PLANNING RESPONSES TO THE SITING OF TELECOMMUNICATION MASTS:

INSIGHTS FROM THE KUMASI METROPOLIS

By

Emmanuel Amponsah

(BA. Integrated Community Development)

A thesis submitted to the School of Graduate Studies, Kwame Nkrumah University of

Science and Technology, Kumasi in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of

MASTER OF PHILOSOPHY (MPHIL) DEVELOPMENT STUDIES

DEPARTMENT OF PLANNING

FACULTY OF BUILT ENVIRONMENT

COLLEGE OF ART AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT

JUNE, 2020
 DECLARATION
I hereby declare that this submission is my work and that, to the best of my knowledge and belief,
it contains no material previously published or written by another person nor material which to a
substantial extent has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma at Kwame
Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi or any other educational institution,
except where due acknowledgment is made in the thesis.

Emmanuel Amponsah (PG 5024318) . .

(Name of Student and ID) Signature Date

Certified By:

Dr. Stephen Appiah Takyi . .

(Name of Supervisor) Signature Date

Certified By:

Dr. Owusu Amponsah . .

(Name of Supervisor) Signature Date

Certified By:

Prof. Micheal Poku-Boansi . .

(Head of Department) Signature Date

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 ABSTRACT
Rapid urbanization which has led to an increase in the population in cities has contributed to an
increased in the demand for telecommunication services. The mobile telecommunication industry
in Ghana has witnessed geometric growth and is described as one of the fastest in Africa.
Moreover, the continuous demand for mobile phones and its related services in the country has led
to the proliferation of telecommunication masts and towers across the cityscape.

Several studies have provided evidence to adverse health and safety concerns with
telecommunication masts. Different countries and cities have accordingly adopted locational
planning standards to regulate the siting of masts across the cityscape. However, studies on
compliance with planning standards and regulations that govern the siting of telecommunication
masts are less common. To address this knowledge gap, the study employed mixed research
approach to assesses the level, drivers and barriers to compliance with standards that regulate the
siting of masts. The study relied on two main sources of data, namely: the secondary and the
primary sources. The secondary data were accessed from documentary sources such as the
Guidelines on Communications Towers (2010), the Zoning Guidelines and Planning Standards
(2011) and reports from Bank of Ghana, Ghana Statistical Service and the National
Communication Authority. The primary data, on the other hand, were collected using an
observational checklist, interview schedule and open-ended questionnaire from regulatory
institutions, telecommunication masts firms, property owners who give out land/ space for masts
and households who live within a 50m radius of installed masts in Oforikrom, Bantama and
Nhyieaso in the Kumasi Metropolis.

The results of the spatial and locational analysis indicated a compliance level of 50 percent in the
study communities. The study has further shown that the level of compliance increase from low
class income residential communities to high class income neighborhoods. The findings also
revealed that enforcement and inspection by regulatory institutions, the amount charged by
land/property owners as rent for land/space as well as rewards and penalties for compliance and
non-compliance influence the siting of masts according to standards. Based on the ndings, the
study recommends, the need to review the standard with all stakeholder, reinforcement of
inspections and monitoring of sites, enforcement of sanctions and penalties and the need to institute

ii
prudent industry practice to improve the siting of masts according to the set standards and
regulations.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Sincere thanks and appreciation goes to the Almighty God for good health and wellbeing that
were necessary to complete this research. I wish to express my sincere thanks to my supervisors
Dr. Stephen Appiah Takyi and Dr. Owusu Amponsah for their valuable guidance and
encouragement necessary for this research.

My special thanks go to Mr. Micheal Osei Assibey and Ms. Lily Lisa Yevugah for their constant
help and support throughout this research. I also express my gratitude to the entire staff of the
Department of Planning, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology for their
contribution and suggestion during my seminar presentations that enriched this study.

I am very grateful to Mr. Lawrence Opoku Agyemang and Misses Ida Sandra Quarm and Thelma
Akanchise for their assistance during the data collection.

I express my gratitude to Dr. Joseph Amoako, Mr. Samuel Osei, Mr. Andrews Obeng Afum and
the entire staff of the Radiation Protection Institute of the Ghana Atomic Energy Commission.

I also wish to express my appreciation to Messrs. William Agyare and Gilbert Boadi of Ghana
Civil Aviation Authority, Ms. Abigail Masti of the Planning Unit of Kumasi Metropolitan
Assembly, the staff of National Communication Authority, Environmental Protection Agency
Kumasi, American Tower cooperation, Netis Ghana, Helios Towers and Eaton Towers for
providing me with all the necessary information for this study.

I thank my mother Ms. Cecilia Antwiwaa, siblings and friends for the unceasing encouragement,
prayers, support and attention.

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 TABLE OF CONTENT

DECLARATION ........................................................................................................................ i

ABSTRACT .............................................................................................................................. ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ......................................................................................................... iv

TABLE OF CONTENT ..............................................................................................................v

LIST OF TABLES ......................................................................................................................x

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS................................................................................................... xii

CHAPTER ONE ....................................................................................................................... 13

GENERAL INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................13

1.1 Background of the Study ................................................................................................. 13

1.2 Problem Statement ..........................................................................................................14

1.3 Research Questions .........................................................................................................17

1.4 Research Objectives ........................................................................................................17

1.5 Scope of the Study ...........................................................................................................17

1.7 Organization of the Study ................................................................................................ 19

CHAPTER TWO ...................................................................................................................... 20

CONCEPTUAL AND THEORETICAL EXPOSITION ON THE SITING OF

TELECOMMUNICATION MASTS ......................................................................................... 20

2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................20

2.2 Overview of the Telecommunication Industry in Ghana ..................................................20

2.3 Effects of Urbanization on the Location of Telecommunication Masts ............................. 22

2.4 Potential Health Hazards Associated with the Siting of Telecommunication Masts in-close
Proximity to People ...............................................................................................................24

