t
hermal eorf emal e.Thesechar act eri
st i
cscanbeexpl ainedmuchmor eeasilyby
simpl erulesofgenet i
csandar elessl ikelyt obeaffectedbyot herf actors.
Di scontinuousv ariationsar eunchangeabl eandunaf fectedbyt heext ernalenvi
ronment .
Di
scont
inuousv
ari
ati
onofbl
oodgr
oups

Di
ff
erencebet
weenCont
inuousandDi
scont
inuousVar
iat
ion
Someoft hemaj
ordiff
erencesbet
weencont
inuousanddi
scont
inuousv
ari
ati
onsi
n
i
nher
itancear
easf ol
l
ows:
Cont
inuousVari
ati
ons:

Thev
ari
ati
onsf
luct
uat
ear
oundanav
erageormeanofspeci
es.

Di
rect
ionofcont
inuousv
ari
ati
onsi
spr
edi
ctabl
e.

Theyar
eal
readypr
esenti
nthepopul
ati
on.

Cont
inuousvar
iati
onsarefor
medduet ochancesegr
egati
onofchromosomesdur
ing
gametefor
mation,cr
ossi
ngov erandchancepai
ri
ngdur
ingfer
ti
li
zati
on.

Theycani
ncr
easeadapt
abi
l
ityoft
her
acebutcannotf
orm newspeci
es.

Cont
inuousvar
iat
ionsar
econnect
edwi
tht
hemeanorav
erageoft
hespeci
esby
i
nter
mediatest
ages.

Thecont
inuousv
ari
ati
onsar
eal
socal
l
edf
luct
uat
ions.

Whenr
epr
esent
edgr
aphi
cal
l
y,cont
inuousv
ari
ati
onsgi
veasmoot
hbel
lshapedcur
ve.

Theyar
ever
ycommon.
Cont
inuousv
ari
ati
onsdonotdi
stur
bthegenet
icsy
stem.

Di
scont
inuousVar
iat
ions:

Ameanorav
eragei
sabsenti
ndi
scont
inuousv
ari
ati
ons.

Thedi
rect
ionofdi
scont
inuousv
ari
ati
onsi
sunpr
edi
ctabl
e.

Disconti
nuousvari
ati
onsar
enewv
ari
ati
onst
houghsi
mil
arv
ari
ati
onsmi
ghthav
e
occurredprev
iousl
y.

Di
scont
inuousv
ari
ati
onsar
epr
oducedbychangesi
ngenomeorgenes.

Di
sconti
nuousv
ari
ati
onsar
ethef
ount
ainheadofcont
inuousv
ari
ati
onsaswel
las
ev
olut
ion

Thesev
ari
ati
onsar
enotconnect
edwi
tht
hepar
ent
alt
ypebyi
nter
medi
atest
ages.

Di
scont
inuousv
ari
ati
onsar
eal
soknownasmut
ati
onsorspor
ts.

Acur
vei
snotpr
oducedwhendi
scont
inuousv
ari
ati
onsar
erepr
esent
edgr
aphi
cal
l
y.

Thesev
ari
ati
onsappearoccasi
onal
l
y.

Theydi
stur
bthegenet
icsy
stem oft
heor
gani
sm.

CAUSESOFVARI
ATI
ONAMONGORGANI
SMS

Genet iccausesofv ar iation( inheritedv ariation)

Somev ariationwi thinaspeci esisi nher ited.Var i
at i
oni nachar acteristicthati sar esult
ofgenet icinher itancef rom t hepar ent si scal l
edi nheritedvari
at i
on.Eacheggcel land
eachsper m cel lcont ainshal foft hegenet ici nformat i
onneededf orani ndi vidual.When
thesej oinatf ertil
isat ionanewcel lisf or medwi t
hal lthegenet i
ci nformat i
onneededf or
anindi vidual .Exampl esofi nheri
tedchar acter sinhumansi ncludeey ecol our ,haircolour,
skincol ourandl obedorl obel essear s.
Genderi si nher i
tedv ar iationt oo,becausewhet hery ouar emaleorf emal eisar esultof
thegenesy oui nher itedf rom y ourpar ent s.
Genet icv ar i
ationcanbecausedbymut at i
on( whichcancr eat
eent ir
el ynewal lelesina
popul ation) ,random mat ing,random f er til
ization, andr ecombinat i
onbet ween
homol ogouschr omosomesdur i
ngmei osi s( whi chr eshuffl
esal l
eleswi thinan
organi sm' sof fspr ing) .Someoft hesev ar iati
oncausesar eexplainedi ndet ailbelow:
Independentassor tmentofhomol ogouschr omosomes
Thisoccur satt het imeofgamet ef ormat i
on.Att het i
meofgamet efor mat iondur ing
mei osis, t
hepar ent al chr omosomessepar ateatr andom hencef ormi ngdi fferent
gamet eswi thdi fferentchr omosomes.Thi sindependentassor tmentgi vesawi de
vari
etyofdi fferentgamet esandhencei ndividual s.
Crossing-over
Chromosomal crossover(
orcrossingov er
)i stheexchangeofgeneti
cmat er
ialbetween
homol ogouschr omosomest hatresul
tsi nr ecombinantchromosomesduringsexual
reproduction.Crossingoverandr andom segr egat
ionduringmeiosi
scanresultinthe
productionofnewal lel
esornewcombi nati
onsofal lel
es.Por
ti
onsofpair
ed
chromosomesmaybeexchangedt ofor m newchr omosomal andgenecombi nati
onsin
gamet esresultingintonewtraitcombi nati
onsi nof f
spri
ng.

Theprocessofcrossi
ngov er
Non-di
sjunct
ion
Non-di
sjunct
ionresul
tsintodoubl
ingoft
hechromosomenumberduet ofail
ureof
chromosomest osegregateduri
ngmeiosi
s.Thi
sleadstoincr
easeincell
sizeand
subsequenti
ncreaseinsizeofvari
ouspar
tsoftheorgani
sm,hencevari
ation.
Nondi sjunctionpr ocess
Random f ert
il
ization
Random f ert
il
izationthatr esult
sduringthefusionoft hegamet esalsocontr
ibutest o
vari
ation.Gamet esar et heeggandsper m,orpoll
en,pr oducedbymei osi
s.Eachgamet e
hasauni quesetofcombi nationofgenes.Amal egamet ecanfert
il
izeanyofthef emal e
gamet es.Thef erti
li
zationbet weenamal egameteandaf emalegameteoccurs
randoml yi nthef all
opiantube.Asar esult
,eachzygotei suniqueandhencev ari
ation
occursduet ot hedi f
ferentcombi nati
onofgenesf rom t hemaleandf emalegamet e.
Ther andom f usionofgamet esisasour ceofgeneticv ari
ati
oninoffspri
ng(withthe
samepar ents).Forexampl e,ali
tt
erofpuppiesorkittenssi r
ed(bred)bythesamef ather
willshowv ari
ationbet weeni ndivi
dualsasshownbel low.

Vari
ationamongpuppi essiredbyt hesamef ather
Random mat ing
Random mat inginvol
vesindivi
dualspair
ingbychance, notaccor di
ngtotheirgenotypes
orphenot ypes.Random mat i
ngisasour ceofv ar
iati
oninapopul ati
on.Forexampl e,a
populationinwhi chmat i
ngonl yoccurbetweenor gani
smsofsi mil
arphenotypes,such
asredbeet l
esmat ingwithredbeetlesandy ellowbeet l
esmat ingwithyel
lowbeetles,
wil
ltendt oshowl essvari
ati
ont hanapopulat ionwher ecrossesarerandom.For
exampl e,redbeet l
esmat i
ngwi thyell
owbeet les.
Mutations
Mutationsar esuddenandper manentchangesi nt hegenesandchr omosomeswhi ch
aret henpassedonf r
om cell t
ocel lduringmi tosis.Suchchangedgenesor
chromosomeswi llpr
oduceof fspringthatdi fferfrom parent s.
Environment al causesofv ari
ation
Char acteri
sti
csofani malandpl antspeci escanbeaf fect
edbyf actor ssuchascl i
mate,
diet,accidents,wat er
,temper ature,l
ight,di
seases, degreeofaci dity,soil
snutri
ents,
cultureandl i
fest y
le.Forexampl e,i
fyoueatt oomuchy ouwi l
lbecomeheav i
er,andif
youeatt ooli
ttleyouwi ll
becomel i
ghter.Apl antint heshadeofabi gt r
eewil
lgr ow
tall
erasi ttr
iest oreachmor el i
ght .Suchv ariationsar eproducedi nt hebody(somat i
c)
cell
sandnoti nthesexcel l
shencecannotbei nherit
ed.
Variationcausedbyt hesur r
oundi ngsi scalledenv i
ronment alvariat
ion.Herearesome
otherexampl esoff eatur
est hatshowenv i
ronment alvari
ation:

Yourl
anguageandr
eli
gion

Fl
owercol
ourinhy
drangeas-t
hesepl
ant
spr
oducebl
uef
lower
sinaci
dicsoi
landpi
nk
fl
ower
sinalkal
i
nesoil

GENETI
CDI
SORDERS
Thisreferstoanabnor mal
it
y,whichresult
sfrom problemsinthegenesofanorgani
sm,
anditisinherit
ed.Thismeansthatthegeneticdisorderi
scausedbythechangeinthe
geneorchr omosomesduet oanerrorintheperson’sgeneti
cmateri
als.
OR
Geneticdisordersaremalf
uncti
oningofthebody ’sphysi
ologi
calmechanismsdueto
changesongeneorchr omosomes; forexamplethechangei nnumberofchromosomes
fr
om 46t o47chr omosomesorbelowt hathenceleadingtogenet
icdisor
ders.
Exampl esofGenet i
cDisor
ders

Down’
sSy
ndr
omeorMongol
i
sm/
Mongol
i
a

Tur
nerSy
ndr
ome

Supermal
eandSuperf
emal
e

Haemophi
l
ia

Col
ourbl
i
ndness

NOTE:
Thechangesint
hegenesandchromosomesmaybecausedbydiff
erentf
actor
s,
whi
chleadt
ogeneti
cdi
sor
der.Thesuddenchangei
ngenet
icmat
eri
alsofthecel
lthat
maycausei
ttodi
ff
erf
rom ot
hercel
l
sisknownasmut
ati
on.

THECAUSESANDEFFECTSOFGENETI CDI SORDERS

Anor gani sm i saf fect edbymut ation, whi choccur snat urallyatal owr at e.Anumberof
fact or smaycont ribut et omut ation.Suchf act orsi ncludev ariouschemi cal sand
radiat ionexampl eX- ray s.Mut ationcanbeduet oachangei ngenei tselfi .e.t hisi s
calledpoi ntmut at iononl yori nt hear r angementofgenechr omosome.Ot hercausesof
mut ationi ncl udeaddi tionorl ossofchr omosomesanddupl i
cat ionofgenes.
Ther ear et wot y pesofmut ationi ncludi ngchr omosomal mut ationandgenemut at ion.
Bot hl eadst ot hegenet icdi sor deri st ol eadt ochangei ngeneandchr omosome.
Chr omosomal mut at ionl eadst ogenet i
cdi sor derl i
keDown’ ssy ndr ome, Tur ner
Sy ndr ome, Kl i
nef elter ’sSy ndrome.I taf fect st heappear anceort henumberof
chr omosomes.Genemut ationl eadst ogenet icdi sor dersl ikeHaemophi liaandCol our
blindness, whi chaf fect st hegenes.
Down’ ssy ndr omeorMongol i
sm:
Thi si sachr omosomal abnor mal i
tyi nwhi cht her ear ethreecopi esofchr omosome
number21i nst eadoft heusual 2.Theper sonwi thDown’ ssy ndr omet her ef orehas47
chr omosomesi nhi s/ herbodycel ls.Theaf fect edi ndi vi
dual shav eashor tbr oadf ace,
slant edey es, shor tf inger sandweakmuscl es.Suchi ndividual sar eusual lyment al ly
retar ded.
Thepr esenceoft heext rachr omosomeonchr omosome21i sknownast risomy .The
ext rachr omosomeonchr omosome21i sduet oitsf ail
ur et osepar at edur ingmei osi s.
Thi si sknownasnon- di sjunct ion.Thi snon- disjunct i
onoccur swhenhomol ogous
chr omosomef ail tosepar atei nmei osi sI Ioft heegg.Ther efor eaf tert hef ertil
izat ion,
chr omosome21wi l
l cont ain3( i.
e.t he2whi chf ail
edt osepar atepl ust heonef rom t he
father )inst eadofnor mal two( i.
e.eachf rom onepar ent).Insomef ewcasesnon-
disjunct i
onmayoccuri nt hef ather ’
ssper m.
CausesofDown’ ssy ndr ome
Anext rachr omosomeonchr omosome21, thusmaki ngt hreei nst eadoft wo, causes
thisdi sorder .Theext r achr omosomeonchr omosome21i scausedbyf ailur et o
separ atedur ingmei osi s.
Effect sofDown’ ssy ndr ome
Peopl ewi thdown’ ssy ndr omear ev er ysuscept i
blet odi seasesi ncl udinghear tdi seases.
Theyt husdi ey oung, most lynotmor et han30y ear s.Theymayal sosuf fer
discr imi nat ioni nt hosesoci eti
est hatconsi deri tasacur seorsomet hingv eryunusual .
Tur ner ’ssy ndr ome( XO)
Thi si sagenet icdi sor deroff emal e( women)causedbyabsenceofsecondsex
chr omosome.Suchwomenar eXO, rat hert hant henor mal XXchr omosome.I nt hi s
disor dert her ear eonl y45chr omosomes, thef emal elackssecondar ysexual featur e,
smal l uterus, thei nter nal geni tal
snev ermat ureandt herefor eshei sst erile.Thi s
disor deri schar act er izedbyl ackofov ar i
esandmenst r
ual cy cle.
CausesofTur ner ’ssy ndr ome
Thi sgenet icdi sor deri scausedbyabsenceofXchr omosomei nnor mal XX
chr omosome.Thi soccur swhent hesecondXchr omosomel acksi .e.makeXOi nst ead
ofnor mal XXchr omosome.
Effect sofTur ner ’
ssy ndr ome
Thewomenwhosufferf
rom Tur
ner
’ssy
ndromear
eabnor
mal
l
yshor
t;t
hei
rov
ari
es
usual
l
ydonotdev
elopandhencear
einfer
ti
le.

Theymayal
sosuf
ferment
alabnor
mal
i
ties,
whi
chmayl
eadt
odi
ff
icul
tyi
nlear
ning

Missi
ngonecopyoft hisgenecausesshortstat
ureandskelet
alabnor mal
it
iesi
n
womenwi t
hTur ner’
ssyndrome.Thisi
sduet otheresear
cherswhoi dent
if
iedonegene
cal
ledSHOXt hatisi
mpor t
antforbonedev
elopmentandgr owth,hencewhenmi ssi
ngi
t
wil
lcauseskelet
alabnormali
ti
es.

