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StructuralIntegrity Procedia 00 (2021) 000–000
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StructuralIntegrity Procedia 00 (2021) 000–000
ScienceDirect www.elsevier.com/locate/procedia

Procedia Structural Integrity 36 (2022) 114–121

1st Virtual International Conference “In service Damage of Materials: Diagnostics and Prediction”
1st Virtual International Conference “In service Damage of Materials: Diagnostics and Prediction”
Identification of fracture mechanisms in cementitious composites
Identification of fracture
using wavelet mechanisms
transform in cementitious
of acoustic composites
emission signals
using wavelet transform of acoustic emission signals
Olena Stankevycha,b*, Valentyn Skalskyia, Bogdan Klyma, Petro Velykyia
a
Olena Stankevycha,b*, Valentyn Skalskyia, Bogdan Klyma, Petro Velykyia
Karpenko Physico-Mechanical Institute of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, 5, Naukova St., Lviv 79060, Ukraine
a
b
Lviv Politechnic
Karpenko Physico-Mechanical National
Institute of University,
the National 12, of
Academy S. Sciences
Badnery St., Lviv 79000,
of Ukraine, UkraineSt., Lviv 79060, Ukraine
5, Naukova
b
Lviv Politechnic National University, 12, S. Badnery St., Lviv 79000, Ukraine

Abstract
Abstract
The effect of fiber volume fraction on the flexural and acoustic emission behaviors of steel fiber reinforced concrete (SFRC)
using three-point
The effect of fiberbending
volumetest was investigated.
fraction on the flexuralHooked-end steelemission
and acoustic fibers with a profiled
behaviors surface
of steel fiberand three volume
reinforced fractions
concrete (SFRC)of
1.5%, 2% and 2.5%
using three-point were selected.
bending The flexural behavior
test was investigated. Hooked-end of SFRC in terms
steel fibers withof aload-deflection
profiled surfacecurve
and and
threeultimate
volumeflexural load
fractions of
was
1.5%,studied.
2% andThe2.5% parameters of the The
were selected. continuous
flexural wavelet
behaviortransform
of SFRCand energy
in terms ofdistribution of the
load-deflection discrete
curve wavelet flexural
and ultimate transform of
load
acoustic emission
was studied. signals wereofused
The parameters the to describe the
continuous fracture
wavelet process and
transform and identification of fracture
energy distribution type
of the of SFRC.
discrete wavelet transform of
© 2022 The
acoustic Authors.
emission Published
signals by ELSEVIER
were used to describe B.V.
the fracture process and identification of fracture type of SFRC.
© 2022
This is The Authors.
an open accessPublished
articleby Elsevier
under B.V.BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0)
the CC
© 2022
This is anThe
openAuthors. Published
access article by ELSEVIER
under the CC BY-NC-ND B.V.
license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0)
Peer-review
This is an under
open responsibility
access article of the conference
under CC BY-NC-ND Guestlicense
Editors(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0)
Peer-review under responsibility of the conference Guest Editors
Keywords:
Peer-review Fracture;
under fiber reinforced concrete;
responsibility steel fiber;Guest
of the conference acoustic emission; wavelet transform
Editors
Keywords: Fracture; fiber reinforced concrete; steel fiber; acoustic emission; wavelet transform

1. Introduction
1. Introduction
The development of damage and fracture of fiber-reinforced cement composites is accompanied by complex
physical phenomena of
The development duedamage
to interrelated factors
and fracture of of different structural
fiber-reinforced cementlevels. The properties
composites of such by
is accompanied composites
complex
depend
physicalon the type ofdue
phenomena matrix (cement, concrete,
to interrelated factors ofmain and additional
different structural components), fiber (type,
levels. The properties of volume fraction,
such composites
length, diameter, strength, stiffness, etc.) and the phase transition. Studies of the effect of fiber
depend on the type of matrix (cement, concrete, main and additional components), fiber (type, volume fraction, on the mechanical
behavior of steel strength,
length, diameter, fiber reinforced concrete
stiffness, etc.) and(SFRC) under
the phase the action
transition. of external
Studies of the loads
effectare widely
of fiber onpresented in the
the mechanical
literature
behavior of(Khan
steeletfiber
al. (2016)). However,
reinforced for (SFRC)
concrete designing engineering
under structures,
the action it is loads
of external important to take presented
are widely into accountin not
the
only the behavior
literature (Khan et ofal.fiber in a However,
(2016)). particular for
matrix under engineering
designing load, but also to understand
structures, the dynamics
it is important of into
to take fracture in such
account not
only the behavior of fiber in a particular matrix under load, but also to understand the dynamics of fracture in such

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +380-32-339-68-75; fax: +380-32-264-94-27.