2.5 Overview of Regulations that Govern the Siting of Telecommunication Masts in Ghana
26

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 2.5.1 Ghana Civil Aviation Authority (GCAA) ..................................................................26

2.5.2 Radiation Protection Institute (RPI) ..........................................................................27

2.5.3 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) ............................................................. 27

2.5.4 Metropolitan, Municipal and District Assemblies (MMDAs) ............................... 28

2.6 Factors that Inhibit the Enforcement of Regulations and Standards that Guide the Siting of
Telecommunication Masts .....................................................................................................28

2.8 Best Practices in the Siting of Telecommunication Masts-Lessons from the Global North
..............................................................................................................................................33

2.8.1 Best Practices in the Siting of Telecommunication Masts: Lessons from the United
Kingdom ........................................................................................................................... 33

2.8.2 Best Practices in the Siting of Telecommunication Masts: Lessons from Canada ......35

2.9 Overview of Emerging Policy Interventions on the Siting of Telecommunication Masts in

Ghana ....................................................................................................................................37

2.9.1 Infrastructure Sharing Policy .................................................................................... 37

2.9.2 Infrastructure Licensing Policy .................................................................................38

2.10 Regulatory Bodies Responsible for Enforcing Regulations that Guide the Siting of
Telecommunication Masts in Ghana ...................................................................................... 39

2.11 Theoretical Underpinning of the Study ....................................................................41

2.11.1 Rational Choice Institutionalism .............................................................................41

2.11.2 Location Theory .....................................................................................................42

2.12 Conceptual Framework ............................................................................................ 43

2.13 Summary of Literature...................................................................................................46

CHAPTER THREE...................................................................................................................48

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY............................................................................................... 48

3.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 48

3.2 Description of the Study Area-Kumasi ............................................................................48

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 3.3 Epistemological Foundation of the Study.........................................................................50

3.4 Research Approach..........................................................................................................50

3.5 Sources of Data ...............................................................................................................51

3.6 Data Collection Instruments ............................................................................................ 52

3.6.1 Interview Schedule ...................................................................................................52

3.6.2 Open-Ended Questionnaire ....................................................................................... 52

3.6.3 Observation Checklist ............................................................................................... 53

3.7 Sampling Techniques ......................................................................................................53

3.8 Sample Size Determination.............................................................................................. 55

3.9 Ethical Consideration ......................................................................................................55

3.10 Reliability and Validity of Findings ...............................................................................56

3.11 Data Analyses and Presentation ..................................................................................... 57

3.12 Summary of Research Methods ..................................................................................... 58

CHAPTER FOUR ..................................................................................................................... 60

DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS ON THE SITING OF TELECOMMUNICATION

MASTS.....................................................................................................................................60

4.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 60

4.2 Critique of the processes involved in acquiring land for the siting of telecommunication
masts in the Kumasi
Metropolis ............................................................................................................................. 60

4.2.1 Processes involved in Acquiring Land/Space for Telecommunication Masts .............61

4.2.1.1 Identification of Suitable Lands..............................................................................62

4.2.1.2 Negotiation with Land/Property Owners ................................................................ 63

4.2.1.3 Investigation and Verification of Land/Property Owners ........................................65

4.2.1.4 Suitability Checks of the Site ..................................................................................66

4.2.1.5 Payments for all Permits ........................................................................................ 67

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 4.2.1.6 Installation of Masts .............................................................................................. 68

4.2.2 Source(s) of Land/Space for Telecommunication Masts ............................................69

4.2.3 Means and Compensations Paid for Land..................................................................70

4.2.4 Compatibility analysis among the various regulations that guide the siting of masts ..72

4.3 An Assessment of the level of compliance of the guidelines that guide the siting of
telecommunication masts in the Kumasi Metropolis .............................................................. 74

4.3.1 Assessment of the Level of Compliance of Installed Masts According to the Locational
.......................................................................................................................................... Planning
Standards........................................................................................................................... 76

4.3.1.1 Proximity to the Nearest Structure .........................................................................77

4.3.1.2 Proximity to Electric Power Lines ..........................................................................79

4.3.1.3 Proximity to Health and Educational Facilities ...................................................... 80

4.3.2.4 Provision of 5m No-Go Zones ................................................................................82

4.3.1.5 Accessibility of Site by Fire Tenders and the Visual/Aesthetic Impact of Masts.......84

4.3.1.6 Neighborhood Consultation ...................................................................................87

4.4 Factors that contribute to the non-compliance of standards that guide the siting of
............................................................................................................................. telecommunication
masts .....................................................................................................................................88

4.4.1 Determinants of Compliance ..................................................................................... 89

4.4.2 Enforcement and Inspections .................................................................................... 90

4.4.3 Land Value and Compensation .................................................................................92

4.4.4 Rewards and Penalties for Compliance and Non-compliance ....................................93

4.5 Institutional roles, prospects and challenges associated with the enforcement and monitoring
of compliance to standards that guide the siting telecommunication masts ............................ 94

4.5.1 National Communication Authority ..........................................................................95

4.5.2 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) ..................................................................97

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 4.5.3 Ghana Civil Aviation Authority ................................................................................99

4.5.4 Radiation Protection Institute .................................................................................. 101

4.5.5 The Kumasi Metropolitan Assembly ....................................................................... 102

4.6 Summary of Chapter...................................................................................................... 104

CHAPTER FIVE .................................................................................................................... 107

DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION .................... 107

5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 107

5.2 Findings of the Study..................................................................................................... 107

5.2.1 Critique of the processes involved in acquiring land for the siting of telecommunication
masts in the Kumasi
Metropolis ........................................................................................................................... 107

5.2.2 An Assessment of the level of compliance of the guidelines that guide the siting of
telecommunication masts in the Kumasi Metropolis ............................................................ 109

5.2.3 Factors that contribute to the non-compliance of standards that guide the siting of
............................................................................................................................. telecommunication
masts ................................................................................................................................... 112