SuperMal eandSuperFemal e
Thi sist hegenet icdi sordercausedbyt henon- disj
unct i
onofsexchr omosomes, leading
toamal ehav inganext r
aYchr omosome( XYY)t hati sasupermal e.Alsoaf emal e
hav i
nganext raXchr omosome( XXX)t hati sasuperf emal e;hencebot hmal eand
femal ehav e47chr omosomesi nst eadof46.
Indi vi
dual swi thanext r
aXorYchr omosomeappearv er ytallbuti nmostcasest hey
l
ooknor mal anddonotshowanyphy siological ormedi cal abnor malit
ies.
Menwi t
ht heXYYsy ndromewer epr ev i
ousl ythoughtt obeov erl
yaggr essiveandmor e
l
ikel yt obecomecr imi nals.Theseor iginal stereot y
pescameaboutbecausesev eral
resear cher sint he1960sf oundanumberofmenwi thXYYsy ndromei npr i
sonsand
ment al i
nst i
tutes.Si ncet hen, broader ,lessbi asedst udi eshav ebeendoneonmal es
wi thXYYandf emal eswi thXXXsy ndr ome.
CausesofSupermal eandSuperf emal e
Thi sgenet icdi sor deri scausedbyt hepr esenceofext raYchr omosome( XYY)orX
chr omosome( XXX) .Thiscauseschangesi nchr omosomesf rom nor mal 46t o47
chr omosomes.
Eff ectsofSupermal eandSuperf emal e
Nor mal l
yt hemal ewi t
hXYYchr omosomesandt hef emal ewi thXXXchr omosomeor
sy ndromemaybet allerthanav erage, theyappearv eryt al l
insomecases.Al sot he
peopl ewi thXYYandXXXsy ndromet heyhav eani ncreasedr iskf orl
earningdi f
ficulti
es
especi al
lyi nreadi ngandspeech.
Klinef elt
er’ssy ndr ome( XXY)
Thi sisanon- disjunct i
onorgenet icdi sorderr esul t
ingf rom f ailureoftheXYorXX
chr omosomesoft hegamet est osepar ateandhencebei nginher itedtogether.The
vict i
m has47chr omosomesi nsteadof46.Hei samal eduet othepr esenceofY
chr omosomebuthedev elopsf emal esecondar yfeat ures.
CausesofKl inef elter ’ssy ndr ome( XXY)
Thi sgenet icdi sor deri scausedbyf ailureoft heXYorXXchr omosomesoft hegamet e
tosepar ate, hencemakesXYorXXchr omosomet obei nheritedt ogether.Hencer esult
s
from 47chr omosomesi nst eadofnor mal 46chr omosomes.
Eff ectsofKl i
nef el ter ’
ssy ndr ome
Thei ndividual wi thKl i
nef el
t er’
ssy ndr omeusual lyhasl owi nt elli
gence: Malewi t
h
Klinef elt
er’ssy ndr omear et ypical
lyt allandmayhav esmal l t
est esandsomebr east
dev el
opment , althought hi si snotnecessar il
yobv i
ous.Theymayal sohav edi f
fi
cul tin
l
ear ni
ngandar eusual lyinf erti
le.
Thegenet icdi sor der smaybecausedbyt hechr omosomemut ationorgenemut ation.
Alsot hegenescanbei nher itedt oget herhencel eadt ogenet icdi sorder s.Whengenes
thatar einher i
tedt oget hert heyar esai dtobel inkedt hatisknownassexl inkage.Thi s
sexl inkagei ncludesHaemophi l
iaandRed- Greencol ourbl i
ndness.
Haemophi l
ia
Thisi st heher editar ydi sor derwher ebybl oodcl ot ti
ngi sdel ayedcausedpr olonged
bleedi ng.Peopl esuf feringf rom haemophi li
amaybl eedf ormor ethant wohour s
followi ngani njury .Bl eedi ngmayoccurei theri nski n,muscl esev eni njoint sduet oeven
ami nori njury.Haemophi licgi r
lsar ev eryr are;thei rchancet osur vivebey ondpuber tyis
mi nimum duet oexcessi vebl eedi ngdur ingmenst r
uat i
on.
CausesofHaemophi l
ia
Itiscausedbyar ecessi veal lele“ h”car r
iedont heXchr omosome.I tiseasi erfora
haemophi li
csont obepr oducedf rom nor mal par entsbecauseacar rierf emal ewi th
singlehaemophi l
ical l
eleononeofXchr omosomesappear sphenot y picallynor mal.
Whenshemar ri
esanor mal man, thereisachancet hattheymaygetahaemophi li
cson.
Effect sofHaemophi lia
Thiscausest hef ai lureofbl oodcl ot t
inghencei tleadst odeat h.Fort hef emal ean
i
ndi vidual coul dnotsur vivebey ondt hepuber tyageduet oexcessi v ebl eedi ngdur i
ng
menst ruat i
on.
Col ourBl indness( Red- GreenBl indness)
Thisi sacondi tioni nwhi chonef ailstodi stingui shredf rom gr eencol our .Itisasex
l
inkedher editarydi sor derwher ebyani ndiv i
dual fai
ltodi sti
ngui shr edf rom gr een.Asf or
Haemophi l
ia,col ourbl indnessi scont rol
ledbyr ecessi vegene, hencef ort hedi sorderto
beexpr essedphenot y picallyitmustbepr esenti nhomogenousf ormi nfemal e,though
formal easi ngleal lelei senoughf orthedi sor dert obeexpr essedphenot y picall
y.
CausesofCol ourBl indness
Thisdi sorderasf orhaemophi l
iai scausedbyar ecessi vegene/ tr
aitcar r
iedbyX
chr omosome.Forexampl e: I
fahet erozygousnor mal f
emal e( carri
er )mar riesanor mal
mal e, thepossi bili
t yofget t
ingt hecol ourblindsoni sexpect ed.
Let ,

XcXc-car
ri
erf
emal
e

XcY-nor
mal
mal
e

XcY-col
our
bli
ndness

Effect
sofColourBlindness
Thisdisor
derischaracter
izedbythedi
ff
icul
tyi
ndi
stingui
shingRedfrom Gr
eencol
our
thatmayleadtoacci dent
sintraf
fi
cli
ght
s,whenanindivi
dualwil
lfai
ltodet
ermi
neRed
l
ightfrom Gr
eenlight.

APPLI
CATI
ONOFGENETI
CS
Genet
icsaf
fect
susal
li
nmanyway
s.Theusesofgenet
icsar
eexpl
ainedbel
ow:
Genet
icscanhel
pustounder
standwhypeoplel
ookt
hewayt
heydoandwhysome
peopl
earemorepronet
ocert
aindiseasest
hanot
her
s.

Genet
icscanhel
phealt
h-careprofessi
onal
stoidenti
fycert
aincondi
ti
onsi
nbabi
es
bef
oretheyar
ebornusi
ngt echniquessuchasprenatalt
esti
ng.

Genet
ictechnol
ogi
esar
eal
sobei
ngusedt
ohel
pdev
elopt
arget
edmedi
cinesf
orcer
tai
n
di
seases.

Inaddi
tiontoit
suseinhealt
hcare,geneti
cshasar
angeofotherappl
i
cat
ions.For
example,thepol
icecanusegeneti
cfinger
pri
nti
ngt
ocatchcr
iminal
s.

Geneti
cfi
ngerpr
int
ingwasinventedanddevel
opedbySirAlecJef
frey
sattheUni
versi
ty
ofLei
cesteri
n1984.Thi
stechniquecanident
if
yindi
vi
dualsonthebasisoft
hei
rgeneti
c
i
nformati
on.

Cri
minalsoftenl
eaveevi
denceofthei
rident
ityatacri
mescene:f
orexampl
e,hai
r
fol
l
icl
es,bloodorski
ncell
s.Thepoli
cecanuset hegenet
ici
nfor
mati
ontodemonstr
ate
whetherornotanindi
vi
dualwaspresentatthesceneofacr
ime.

Genet
ici
nfor
mat
ioncanpr
ovei
nnocenceandhel
ptoi
dent
if
yandconv
ictt
hegui
l
ty.

THEI
MPORTANCEOFGENETI
CSI
NBI
OLOGI
CALSCI
ENCEANDRELATEDFI
ELDS
Thev
ari
ousf
iel
dst
owhi
chgenet
icsdi
sci
pli
nei
sappl
i
edi
ncl
udet
hef
oll
owi
ng:

Determi nati
onoft hebl oodgr oupsgenet ical
ly
Genet i
csi sof t
enappl i
edt obl oodgr ouping.Bloodgr oupi ngi sveryi mpor t
anti nhuman
l
ifeasi tenabl esdet ermi nationofbl oodgr oupssoast hedonorbl oodcanbe
tr
ansf usedt oneedypat i
ent s( recipients)wi t
houtaggl utination( cl
otting)orcausi ngany
adverser eact i
on.Thef ourABObl oodgr oupsar eA, B, ABandO.
Ont hesur faceoft her edbl oodcel lsarespeci al proteinscal ledant i
gensAandB.TheA
andBant i
genmol ecul esont hesur faceofr edbl oodcel l
sar emadebyt wodi f
ferent
enzymes.Theset woenzy mesar eencodedbydi ff
erentv ersions,oral leles, ofthesame
gene.
TheAal lel
ecodesf oranenzy met hatmakest heAant igen, andt heBal lelecodesf oran
enzymet hatmakest heBant igen.At hir
dv ersionoft hisgene, t
heOal l
ele, codesf ora
proteinthatisnotf unct ional ;itmakesnosur facemol ecul esatal l.
Everyonei nher i
tstwoal l
elesoft hegene, onef rom eachpar ent.Thecombi nationof
yourtwoal l
elesdet ermi nesy ourbl oodt y pe.
Thet ablebel owshowsal loft hepossi blecombi nati
onsofbl oodt ypeal leles.Thebl ood
typeforeachal lelecombi nationi sshownont her ight.Forexampl e,ify oui nher i
taB
all
elef r
om y ourf atherandanAal lelefrom y ourmot her,y ourbloodt y pewi llbeAB.
Possi blecombi nat i
onsofbl oodt ypeal l
eles
Bloodpl asmai spackedwi t
hpr oteinscal ledant i
bodi es.Thebodypr oducesawi de
varietyofant i
bodi est hatwi l
l r
ecogni zeandat tackf orei
gnmol eculest hatmayent ert he
bodyf rom theout si dewor ld.Aper son'spl asmadoesnotcont ainanyant i
bodi esthat
wi l
lbindt omolecul est hatar epar tofhisorherownbody .
Whenconduct i
ngabl oodt r
ansf usion, i
tisi mport anttocareful
lymat cht hedonorand
recipientbl oodt ypes.I fthedonorbl oodcel l
shav esur facemol eculesthatar edi f
ferent
from t hoseoft her ecipient,anti
bodi esint her ecipient'
sbloodr ecognizet hedonorbl ood
asf oreign.Thi strigger sani mmuner esponser esul t
inginbloodclot t
ing.Ifthedonor
bloodcel lshavesur facemol eculest hatar ethesameast hoseoft her ecipi
ent ,t
he
recipient'sbodywi llnotseet hem asf orei
gnandwi l
lnotmountani mmuner esponse.
Ther ear et wospeci albloodt ypeswheni tcomest obloodt r
ansfusions.Peopl ewith
typeObl oodareuni versaldonor sbecauset herear enomol eculesont hesur faceoft he
redbl oodcel lsthatcant ri
ggerani mmuner esponse.Peopl ewithtypeABbl oodar e
universal r
ecipi
ent sbecauset heydonothav eanyant i
bodiesthatwi l
l r
ecogni zetypeA
orBsur f
acemol ecul es.

Plantandani mal br eeding

Thepr ocessofchoosi ngani mal sandpl antswi thcer taindesi r
edqual i
ti
essuchas
i
ncr easedy iel ds, tolerancet odr ought ,r esistancet odi seaseandf astergrowthi s
refer redt oasar t
ificialselection.
Ar ti
ficial breedi ngi sdonebyi nbr eedi ngorcr ossbr eeding.I nbr eedi nginvolv
esbr eeding
closel y
-relat edor gani sms.Thust her equi redqual i
tiesar er et ai
nedf rom onegener ati
on
toanot her .
Plant swi thdesi redqual i
ti
esar ei nbr edt hroughsuccessi vesel fing.Excessive
i
nbr eedi ngr educesgenet i
cdi ver sit
y, heal thandf it
ness.
Cr ossbr eedi ngi sal socal l
edhy br i
dizat i
on.Di ff
er entv arietiesoft hesamespeci esar e
i
nt er bredi nor dert ocombi net headv ant ageoust raitsofonev arietywiththoseof
anot her.
Plant sar ecr ossbr edt ointr
oducet raits/ genesf r
om onev arietyorl ineintoanew
genet icbackgr ound.Forexampl e, ami ldew- resistantpeamaybecr ossedwi thahigh-
yieldi ngbutsuscept i
blepea, thegoal oft hecr ossbei ngt oi ntroducemi ldewr esi
stance
wi thoutl osingt hehi gh-yi
eldchar act eristics.Pr ogenyf rom t hecr osswoul dthenbe
crossedwi tht hehi gh- yi
eldi
ngpar entt oensur ethatt hepr ogenywer emostl ikethehi gh-
yieldi ngpar ent ,(backcr ossing).
Trai tst hatbr eeder shav et r
iedt oi ncor por at
ei ntocr oppl antsi ncl ude:

I
mpr
ovedqual
i
ty,
suchasi
ncr
easednut
ri
ti
on,
impr
ovedf
lav
our
,orgr
eat
erbeaut
y.
I
ncr
easedy
iel
doft
hecr
op.

I
ncreasedtol
eranceofenv
ironment
alpr
essur
es(
sal
i
nit
y,ext
remet
emper
atur
e,and
dr
ought).

Resi
stancet
ovi
ruses,
fungi
andbact
eri
a.

I
ncr
easedt
oler
ancet
oinsectpest
s.

I
ncr
easedt
oler
anceofher
bici
des.

Longerst
orageper
iodf
ort
hehar
vest
edcr
op.

Art
if
iciali
nseminati
onintheli
vestockindust
ryhashel
pedtoproduceawi devar
iet
yof
cat
tl
ebr eedswhichproducehigheryiel
dsofmilkormeatorboth,sheepwit
hhigh
qual
itywool andpoult
rywhichproducegoodmeatandeggs.

Geneticcounsell
ing
Geneticcounsell
ingi sgi vi
ngofpr ofessional adviceandi nformationabouti nheri
ted
disor
der sanddiseasessoast ohelppeopl emakei nformeddeci sions.
Thepat i
entsorrelativesatr i
skofani nher i
teddisorderar eadvisedoft he
consequencesandnat ureoft hedisorder, t
hepr obabili
tyofdev el
opi ngori
nher i
ti
ngit,
andtheopt ionsopent othem t oavoidpr opagatingt heproblem tof utur
egener at
ions.
Theadv iceaimsatcont roll
i
ngorpr eventinginherit
abledi seasesanddi sordersli
ke
sickl
e-cell
anaemi a,albinism, haemophi l
ia,colourblindness, et
c.
Ingeneral,ageneticcounsel ingsessionai msat :

i
ncr
easi
ngt
hef
ami
l
y’sunder
standi
ngofagenet
iccondi
ti
on;

discussopt
ionsregar
dingdi
seasemanagementandt
her
isksandbenef
it
soff
urt
her
testi
ngandotheropti
ons;

hel
pingtheindi
vi
dualandf
ami
l
yident
if
ythepsy
chosoci
alt
ool
srequi
redt
ocopewi
th
pot
entialout
comes;and

r
educi
ngt
hef
ami
l
y’sanxi
ety
.