* Corresponding o.m.stankevych@gmail.com
E-mail address:author. Tel.: +380-32-339-68-75; fax: +380-32-264-94-27.
E-mail address: o.m.stankevych@gmail.com
2452-3216© 2022 The Authors. Published by ELSEVIER B.V.
This is an open
2452-3216© access
2022 Thearticle under
Authors. the CC by
Published BY-NC-ND
ELSEVIER license
B.V. (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0)
Peer-review under
This is an open responsibility
access of the
article under the conference
CC BY-NC-NDGuestlicense
Editors(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0)
Peer-review under responsibility of the conference Guest Editors

2452-3216 © 2022 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.

This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0)
Peer-review under responsibility of the conference Guest Editors
10.1016/j.prostr.2022.01.011
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2 Olena Stankevych, Valentyn Skalskyi, Bogdan Klym et al. / StructuralIntegrity Procedia 00 (2021) 000–000

composites.
The acoustic emission (AE) method is an effective tool for monitoring the development of damage to fiber
reinforced composites and structures made of them (Nazarchuk et al. (2017). The formation of defects in the
structure of composites is accompanied by the generation of elastic waves with different characteristics, which
allows us to study the process of accumulation of damage and the development of such materials fracture. It is
important to determine the type of fracture, because it allows us to choose the optimal design of reinforcement to
ensure its resistance to external loads. In addition, since the development of shear cracks is preceded by tensile
cracks propagation, their classification using the appropriate AE parameters will help to assess the material state,
and hence the structure as a whole.
A number of methods for identifying the mechanisms of fracture of fiber reinforced concrete, which use different
parameters of AE signals, are presented in the literature. The most popular among them is the technique developed
by Ohno and Ohtsu (2010). The authors proposed to classify cracks according to the distribution of RA parameter
(rise time / maximum amplitude) and average AF frequency (number of events / generation duration), depending on
the values of which the tensile and shear cracks are identified. On the basis of the general theory of AE the
automated method of crack detection, establishment of its type and orientation is developed. This approach has been
actively used in various studies of SFRC (Li et al. (2018), De Smedt et al. (2020), Bian et al. (2021)). Other methods
of AE signals analysis are also known: by the AE activity (Wu et al. (2000)) and cumulative AE energy (Su et al.
(2019)), multiparameter analysis (Triantis et al. (2020).
The frequency parameters of the AE signals during the fracture of the SFRC require separate studies, because it is
known that each mechanism of fracture in the material generates elastic waves of a certain frequency range. To
study the features of macrofracture of composite materials, the wavelet transform of AE signals is an effective
method, which allows a local analysis in the spectrum of signals to distinguish the mechanisms of materials fracture
(Skalskyi et al. (2018)). The aim of this study is to develop a method for identifying the mechanisms of SFRC
fracture under the action of quasi-static loading according to the parameters of wavelet transform of AE signals.

2. Materials and methods

The materials employed for the fabrication of concrete mixture are following. Portland cement M400 was used as
the binder. The mineral composition of cement is presented in Table 1. Pre-washed crushed gravel stones of sizes of
5-10 mm and natural river sands of sizes of 0–5 mm were respectively used as the coarse aggregates and fine
aggregates. The composition of the concrete mixture: cement – 520 kg/m3, sand – 700 kg/m3, gravel – 1038 kg/m3,
water – 200 kg/m3.

Table 1. Type M400 cement constituents, in mass percent (%).