5.2.4 Institutional roles, prospects and challenges associated with the enforcement and
monitoring of compliance to standards that guide the siting telecommunication
masts ................................................................................................................................... 113

5.5 Recommendations ......................................................................................................... 114

5.5.1.1 Public Education ................................................................................................. 114

5.5.1.2 Review of guidelines ............................................................................................ 115

5.5.1.3 Improvement of Monitoring and Periodic Inspection of Sites ............................... 115

5.5.1.4 Enforcement of penalties and Sanctions ............................................................... 116

5.5.2.1 Integration of Telecommunication Infrastructure into Land Use Plans ................. 116

5.5.2.2 Reinforcement of Co-location/Infrastructure Sharing policy ................................ 116

5.5.2.3 Adoption of Camouflage Masts ............................................................................ 117

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 5.5.2.4 Adoption of Proper Power Backup ....................................................................... 117

5.6 Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 118

5.7 Areas for Further Studies ............................................................................................... 118

REFERENCES ....................................................................................................................... 120

APPENDICES ........................................................................................................................ 133

Appendix I .......................................................................................................................... 133

Appendix II ......................................................................................................................... 134

Appendix III ........................................................................................................................ 135

Appendix IV ....................................................................................................................... 136

Appendix V ......................................................................................................................... 139

Appendix VI ....................................................................................................................... 143

Appendix VII ...................................................................................................................... 145

Appendix VIII ..................................................................................................................... 147

Appendix IX ....................................................................................................................... 149

Appendix X ......................................................................................................................... 154

LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1: Stakeholders and some of their Roles towards Installation of Masts in Ghana ...........40

Table 3.1: Demographic characteristics of Kumasi Source: Ghana Statistical Service, 2014
................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

Table 3.2: Distribution of Masts in the communities .................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

Table 3.3: Sample Sizes for the communities ............................................................................55

Table 3.4: Detailed research objectives, Variables, unit of analysis and tools for data collection 59

Table 4.1: Distribution of Masts in the selected communities .................................................... 76

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1: A Map of Kumasi and the three communities under studyError! Bookmark not
defined.

Figure 2.2: Conceptual Framework for the study .......................................................................45

Figure 3.1: Map of Kumasi the study Area .................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

Figure 4.1: Processes Telecommunication Operators go Through to Acquire Land/Space .........61

Figure 4.2: Distribution of Masts in the Study Communities...................................................... 75

Figure 4.3: Houses identified within 50m radius of installed mast at NhyieasoError! Bookmark
not defined.

Figure 4.4: Houses identified within a 50m radius of an installed mast at Bantama ............. Error!
Bookmark not defined.

Figure 4.5: Houses identified within a 50m radius of an installed mast at Oforikrom .......... Error!
Bookmark not defined.

Figure 4.6: The basement of masts in the study communities....... Error! Bookmark not defined.

Figure 4.7: Ground base masts at Nhyieaso ................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

Figure 4.8: Roof base masts at Oforikrom ................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

Figure 4.9: Distribution of Masts across the Communities understudyError! Bookmark not
defined.

Figure 4.10: Proximity of installed masts in the study communities to the nearest structure .......78

Figure 4.11: Distribution of Masts according to their Proximity to Electricity power lines .........80

Figure 4.13: Installed masts with and without 5m No-Go-Zone in the study communities .........83

Figure 4.14: Distribution of Masts in the study communities with and without 5m No-Go-Zone84

Figure 4.15: Accessibility of Sites by Fire Tenders ...................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

Figure 4.16: Accessibility of Sites in the various communities by Fire Tenders ......................... 87

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Fig 4.17 Subjective determinants of Compliance of Standard in Siting Telecommunication Masts
................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

xii
 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
ATC American Tower Corporation

EPA Environmental Protection Agency

EU European Union

GAEC Ghana Atomic Energy Commission

GCAA Ghana Civil Aviation Authority

GPS Global Positioning System

GSM Global System of Mobile Telecommunication

GSS Ghana Statistical Service

ICT Information Communication Technology

IMC Inter-Ministerial Committee

ITC Industry Technical Committee

KMA Kumasi Metropolitan Assembly

MMDAs Metropolitan, Municipal and District Assemblies

MTN Mobile Telecommunication Network

NCA National Communication Authority

NPPF National Planning Policy Framework

NUP National Urban Policy

RPI Radiation Protection Institute

USD United State Dollars

UK United Kingdom

UN United Nation

WHO World Health Organization

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 CHAPTER ONE
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study

Urbanization and expansion of towns and cities have resulted in rapid human densification,
increased demand for spaces in urban areas and emerging upsurges in land values (Thuo, 2013).
The population of cities and urban areas according to Mcmichael (2000), has grown from 5 percent
to 50 percent over the last two centuries and demographers have projected an increase to about
two-third of the world population by 2030. As a result, individuals, corporate and other entities
usually compete and acquire land and spaces within the cityscape for buildings, commercial and
other uses (Thuo, 2013; Locke and Henley, 2016). Africa is rapidly urbanizing and is only second
to Asia in terms of ongoing urbanization across the world (UN-Habitat, 2012). The inability of
city authorities in the global south to provide the requisite infrastructure to meet the growing
demand has led to pressure on facility and services (Ahmed and Dinye, 2011; Olajuyigbe and
Rotowa, 2011 G¨uneral et al., 2017). Similarly, the continuous population growth in towns and
cities has led to an increase in demand for telecommunication and other mobile services in most
cities and towns around the globe (Støttrup-andersen et al., 2017; Winkelmann and Duch, 2019).