Peopl
eusual
l
yseekgenet
iccounsel
i
ngatt
hef
oll
owi
ngt
imes:

Bef
oreconcept
ion,
whenoneorbot
hpar
ent
sar
ecar
ri
ersorsuf
fer
ersofacer
tai
n
her
edi
tar
ydisor
der.

Duringpr
egnancy
,ifanabnormali
tyisdet
ectedi
ntheembryo.Genet
icscanhel
pheal
th-
careprof
essi
onal
st oi
denti
fycer
taincondi
ti
onsinbabi
esbefor
etheyarebornusi
ng
techni
quessuchasprenat
altest
ing.
I
fadef
ecti
snot
icedaf
terbi
rt
h.

I
fagenet
iccondi
ti
onset
sindur
ingadul
thood.

Geneticcounselorsadv i
ceparentsonhowt omini
mizether i
skofpassingoncer tai
n
tr
aitstothei
rchi l
dren.Forexample,marr
iagesbet
weencl oserel
ati
veincr
easest he
chancesofal l
elesbeinghomozy gous.Peoplewi
thgeneti
cdisordersarealsotaught
howt ocontrolthem.Genet i
ccounseli
ngisalsousedtoresolvecontr
oversiesover
parent
age.

Genet icengineer i
ng
Genet icengineer i
ngi sthepr ocessofmanual lyaddi ngnewDNAt oanor gani sm.The
goal ist oaddoneormor enewt rait sthatar enotal readyf oundi nt hator gani sm.
Exampl esofgenet icall
yengi neer ed( t
ransgeni c)or ganismscur rent l
yont hemar ket
i
ncl udepl antswi thr esistancet osomei nsect s,plant sthatcant olerateher bi ci des,and
cropswi thmodi fi
edoi lcont ent .
Genet icengineer i
nghasbeenappl iedt opr oducei nsulincheapl yusi ngbact er i
a.Thi sis
donebyt r
ansf erri
ngagenet hatdet ermi nesi nsuli
npr oduct i
oni nahumancel l i
nto
bact er i
a.Sincebact er i
ar eproducev eryf ast,largeamount sofi nsulincanbepr oduced
withinashor ttime.Thei nsulini st henext ractedf rom t hebact eriaandpur ifiedi n
readinessf orusei nt het reatmentofdi abet esmel l
itusi nhumanbei ngs.
Genet icengineer i
ngi salsousedi nt hepr oduct i
onofi nterferon.Genesr esponsi bl
ef or
i
nt erferonpr oduct i
onar einser tedi nt ot heDNAofy east .Interferoni sachemi cal
nat urallyproducedbycel lsinor dert oi nhibitv i
ralgr owt hdur ingi nfection.I tisusedi n
thet reat mentofcancerandv iraldi seases.
For ensi cs(crimi nalinvest igation)
For ensi csrefer stouseofsci enceandt echnol ogyt oi nvest i
gat eandest abl ishf actsi n
crimi nal orcivilcour tsofl aw.Thepol icecanuseDNAf i
nger printingt ocat chcr i
mi nals.
Thi stechni quecani dentifyindi vidual sont hebasi soft heirgenet icinformat ion.I n
pract ice,thet estisusedt odet ermi newhet heraf ami l
yr elati
onshi pexistsbet weent wo
peopl e, toident i
fyor gani smscausi ngadi sease, andt osol vecr i
mes.Onl yasmal l
sampl eofcel l
si sneededf orDNAf inger pri
nt i
ng.Adr opofbl oodort her ootofahai r
cont ainsenoughDNAf ort est i
ng
Crimi nal softenl eav eev i
denceoft heiri dent i
tyatacr imescene: forexampl e, hai r
folli
cles, bloodorski ncel ls.Thepol i
cecanuset hegenet icinf ormat iontodemonst r
ate
whet herornotani ndi v
idual waspr esentatt hesceneofacr ime.Genet i
ci nf or mat i
on
canpr ov einnocenceandhel pt oi dent ifyandconv i
ctt hegui lty.
Alsoi ncasessuchasr aping, DNAt estofsper mr emai nsr etri
ev edf rom t hev ictim’s
clothesorbodymaybeusedt oest ablishev i
dencet hatcoul dl eadt oconv i
ct ionor
releaseoft hesuspect edr api st.
CLASSI
FICATI
ONOFLI
VINGTHI
NGS
Thewor d'animal 'isder i
vedf rom theLati
nwor dani mal i
swhi chmeans' havingbr eath'
.
TheKingdom Ani mal i
schar acter
izedbyeukar yoticandhet erotrophicor gani sms.They
aremulti
cel l
ularandl ackcellwall.Theydependdi rectlyorindirectlyofpl antsf ortheir
food.Foodi singest edanddi gest
edi ntheirinternalcav i
tyandf oodr eservesar est or
ed
asglycogenorf at.Nut ri
tionisholozoic,i
.e.
, byingestionoff ood.Ani malsf ollowa
defi
nit
egr owthpat tern,theadultshav eadef init
eshapeandsi ze.Hi gherf ormsof
animalsexhibitwel l developedsensor yandneur omotormechani sm.Mostoft he
organi
smsar ecapabl eofl ocomot i
on.Repr oduct i
onisbycopul ationofmal eand
femalewhi chisf oll
owedbydev elopmenti nembr yoni
cst ages.
GeneralandDi stinctiveFeat uresoftheKi ngdom Ani mal
Explai
ngener alanddi sti
nct i
vefeaturesoft hekingdom ani mal ia

DI
STI
NGUI
SHI
NGCHARACTERI
STI
CSOFTHEKI
NGDOM ANI
MALI
AINCLUDE:

Cel
lty
pe-Eukar
yot
es

Nocel
lwal
l

Nut
ri
on-Het
erot
rophi
c,i
ngest
ion
Bodyf
orm -Mul
ti
cel
l
ular
,(
inv
ert
ebr
ate/v
ert
ebr
ate)

Ner
voussy
stem -pr
imi
ti
vet
oadv
ancedsensor
ysy
stems

Repr
oduct
ion-Al
lsexual
,someal
soasexual

Locomot
ion-Abi
l
ityt
omov
eatsomepoi
ntandt
imet
hroughl
i
fecy
cle

Gener
alchar
act
eri
sti
csoft
heKi
ngdom Ani
mal
i
aar
easf
oll
ows:

Ani
mal
sar
eeukar
yot
ic,
mul
ti
cel
l
ularandhet
erot
rophi
cor
gani
sms.

Theyhav
emul
ti
plecel
l
swi
thmi
tochondr
iaandt
heydependonot
heror
gani
smsf
or
food.

Habit
at-Mostoft
heani
mal
sinhabi
tseas,
fewerar
eseeni
nfr
eshwat
erandev
enf
ewer
onland.

Therear
earound9to10mi
l
li
onani
mal
speci
est
hati
nhabi
ttheear
th.Onl
y800,
000
speci
esarei
denti
fi
ed.

Bi
ologi
stsr
ecogni
ze36phy
lai
ntheani
mal
ski
ngdom.

Size-Thesi
zesofani
mal
srangesfrom afewcel
l
edor
gani
sm l
i
ket
hemesozoanst
o
animalswei
ghi
ngmanytonsl
ikethebluewhal
e.

Ani
mal bodi
es-Bodiesofanimal
saremadeofcell
sorganizedint
otissueswhi
ch
per
for
m specifi
cfunct
ions.i
nmostani
malst
issueareorganizedi
ntocomplexorgans,
whi
chform organsyst
ems.

Cel
lstruct
ure-Theani
malcel
lcont
ainsorganell
esli
kethenucleus,mit
ochondr
ia,
Gol
gi
complex,r
ibosomes,
endopl
asmicr
eticul
um, l
ysosomes,vacuoles,
centr
iol
es,
cyt
oskelet
on.

Animalsar
emadeupofmanyor gansyst
ems, t
hatai
dsi
nper
for
mingspeci
fi
cfunct
ions
thatar
enecessar
yfort
hesur
viv
aloftheorgani
sm.

Organsystemsar eskel
etal
sy st
em,muscul
arsyst
em,digest
ivesyst
em,
respi
rat
ory
syst
em, ci
rcul
atorysyst
em, excr
etor
ysy
stem,repr
oduct
ivesystem,i
mmunesystem and
theendocri
nesy st
em.

Bodysymmet
ry-Mostoftheani
malsarebi
lat
eral
l
ysymmet
ri
cal
,whi
lepr
imi
ti
ve
ani
malsar
easymmetr
ical
andcnidar
iansandechi
noder
msarer
adi
all
ysy
mmet r
ical
.

Locomoti
on-Mostani
mal
shavetheabi
li
tyt
omov
e,t
heyshowr
api
dmov
ementwhen
comparedtopl
ant
sandot
heror
ganisms.
Respi
rat
ion-I
tisagaseousexchangeoftakinginoxygenandgivi
ngoutcar
bondi
oxi
de.
Thi
sprocesst
akesplaceinorgansofr
espirati
onli
kethelungs,
gil
ls,
bookgi
ll
sand
bookl
ungsandsomeani malsskini
salsousedf orr
espir
ati
on.

Di
gest
ion-Animal
singestfood,
anddigest
iont
akesplaceintheint
ernal
cavi
tyl
i
ket
he
di
gest
ivesy
stem i
nanimals,i
nprimi
ti
veanimal
svacuolesarefordi
gesti
on.

Nervoussyst
em -Sensorymechanism andthecoordi
nat
ionoftheor
gansyst
emsis
carr
iedonbythenervoussy stem.I
nanimalsthener
voussyst
em compr
isesofner
ve
gangli
ons,
orbrai
n,spinalcordsandnerves.

Cir
culatorysystem -Thedist
ribut
ionofnutr
ient
s,exchangeofgasesandremovalof
wastest akesplaceinthecir
culat
orysyst
em.Thissy st
em compri
sesoftheheart
,bl
ood
vesselsandt heblood.

Excr
etor
ysy
stem -Remov
alofwast
esf
rom ki
dney
s.

Skel
etal
syst
em -suppor
tandpr
otect
ioni
spr
ovi
dedbyt
heskel
etal
syst
em.

Repr
oduct
ivesy
stem -Mostani
mal
srepr
oducesexual
l
y,byt
hef
usi
onofhapl
oidcel
l
s
l
iket
heeggsandthesperms.

Gl
andsoft
heendocr
inesy
stem hel
pincont
rol
andcoor
dinat
ionoft
hebodysy
stem.

Themaj
orPhy
laoft
heKi
ngdom Ani
mal
i
a
Kingdom Animali
ahasapproximatel
y36sub-
divi
sionsknownas'phy l
a'
.Eachphyla
shareparti
cul
arproper
ti
esstruct
ural
lyandf
uncti
onall
ywhichtogethersepar
ateitfrom
otherphyl
a.Belowarethemostcommonphy l
aclassi
fi
edundertradi
ti
onalbi
ological
met hodol
ogy

Phy l
um Por i
fer
a-Theyareprimit
iveorganisms,mostofthem aresalt
-watersponges.
Theydonothav eorgansornervecell
sormuscl ecell
s.Approximatel
y,8,
000speci es
existtoday.Exampl Sy
e: con,Euspongi
a, Spongil
l
a.Phy
lum Coelentr
ata(Cnidari
a)-This
groupi scomposedofj el
l
y-f
ishandotherl oweraquat
icanimals.Approxi
mat el
y,15,000
speciesexisttoday
.Example:Aur
eli
a,Adamsi a.

Phyl
um Plat
yhelminthes-Thisgroupconsi
stsoff
latworms.Theyi
nhabi
tbothmar
ine
andfr
eshwat erhabitatsandtheyaremostl
yendoparasi
tesf
oundinani
mals.
Exampl Taeni
e: a,Fascicol
a.

Phyl
um Aschel
meinthes-I
tisagroupofr
oundwor
ms,
mostoft
hem ar
epar
asi
tes.Thi
s
phy
lum consi
stsofabout80,000par
asi
ti
cworms.

Phyl
um Anneli
da-Theyarepresenti
naquat i
c,t
err
est
ri
alandar
efree-
li
vi
ngorparasi
ti
c
i
nnature.Thi
sphylum compri
sesofsegment edworms.Exampl
e:Ear
thwor
m, Leech
et
c.Phy
lum Art
hropoda-Thi
sist hel
argestphyl
um whi
chconsi
stsofi
nsect
s.Thereare
ov
er1mil
l
ionspeci
esofi
nsect
sexi
sti
ngt
oday
.Exampl
e:Locust
s,But
ter
fl
y,Scor
pion,
Pr
awn.

Phyl
um Moll
usca-I
tist
hesecondl
argestphy
lum.Theyar
eter
rest
ri
alandaquat
ic.
Exampl
e:Pi
l
a,Octopus.

Phyl
um Echinodermat
a-Thi
sconsi
stsofseast
arsandseaur
chi
ns.Ther
ear
eabout
6,
000species.Exampl
e:Ast
eri
a,
Ophi
ura.

Phylum Chordata-Ani
malsofthisphyl
um haveacharact
erist
icfeatureofpresenceof
notochord,
ador salhol
lownervecordandpair
edpharyngealgil
lsli
ts.Wit
hinthis
phylum advancedgroupcal
ledvertebr
ateswhi
chincl
udef i
sh,amphi bi
ans,r
eptil
es,
bi
rdsandmammal s.

Phy
lum Pl
aty
hel
mint
hes
Et
ymology:-
From t
heGreekpl
atyforf
latandhel
mint
hesf
orwor
ms,
HenceFl
atWor
ms
Char
acter
isti
csofPlat
yhel
minthesincl
ude:

Bi
l
ater
all
ysy
mmet
ri
cal
.

Bodyhav
ing3l
ayer
soft
issueswi
thor
gansandor
ganel
l
es.

Bodycont
ainsnoi
nter
nal
cav
ity
.

Possessesabl
i
ndgut(
i.
e.i
thasamout
hbutnoanus)

HasPr
otonephr
idi
alexcr
etor
yor
gansi
nst
eadofananus.

Hasnor
mal
l
yaner
voussy
stem ofl
ongi
tudi
nal
fibr
esr
athert
hananet
.

Gener
all
ydor
sov
ent
ral
l
yfl
att
ened.

Repr
oduct
ionmost
lysexual
asher
maphr
odi
tes.

Most
lyt
heyf
eedonani
mal
sandot
hersmal
l
erl
i
fef
orms.

Somespeci
esoccuri
nal
lmaj
orhabi
tat
s,i
ncl
udi
ngmanyaspar
asi
tesofot
herani
mal
s.