СаО SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 Other elements
67 22 5 3 3

Hooked-end steel fibers with a profiled surface were used in these investigations (diameter 1.2 mm and length 50
mm), which had the best reinforcing properties and good adhesion to the concrete matrix. The typical features of
steel fibers are: the tensile elongation under break – 2%, density – 7.8 g/cm3, tensile strength – 1100 MPa, elastic
modulus – 190 GPa.
Prismatic beams with a cross-section of 40×40 mm and a length of 160 mm with different volume fractions (0%,
1.5%, 2%, 2.5%) were employed in three-point bending tests. For each concrete mixture, five specimens were
prepared in order to obtain an average value. A forced mixer was used for the concrete mix. The detailed procedure
includes the following steps: 1) adding dry fine aggregates and cement into the mixer, and starting the mixer for 5
min; 2) pouring water into the running mixer, then mixing for 5 min; 3) layer-by-layer filling of the plastic form
with the concrete mix and laying of fiber in rows evenly in volume. The specimens were kept in the laboratory
condition for 24 h. They were then demoulded carefully and kept in a standard curing room with a constant
temperature of 20°C and humidity of 95% until the 28-day strength was achieved.
The three-point bending test was performed on a universal mechanical testing machine UME-10TM. A load was
monotonically applied to the specimens with the rate 4×10-7 m/s. The AE signals were recorded using the AE
detection system SKOP-8M with a sampling rate of 4 MHz. The recordings of AE and mechanical load were
116 Olena Stankevych et al. / Procedia Structural Integrity 36 (2022) 114–121
Olena Stankevych, Valentyn Skalskyi, Bogdan Klym et al. / Structural Integrity Procedia 00 (2021) 000–000 3

synchronized with time. The AE measurements were performed by two wide-band sensors the operating frequency
range of 0.2…2.0 MHz. Signals detected by the AE transducer were passed through pre-amplifiers of 40 dB gain
with a band pass of 200–600 kHz. To reduce the effect of false AE signals from friction at the point of contact of the
surfaces of the beam sample with the testing machine supports, antifriction gaskets were installed on them.
Previously developed techniques based on the continuous wavelet transform (CWT) (Stankevych and
Skalsky (2016)) and discrete wavelet transform (DWT) (Skalskyi et al. (2020)) of AE signals were used to analyze
the AE signal peculiarities. The fracture type of composite materials can be identified by the criterion parameter EWT
calculated according to the parameters of the CWT of AE signals and the correlation of the fracture mechanisms and
spectral characteristics of AE signals can be determined by the energy distribution based on the DWT.

3. Stress distribution in composite reinforced with steel fibers

One of the most important stages in predicting the strength of composites is to determine the stress-strain state in
the areas of the highest probability of initiation and development of fracture. To do this, the finite element method is
widely used. The results of modeling of the stress-strain state for various composite systems are known in the
literature (Kumar and Mohanty (2012), Chen (2015)). In this study, the stress state in a composite reinforced with
rectilinear fibers was evaluated under a tensile-compressive load.
A sample of a composite made on the basis of concrete (matrix) and reinforced with rectilinear steel fibers was
considered. The mechanical characteristics of the matrix and fibers are given in Table. 2.

Table 2. Mechanical characteristics and geometric dimensions of composite components.

Material Jung’s module, MPa Poisson's ratio Density, kg/m3 Dimensions, m
Concrete (matrix) 2.510 4
0.33 7850 111 (Cube)
Structural steel (fiber) 2.0105 0.33 2300 Diameter d = 0.06

The mechanical stresses in a loaded sample of cubic shape with two reinforcing fibers were calculated by the
finite element method using ANSYS software. The lower face of the cubic matrix was considered to be rigidly
clamped, and the opposite face was loaded with a normal tensile force of intensity of 1 MPa evenly distributed on its
surface (Fig. 1). The fibers were considered to be rigidly bonded to the matrix and placed at a sufficient distance
from the parallel faces of the sample to neglect the effect of these edges on the distribution of mechanical fields in
the composite. The following three cases of fiber orientation are considered: parallel to each other and placed at an
angle of 45º and 90º.
The composite region was divided by standard quadrilateral finite elements of 10 knots each. The calculation was
performed for different partition densities, gradually thickening the mesh of finite elements, until the difference
between the previous and next calculation became insignificant. In this case the accuracy of the obtained numerical
results will be maximal. Then, the average total number of finite tetra-elements was about 46000, and the number of
nodes – 75000.
As you can see from Fig. 1, the highest values of the maximum shear stresses are reached in the areas near the
contact boundaries of the matrix with the reinforcing components in all three cases of their mutual location.
Comparison of the values of shear stresses at different orientations of the fibers shows that the most dangerous is
their location at an angle of 90. The obtained results are consistent with those known in the literature
(Chen (2015)).
Therefore, considering the zones adjacent to the contact boundary between the filler and the reinforcing element,
structurally the weakest point of the composite, based on the obtained calculations, we can expect that these zones
will be the most probable places of initiation and development of fracture.
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4 Olena Stankevych, Valentyn Skalskyi, Bogdan Klym et al. / StructuralIntegrity Procedia 00 (2021) 000–000

Fig. 1. Distribution of maximum shear stresses at the points of the middle section of the reinforced concrete sample (the plane is delineated by a
dashed line) for the mutual orientation of the reinforcement: (a) at an angle of 0; (b) 45; (c) 90.