The telecommunication industry in Ghana according to Støttrup-andersen et al., 2017;

Winkelmann and Duch (2019), is one of the fastest-growing in the continent in terms of growth in
subscribers and the massive injection of capital in infrastructures, equipment, logistics, and
software to enhance the quality of services for its consumers. The continuous demand for mobile
phones and its related services in the country has led to a massive investment in telecommunication
infrastructures such as masts and towers over the last few years to improve the quality of service
(Støttrup-andersen et al., 2017; Winkelmann and Duch, 2019). As a result, telecommunication
companies always looks for locations that give their cells stability without competing with other
telecommunication cells. Mobile operators sometimes deploy their antennas on the roof of
buildings and structures to reduce environmental and health impacts, and in other instances masts
are installed to support the antennas the provide coverage to telecommunication users. (Bond et
al., 2003).

Due to the various health and environmental effects associated with telecommunications masts
and base stations, the economic, political and social consequences of telecommunications

14
technology and its applications have taken center stage in public discourse (Kellerman, 2015).
There is, however, widespread concern about the adverse negative health impacts on people who
live or work near telecommunication masts. This is to say, people who live outside World Health
Organization (WHO) 10-meter radius are at risk because of the emission of electromagnetic
radiation from antennas of mobile base stations (Foster, 1999; Wolf and Wolf, 2004; Gibson,
2017).

There have however been a lot of calls and campaigns globally, for policies and institutional
arrangements that will regulate the installation of telecommunication towers and masts at sites that
harm people and the environment (Burby and Dalton (1994). In response to the health and safety
concerns globally, various regulatory institutions have adopted standards and regulations to
streamline the deployment and installation of telecommunication masts and towers.

Like other nations, Ghana has adopted precautionary guidelines and regulations to manage the
deployment of telecommunication masts and towers. Within the Ghanaian context, the relevant
guidelines and standards that guide the siting of telecommunication masts and towers include
Guidelines on Communications Towers and the Zoning Guidelines and Planning Standards. These
guidelines detail procedures and measures with alternatives to how telecommunications companies
in the country can locate telecommunications masts. Institutions, authorities and bodies such as
the National Communication Authority (NCA), Environmental Protection Agency(EPA),
Radiation Protection Institute(RIP) and the Ghana Civil Aviation Authority(GCAA) have been
mandated to ensure adherence to these set standards and regulations. However, over the years
various interest groups in the sector have expressed concerns over the compliance and enforcement
of the standards and regulations.

Premised on these discussions, this research sought to provide insight into how telecommunication
masts in Kumasi are located according to the set locational planning regulations. In addition, the
study provided insights on the factors that influence compliance, and the roles of the various
institutions in ensuring compliance of standards. It will also assess the processes and difficulties
mobile operators are experiencing in obtaining land/space for their masts.

1.2 Problem Statement

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The increase in demand for telecommunication and other mobile services as a result of population
growth has led to an increase in the number of telecommunication infrastructures such as masts,
towers and base stations. Masts and towers are installed because without them, mobile
telecommunication cannot work technologically (Bello, 2010; Donkoh et al., 2017). Mobile
phones and the base station inaugurate signals until there is the contact for communication. These
signals are released to customers within a given geographic area by the nearest base station.
Closeness to a base station is essential to quality coverage since antennas at the base station are
restricted to geographical areas called cells (Adetokunboh et al, 2018). The topography of the area
as well as the rate of calls are the determinants of cell coverage from a given base station. It is
therefore essential to have base stations closer to users because there is a direct connection between
proximity to a base station and the quality of service. (Bond et al., 2003; Adetokunboh et al, 2018).
For technological and marketing purposes, telecommunications companies acquire land and
space for their base stations at different locations across cityscapes to boost the efficiency of their
network in a particular vicinity (Adetokunboh et al, 2018).

However, living in close proximity to telecommunication masts or base stations is described as

harmful to human health. Prolonged exposure to high-frequency fields of telecommunications
exposes human to fatigue, headaches, tremors, skin ailments, memory disruption, nausea and
irritability, leukemia, epilepsy and multiple cancers (Santini et al., 2002; Everaert and Bauwens,
2007; Abdel-Rassoul et al., 2007; Aderoju et al., 2014; Adeniji et al. 2015; Danladi et al. 2016).
It may also have a negative influence on general health, reproduction and behavior of humans and
other biological species (Abdel-Rassoul et al., 2007; Aderoju et al., 2014; Adeniji et al. 2015;
Danladi et al. 2016) whilst also having an enormous psychological burden on people who live
nearer to it (Odunola et al. 2015). Eneh (2015) also observed how children suffer from extreme
fatigue, nosebleed and memory loss when their place of residence or school is less than 10 meters
from telecommunications base station and masts. Older people and staff also suffer from body
discomfort and pressure, exhaustion, eye irritation, stress, digestive disorders, facial tingling,
irritation of the ear/nose/throat and rash. In addition, vibration generated by plants that provide
alternative power to base station affects surrounding buildings Dalil et al (2016). To clarify,
vibrations cause cracks on building close to installed telecommunication masts (Dalil et al, 2016).

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Moreover, there have been many concerns and public outcry about the potential health risks
associated with the placement of telecommunications masts, particularly in residential areas
(Industry Technical Committee, 2010). The Government of Ghana in response to the public
concerns and outcry has developed standards and regulations to manage the siting of
telecommunication. However, the reality of how telecommunications masts are located in the
rapidly urbanizing city of Kumasi in compliance with the set standards and regulations has become
a concern. Kumasi demonstrates the features of a rapidly growing city in the global south with
very high population growth and density (being 8,013 pe on / .km. again A han i Region
236 persons/sq.km.) (GSS, 2014). The ci o la ion ha almo do bled ince he ea 2000
with an estimated 2.5 million people during the daytime due to the role it serves as the center for
commercial, health, and education in Ghana and neighboring countries (Kumasi Investment Guide,
2013). As a result, all cellular phone operators in the country namely; Vodafone, MTN, TigoAirtel,
Expresso and Glo operate and have coverage in the city (GSS, 2014).