TheSt
ruct
ureofOr
gani
sm undert
hePhy
lum Pl
aty
hemi
nthes
Descri
bethestructureoforgani
smsundert hephy lum Pl
aty
helminthes
Pl
atyhel
minthesaremost lywormli
kecr eaturesthataredorsovent
rall
yfl
att
ened,
meaningtheylooklikearibbon,
thi
siswhyt heyarecall
ednamessuchasTapewor m,
Fl
atworm,FlukeandPl anari
an
ThePlaty
helminthesareasuccessfulphylum witharound25,000knownspecies
dividedi nt of ourcl asses.MostPl atyhel mi nthesar epar asi t
esonot herani mal s, onl
ythe
Turbel lariansar emost lynon- par asitic.Af ewspeci esar ecommensal istsl i
vingi n
harmony ,ormut ual benef itwi thanot her , normal lylar geror gani sm.Mostspeci esfeed
onani mal mat er i
al ei theraspar asi t
esorasscav enger s,av er yf ewspeci esf eedon
algae.Al thoughaf ewoft hef reel i
vingmar i
neandt er rest ri
al speci esar ev erybeaut if
ul,
mostspeci esar enotpar ticular lyat tract ivet othehumanmi nd.
Platy helmi nt hesl i
v enear lyev er ywher e, onl and, inbot hf reshandmar inewat ersaswel l
asi nsideot herani mal s.Mostoft hef reel ivingspeci esar emar i
newi thonl yasmal l
numberi nhabi tingf reshwat erandv eryf ewbei ngt errest ri
al .Par asit
icspeci esnor mall
y
mov ebet weendi f f
er enthabi t
at sast heychangel i
fecy clest agesandhost s.Anumber
ofpar asiticspeci esar eofi mpor tancet omanki ndbecauset heyi nfectei t
herourbodi es
orthebodi esofourl iv estock.Af ewspeci escanbef at al tohumansi fnott r
eat ed,but
near lyall speci escanbet reat edwi t
hmoder nmedi cines.Schi st osomi asis( Bilharzi
a)is
themosti mpor tantpl atyhelmi nthdi seaseofhumans, causi ngmuchsuf fer i
ngand
somedeat h, over200mi ll
ionpeopl ear ei nfectedwi tht hecausat iveagenti nt ropical
count r
ies.
Whi let heyr emai nf ai rl
ymor phol ogical lysi mpl et hePl at yhelmi nthesshowsev eral
adv ancei nbodyst r uct ureov ert hesi mpl er adialphy lat hatcamebef or ethem.They
hav eadef initecongr egat ionofofsensor yor gans( af ewhav el ightsensi ngor gans)and
nerv oust issuesatoneendoft hei rbodygi v
ingt hem adi stinctheadandt ail
.Theyal so
hav edi stinctupperandl ower( dor sal andv entral)bodysur faces.Theyhav eanumber
ofor gansandev ent hebegi nni ngsofor gansy stemsandamor edi stinct3r dl ayerof
cellsi nthei rbodypl an.Theev olut i
onoft hi sconnect iv et issue, cal l
edpar enchy ma, t
he
cellsofwhi chser veasst orager eser voirsaswel l aspr ot ect ingt hei nter nal organs, i
sa
maj orst epf or war dt owar dt hemor ecompl exbodypl ansofhi gherani mal s, suchas
humans.
Howev ert heyst illnoanus, inst eadt heyhav eonlyabl indendi nggut ,ornogutatal l
.
Thosespeci eswi thagutmustt her efor eexcr etet her edi gest i
v ewast epr oduct s
throught hei rmout hs.
Phy
lum Aschel
mint
hes(
Nemat
oda)
GeneralandDisti
nct
iveFeat
uresoft
hePhyl
um Aschel
mint
hes
Charact
erist
icsofPhyl
um Aschel
mint
hesar
e:

Most
lypar
asi
ti
c(i
nani
mal
sandpl
ant
s),
afewf
reel
i
vingcal
l
edasf
lukes.

Bodyi
slong,
cyl
i
ndr
ical
,fusi
for
m(poi
ntedatbot
htheends)
.

Bodywal
li
scomposedofcut
icl
e,epi
der
misandmuscul
atur
e.

Pr
esenceofaf
alsebodypseudocoel
om notl
i
nedbyepi
thel
i
um.

Di
gest
ivesy
stem i
scompl
ete.

Respi
rat
ionbysi
mpl
edi
ff
usi
on.

Ner
voussy
stem consi
stsofaner
ver
ingandmanyl
ongi
tudi
nal
ner
vecor
ds.

Onlysexual
repr
oducti
on.Sexesar
esepar
atewi
thsexual
dimor
phi
sm.Mal
esar
e
usual
lyshort
ert
hanfemales

TheStruct
ureofOr
gani
smsundert
hePhylum Aschel
minthes
Descr
ibethestr
uct
ureofor
gani
smsunderthephyl
um aschel
mint
hes
ThePhy lum Nemat oda( roundwor msornemat odes)i ncl udeshar ml ess, soi l-
dwel l
ing
roundwor ms( nemat odes)t hateatdecay i
ngor gani cmat erial orsmal lsoi lani mal s.The
phy lum al soi ncl udespl antpar asitest hati nf ectt her oot sofpl ants.Thesepar asi ti
c
nemat odesdecr easet hepr oduct ivi
tyofmanyhumancr ops.Thephy lum i ncl udes
sev eral humanpar asit es( seebel ow) .
Liket hePhy lum Pl at yhel mi nt hes, thePhy l
um Nemat odaconsi stsofbi later ally
symmet rical ani mal st hathav et heor gansy st em l ev el ofor gani zat ion.
ThePhy lum Nemat odadi ffersf rom t hePhy lum Pl at y hel mi nt hesi nt wosi gni ficantway s.
First,roundwor mshav eacompl etedi gest ivesy st em.Thi smeanst hatt her ear et wo
openi ngt ot hedi gest ivesy stem.Themout hatt heant er i
ori ngest sorswal l
owsf ood,
andt heanusatt hepost er iorr el easesdi gest i
v ewast e.Acompl et edi gest iv esy stem is
muchmor eef ficientt hanacul -de-sacgut .Thecompl etedi gest ivesy stem al lows
cont inuouspr ocessi ngoff ood.Ar oundwor m caneatcont i
nuousl y, f
ooddi gest ioncan
occurcont inuousl y, andwast emat erial canber el easedcont inuousl y
.Ani mal swi t
ha
cul-de- sacgutmustwai tunt i
l ameal hasbeendi gest ed, releasedi gest ivewast ef rom
themout h, andonl yt henswal lowt henextmeal .
Thesecondsi gni fi
cantdi fferencebet weent hePhy lum Nemat odaandt hePhy l
um
Plat yhel mi nthesi st hatt her oundwor mshav eaf l
ui df ill
edbodycav ity.Thepr esenceof
thisst ruct ureal lowsspaceandcushi oni ngf oror gans, pr ov idest her oundwor m wi tha
hydr aul icskel eton, andai dsi nt hedi st ribut ionoff oodf rom t hedi gest ivet ractt ot he
othercel lsoft hewor m.
Sev eral humanpar asi tesar er oundwor ms.Manypeopl ei nt ropi cal count riesar e
i
nf ect edwi thhookwor m.I mmat urest agesoft hispar asi ticwor m bur rowt hr ought he
skin, trav el throught hebl oodv essel st ot hel ungs, ent ert heai rspacesoft hel ungsand
crawl intot heesophagus.Thei mmat ur est agei st henswal l
owed.Thewor m at taches
tot hei nt est i
newi thhooksandmat ur esi nt oanadul t
.Fer til
izedeggsar er eleasedwi th
feces, andt hezy got esdev elopi ntoi mmat urest agesonsoi l.Whenpeopl ewal k
bar efootov ert hesoi l
, theybecomei nfect ed.Themat urehookwor m dr inksbl oodand
l
y mphj uices.Theycauseanemi aduet obl oodl oss.
Thehumanr oundwor mi scommonwher ehumanf ecesi susedaspl antf er ti
lizer .
Peopl ei ngesteggswhent heyeatpl antmat er ial.Thei mmat ur est agest rav el through
thehumanbodyi nbl oodv essel s.Mat urehumanr oundwor msl i
v eint hei nt est inewher e
theypr oducedeggst hatar er el easedwi thf eces.
Peopl ecanbecomeacci dent al lyinfect edwi t ht het richi nawor m byeat ingunder cooked
por t.Themuscl eofpor kmaycont aini mmat ur est agesoft richinawor m.Whenpeopl e
i
ngestt hel arval stage, i
tmat ur esi nt hei nt est i
newher et headul twor msr epr oduced.
Immat ur est agesmi gr atef rom t hei ntest inet omuscl et issue.Ther et hel ar v af or msa
cyst .Si ncehumansar en’ tgener al
lyeat en, thecy stsbecomecoat edwi t hcal cium
car bonat e.Thi scausesmuscl est i
ffness.Wecal lthi scondi tiont ri
chinosi s.
TheAdv ant agesandDi sadv ant agesofRoundwor ms
Out li
net headv ant agesanddi sadv ant agesofr oundwor ms
Roundwor m par asitesaf fectmostspeci esofani mal sandpl ants, maki ngt hem
i
mpor tantagr i
cul tur al pest s.Ther ear eal sosev er al speci esofr oundwor mst hatl ivein
humans, somenast y ,somenot .Her ear eaf ew. ..

Tr
ichi
nel
l
aspi
ral
i
sisal
soapar
asi
tet
hathasbeenar
oundf
orawhi
l
e,si
ncei
thas
probabl
ybeenr esponsiblef
orsever alcultureslong- standingdi etar
yl aws.Tr i
chi
nell
a
canbef oundar oundt heworld,morei ntemper atezonest hant hetropi cs,mostl
yin
vari
ousani malst hateatmeat,fr
om r atstobear s.Humansmostcommonexposur e
comesf rom por k,andpigscommonl ypicki tupf rom eat i
ngr ats.Thesewor mscanl i
ve
asjuvenil
esinmuscl eandothertissueswhi leadul tsoccupysuppor tt i
ssuesandt he
l
y mphati
csy stem.Anewhostbecomesi nfectedbyeat ingt i
ssuecont aini
ngjuveni
les.
Juvenil
esbecomeadul t
sandmat ei nthenewhost sintestines,thenf emal esboreoutof
theint
estines,whi chcancauseawi derangeofser ioussy mpt oms, sett l
esomeplace
andbegint oreleasej uv
enil
es,whichmi gr at
eal lov erthebody ,causingdamageast hey
go,unti
ltheymost lycoi
lupinmuscl et i
ssuesand" wai t
"fort hehostt obeeat enbya
newhost .

Hookwor msinfectav ari

etyofmammal s,withspeciesincows, dogs,cats,andother
s,as
wellashumans.Hookwor msar efairl
yhost-specifi
c-wormsofnon- humanhost scant
l
ivelonginahuman.Youdef i
nitelydontwantt ocat choneoft hehookwor msspecifi
cto
humans, though.Theyhav eav eryunusual habitforwormst hatli
veinthei nt
est
ine:
i
nsteadofl i
vingonal lofthef oodar oundthem, theybit
et hroughtheintesti
nall
i
ning
andliveonbl ood.Seriousinfectionsoccurwhenbact eri
af r
om theintesti
nesgetint
o
thesurroundingtissuesand/ orthebl ood,andheav yinf
ect i
onscanpr oduceenough
bloodlosstocauseanemi a.I
tsnowondert hatonegenusi scall
ed

Necat or,
or"kil
l
er"!Hookwor m eggspassinfeces,
andj uvenilesl i
veforawhil
ei nt
hesoil
i
fitsni ceandwet .Thewor msgeti nt
othenexthostei t
herbyl atchi
ngonandbor i
ng
throught hei
rskin,orsticki
ngtopawsandget ti
nglickedof f
.Ift heycomeinthroughthe
skin,t
heygeti ntothebl oodandmi gr
atetot
hei nt
estines,usual lybywayofthelungs,
somet imescausi ngtissuedamageast heygo.Hookwor msf ornon- humanhoststhat
penetratehumanski nbymi st
akecanwanderundert heskin, unabletopenet
ratefur
ther
,
butthebody sreacti
ont othem cancauseaconditi
onsomet imescal edcr
l eeping
erupti
on.

Ascar isi
sani mpr essivelylargewor m, upt o50cent imetersl ongandaboutast hi
ckasa
penci l
, t
hatl ivesinhumani nt est i
nes,wi t
hmay beasmuchasaquar t
erofthewor l
d’s
popul ationi nfected.Theyar et akeninasacci dental l
y-
swal lowedeggs, hatchinthe
i
ntest i
ne, andt hejuveni l
esbor eout ,geti ntothebl ood, wandert hebody( wheretheycan
causepr obl ems) ,emer gei nt hel ungs,gr owt heref orawhi le( andpossi bl
ycause
problems) ,t
henmi grateupt obeswal l
owedandgetbackt ot hei ntest
inesagain,where
theymat e.Femal esf indmal esbyt ouch( itsdarki nani nt
est i
ne)andcr awl i
ntothe
maleshookedt ai
lformat i
ng; somet imest heymist aketheopeni ngoftheductsf r
om
theliverorpancr easf oramal est ai
landgetcaught ,blockingt hef lowofdigesti
ve
j
uices.Aheav yinfectioncanpr oduceaknotofwor mst hatbl ocksmov ementof
mat erialst hrought hei ntestine.Femal est hatcan’tf i
ndmal eshav ebeenknownt o
migr ateupordownt hecanal ,reachingt henoseoranusi nsomecases-qui t
ea
surpr i
sef orthehost !Femal esl ayeggst hatpassi nfeces.Theeggscanr emain
i
nfect ivei ntheenv i
ronmentf ory ears,longaf terthatfecal mat er
ialhasbeenbr oken
down.Di r tyhandsi nt hemout hexpl ai
nswhychi l
drenar et hemostcommonhost sfor
thesewor ms.
Fi
larialwor
msar eagr oupofroundwormst hatcommonl yusebiti
nginsectstoget
j
uveni l
esfr
om hostt ohost ,
andthentheadultsli
v einthefluidsy
stems-bl oodorl
ymph
sy
st ems-oft hef
inal host.Ther
eareseveralfi
larial
wor mst hati
nfecthumans,
i
ncludingWuchereria,whichcanblockfl
uiddrainaget hr
ought helymphsy st
em,causi
ng
gr
ossswel li
ngoftissuesandaf or
m ofelephantiasi
s.

Onchocercacausesadiseasecall
edriv
erbli
ndnesswhenjuveni
lewormsenterand
gradual
lydamagetheey
es( the"r
iver
"parti
sduet othebi
ti
ngfl
ycarri
ersbei
ngti
edto
ri
versforbreedi
ng,r
est
ricti
ngthegeographi
calrangeoft
hedisease)
.

Hear
twormsar
ef i
l
ari
alparasit
esofdogsandcats.Thej
uveni
lewormsarecar
ri
edby
mosqui
tos,
andtheadul
tsset t
leinthechamber
sandmajorvessel
soft
heheart.
Hear
twormsdonotgenerall
yinfecthumans.