4. Influence of steel fibers on mechanical and acoustic properties of SFRC

The detailed information on the mean and standard deviation values of the peak load and peak deflection are
summarized in Table 3. SFRC with the fiber volume fraction of 2.5% shows the highest peak load, and SFRC with
the fiber volume fraction of 1.5% shows the highest peak deflection.

Table 3. Means and standard deviation values of the peak load and peak deflection in the SFRC samples.
Type of reinforced concrete Peak load, kN Peak deflection, mm
Plain concrete 2.02±0.12 0.16±0.09
SFRC with 1.5% of fibers 2.24±0.23 0.64±0.1
SFRC with 2% of fibers 3.02±0.45 0.6±0.05
SFRC with 2.5% of fibers 3.99±0.47 0.59±0.08

During the three-point tests SFRC behaves better than the plain concrete, in which the load drops sharply when
the initial macrocrack is formed in the sample. At the same time, in the reinforced concrete, the load-deflection
curves consist of a relatively short branch of rigid deflection and a much longer branch of soft (pliable) deflection.
The maximum load, deflection, and area under the curve increase with the increase of the fiber volume fraction in
the concrete.
Fig. 2 shows the typical time dependences of load and AE events for SFRC samples with different fiber volume
fraction. It can be seen that initially AE activity in all samples is insignificant. In plain concrete, the number and
amplitude of AE signals increase with approach to the maximum load, and in SFRC AE activity increases in the
range of 40…50 s from the beginning of the experiment, which indicates the active development of microcracking at
this time in the material.
Considering the results of numerical simulations of stress distribution in the fiber composite, microcracks are first
formed in the interfacial bond between the fiber and the matrix, and then propagate into the matrix. Due to the
further increase of the load, the microcracks merge, forming macrocracks, which is accompanied by an increase in
the generation of AE signals until the maximum load is reached. Further, the growth in the number of events slows
down, entering the stationary mode. At this stage, a main crack has been already formed, and AE signals are
generated due to microcracking, which accompanies its propagation.
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Olena Stankevych, Valentyn Skalskyi, Bogdan Klym et al. / Structural Integrity Procedia 00 (2021) 000–000 5

Fig. 2. Time dependences of load and AE activity of SFRC samples with different fibers volume fraction: (a) plain concrete; (b) SFRC with 1.5%
fibers; (c) 2% fibers; (d) 2.5% fibers.

It is known from the literature (Li et al. (2018), Logoń (2019)) that the propagation of cracks in the matrix and
the interfacial bond, as well as the fracture of the filler are the sources of AE signals in concrete. For plain concrete
(Fig. 2a), a sharp jump in the number of signals occurs at the subcritical stage of fracture.
Adding 1.5% fiber to concrete significantly changes its AE activity. Fig. 2b shows that the number of AE signals
generated long before the maximum load is reached, increases significantly compared to the plain concrete. This is
due to the fact that new sources of AE appear in the concrete reinforced with hooked-end steel fibers: sliding and
pull-out of fibers, cracking of the matrix from the deformed fibers.
In particular, according to experimental data, the number of AE events registered during the plain concrete
fracture was 36, and SFRC with 1.5% fiber – 422, with 2% – 760, with 2.5% – 1093. The identified patterns are
consistent with those known in the literature (Li et al. (2018), Wu et al. (2000)).

5. Identification of types and mechanisms of SFRC fracture

5.1. AE signals analysis during plain concrete fracture

To identify the mechanisms and types of fracture, the AE signals were analyzed by their CWT. Fig. 3 shows the
CWT of the typical AE signals during fracture of plain concrete at the initial (Fig. 3a) and critical (Fig. 3b) stages of
fracture.
As it can be seen, the CWT of AE signals has local maxima preferably of one frequency range (Fig. 3a) at the
initial stage of fracture. We observe local maxima of different amplitude at different frequency ranges (Fig. 3b),
when the transition to the critical stage occurs. This change in the parameters of the CWT indicates that the fracture
in the sample occurs mainly by one mechanism at low load, and different mechanisms alternate in a short time
interval with the approach to its critical value that generate elastic waves of different frequencies.
Using the algorithm for identifying of the fracture types (Stankevych and Skalsky (2016)), the main parameters
of the local pulses of the CWT of AE signals (dominant frequency fmax, radiation duration Δt and energy parameter
EWT), which accompanied the fracture of the samples of plain concrete samples, were determined, and the types and
mechanisms of its fracture (Table 4) were identified.
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6 Olena Stankevych, Valentyn Skalskyi, Bogdan Klym et al. / StructuralIntegrity Procedia 00 (2021) 000–000