The review of literature in this area of research showed that various researchers have conducted
studies on the compliance and siting of telecommunication masts. Overall, the conventional
literature focuses on potential health threats associated with telecommunications location of masts
near residential areas (Everaert and Bauwens, 2007; Akintonwa et al.,2009: Eneh, 2015;
Olanrewaju, 2016; Sadiq, et al.,2017); the effect of mobile phone or telecommunication masts and
towers on the adjoining property values (Foster, 1999; Santini et al., 2002; Bond et al., 2003; Wolf
and Wolf, 2004; Abdel-Rassoul et al., 2007; Timotijevic et al., 2007; Filippova and Rehm 2012;
Adeniji et al. 2015; Odunola et al. 2015); and the optimal telecommunications mast usage
(Støttrup-andersen et al., 2017). Other studies centered on the perception of people living in close
proximity to telecommunications masts (Adebayo,2010); the link between mobile
telecommunications and economic development or growth (Datta and Agarwal, 2006; Zahra et al.
2008; Adei et al., 2015). Finally, researchers such as Acheampong (2019) analysed the historical
origins and evolution of Ghana's urban planning and scheme.

The literature review showed that research on compliance to locational planning guidelines and
regulations with regards to the location of telecommunication masts and towers in the global south
is limited in the conventional literature. This study aims to tackle the current gap by examining
and analysing the levels, drivers and obstacles to compliance with the set locational planning

17
standards. This study provides insights into how telecommunication companies adhere to
regulations and standards that guide the installation of telecommunication masts in the Kumasi
Metropolis.

1.3 Research Questions

This study seeks to present answers to the following research questions:

1. What are the processes involved in the acquisition of land for telecommunications masts
in the Kumasi Metropolis?
2. To what extent does the siting of telecommunication masts in the Kumasi Metropolis
conform to planning standards that guide the siting of telecommunication masts?

3. What factors contribute to the non-compliance of standards that guide the siting
telecommunication masts?

4. What are the institutional roles, prospects and challenges associated with the enforcement
and monitoring of compliance to standards in the location of telecommunication masts?

1.4 Research Objectives

The study's main objective is to assess the level, drivers and barriers to compliance with standards
that regulate the siting of telecommunication masts. The specific research objectives are;

1. To examine the processes involved in land acquisition of land for telecommunication masts
in the Kumasi Metropolis.
2. To assess the level of compliance in the siting of telecommunication masts in the Kumasi
Metropolis according to the planning standards that guide the siting of masts.
3. To examine the factors that contribute to non-compliance of standards that guide the siting
of telecommunication masts.
4. To assess the institutional roles, prospects and challenges associated with the enforcement
and monitoring of compliance to standards in the location of telecommunication masts.

1.5 Scope of the Study

Geographically, the research was carried out in Kumasi, the capital of the Ashanti region of Ghana.
The Metropolis is the second largest metropolis in Ghana after Accra the capital of the country.

18
Kumasi has a total land area of 254 km2 and a population of 2,035,064 (GSS 2013, 2014). Kumasi
demonstrates the features of a rapidly growing city in the global south with very high population
growth and density (being 8,013 persons/sq.km. against Ashanti Region 236 e on / .km.) and
ever-growing demand for telecommunication and other social services. The combination of rapid
urbanisation and increasing demand for telecommunication services makes Kumasi an ideal city
for the study. Moreover, mobile phones and telecommunication services are widely used across
the entire city. As a result, telecommunication masts are installed strategically across all the
settlements in the city. The study was, however, conducted in three communities namely,
Oforikrom, Bantama, and Nhyiaeso in the city. The communities were purposively selected to
represent low, middle, and high class income residential areas in the city based on the Kumasi
Metropolitan Assembly (2014) classification of communities. The selection was necessary to
obtain a cross section of the location of telecommunications masts in the city.

Contextually, this study focuses on the planning role; policies, institutional structures, rules,
zoning regulations and other planning regulations in the management of telecommunications
masts. This research relied on variables such as level of compliance to standards, determinants of
compliance standards and compatibility of policies and arrangements. The study will also examine
the land acquisition process for masts and the challenges involved and the roles and challenges of
major institutions mandated to ensure compliance of standards.

1.6 Relevance of the Research

The rapid increase in the population of cities coupled with the ever-increasing demand for mobile
phones and other telecommunication services has necessitated the need for the installation of
telecommunication masts to meet the needs of the growing mobile telecommunication subscribers.
However, there have been questions about the detrimental effects of living close to
telecommunication masts and base stations. There are numerous illnesses and health problems
associated with living in close proximity to telecommunication mast (Everaert and Bauwens, 2007;
Akintonwa et al.,2009: Eneh, 2015; Olanrewaju, 2016; Sadiq, et al., 2017). In response to the
growing health concerns, regulations and standards have been developed to regulate the siting of
masts (Timotijevic et al., 2007). The levels and determinates of compliance to these standards by
operators are limited in the conventional literature. This study will, therefore, help address this

19
important literature gap by assessing the extent to which telecommunication masts are sited in
compliance with the set planning standards.

The findings and recommendations of the study will help contribute to academic and public policy
discourse on the enforcement and compliance of these standards. Additionally, this research will
assist policymakers, government and regulatory bodies to design appropriate interventions that
will encourage operators to comply with the set standards and regulations. Furthermore, the
findings of this study will present the challenges that telecommunication companies face in
acquiring land for the siting of telecommunication masts. The results of the research will also
inform interest groups such as traditional authorities, spatial planners, development planners and
other regulatory bodies to integrate spaces for telecommunication infrastructure in their land use
and spatial planning.

Overall, this research will serve as a reference point for future studies on the compliance and
enforcement of regulations that guide the siting of telecommunication masts. The study will help
in the design of integrated, effective and feasible programmes, plans and policies that will
incorporate the interest and concerns of relevant stakeholders. This will contribute to the
harmonious deployment of telecommunication masts and towers in the city and cities in the global
south that have similar characteristics like that of Kumasi. Finally, the results and recommendation
of this study will serve as the basis for the formulation of strategies that will help build the capacity
of the various regulatory institutions in the enforcement of the standards and regulations that guide
the siting of telecommunication masts.