Dracuncul usmedi nensi s,alsocal ledgui neawor ms, hav ebeenknownandwr itt
enabout
forcent ur ies( althoughof tencal led" ser pent s"i nmoder nt ransl ations) ,including
passagesf rom Anci entGr eekschol arsandf rom t heBi bl e.Adul twor mscanbeasl ong
asamet er, althought heyar ev eryt hin.Asadul ts, theyl i
v ei nt het issuesundert heski n,
usual l
ysomewher eatandbel owt hehi ps, wher et heymaybev isi bleasawhi t
el i
ne.
Aftermat ing, af emal epr oduceshugenumber sofeggst hathat chi nsi deherandbegi n
tomi gr ateouti nt ot hesur roundi ngt issue, oftencausi nganal lergi cr eact i
onwi th
i
nf l
ammat ionandul cerat i
onoft heski n( someanci entt ext scal l them t he" fi
er y
serpent s"f rom t hei ref fectsont heski n).Whent heski nbr eaks, manyt inyj uvenile
wor msmayemer ge.Anopeni ngr emai nsi nt heski nt hroughwhi cht hef emal ewi ll
cont i
nuet or eleasey oung.Tocont inuet heirlifecy cle, thej uveni lewor msmustgeti nto
openwat erandi nf ectat inycr ust acean; fort hisr eason, wor msar emostact ivewhen
theski ni swet .Anci entt reatment s, stillusedi nsomepl aces, i
nv olv ecut ti
ngat hinsl ot
i
nast ick, wet tingt heski nsot hewor m st icksout , cat chi ngt hewr i
t hingwor mi nt he
sti
ckssl ot ,thenwi ndi ngi tslowl youtf rom undert heski n.Themedi cal sy mbol ,the
caduceus, ofasnakeorsnakeswr appedar oundapol e,mostl ikel yist akenf rom oneof
thef ewef fectiv edev i
cesanci entdoct orshad, awor m- remov al st ick( wor m, snake;
remember , i
nanci entcl assi f
icationschemesnotmuchdi stinct i
onwasmadeamong
l
ongwr iggl yt hings) .Wor msi nfectt henexthostwhenwat ercont aini ngi nfected
crustaceansi sdr unk; thej uveni l
esl eav et hei rcar rier sint hei ntest ine, bor eoutoft he
i
ntest ineandmi gr at et ot heirposi tionundert heski n.Humansar eaf fect edbot hbyt heir
all
ergicr eact ionst ot her eleasedj uv eni les, infect i
onsf rom bact er iat hatent erthr ough
thebr okenski n,andwor mst hatst al lindeepert i
ssues, wher et heymaycauseser i
ous
damage.Becauset her eisaf airl
ysi mpl epr ev entat ivemeasur e-phy sical lyfilt
ering
drinkingwat er- thi spar asi t
ei sv erycl oset obei ngel i
mi nat ed.

Phy
lum Annel
i
da
GeneralandDisti
nct
iveFeat
uresoft
hePhy
lum Annel
i
da
Charact
erist
icsofAnnel
ida:
Bi
l
ater
all
ysy
mmet
ri
cal
andv
ermi
for
m.

Bodyhasmor
ethant
wocel
ll
ayer
s,t
issuesandor
gans.

Bodycav
ityi
sat
ruecoel
om,
oft
endi
vi
dedbyi
nter
nal
sept
a.

Bodypossessesat
hroughgutwi
thmout
handanus.

Bodypossesses3separ
atesect
ions,
apr
osomi
um,
atr
unkandapy
gidi
um.

Hasaner
voussy
stem wi
thanant
eri
orner
ver
ing,
gangl
i
aandav
ent
ral
ner
vechor
d.

Hasat
ruecl
osedci
rcul
ator
ysy
stem.

Hasnot
ruer
espi
rat
oryor
gans.

Repr
oduct
ionnor
mal
l
ysexual
andgonochor
ist
icorher
maphr
odi
ti
c.

Feedawi
der
angeofmat
eri
al.

Li
vei
nmostenv
ironment
s.

Struct ureofOr gani sm undert hePhy lum Annel i

da( Earthwor m)
Descr ibest ructureofor gani sm undert hephy lum annel ida( Earthwor m)
TheAnnel i
daar eamedi um si zedphy lum ofmor et han9, 000speci esofwor ms.Most
speci espr eferaquat i
cenv i
ronment s,butt herear eal soanumberofwel lknow
terrestrial speci es.Onl yaf ewspeci esofannel i
dsar ecommonl yknownt ohuman
beings, t
hesei ncludet hedel ightfulRai n,DeworEar t
hwor mst hatwor ksohar dtomake
oursoi l
sheal thy ,theRagwor msandLugwor msusedbymar i
nef isher menandt he
muchsmal l
erTubi fexorRedwor msusedbyaquar i
stst of eedt heirf i
sh.Inmany
count riespeopl ear est il
l f
ami l
iarwi t
hMedi cinal l
eeches, andpeopl ewhol i
vecl osert o
natur ear enat urallymor ef ami li
arwi thamuchwi derr angeofAnnel i
dsthant hosewho
l
ivei nci ties.
Annel idsr angei nsi zef rom t heGi antEar thwor ms, ofwhi chMi chr ochaetus
rappi Mi
( chr ochaet usmi chr ochaet us)ist hel argest , t
hismagni ficentani mal hasan
aver agel engt hof1. 36m ( 54i ns)andar ecor dbr eaki ngspeci menhasbeenr ecorded
thatmeasur ed6. 7met res( 22f t)inlengt h, i
twas2cm ( 0.8i ns)indi ametre.Lar ger
wor mshav ebeenr epor tedbutnotsci ent ificall
ypr ov en.Thesmal lestAnnel idknownt o
sciencei sChaet ogast erannandal aiwhi chi sf ull grownat0. 5mm ( 0.02ins).
Annel idshav etwomai nmodesofexi st ence, theyei t
herl i
v eratherqui et
lyinhol esor
theyl i
v emor eact ivelives.Thebasi cAnnel i
dbodypl ani soneofaheadf ollowedbya
l
ongt hinbodyofnumer oussi milarsegment sendi ngi nasmal ltail.Theheadconsi sts
ofamout h( prost omi um)andsomet imesaper istomi um, andt het ai l
ismor ecor r
ectly
calledapy gidium, asi tisnotr eallyat ail.Annel idsar ecoel omat eani malsmeani ngt hey
hav eat ruecoel om wi thinthei rbody .Theyhav eset schaet aeat tachedt oeachbody
segment ,andt hesecanbesi mpl eandsmal lasi nt heEar t
hwor msorcompl exand
var i
edasi nmanyPol ychaet es.Theheadi sof tenr educedanddi fficultt odi stingui shi n
thehol el ivi
ngspeci es,butmaybeeasi lyrecogni sed, wi they esandot hersensor y
dev icesi nt hosespeci esl i
vingamor eact i
v el i
f e.
Annel idsar ecoel omat eani mal s( meani ngt heyhav eat ruecoel om, eveni ft hisis
reducedsecondar ily).Theynor mal lyhav elongt hinbodi escomposedofaser iesof
i
dent ical segment s.Thesesegment sl i
ebet weent hehead, compr i
sedofapr ostomi um,
amout handsomet imesaper ist omi um, andat ai lcalledapy gidium.Gr owt hoccur s
bot hl at er al
ly ,byenl argementoft hesegment sdur ingt hej uv enilest ages, andt hrough
theaddi tionofnewsegment s.Newsegment sar epr oducedbyt hef oremostsect i
onof
thepy gidi um.I nsomespeci est heyar epr oducedt hroughoutt heani mal slifebuti n
manyspeci espr oduct ionst opsonceacer tainsetnumberofsegment shasbeen
achi ev ed.
Adv ant agesandDi sadv antagesofLumbr i
cus( Earthwor m)
Expl ai nadv ant agesanddi sadv ant agesofl umbr icus( Ear thwor m)
Despi tet heamazi nganddel i
cat ebeaut yofpol ychaet essuchast heFanWor ms, and
thehuge( real l
ybey ondest imat ion)economi cdebtowedbymanki ndt ot heOl igochaet e
Ear thwor msf ort hei rwor kinsoi l creat i
onandmai nt enancemanypeopl est il
lfailto
appr eciat et hei rt ruewonderandbeaut y.
Theear thwor ms, ofwhi chther ear emanyspeci es, areexceedi nglyi mpor tanti nsoi l
creat ion, par ticul arlyint emper at ear eas.Wi thoutt hem, agricultur eandper hapst he
whol eofhumansoci etyasweknowi twoul dnev erhav eev olved.Li kesomuchoft he
unnot icedi nv er tebr atewor ldear t
hwor msar eessent ial toourv er yexi st ence.I nmar i
ne
env ironment st henumer ousspeci esofPol y chaet espl ayaf undament allyi mpor tantr ole
i
nt hemai ntenanceoff oodchai nsandt hewhol eecol ogi cal bal anceoft heseas, thus
suppor tingt heseemi ngl yendlessst ocksoff ishwel iket oeat .
Oneoft hest r
angestway st hathumansr elatet oAnnel idsisi nt hehobbyof' Wor m
Char mi ng' .Thi si nv olvesent ici
ngear thwor msf rom t hei rhol es( cat chingt hem) ,
original lyi twasameansofacqui ringwor msf orbai t
,butnow- a- day si tisaspor t.The
wor l
dr ecor dasf arasIknowi shel dbyTom Shuf f
lebot ham whochar med511wor ms
from t hei runder gr oundhi deout sf r
om anar eaof3squar emet resi nonl y30mi nut es
dur ingt he1980Annual Wor m Char mi ngChampi onshi pshel dinCheshi reUK.Ther ules
speci fyt hatt hewor msmustbebr oughtt ot hesur facewi thoutusi ngr ef reshment ,
stimul ation, dr ugsordi gging.Tom usedamet hodcal ledt wangi ngwhi chi nv olves
sticki nga4- prongedpi tchforki ntot hegr oundandt wangi ngi t.

Phylum Arthropoda
GeneralandDi sti
ncti
veFeat uresofthePhy lum Ar
thropoda
Explai
ngener alanddistinct
ivef eat
uresofthephy l
um ar t
hropoda
Phylum Anthropodahasmor especiesthananyot herphy l
um.Anar t
hropod’sbodypl
an
i
ssegment edjustasannel i
ds.Theyhav eappendages, whichserv
eav ari
etyof
purposessuchasgaseousexchange, foodgatheri
ng, l
ocomot i
onanddi r
ecti
onof
sti
muli.Art
hr opodshav eanexoskel etonorcubicl
et hatissecret
edbyt heepider
mis.
Theirskel
et onismadeupofchi ti
n.
Theirexoskeletonservesdifferentpurposessuchas:
Suppor
t

At
tachmentf
ormuscl
es;
and

Pr
otect
ionf
rom phy
sical
damage

Theyhav ejoint
edappendagesusedf orv ari
ousf unct
ionssuchasf eedi
ng, l
ocomot i
on
andsensor ypurposes.
Arthropodahav edevelopeddisti
nctregionsoft hebody, namelythehead, thoraxand
abdomen.Theheadpossessessensor yreceptorssuchasey esandant ennaeaswel las
feedingappendages.Theheadi smor edev el
opedi nannelidswithal ar
gerbr ai
n.Some
classesoft hephyl
um e.g.insectshavedev el
opedf li
ghtwhi chgreatl
yincreases
oppor t
unit
iesforfi
ndingfoodandescapi ngfrom predators.
Disti
nctiv
eFeat ur
esoft hePhy l
um Arthropoda

Theyhaveanexoskel
etonmadeupofachi
ti
nandsomet
imes-
cal
car
eousmat
ter
,whi
ch
mayeither
,ber
igi
d,st
ifforf
lexi
ble.

Eachsegmenti
nart
hropodaty
pical
lybearsapai
rofj
oint
edappendagesusedf
or
l
ocomotionorf
eedi
ngorsensorypurposes.

Cl
assesofthePhylum Ar
thr
opoda
Menti
onclassesofthephyl
um ar
thropoda
Cl
assesofthePhylum Ar
thr
opodainclude:

Cl
ass:
Crust
acean

Cl
ass:
Insect
a

Cl
ass:
Chi
l
opoda

Cl
ass:
Dipl
opoda

Cl
ass:
Arachni
da

Exampl
esofOr
gani
smsundereachClassofthePhyl
um Ar
tropoda
Cit
eexampl
esofor
gani
smsundereachclassofthephy
lum art
ropoda
Exampl
esofOr
gani
smsundereachClassofthePhyl
um Ar
tropodaincl
ude:

ClassCrustacean:Crust
aceaisacl assoforganismswhosebodi
esarecover
edbya
hardshellcal
ledcarapace.Examplesofcrustaceansar
ewoodli
ce,wat
erfl
ea,Cr
ayf
ish,
crabs,
lobsters,shri
mpsandbar nacles.

ClassInsecta:
Insect
sarethemostsuccessfulorgani
smsonear thsincetheypossess
anexoskel et
on,whichreduceswaterl
ossfrom t
hebody .I
nsectsarethelargestgr
oup
ofarthropods.Theyoccupyeveryhabi
tataneart
hi nsuchplacesasair,
soilandwater
.
Howevertheymai
nlyi
nhabi
tterr
estri
alhabi
tat
s.Examplesofi
nsect
sincl
ude
gr
asshoppers,
housef
li
es,
butter
fl
ies,beesandter
mites.

ClassChi
l
opoda:
ClassChi
l
opodai
smadeupofcent
ipedes.Thecent
ipedei
smai
nly
foundonland

ClassDi
plopoda:
ClassDi
plopodai
smadeupofmi
l
li
pedes.Mi
l
li
pedesar
ecommoni
n
dampplaces.

ClassArachni
da:
Arachni
daar
eterr
est
ri
alar
thr
opods.Exampl
esofar
achni
dsar
e
spider
s,ti
cks,
scorpi
onsandmit
es.

Dist
inct
iveFeatur
esofeachClassoft hePhy
lum Ar
thr
opoda
Expl
aindist
inct
ivefeat
uresofeachclassofthephy
lum ar
thr
opoda
Dist
inct
ivefeat
uresofClassCr
utacean

Cr
ust
aceaar
emai
nlyf
oundi
nmar
ineandf
reshwat
ert
hust
heyoccupyaquat
ichabi
tat
s

Thei
rgaseousexchangei
sbymeansofgi
l
lsort
hrought
hebodymembr
ane

Thei
rbodiesaredivi
dedint
otwomainpart
s:t
heheadandt
hor
axar
efusedt
ofor
ma
Cephal
othoraxthesecondpar
tist
heabdomen

Theyhav
eapai
rofcompoundey
eseachonar
aisedst
alk

Theyhav
etwoant
ennae

Theyhav
efourpai
rsofmout
hpar
tsnamel
ymaxi
l
la,
mandi
ble,
labi
um andl
abr
um

Theyhav
efi
vepai
rsofl
i
mbst
hatar
emodi
fi
edf
orswi
mmi
ng

Di
sti
nct
ivef
eat
uresofCl
assI
nsect
a

I
nset
shav
ethr
eebodypar
tsnamel
ythehead,
thor
axandabdomen

Theyhav
eonepai
rofant
ennae

Theyhav
eapai
rofcompoundey
es.I
nsomecasessi
mpl
eey
esar
eal
sopr
esent

Theyhav
ethr
eepai
rsofwal
ki
ngl
egspersegmentoft
het
hor
ax

Mostinsect
shaveoneortwopair
sofwi
ngsont
hesecondort
hir
dsegmentot
he
t
horax.Someinsect
shavenowings

Theybreat
hbymeansofairholescal
l
edspir
acl
esandcar
ryoutgaseousexchange
thr
oughthetr
acheol
esoft
het r
achealsy
stem
Theyunder
gocompl
eteori
ncompl
etemet
amor
phosi
swi
thal
arv
ast
age

Theymai
nlyoccupyt
err
est
ri
alhabi
tat
s

Di
sti
nct
ivef
eat
uresofCl
assChi
l
opoda

Cent
ipedeshav
eacl
ear
lydef
inedheadwhi
l
ether
estoft
hesegment
sar
esi
mil
ar

Theyhav
eapai
rofant
ennae

Theyhav
eonepai
rofmout
hpar
tsknownasmandi
bles

Theyhav
esi
mpl
eandcompoundey
es,
alt
houghsomel
ackcompoundey
es

Theyhav
eapai
rofl
egsi
neachbodysegment

Theycar
ryoutgaseousexchangebymeansoft
racheol
esoft
het
racheal
syst
em

Theyf
eedoni
nsect
sandwor
ms

Theyoccupyt
err
est
ri
alhabi
tat
s

Theyhav
eonepai
rofpoi
soncl
aws

Di
sti
nct
ivef
eat
uresofCl
assDi
plopoda.