Fig. 3. Wave forms (a, c) and the CWT (b, d) of the typical AE signals during fracture of the pain concrete at the initial (a, b) and critical (c, d)
stages of fracture.

Table 4. Parameters of local pulses of CWT of AE signals corresponding to different mechanisms of the plain concrete fracture.

Fracture mechanisms Type of fracture fmax, kHz Δt, μs EWT

Plastic deformation Ductile 230…250 8…10 0.003…0.008
Microcracking Brittle 90…200 10…33 0.011…0.1
Macrocrack growth Brittle 110…170 20…36 0.104…0.543

According to the energy distribution of the DWT, it was found that about 95% of the main energy of AE signals
is concentrated in the frequency bands D4 (125…250 kHz) and A4 (0…125 kHz): 65% of these are signals in which
the frequency range D4 dominates. They were classified as type I and accompanied the plastic deformation and
microcracking in concrete, dominated in them. The frequency range A4 dominates for 35% of AE signals. They
were classified as type II. According to the fracture mechanisms identification, the local events that accompanied the
abrupt growth of macrocrack dominated.

5.2. AE signals analysis during SFRC fracture

As mentioned above, the addition of fiber to concrete increases the number of AE radiation sources during
fracture. To identify new sources of AE in SFRC, the CWT and DWT of AE signals recorded during fracture of
SFRC with 2% steel fiber were analyzed. The typical load curve (Fig. 4a) was divided into parts between points: 0-
А, А-В, B-С, C-D. According to literature data (Li et al. (2018)) part 0-A is characterized by the crack growth in the
matrix and a slight sliding of the fiber, А-B – intensive microcracking, slight fiber pull-out and its sliding, В-C –
intensive sliding of the fiber and its pull-out, С-D – fiber pull-out from the matrix. To point С the load-deflection
curve is convex with respect to the time axis, and after point D the load-deflection curve is stable, characterizing the
slow propagation of the main crack.
Table 5 shows the results of identification of fracture mechanisms of SFRC on the section 0-A (Fig. 4a). It should
be noted that the mechanism of microcracks formation predominates here, which accompanies 63% of AE events.
The remaining 37% of events are generated as a result of their coalescence, which ultimately leads to the initiation
of the main macrocrack, as evidenced by the drop in load in the vicinity of point A.

Table 5. Parameters of local pulses of CWT of AE signals corresponding to different fracture mechanisms of SFRC with steel fibers volume
fraction of 2% on the section of the load curve from 0 to point A.

Fracture mechanisms Type of fracture fmax, kHz Δt, μs EWT

Microcracking Brittle 140…150 13…25 0.037…0.085
Macrocrack growth Brittle 110…170 18…35 0.15…1.18

Therefore, based on the identification results, it can be concluded that in the selected area there is an intensive
propagation of microcracks (in the concrete matrix and at the matrix/fiber interface) and their coalescence into
macrocracks, which is consistent with literature (Li et al. (2018)).
Note that according to the energy distribution of the DWT, about 98% of the energy of the registered signals is
concentrated at the levels of D4 (125… 250 kHz) and A4 (0… 125 kHz). Similar to the case of plain concrete, they
120 Olena Stankevych et al. / Procedia Structural Integrity 36 (2022) 114–121
Olena Stankevych, Valentyn Skalskyi, Bogdan Klym et al. / Structural Integrity Procedia 00 (2021) 000–000 7

were divided into two types (type I and II), and the number of AE signals of each type was the same.

Fig. 4. (a) Time dependence of the load for SFRC with steel fibers volume fraction of 2% under three-point bending test; (b) Distribution of the
number of AE events that accompanied the different fracture mechanisms at different stages of loading.