1.7 Organization of the Study

The study is structured into five chapters, chapter one consists of the introductory / background
aspect; the research problem; research questions; research objective and study significance or
justification. Chapter two consists of the review of literature that is relevant to the study. The
chapter presents an overview of urbanization and land use, telecommunication and its operations,
perceptions, and risk associated with telecommunication masts. The chapter also present an
analysis of the complexity of compliance and the stakeholders and institutions involved in the
siting of telecommunication mast. Chapter three focuses on the methodological approach for the
research. It consists of the research approach to adopted, the methods used in sampling and
collection of relevant data and how the collected data was analyzed. Chapter four comprise data

20
processing, data analysis, and data presentation. The final chapter, which is chapter five presents
the major findings of the study; conclusion; and recommendations that will help shape decision
making, policies, and strategies on the siting of telecommunication masts in Ghana and beyond.

CHAPTER TWO
CONCEPTUAL AND THEORETICAL EXPOSITION ON THE SITING OF
TELECOMMUNICATION MASTS
2.1 Introduction

This chapter presents an overview of literature that is relevant to this study. Specifically, the
chapter addresses how urbanization has led to conflicting demands for land in cities and urban
centres, and the rising demand for and operation of telecommunications services. The chapter also
discusses issues that relate to the telecommunication industry in Ghana, the location of
telecommunication base station and factors that influence the siting of masts. Additionally, the
chapter discussed the factors that inhibit the enforcement of standards that govern
telecommunications masts and how regulatory institutions react to non-compliance in the siting of
telecommunication masts and towers. The chapter also presents the theoretical and conceptual
background of the study and the gaps in the literature on the deployment of telecommunication
masts in Ghana.

2.2 Overview of the Telecommunication Industry in Ghana

Ghana is one of the first countries in Africa to liberalize its telecommunication industry in the early
1990s (Osei-owusu, 2015). The removal of state control and monopoly allowed private sector
participation in the provision of telecommunication services in the country (Osei-owusu, 2015;
Arthur and Arthur, 2017). The move culminated into the promulgation of the National
Communication Authority (NCA) Act 524 in December 1996, an independent regulatory
institution mandated to regulate communication through cable, wireless, television, radio, satellite,
and related technology. The National Communication Authority was tasked to promote and ensure
orderly and efficient communication service in the country (Arthur and Arthur, 2017). The

21
ministry of communication was also established in 1997 as a government representative mandated
to develop and manage the use of communication resources for effective communication in the
country (Addy-Nayo, 2001). Even though the telecommunication market in Ghana is more private
or competitive, the government still plays an active role in ensuring the growth and development
of the industry through regulations, reforms, and policies (Osei-owusu, 2015).

Telecommunication has been one of the backbones of income generation in the Ghanaian economy
(Eshun, 2009). The industry has promoted the economic growth of the country, by contributing up
to 10 percent of government income and 2.2 percent of GDP, while attracting 7 percent of the
co n total investment (National Communications Authority, 2017). Public and private
investment in the telecommunication industry in Ghana over the years has succeeded in surpassing
the investment in the natural and agricultural industries such as diamond, gold, and bauxite (Eshun,
2009). Mobile telecommunication and telecommunication in general, continue to remain important
to the functioning of small, medium and large-scale businesses in Ghana(Lum, 2011; Ussher 2015;
and Adei et al. 2015). The industry has contributed to creating occupational opportunities and
eventually aids in mitigating the unemployment rate of the country (Kuofie et al., 2011). It does
so by creating self-employment opportunities such as the mobile money business, credit transfer
and other petty businesses for small and private entrepreneurs. Graduates and other technical
experts are employed by telecommunication operators for the installation of their equipment,
administrative and other ancillary duties. Available statistics by the National Communications
Authority (2017) suggest that out of a total of 3,383,204 persons employed across all sectors of
the economy, 40,635, constituting 1.2 percent, were employed in the ICT/ telecommunication
sector.

Mobile telecommunication has seen geometric growth in Ghana and is described as one of the
fastest growing in Africa. The growth and accomplishment are anchored on significant capital
investment into infrastructure, logistics, equipment and software to produce reliable and affordable
services for subscribers ( Støttrup-andersen et al., 2017; Winkelmann and Duch, 2019). The siting
of telecommunication masts has attracted interest in the media and public discourse due to the
perceived health risk associated with locating them in close to where people live or work. The
Government of Ghana has adopted precautionary measures that guide the siting of
telecommunication masts in the country. Guidelines and standards that govern the siting of masts

22
in Ghana include the Guidelines on Communications Towers (2010) and the Zoning Guidelines
and Planning Standards (2011). Regulatory agencies mandated to regulate and enforce the set
standards include the National Communication Authority (NCA), Ghana Civil Aviation Authority
(GCAA), Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Metropolitan, Municipal and District
Assemblies (MMDAs) and Radiation Protection Institute (RPI). Other supporting institutions are
the Ghana Atomic Energy Commission (GAEC), the Ministry of Communication, the Ministry of
Environment, Science and Technology, the Ministry of Local Government and Rural
Development, and the Ghana Chamber of Telecommunications.

The use of mobile phones and telecommunication services in Ghana is on the ascendency. As at
the end of July 2017 there were 37,136,600 mobile voice subscribers in the country (National
Communications Authority, 2017b). The mobile money business in Ghana also recorded a growth
rate of 737.4 percent from 2012 to 2016 (Bank of Ghana, 2017). The figures demonstrate the
acceptance and growth of telecommunication in Ghana. The growth of telecommunication in
Ghana has attracted additional infrastructures such as masts and base stations. These masts are
located at different locations across cities and towns to provide coverage to mobile and
telecommunication users. From the foregoing, the goal of government is to ensure the harmonious
location of telecommunication masts that promote the health and wellbeing of people. However,
the extent to which masts are located in compliance to the set locational planning standards remains
unclear in conventional literature. Hence, the purpose of this study is to assess the level, drivers
and barriers to compliance with the standards that govern the siting of telecommunication masts
in the Kumasi Metropolis.