Mi
l
li
pedeshav
eacl
ear
lydef
inedhead.Al
ltheot
herbodysegment
sar
ebasi
cal
l
ysi
mil
ar

Theyhav
eonepai
rofant
ennae

Theyhav
eonepai
rofmout
hpar
tsnamel
y,t
hemandi
bles

Theyhav
esi
mpl
eandcompoundey
es,
alt
houghsomel
ackcompoundey
es

Theyhav
etwopai
rsofl
egsi
neachbodysegment

Theycar
ryoutgaseousexchanget
hrought
racheol
esoft
het
racheasy
stem

Theyf
eedonpl
ant
s

Theyi
nhabi
tter
rest
ri
alhabi
tat
s

Theyhav
eacy
li
ndr
ical
body

Di
sti
nct
ivef
eat
uresofCl
assAr
achni
da
Ar
achni
dshav
etwobodypar
ts.Theheadandthoraxar
efusedt
ofor
m cephal
othor
axor
pr
osoma,t
heabdomeni
sref
erredt
oasopithosoma.

Theydonothavemouthpart
s.Howevert
heyhav
eonepai
rofappendagesf
orsensi
ng
preyandanot
herpai
rforcapt
uri
ngthepr
ey

Thispai
rofappendagesi
sknownaschel
i
cer
ae.Thust
heyhav
eacar
niv
orousmodeof
feedi
ng

Theyhav
esi
mpl
eey
es

Theyhav
efourpai
rsofwal
ki
ngl
egs

Theycar
ryoutgaseousexchangebyt
hel
ungbookort
rachea

Alungbookconsi
stsoff
oldsofect
oder
m wi
thsl
i
tli
keopeni
ngont
hesur
faceoft
he
abdomen

Ar
achni
dsdonothav
ewi
ngs

Theyi
nhabi
tter
rest
ri
alhabi
tat
s

St
ruct
uresofRepresent
ati
veOrgani
smsundereachCl
assofPhyl
um Ar
thr
opoda
Descr
ibest
ruct
uresofrepr
esentat
iveor
gani
smsundereachcl
ass
St
ruct
uresofRepresent
ati
veOrgani
sms
TheAdvantagesandDisadv
antagesoftheOrgani
smsundereachClassofPhylum
Art
hropoda
Expl
aintheadvant
agesanddisadvant
agesoftheorgani
smsundereachclassof
phyl
um art
hropoda
I
MPORTANCEOFCRUSTACEANS

Humanbei
ngsusecr
ust
aceansasf
oodespeci
all
ylobst
ers,
shr
imps,
crabsandcr
ayf
ish

Someoft
hem ar
eusedf
ordecor
ati
onsi
nthehomesespeci
all
ycr
absandcr
ayf
ish

Mostcr
ust
aceansat
tractt
our
ist
sdur
ingt
hei
rvi
sit
sespeci
all
yal
ongt
hebeaches

I
MPORTANCEOFTHECLASSDI
PLOPODA

Themi
l
li
pedescanbeusef
ull
i
keear
thwor
ms;
theyhel
ptoaer
atet
hesoi
l

I
MPORTANCEOFI
NSECTS

Mosti
nsect
sar
enat
ural
l
yusef
uli
npol
l
inat
ione.
g.beesandf
li
es

Otheri
nsect
se.
g.beesar
eabl
etomakev ar
ioussubst
ancesl
i
kehoneyandwaxt
hatar
e
consumedbyhumansandwaxisusedf
ormakingcandles

Someinsect
sli
ket
ermi
tesandear
thwor
mshel
ptot
urnt
hesoi
lov
erandsokeepi
tlose
andaer
ated

Mostinsectsarevector
sofsev er
alspeciesofdiseasecausi
ngor
ganismse.
g.
mosquitoisthevectorf
orplasmodium thatcausesmalariai
nhumans.Fl
i
esarev
ect
ors
f
orfi
lari
alwor msthatcauseriv
erbli
ndnessinhumans

DI
SADVANTAGESOFI
NSECTS
Manyinsect
st r
ansmitdiseasestopeopl
ebytransmit
ti
ngcontami
natedmat
eri
alby
meansoftheirappendagese.g.housef
li
est
ransmitchol
erabycar
ryi
ngcont
aminat
ed
st
oolt
owhat evercanbeconsumedbyhumanbei ngs.

I
MPORTANCEOFARTHROPODA

Theycausedamaget
ocr
opsandf
orest
ry,
locust
sandsomel
arv
aee.
g.f
eedoncr
ops

Theyspreaddi
seasestohumansandotherdomest
icani
malse.
g.f
emal
eanophel
es
spreadsmalar
ia,
whil
etset
sefl
iesspr
eadsleepi
ngsi
ckness

Theyar
esour
ceoff
oode.
g.gr
eengr
asshopper
s,t
ermi
tes,
crabsandshr
imps

Theycausedamaget
ohousehol
dmat
eri
alse.
g.cockr
oachesdamagef
urni
tur
e

Somemember
sai
dpol
l
inat
ione.
g.bees,
but
ter
fl
iesandl
adybi
rds

Phyl
um Chordata
Phyl
um chordataisfoundinthekingom Animalia.Membersfoundonphy l
um chor
dat
a
aref
ish,f
rog,li
zard,
birds,r
atsetc.
General
andDi sti
nct
iveCharacteri
sti
csFeaturesofthePhylum Chor
data
Expl
aingeneralanddisti
ncti
vecharacter
isti
csfeatur
esofthephylum chor
dat
a
General
Disti
nctiv
eChar act
eri
sticsofPhylum Chordat
aare:

Theyhaveanotochordi
ntheembr yoni
cstage.I
ftheynot
ochor
dpersi
stst
hroughout
thel
ifespan,
itmaybesurroundedbyav er
tebr
alcolumnasinl
ungf
ishori
tmaybot hbe
surr
oundedbyav er
tebr
alcolumnasinsomechor data

Thei
rner
vecor
dishol
l
owandpl
aceddor
sal
l
ytot
hegut

Theyhav
egi
l
lsl
i
tsatl
eastdur
ingt
heembr
yoni
cst
age

Theyhav
etai
lwhi
chi
sbehi
ndt
heanus

ClassesofthePhy l
um Chor
date
Ment i
onclassesofthephyl
um chordat
e
Thephy l
um chordataconsi
stsofsi
xclasseswhi
char
e

Cl
assChondr
icht
hyes

Cl
assOst
eicht
hyes

Cl
assAmphi
bia
Cl
assRept
il
ia

Cl
assAv
esand

Cl
assMammal
i
a

Dist
inct
iveFeatur
esofEachClassoft hePhyl
um Chordat
a
Expl
aindist
inct
ivefeat
uresofeachclassofthephyl
um chor
dat
a
Dist
inct
ivefeat
uresofClassChondr
ichthyes

Theskel
etoni
smadeupofcar
ti
lage

Thebodyi
scov
eredwi
thpl
acoi
dscal
es

Thecaudal
finhast
owl
obest
hatdi
ff
eri
nsi
ze

Eachpai
rofgi
l
lsi
sinasepar
atecompar
tment

Themout
handt
wonost
ri
lsar
event
ral
l
ypl
aced

Mal
eshav
eCopul
ator
yst
ruct
urescal
l
edcl
asper
s

Di
sti
nct
iveFeat
uresofCl
assOst
eicht
hyes

Theskel
etoni
smadeupofbones

Thebodyi
scov
eredwi
thganoi
dscal
es

Themout
hist
ermi
nal
l
ypl
acedandnost
ri
lsar
efor
cedont
hedor
sal
sur
face

All
pairsofgi
l
lsar
efoundi
ncommonchamberandt
hechamber
sar
ecov
eredbyan
opercul
um

Thecaudal
finhasl
ovesoft
hesamesi
ze

Di
sti
nct
iveFeat
uresofCl
assAmphi
bia

Thei
rski
nisal
way
smoi
stexampl
efr
ogs

Thei
rli
fecy
clei
nvol
vesl
arv
afor
m cal
l
edt
adpol
e

Theyhav
egi
l
lswhi
char
epr
esenti
ntheear
lyst
agesoft
hedev
elopmentoft
het
adpol
e

Theyhav
eahear
twhi
chhast
hreechamber
s

Ther
eisgaseousexchangebygi
l
lsi
nthet
adpol
eandi
ntheadul
titt
akespl
acei
nthe
l
ungs,
ski
nandt
hemout
hli
ning

Di
sti
nct
ivef
eat
uresofBi
rds

Thebodyi
scov
eredwi
thf
eat
her
s

Theant
eri
orpai
rofl
i
mbsi
smodi
fi
edi
ntowi
ngs

Themout
hismodi
fi
edi
ntoabeakorbi
l
l

Di
sti
nct
ivef
eat
uresofCl
assMammal
i
a

Thei
rbodyi
scov
eredwi
thhai
rs

Theyhav
emammar
ygl
ands

Theyhav
eteet
hofdi
ff
erentt
ypesandshapes

Theyhav
edi
aphr
agm

Thei
rredbl
oodcel
l
shav
enonucl
eus

Theyhav
esweatgl
ands.Thebodyt
emper
atur
eofmammal
sisconst
ant

Struct ureofRepresent ati

veOr ganismsineachCl assofPhy l
um Chor dat
a
Descr ibestructur
eofr epresentati
veorganismsineachcl assofphy lum chordata
Struct ureofAmphi bians
Thebodyoft oadorf rogconsi stsofaheadandt r
unkonl y.Theskinisdr yandwar tyin
toadsandsmoot handshi nyi nfr
ogs.Ont heheadar epairofnost r
il
sandl owerey el
ids,
whi char ealmostimmov able.
Thef or eli
mbsoft oadsandf rogsareshort.Theyhav e4di gi
tsoneachhand, asthe
thumbi smi ssi
ng.Thehi ndl i
mbsar emuchl ongerthanthef rontonesandt hefeetar e
veryl arge.Athinwebofski n,whichispar
ticul
arl
ywel ldevelopedinfrogs,joi
nsthet oes.
Adul ttoadsar emai nlylandani malsandusuallyenterwateronl ytobreed.
Exampl
eofSpeci
menf
oundonCl
assChondr
icht
hyes

Exampl
eofSpeci
menf
oundonCl
assChondr
icht
hyes
Exampl
eofSpeci
menf
oundonCl
assAv
es

Exampl
eofSpeci
menf
oundonCl
assMammal
i
a

Exampl
eofSpecimenfoundonCl assReptil
ia
Theadv
antagesanddi
sadvantagesofOr gani
smsundereachClassofPhyl
um Chor
dat
a
Outl
i
netheadvant
agesanddisadvantagesoforgani
smsundereachclassofphy
lum
chor
data
Impor
tanceofAmphi
bians

Theyar
eecol
ogi
cal
l
yimpor
tant

Theyar
eusedi
nresear
chspeci
men

Someamphi
biansar
eeat
enasf
ood

Someamphi
bianshav
euni
quef
eat
ures.Exampl
eabnor
mal
l
ybi
gsi
zesat
tractt
our
ist
s

Theyhavet
ypicalchar
acteri
sti
csoflar
gerani
mal
shencet
heyar
eamongt
hemost
pref
err
edspecimensforbiol
ogical
studi
es

I
mpor
tanceofCl
assRept
il
ia

Rept
il
esactasat
tract
ivef
eat
urese.
g.col
ourofsnake

Rept
il
esar
eusedasasour
ceoff
oodf
orot
herspeci
esexampl
ebi
rdsf
eedonsnakes

Rept
il
esar
eusedi
ndecor
ati
onsi
nhouses

Di
sadv
ant
agesofCl
assRept
il
ia

Cancausedeat
htohumanbei
ngs,
forexampl
easnake

I
mpor
tanceofBi
rds

Fl
eshofsev
eral
speci
esi
susedasf
oodf
orhumanbei
ngsexampl
echi
cken,
duck

Thef
eat
her
sofbi
rdsar
eusedf
ordecor
ati
ons

Bi
rdsar
eal
sousedf
ort
hepol
l
inat
ionofseedsandf
rui
tdi
sper
sal

Somebi
rdsl
i
keOst
ri
chesar
eat
tract
ivet
otour
ist
s

Somespeci
esofbi
rdsar
eusedf
orbi
ologi
cal
cont
rol

I
mpor
tanceofMammal
s

Mostmammal
sser
veassour
ceoff
oodf
orhumanbei
ngsexampl
ecows,
sheeps

Mammal
shel
pinpr
oduct
ionofmanur
eexampl
emanur
efr
om cows,
goat
s

Thebonesofmammal
sar
eusedf
orpr
oduct
ionofani
mal
char
coal
Mostwi
l
dani
mal
sinnat
ional
par
ksandgamer
eser
vesat
tr
actt
our
ist
s

Somedomesticmammal ssuchascowsanddonkey
sar
etr
ainedt
oper
for
m human
dut
iessuchascul
ti
vat
ionofcrops

ConceptofOr ganicEv oluti

on
TheConceptofOr ganicEv oluti
on
Explaintheconceptofor ganicevoluti
on
Ev ol
uti
oni sthegradual developmentofor ganismsf r
om si
mpleformtomor ecomplex
formsov eral ongdur ationoft i
me.Ev ol
uti
onismar kedbyemergenceofnewspecies
from pre-exi
stingspeci esandt hedi sappearanceofsomespecies.Thespeci
esthat
disappeararesai dtobecomeext inct.
Keyt ermsusedi nor gani cevolut
ion

Carbondat
ing:
Thi
sisamet
hodofest
imat
ingt
heagesofdeadmat
eri
alsofbi
ologi
cal
or
igin.

Natural
Select
ion:
Thisi
sselecti
vef
orceoccur
ringi
nnat
ure,
whichi
sresponsibl
efor
el
iminati
ngtheunfav
our
abletrai
tst
oretai
nonlyfav
our
ablet
rai
tsi
nthepopulati
on.