It is known that the amplitude of the AE signal is directly proportional to the size of the newly formed defect
(Nazarchuk et al. (2017)). Comparing the amplitudes and energy parameters of the AE signals (Table 4 and
Table 5), it can be seen that they are much higher in the second case. This indicates that under the action of load in
SFRC, the newly formed defects are larger than in plain concrete.
In section A-B, AE events appear in the higher frequency range and with small values of the energy parameter,
which accompany the sliding of the fiber in the matrix, which is demonstrated by the results of identification of
types and mechanisms of fracture in Table. 6.

Table 6. Parameters of local pulses of CWT of AE signals corresponding to different fracture mechanisms of SFRC with steel fibers volume
fraction of 2% on the area of load curve A-B.

Fracture mechanisms Type of fracture fmax, kHz Δt, μs EWT

Pull-out / Sliding of fibers Ductile 450…500 10…14 0.003…0.0052
Microcracking Brittle 140…150 15…30 0.042…0.095
Macrocrack growth Brittle 110…170 16…45 0.16…1.44

Most AE events at this stage of loading are characterized by the propagation of micro- (38%) and macrocracks
(60%) (in the matrix and at the matrix/fiber interface), and fiber sliding – 2%. The energy distribution of the DWT
in this area is similar to the previous one.
Table 7 shows the results of identifying the fracture mechanisms on the area of load curve B-C. It can be seen
that AE signals with higher energy parameter are generated at this section than at the previous stages, which
indicates the formation of new fracture surfaces of larger dimensions. The percent of AE events accompanying fiber
pull-out/sliding increases to 10%, although the mechanisms of micro- (40%) and macrocracking (50%) dominate.

Table 7. Parameters of local pulses of CWT of AE signals corresponding to different fracture mechanisms of SFRC with steel fibers volume
fraction of 2% on the area of load curve B-C.

Fracture mechanisms Type of fracture fmax, kHz Δt, μs EWT

Pull-out / Sliding of fibers Ductile 350…400 10…12 0.007…0.01
Microcracking Brittle 90…230 12…42 0.012…0.091
Macrocrack growth Brittle 110…170 20…50 0.193…3.65

According to the results of the DWT, in this area there are three types of AE signals: type I (82%) – maximum
energy concentrated at the level of D4 (125…250 kHz) and A4 (0…125 kHz) with a dominant level of D4, type II
(14%) – maximum energy concentrated at the level of D4 and A4 with a dominant level of A4, type III (4%) –
maximum energy concentrated at the level of D3 (250…500 kHz) and D4 (125…250 kHz) with a dominant level
D4. The obtained results are consistent with the identification of mechanisms and types of fracture of the AE
 Olena Stankevych et al. / Procedia Structural Integrity 36 (2022) 114–121 121
8 Olena Stankevych, Valentyn Skalskyi, Bogdan Klym et al. / StructuralIntegrity Procedia 00 (2021) 000–000

signals. The results of the analysis of AE signals for the CWT and DWT in section C-D are similar to the previous
section with the difference that the percentage of events that accompany the pull-out of the fiber increases to 12%.
Fig. 4b shows the distribution of the number of AE events that accompanied the different fracture mechanisms at
different stages of loading. It can be seen that the ratio between the different fracture mechanisms changes with
increase of the bending load. At the initial stages there is an active micro- and macrocracking, then the percentage of
events that were generated due to the pull-out/sliding of the fiber increases. Since the hooked-end fiber is used for
reinforcement, its pull-out/sliding is accompanied by intense propagation of cracks from its ends in the concrete
matrix. Therefore, although in the last stages of loading of SFRC these mechanisms traditionally dominate, we
observe a large number of AE signals that accompany cracking in SFRC. The obtained results are consistent with
literature (Li et al. (2018)).

6. Conclusions

Reinforcement of concrete with hooked-end steel fiber increases its flexural strength and resistance to deflection;
compared to plain concrete, the ultimate flexural strength of specimens is maximally improved by 12%, 50% and
100% for fiber volume fraction 1.5%, 2% and 2.5%, respectively.
The parameters of the CWT and DWT of AE signals can be used to assess the damage to SFRC, which changes
with time, and the characteristics of the stages and mechanisms of its fracture.
The proposed method of identifying the types and mechanisms of SFRC fracture by the parameters of local
pulses of the CWT of signals AE (dominant frequency, radiation duration and energy parameter) and energy
distribution of the DWT makes it possible to assess in real time the degree of damage to structures made of such
materials.

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