2.3 Effects of Urbanization on the Location of Telecommunication Masts

Globally, the urbanization process continues to put enormous pressure on available land in cities
and this phenomenon is occurring largely in the global south. Urbanization affects human society
in both positive and negative ways (Ibrahim et al., 2014). The connection between urbanisation
and health is a top priority of the international development community's agenda (Voigtländer et
al., 2008). Therefore, priority is placed on the expansion and growth of towns and cities and their
impact on the human environment, health and well-being.

Urbanization is the growth and expansion of cities characterized by an increase in population

through migration from rural to urban areas in search of economic and social opportunities

23
(Ngetich et al., 2016; Awumbila, 2017). The world including Africa is experiencing rapid
urbanization. However, the urbanization process in Africa, especially in Sub-Saharan Africa, tends
to differ from expansions in other parts of the world. The growth of cities and towns in Africa is
characterized by unchecked and unplanned expansion with poor infrastructure and service
delivery, unstructured land market, complicated and weak settlement governance procedures, poor
land use and administration capability and weak planning authorities with the presence of informal
settlements and slums (Olajuyigbe and Rotowa, 2011; Ahmed and Dinye, 2011; G¨uneral et al.,
2017). In response to this situation, Cobbinah et al. (2019) highlighted the importance of the
National Urban Policy (NUP), with has a goal of P omo ing a ainable, a iall in eg a ed
and orderly development of urban settlements with adequate housing, infrastructure and services,
e cien in i ion , and a o nd li ing and o king en ironment for all people to support the
a id ocioeconomic de elo men of Ghana .

Furthermore, the complexities of urban growth are further compounded by the lack of sufficient
institutional and legal frameworks to promote sustainable urbanisation. Poor planning amidst
urbanization creates an imbalance between population and infrastructural facilities, inefficient and
indiscriminate use of land and other factors that expose citizens to various health risks (UN-
Habitat, 2016). The expansion of infrastructural services such as water supply, transportation,
electricity and telecommunications to boost economic growth and development in towns and cities
should be carried out in accordance with the laid down planning standards and specifications. Most
private developers in developing countries, such as Ghana, often build and site facilities at places
that defy planning requirements and expose residents to the various risks, often in the residential
neighborhoods (UN-Habitat, 2016).

Moreover, researchers such as Chen et al., (2014) and Li (2017) argue that investment,
urbanization and economic growth have a relationship. Urbanization brings the need for public
infrastructure investments that drive economic growth and development for said town or city (Li,
2017). Li (2017) describes how urbanization and the elimination of monopoly power have
increased the number of mobile subscribers in China. There is currently an expansion of
telecommunication infrastructures and facilities in many cities and towns in most developing
countries especially in the area of global system of mobile telecommunication (GSM) to maximise

24
the benefits it offers (Odunola et al., 2015). The expansion is influenced by the increasing number
of telecommunication users in cities and towns as a result of urbanization.

However, land according to Olima, (2003) and Lasisi et al. (2017) is fixed in supply and does not
increase with population growth and an upsurge in socioeconomic activities. Sam-awortwi et al.
(2016) stressed the importance of the urban land market to the growth of cities and towns. Thus,
the demand for land exceeds the supply resulting in a shortage and high competition for urban
land. Therefore, limited availability of land in urban areas creates imperfect condition for
conversion of land into various uses that pose greater threat to urban planning and management
(Midha et al., 2008; Senaratne and Zainudeen, 2015).

Additionally, the advancement in information and communication technology has influenced the
dynamics of land use in cities and towns (Talvitie, 2003). The demand for telecommunication
services coupled with limited availability of land has resulted in the siting of its infrastructure such
as masts and towers at locations that expose people to different health risks (Bello, 2010). Most of
these masts are mounted in residential and commercial areas; thereby, posing a lot of challenges
for effective land use planning and management in cities and towns. Bishi and Olajide (2011) also
note that land tenure system and fragmentation of lands mostly in sub-Saharan African are major
hindrances to the accessibility of land for construction of telecommunication mast especially in
already built areas in cities and urban areas where subscribers are concentrated. The situation has
resulted in the proliferation of telecommunication mast close to residential areas; thus exposing
residents to the potential health risk associated with prolonged exposure to electromagnetic
radiation.

Similarly, the relationship between rapid urbanization coupled with the ever-increasing demand
for telecommunication services and competing demands for urban lands influence the siting of
telecommunication masts in cities and towns. This creates a condition that contributes to
compliance or noncompliance in the siting of masts according to standards and regulations. On
this basis, this study examines how urbanization and competing demands for land influence non-
compliance with standards that regulate the siting of telecommunication masts.

2.4 Potential Health Hazards Associated with the Siting of Telecommunication Masts in-close
Proximity to People

25
The possible health hazards associated with prolonged exposure to electromagnetic waves from
cellular phone base stations have recently become a global concern. This has contributed to the
proliferation of studies on the potential health risks of using cellular phones and living near mobile
base stations (Imran et al., 2018). Emerging evidence from different studies suggests that living or
working in the vicinity of telecommunications masts may have significant health implications,
there was a high and growing incidence of cancer among residents and staff who spend a
substantial amount of time at locations near telecommunication base station is noteworthy
(Aderoju et al., 2014).