Specie:Thesear
eor
gani
sms,
whi
chhav
eabi
l
ityt
oint
erbr
eedf
reel
ytopr
oducef
ert
il
e
offspri
ngs.

Fossil
s:Thesearether
emai
nsofor
gani
smst
hatl
i
vedi
nthepast
,pr
eser
vednat
ural
l
yin
rocks,peatori
ce.

I
mpor
tanceofSt
udy
ingEv
olut
ion

Ithel
pstounder
standthebiol
ogical
for
cest
hatcauseor
ganismstodevel
opf
rom
simplet
omor ecomplexorgani
smst ot
heext
entofnewspeciesemer
ging

I
thel
pst
oknowhowdi
ff
erentor
gani
smsr
elat
e

Theori
esoft heOriginofLi
fe
Thebasicideasaboutt heori
ginofl
ife
Outl
inethebasicideasabouttheorigi
nofli
fe
Theorigi
nanddi versit
yofli
fei
sbasedont hecontri
buti
onoftheologi
sts,
phil
osopher
s
andscient
ists.Earl
yscient
ist
sputforwardtheori
es,whi
chsuggestedthatli
feor
igi
nat
ed
fr
om non-l
ivi
ngmat t
er.Howeverchangesincli
maticcondi
ti
ons,habit
atsand
complexi
tyofli
vi
ngorgani
smscont r
adictsthesesuggestions.
Modernscient
ist
sputboththeori
es,whichsuggestthattheorigi
nanddiv
ersi
tyofl
i
fe
wasbroughtaboutbytheprocessofevolut
ion.Twooft hemostwellknownof
evol
uti
onscienti
stsar
e:

JeanBapt
ist
eLamar
ck

Si
rChar
lesDar
win

Thetheori
esoftheOr
iginofLif
e
Stat
ethetheor
iesoft
heor i
ginofl
i
fe
Therearenumeroust
heori
esofevolut
ionthatt
ryt
oexpl
aint
heor
igi
nofl
i
vingt
hings.
Themaintheori
esoftheori
ginofl
if
ear e:

Theor
yofSpeci
alCr
eat
ion

Theor
yofChemi
cal
Evol
uti
on

Theor
yofSpont
aneousGener
ati
on

St
eadySt
ateTheor
y

TheTheor yofSpeci alCr eat ion

Accor dingt othist heor yl i
fewasnon- existentbef or eapar ticulart ime.Thent he
Supr emeBei ng( Super nat ur al power )creat edal lli
v ingt hingsandt herewasl ifeonEar t
h
from t henhencef orth.
Thi st heor ypr oposest hatdi fferencesandsi milaritiesbet weenor gani smsar easa
resul tofhowt heor ganismswer ecr eated.Maj orr eligionsl ikeChr i
stiani t
y, I
slam and
Buddhi sm hav et heor iest hatsuppor tspeci al creat i
on.Thet heor yoff ixedst atusand
cat ast r
ophi sm wasputf orthbyCuv iert osuppor tt her eligiouspoi ntofv i
ew.Accor ding
toCur v i
er, fossil
swer ebr oughtaboutbycat ast rophessuchasf l
oodsasout linedi nthe
hol ybi ble.Dur ingt hef loodst heear th’ssur facewasdef or medandmanycr eat ureswer e
kill
edandcov eredbyamassofl and.
TheTheor yofChemi cal Evol ut i
on
Accor dingt othist heor y,about13. 7bi l
liony ear sago, acosmi cexpl osi onoccur redand
theuni v ersehassi ncebeenexpandi ngandcool i
ng.Bef or et heexpl osi on,theear thwas
ver ycompact ,denseandhot .
Thef or mat ionoft heuni v ersecr eatedcondi tionl i
kehi ghul trav ioletradi ationandhi gh
temper atures.Thegaseouscomposi ti
onwasdi ffer entf rom t oday s.Theuni verse
cool edandpr otonscombi nedwi thel ectronst ofor m hy dr ogenat oms, whi chwer et he
fi
rstat omst obef ormed.
Hy drogencombi nedchemi cal l
ywi t
hot herel ement st of orm compoundssuchaswat er,
hy drogeni spresenti nal mostal lor
gani ccompounds.
Thi st heor ywasadv ancedbyAl exanderOpar ini n1923, hest atedt hati nt hebegi nning
theat mospher econt ainedammoni a, car bondi oxi de, helium, hy drogenandmet hanebut
l
ackedoxy gen.Thecompoundwasar esul tofhi ght emper atur e,ultrav iol
etr adi ation
andel ect ri
cal dischar get hatwerepl ent i
fulaf t
ercosmi cexpl osion.
Thecompoundswer edi ssolvi
nginr ainwat ert oform nut rientbot h(ami xtur eofor gani c
compoundi nwat ert hataccumul atedi nthewat erbodi esont heear th’ssur face).The
simplecompoundscombi nedtof orm compl exsubst ances, usi ngener gyf rom thehi gh
temper atureandul trav i
oletrayslaterpol ymer ssuchaspr ot einsl i
pidsand
carbohy drateswer ef ormed.Thef irstsi ngle-cell
edor gani sm ar osefrom t hesepol y mer s.
Thef or mat ionofr ibonucl eicacid( RNA)asel f-
repli
cat ingmol eculewasapr e-r
equi site
tolif
east hef or m coul dr epli
cateitsel f.Livingor gani smscoul dreproducet hemsel v es.
Thef irstlifef ormswer eheterotr
ophi cusi ngt hecompoundi nt henut ri
entbr othasf ood.
Theor gani smsr epr oducedbybuddi ng
TheTheor yofSpont aneousGener at ion
Arist
ot leadv ancedt het heoryofspont aneousgener ationandi tdatesbackt othe4th
th
Centur y.Thet heor ywasappl i
edupt ot he19 Cent urybuti tisnol ongerappl i
ed.The
scientistsbel i
ev edt hatsi mpl eorgani smsl ikewor msandf rogscoul dar i
sef rom mud,
dustorr ottenf ood.Thatmeansl i
f ecanor i
ginat efrom non- l
iv i
ngmat tere.g.maggot s
canar isef rom r ottenmeat .
TheSt eadySt at eTheor y
Thist heor ywaspopul arduringthe1950sand1960s, befor ei tsdemi sei nthel ate
1960s.Accor dingt ot heset heoryt heuni versehasal way sexi stedandhasnoor igint hat
i
si tdidnothav eamomentofcr eat iont hisl i
fehasnoor i
gi n
CosmozoanTheor y
Alsot hist heor yst atest hatorsuggest st hatl i
feonear thor iginatedf rom elsewher e.In
eighteent hcent ur ysci entist
squest i
onedt hesest eadyst at eandCosmozoant heories
duet ot hepr esenceoff ossil
sandemer genceofnewspeci es.

Theori
esofOr ganicEvol
uti
on, Lamar cki
sm
Lamarck’stheoryofEvol
uti
on
Stat
elamar ck’
stheoryofevolut
ion
Darwinwasnott heonlypersontodev elopatheoryofev
oluti
on.Jean-
Bapt
ist
eLamarck
wasaFr enchscienti
stwhodev elopedanalternat
ivet
heoryatthebegi
nni
ngofthe19t
h
centur
y.Histheorycentr
edont woi deas:

t
hel
awofuseanddi
suse

t
hel
awofi
nher
it
anceofacqui
redchar
act
eri
sti
cs

Histheor yst ipul

atedthatacharacteristi
cwhi chisusedmor eandmor ebyanor gani
sm
becomesbi ggerandst r
onger.Onet hatisnotuseddi sappearseventual
ly.Any
characteristicofanor gani
sm thati
si mpr ovedt hr
oughusei spassedtoi t
soffspri
ng.
Lamar ck’sObser vat
ionsandDeduct ions
Expl
ainl amar ck’
sobservati
onsanddeduct ions
JeanBapt isteLamar ckwasaFr enchnat urali
st.Lamarckf or
mulatedat heor
yon
evol
utionaf terstudyi
ngbotanyandt hefossi l
sofmar ineinvert
ebrat
es.
Heusedt hel awofuseanddi susewhi chexpl ai
nsthatorganism enhancedcertain
abil
it
iesbyexer ci
singt hem andlostotherabil
iti
esthroughdi suseexampl ethe
ancestorsoft hepresentdayl ongneckedgi r
affe.Theseear lygir
affesfedonshort
plant
swhent heshor tplant
sbecamescar cethegi r
affehadt ost r
etchthei
rnecksto
feedont all
erplants.Thustheirnecksbecamel onger.Thel ongerneckswer epassed
ontotheiroffspri
nghenceaf t
eralongt i
megi raff
edev elopedt helongneckstheyhave
today.
Histheorywasbasedoni nherit
anceofacqui r
edchar acteri
sticstheoffspr
ingthen
adaptfurther,advancingevoluti
onofthespeci es.
Mer i
tsandDemer it
sofLamar ck’
sTheor yofEv ol
uti
on
Outli
nemer itsanddemer i
tsoflamarck’stheoryofev oluti
on
TheMer itsofLamar ck’sTheor yofEvoluti
oninclude:

Lamar
ckt
heor
yleadt
ofur
therst
udi
esonev
olut
ionofspeci
es

I
tgaveriset
odi
scov
eryofgenesandgenet
icswhi
chi
snowwi
del
yusedi
nmanyf
iel
ds
ofbi
ology

Uponrej
ecti
onofhi
stheor
yLamarckdeci
dedtost
udyabouti
nver
tebr
ateswhi
chmade
gr
eatcontr
ibut
ioni
ndevel
opmentofZool
ogy

Darwinism
Darwin’sTheoryofEvolut
ion
Stat
eDar win’
stheoryofev ol
uti
on
Charl
esRober tDarwin(1809–1882)wasanEngl ishnatur
ali
st.Hebasedhi
stheor
yon
observati
onmadedur ingaf i
ve-
y eargeogr
aphi
cal
study.
Darwin’smainobservati
onswer e:

Everygener
ati
onofor ganismshav emoreoffspri
ngsthanpar
ents.However,
the
numberofadultorganismsr emainsgeneral
lyst
abl
efr
om generati
ontogenerat
ion.
Theref
oreisastruggl
ef orexist
encethatcausesmanyoffspr
ingtodiebef
ore
becomingadult
s

Therearemanyv ariat
ionsinaspecies.Var
iati
onsarepassedfrom parent
stothei
rof
f
spri
ng.Advantageousv ar
iat
ionsenablesurvi
vali
ntheenvir
onmentor gani
sm wit
h
di
sadvantageousv ari
ati
ondue.Thisiscall
edsurvi
valoft
hef i
tt
est.

Offspringswithfavourablev
ariati
onsgrowint
oadult
sandrepr
oducether
efor
e
favourablev
ariat
ionsaccumul atedint
hespecies;
enabl
i
ngadaptat
iont
othe
envir
onment ,t
hisgivesriset
onewspeci e.

Achangeintheenvi
ronmentalcondi
ti
onsfav oursot hercharacter
ist
icsoft
he
organi
sms.Theeff
ectofthesechangesont heor ganismsi sthatotherf
eatur
es
becomemor epr
ominentthanbeforeresul
ti
ngi nev olut
ion.
Mer
it
sofDar
win’
stheor
y

Thetheor
yenabledsci
enti
stst
ocar
ryf
urt
herst
udi
es,
leadi
ngt
onewdi
scov
eri
est
hat
suggestt
heori
ginofli
fe

Helpedsci
ent
iststounderst
andaboutdr
ugresi
stanceandev
olut
ionofger
msl
i
ke
bacter
iaandv
irusesleadi
ngtonewstrai
ns

Enabl
efur
therr
esear
cht
ofi
ndcur
eorv
acci
nesofger
ms,
bact
eri
aandv
iruses

Short
comingofDarwin’sTheor
y :Hefai
l
edt oexplai
nhowv ari
ati
onsi npopulat
ionsarose
andweremaintai
nedf r
om onegener at
iont othenext.
Evi
dencesandappli
cationofOrganicEvol uti
onintheRealLif
eSituation
I
nvesti
gateevi
dencesandapplicati
onofor gani
cevolut
ioninthereallif
esit
uation
Sci
enti
stscanprovethatevol
utionhast akenplacebyv ar
iousmet hods.Someoft hese
methodsare

Compar ati
veanatomy:Compar ativ
eanat omyi sthestudyofbiologi
cal structuresin
dif
f er
entor gani
sms.Thesci ent i
stslookatst r
ucturesthataresimil
arindi fferent
organismsorspeci es.Exampl elimbsofv ert
ebratessuchashumanbei ngs, goatsand
wingsofbi r
dsareusedf ordif
f erentpur posesbutt heyhav eabasicdesi gnst ructure,
thi
si sknownashomol ogousst ructure.Exampl eforel
imbsofhumansar ef or
mani pulati
on,for
eli
mbsofbi rds( wings)ar eforfli
ghtandf oreli
mbsofagoatar ef or
wal ki
ng; t
hisshowsthatalltheseani mal sarefrom commonancest ors.Anal ogous
structuresaretheones,whichl ookdi fferent,buttheyperform si
mil
arf unct i
onse. g.
i
nsect ,bir
dsandbat sallhavewi ngsusedf orfli
ghtbuttheyhav edi
fferentst ructural
organization.

Fossi
lrecords:Fossil
sar
er emai
nsofor gani
smst hatli
vedi
nthepastpreser
ved
natur
all
yinrocksoroni ce.Thestudyoffossi
lsisknownaspaleontol
ogywhenfossi
ls
aredatedscientist
scanest i
mat
et heageofthatorganism.Met
hodusedbyscienti
sts
toknowt heageoff ossi
lsiscar
bondat i
ngusingisotopeofCar
bon14.

Embryology:I
ncomparati
veembr y
ologyembryosofdiffer
entver
tebr
atesatearl
yst
ages
arecompar edandtheyareseentohaveresemblances.Speci
esthatshowsimil
ar
embryonicdev el
opmentareassumedtobecloselyrel
atedalt
houghtheadultmaybe
quit
edif
f er
ent

Nat uralSelectioninAct i
on:Natureledtotheselect i
onofagenet iccombi nati
ont hat
resul t
edi namor efrequentmel ani
cv ar
iet
ycompar edtothenon- melanicv ar
iety.Before
thei ndustri
al revol
utioninEuropethewhi tevari
etyofmot hwasmor epr ev al
ent.
Indust r
iali
zationinEur opeinthe18thCenturypollutedtheenv i
ronment ,bur ni
ngofcoal
releasedal otofsootandsmoke.Thesepol lut
antscoat edtreetrunks,killi
ngt helichens
thatgr ewont het r
eet r
unks.Thecol ourofthetreet r
unksbecamebl ack; this
camouf lagedt hedarkmel ani
nf orm ofthepepper edmot h.Thepr edatorsoft hemot h
didnotf eedonmanydar kmot hsbecauset heywer enotv er
yv i
sible.
Evi
dencef r
om v esti
gialorgans:
Thesearestructur
es, whi
chhavebeengr eatl
yreduced
andceasedt obef uncti
onal.Presenceofvesti
gialorgansisanindicati
ont hatt
hey
exi
stedinancest r
alformsbutasar esul
tofevoluti
onsuchst r
uctureshav ebeenso
muchr educedtot heextentofloosingorgreatl
ychangingthei
roriginalfuncti
on.
Examplesofv esti
gialst
r uct
uresarewingsoffli
ghtlessbir
dssuchasost ri
chesand
pengui
ns.

HUMANI MMUNODEFI
CIENCY(HIV)ACQUI
REDIMMUNE
DEFI
CIENCYSYNDROME(AIDS)ANDSEXUALLY
HIV/AI
DS(HumanImmunodefi
ciencyVi
rusandAcquir
edImmuneDefici
encySy ndr
ome)
Acquir
edmeans“
togetfr
om”thismeansthatAIDSisgott
enf
rom ot
herpeople,
“I
mmune”means“prot
ect
”,t
hismeansthatthebodyisnor
mal
lyprot
ectedagainst
manydi seases.Def i
ciencymeans“ lack: andsy ndromemeansagr oupofdi fferent
sympt omsofdi seases.
AIDSi st hepandemi cdi sease, whichi scausedbyacer tai
nt ypeofor gani sm cal l
ed
vir
us.Theset y pesofv i
rusesar ecal l
edHumanI mmunodef iciencyVi r
us.
TheHumanI mmunodef i
ciencyVi rusdest royst heImmunesy stem, destructionoft he
i
mmunesy stem makesi teasyf orthebodyt obeat t
ackedbyot herdiseases.
Ittakesal ongt imef orHI Vt odamaget hei mmunesy stem.I ttakesy earsbef orethe
body ’simmunesy st
em i sdest r
oyed.Thati swhysomepeopl emayhav eHI Vi ntheir
bodiesbutnotl ookorf eel sickyet.Wecal l thesepeopl eHIVcar r
iersbecauset heycarr
y
thev ir
usi nthei rbodies.WhenHI Vcar ri
er sfinallybegint oshowt hesi gnandsy mpt oms
ofAI DSt henwesayt heyhav eAIDS.
STDSandSTI s( SexuallyTr ansmi ttedDi seasesandSexual l
yTr ansmi ttedI nfections)
STDsandSTI sar ediseasesandi nfections, whi char etransmi ttedthroughsexual
i
nter course.Exampl esofdi seasesandi nfect ionsare: gonorrhea, syphili
s,
tri
chomoni asis, candidiasis, chl
amadi a, geni talherpesandhepat i
tisB.

TheRel
ati
onshi
pbet
weenHI
VandSTI
s
Thel i
nkbet weenHI Vandot herSTI smightseem obv ious.Af t
erall,t
hesamesor tsof
ri
skbehav iourar ei nv olved.Howev er,
numer ousst udi esseem t oindicatet hatther
eisa
strongerassoci ationbet weenHI VandotherSTI st hanwoul dbeexpect edsi mpl yfr
om a
behav i
oural l
ink.Infect ionwi thSTI s(i
ncludi
ngsy philis,gonor rhoeaandher pes)seems
toincreaset her i
skofbot hacqui ri
ngandt r
ansmi ttingHI Vov erandabov eabehav i
oural
l
ink.Sodoesbact er ialvagi nosi s,aconditi
onnotf ormal l
yclassedasanSTI ,
sinceit
appear snott obet ransmi tted,butwhi chisassoci at edwi thpoorsexual heal t
hgener al
ly.
Dependi ngont heSTIi nv olvedandt hepopulation, studi eshav ereportedt hathav i
ngan
STImagni fiest her i
skofacqui ringHIVbyany thingf rom twot oeighttimesormor e.In
thecaseofpeopl ewi thHI V, hav inganSTIincreasesv i
rall
oadsbot hi nthebl oodand
genitalsecretions, thusmaki ngpeoplemor einfect ious–ev enwhent aki
ngant i
ret
rov i
ral
treatment.

Tr
ansmi
ssi
onofHI
V/AI
DS
HI
Vcanbet
ransmi
tt
edby
:

Sex
ual
int
ercour
sewi
thi
nfect
edper
son

Bl
oodTr
ansf
usi
onf
rom ani
nfect
edper
son

Or
gant
ranspl
antf
rom ani
nfect
eddonor

Ani
nfect
edmot
hert
oherchi
l
ddur
ingpr
egnancy
,bi
rt
horbr
east
feedi
ng

Usi
ngunst
eri
l
izedsur
gical
inst
rumente.
g.scal
pel
,needl
eset
c

Shar
ingt
oot
hbr
ushes,
shar
ingbl
ades,
nai
lcut
terwi
thi
nfect
edper
son
SymptomsandSi
gnsofHIV/
AIDS
Thefol
lowi
ngar
esymptomsofHIV/
AIDS

Lossofwei
ght

Per
sist
entf
evert
hatl
ast
slongert
hanamont
h

Di
arr
hea

Coughi
ngf
ormor
ethatamont
h

I
tchyr
ashesont
heski
n

Whi
tel
ayeri
nthemout
handt
hroat

Swol
l
engl
andespeci
all
yint
heneckandar
mpi
t

Geni
tal
rashes

Shor
tenedbr
eat
h

Eff
ect
sofHIV/AIDS
Peopl
ewithAI
DSgetoppor
tuni
sti
cinf
ect
ionsanddi
seases,
exampl
eoft
hesei
nfect
ions
anddi
seasesare:

Chesti
nfect
ionsuchaspneumoni
aandTuber
cul
osi
s(TB)

Br
aini
nfect
ionl
eadi
ngt
oment
alconf
usi
on

Sev
ereheadachesandf
it
s(sei
zur
es)

St
omachi
nfect
ionl
eadi
ngt
odi
arr
heal
ast
sforweeks

Ski
ncancerknownascar
posi
ssar
coma

ManagementandContr
olofHI
V/AIDSandSTI
s
Pr
eventi
onandContr
olMeasur
esincl
ude:

Avoidir
responsi
blesexualbehavi
or.Foll
owABCguide:Abst
ainfr
om sexuali
nter
cour
se.
Thi
si sthebestmethodofpr ev
enti
onf ortheunmar
ri
edpeopleBefai
thf
ultoonesexual
part
nerUseCondom dur ingsexuali
ntercourse

Usest
eri
l
izedi
nst
rument
sdur
ingsur
ger
y,ci
rcumci
sionanddel
i
ver
y
Weardi
sposabl
egl
oveswheny
out
ouchot
herpeopl
e’
sbodi
l
yfl
uids

Onl
yscr
eenedbl
oodandor
gansshoul
dbeusedf
ort
ransf
usi
onandt
ranspl
ant
s

Gof
orHI
VandAI
DSt
esti
nor
dert
oknowy
ourst
atus

Donotshar
etoot
hbr
ushesandbl
ades

Peopl
ewi
thHIVandAIDSshouldbegivenant
iret
rov
iral
drugs(
ARVs)whi
chhel
pto
sl
owdowntheprogr
essi
onofthediseasesi
nthebody

Pr
egnantwomenshoul
datt
endpr
e-nat
alcl
i
nicwher
etheycanbet
reat
edt
opr
event
mothert
ochi
ldt
ransmi
ssi
on

HI
Vposi
ti
vemot
her
sshoul
dnotbr
east
feedt
hei
rnewbor
nbabi
es

TheLi
feSki
l
lsNeededf
orHomebasedCar
eforPLWHA
Peopl
ewithHIVandAI
DScanli
veheal
thyli
vesforal
ongti
meiftheygetpropercar
e
andsuppor
t.Wecancar
efort
hem andsupportt
hem i
nthefol
l
owi ngways:

Gi
vi
ngt
hem wel
l
-bal
ancedmeal
sinadequat
equant
it
ies

Al
l
owi
ngt
hem t
orestwhent
heyf
eel
unwel
l

Taki
ngt
hem t
oaheal
thcent
erassoonast
heyst
artdev
elopi
ngsi
gnsofi
l
lness

Pr
ovi
dingt
hem wi
thARVswhi
chhel
ptosl
owdownt
headv
ancementoft
hecondi
ti
on

Al
l
owi
ngt
hem t
owor
kandexer
cisei
fthecan

Behav
ingi
nal
ovi
ngwayt
owar
dthem

Li
steni
ngt
othem andhel
pingt
hem whent
heyhav
eapr
obl
em

Counsel
i
ngthem t
ost
opbehavi
orst
hatcoul
dwor
sent
hei
rcondi
ti
on.Exampl
e:t
aki
ng
dr
ugsorhav
ingmanysexual
part
ner
s

Notdiscri
minati
ngagainstthem orsti
gmat i
zi
ngt hem bydoingthefoll
owing:Branding
them namessuchas“ walkingcorpse”;Denyi
ngthem educationorhealt
hser v
ices;
Denyingthem workopportuni
ty;
Chasingt hem awayfrom home; Ref
usingtoshar e
utensi
lsorroom wit
hthem; Notinvolv
ingthem indeci
sion-makingprocesses;Hidi
ng
them fr
om thepubli
c.

Keepi
ngt
hei
rbodi
es,
clot
hingandbeddi
ngcl
ean

Pr
ecaut
ionst
obet
akenwhenHandl
i
ngPeopl
eLi
vi
ngwi
thHI
V/AI
DS(
PLWHA)andSTI
s
Carerswil
lhavethei
rownconcernsandwor r
ies,
fear
sforthefutur
e,fortheirfamil
ies
andf ort
heirownheal
th.I
tisimport
antthatt
heytakecareofthemselves,getenough
restandhav et
heappropr
iat
einfor
mationandsupporttocar
ryouttheirdif
ficultt
ask.
Theimpor t
antmessagesgivenbel
owcannotbeemphasi zedenough.

HI
V/AI
DSi
snotspr
eadbyf
oodorwat
er.

HI
V/ AI
DScannotbespreadbysharingf
ood,di
shesorcookingut
ensi
l
ssuchascups,
pl
ates,
kni
vesandforkswithapersonwhoisHIVposit
ive.

HIV/AIDScannotbespreadbyt
ouchi
nganotherper
son,
huggi
ng,
shaki
nghandsor
holdi
ngotherpeopl
einanormalway.Ther
eisnoneedtoavoi
dbodycont
actwi
tha
personli
vi
ngwithHIV/AIDS.

Counsel
i
ngandVol
unt
aryTest
ing(
CVT)
Counselli
ngandv oluntarytestistheprocesst hati
sunder takenwhenaper sonwant sto
fi
ndouti fshe/heisaf fectedwi t
hHI V.Becausei ti
sv ol
untary,apersonwhot hinkthey
mighthav eHIVdeci deont hei
rownwhet hert heywantt ohav ethetestdoneornot .If
theindiv
idualdecidedt ogoaheadwi t
ht est i
ngt heywi l
lhavet heopport
unit
yt odiscuss
thetestwithat r
ainedcounsel or.Mostclinicsuser apidaccuratescient
if
icteststhat
maket heresultav ail
able,usuall
ywithint went ymi nutesafterthetesthasbeen
perfor
med.
Voluntarycounselingandt est
ing(VCT)f orHI Visanef fi
cientinter
nati
onall
yrecognized
approachf orpeoplet ofindoutt hei
rHIVst atusataVCTcent er.VCThasbecomeone
ofthemostef f
ectiveandpopul arwaysofdi agnosi ngpeopl ewhomayhav ebeen
exposedt othev i
rusorwhohav ebeeni nf ected.

TheSi
gni
fi
canceofCVTi
ntheCont
rol
andPr
event
ionofHI
V/AI
DSand
STI
s
CVTisanimport
antt
ool
forpr
eventi
ngt
hespr
eadofHI
Vespecial
l
yincommunities
wheretheepi
demici
swi
despr
ead.Thef
oll
owi
ngar
etheimpor
tanceofcounsel
i
ng
vol
untaryt
est
:

I
tall
owsadolescent
stofi
ndoutt
hei
rownHI
Vst
atusi
nor
dert
oev
aluat
ethei
rbehav
ior
andit
sconsequences.

CVTcli
nicsusual
l
yhav e45minut
escounsel
i
ngsessi
onst
hatpr
ovi
dei
nfor
mat
ionabout
HIVandAIDSandt est
ingpr
ocess

CVTcanhel
pimpr
oveadv
ocacyandr
educest
igmabygi
vi
ngpeopl
etheoppor
tuni
tyt
o
t
alkanony
mousl
yandconf
ident
ial
l
ywi
thacounsel
oraboutt
hei
rHI
Vst
atus

ThePr
ocedur
esandTechni
quesofCVTf
orHI
V/AI
D
Therear ethreemainst epsinCVT, asexpl ainedbelow:
Fir
stSt ep:Thereisasessi onofpre-testcounsel i
ngwherequest i
onsaboutHI V/AIDS
andthet estarediscussedandanswer edbyt hecounselor.Thecounselorwi l
lhelpt he
i
ndividualdeterminewhet hertesti
ngi sappropriategiv
enthei nformati
onthatisshar ed
withthem aboutt hereasont heindi
vidualwant edt obetested.Shari
nginformat i
on
abouttheirpastsexual behav i
orswil
l hel
pt hecounselordet er
mi newhethertesti
ngi s
appropr i
ate.Aft
ermakingt heirassessment ,ift
hecounsel ordeemsi tappropriat
ef or
thepersont otakethet esttheyshould:

Descr
ibet
het
estandhowi
tisper
for
med

Expl
ainAI
DSandt
hewayi
nfect
ioni
sspr
ead

Di
scusst
heway
stopr
eventt
hespr
eadofHI
V/AI
DS

Expl
aint
heconf
ident
ial
i
tyoft
het
estr
esul
ts

Di
scusst
hemeani
ngoft
hepossi
blet
estr
esul
ts

Askwhati
mpacty
out
hinkt
her
esul
toft
het
estwi
l
lhav
eont
hem

Di
scusswhom t
heymi
ghtshar
ethei
rresul
tswi
th

Discussthei
mportanceoft
ell
i
ngt
hei
rsexpar
tner
sand/
ordr
ugusi
ngpar
tner
sift
he
resul
tareposi
ti
ve

SecondSt ep:Whent hepersondecidedt ohav etheHIVtestt heymustsignaconsent

form bef
oret hetesti
sadmi nist
ered.Informedconsentisthecr uci
alpartoft heVCT
processandi tisimport
antthattheindividuali
sawar eoftheirri
ghttorefuseany
medicalprocedure,tobeinformedabouti tandtoagreetoit.Therei
sast at
ement
whichtheyshoul dbeaskedt oreadbef orehandstati
ngthattheyhav ebeeni nfor
med
abouttheHI V-anti
bodytestprocedure,thattheyunderst
andandhav egivent hei
r
consenttohav ethetestperformed.

ThirdStep:Af
terthetesthasbeendone, thecounselorgivestheresul
tstothepersonin
thepost-t
estcounseli
ngsessi on.(I
tusuallytakesaroundfif
teentotwentyminutesaft
er
thetesthasbeenadmi nister
edf ortheresult
st obeready).I
ftheyarefoundtobeHI V
positi
ve(meaningthattheyhav eHIV)thent heyarerefer
redtoamedi calspeci
ali
stand
othercounsel
orinordert oai
dt hem inreceivi
ngtreatmentandsupport.