Moreover, prolonged exposure to telecommunication mobile base station expose humans to

different diseases and symptoms. Some of the diseases and symptoms include headaches, tremors,
skin problems, memory disruption, nausea, Leukemia, and other cancer varieties. Additionally,
epilepsy, sudden loss of hearing, joint and limb pains, sinusitis frequent infections, visual
disturbances, ear noises, nose bleeds, increased blood pressure, hormonal disturbances, night-time
sweats, and sleep disturbances are also associated with prolonged exposure to telecommunication
masts (Santini et al., 2002; Abdel-Rassoul et al., 2007; Everaert and Bauwens, 2007; Aderoju et
al., 2014; Adeniji et al. 2015; Danladi et al.2016). Santini et al (2012) also argued that living in
close proximity to a telecommunication base station is associated with headache, nausea, loss of
memory and sleep distraction. The intensity and frequency of cases of these health challenges have
a direct relationship with proximity to base stations. The more one stays in close proximity to base
stations, the higher the chances of experiencing these symptoms especially for those who live
within 50 to 100 metres to the base station (Santini et al, 2012).

Akintonwa et al.,(2009) similarly, observed the health consequences associated with exposure to
radiation from telecommunication masts. Different symptoms were identified with residents who
live in close proximity to masts with headache as the most prevalent symptom. There was also a
statistically significant association between the level of exposure to radiation in terms of proximity
to telecommunication masts, duration of exposure and the severity of health hazards.

Furthermore, research on the enormous health risk and challenges associated with living in close
proximity to telecommunication masts prompted countries such as the United States, New Zealand
and Australia to adopt policies that prohibit the erection of telecommunication masts in residential
areas and other areas of prolonged human activities (Aderoju et al., 2014). Ghana has also

26
developed guidelines and standards that guide the installation of masts to allay the fears and risks
associated with prolong exposure to telecommunication masts. However, the extent to which masts
are sited in compliance with the set planning standards and regulations remain unresolved in
conventional literature. Hence, the purpose of this study is to assess the extent of compliance with
the set standards and make recommendations to address barriers to compliance with the standards
that guide the deployment of telecommunication masts in Ghana.

2.5 Overview of Regulations that Govern the Siting of Telecommunication Masts in Ghana

In response to the possible health and safety concerns associated with the location of
telecommunication masts, the inter-ministerial committee (IMC) was established to champion the
design and implementation of a solution framework for siting telecommunication base station. The
IMC inaugurated an Industry Technical Committee (ITC) led by the National Communications
Authority (NCA) to partner with industry and other stakeholders such as the Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA), Ghana Atomic Energy Commission (GAEC), Ghana Civil Aviation
Authority (GCAA), Metropolitan, Municipal and District Assemblies (MMDAs) to design a set of
guidelines for an efficient and effective permitting scheme for siting telecommunication masts in
the country (Industry Technical Committee, 2010).

The regulations guiding the siting of telecommunication masts in Ghana mandates the operator to
obtain all the necessary approval and permits from the relevant institutions and authorities before
the installation of masts (Industry Technical Committee, 2010). As a result, operators are required
to apply to the respective Metropolitan, Municipal and District Assemblies (MMDAs) after
obtaining a permit from the Radiation Protection Institute (RPI) and the Ghana Civil Aviation
Authority (GCAA) approvals (Industry Technical Committee, 2010).

2.5.1 Ghana Civil Aviation Authority (GCAA)

The Ghana Civil Aviation is one of the institutions mandated to guide the siting of
telecommunication masts in Ghana. Their main goal is to ensure that the siting of mast is of no
threat to air navigation. They partner with the National Communication Authority and other
institutions to ensure harmonious and safety location of masts and towers in Ghana (Industry
Technical Committee, 2010).

27
All applications for installation or alteration of masts and other telecommunication structures are
forwarded to the GCAA for evaluation and assessment for permits on airspace safety. Additionally,
the authority is a member of the Inter-Ministerial Committee, where the collaborate with other
institutions to develop and update the standard the governs the siting of masts in Ghana (see
Appendix IV).

2.5.2 Radiation Protection Institute (RPI)

The Radiation Protection Institute is one of the institutions mandated by the legislation of Ghana
to guide the siting of masts in Ghana (Industry Technical Committee, 2010). The main objective
of the Institute is to ensure that the public, workers and the environment are secured from any
detrimental effect of radiation from telecommunication base station.

The Institute conduct safety assessment of proposed masts before approval is given for installation.
They also conduct periodic measurements of radiations from install masts to ensure people and the
environment are protected from the harmful effects of electromagnetic rays (Industry Technical
Committee, 2010). The Institute furthermore, collaborates with the NCA and other institutions to
develop and update the standard the regulate the siting of the masts in Ghana (see Appendix IV).

2.5.3 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

The Environmental Protection Agency is also one of the institutions mandated to guide the siting
of telecommunication masts and towers in Ghana (Industry Technical Committee, 2010). The main
goal of the Agency is to ensure that the surrounding environment where people live or work is
protected from the damaging effects of telecommunication mast and tower. To achieve the
aforementioned goal, the Agency conducts environmental impact assessment before they issue
approval for installation of masts and towers. They also carryout periodic assessments of existing
masts and towers to ensure they are threat-free to people and the environment (Industry Technical
Committee, 2010).

An operator who plans to construct a telecommunications mast or tower shall obtain EPA
permission, who will carry out an environmental impact assessment to protect the environment
from the harmful effects of telecommunications mast and tower (Industry Technical Committee,
2010).

28
The agency additionally, partner with the NCA to ensure the removal of abandoned masts and
others that are sited in contravention to the set standards (Industry Technical Committee, 2010).
The EPA is also a member of the Inter-Ministerial Committee that develops and updates the
standards that regulate the siting of telecommunication masts and towers in Ghana (see Appendix
IV).

2.5.4 Metropolitan, Municipal and District Assemblies (MMDAs)

The Metropolitan, Municipal and District Assemblies as local governments are mandated by the
legislation of Ghana to ensure the siting of telecommunication masts and towers in the area under
their jurisdiction (Industry Technical Committee, 2010). They ascertain that masts are installed by
meeting all the requirements and approval from the agencies and institutions that regulate that
siting of masts in Ghana.

Assemblies basically collaborate with institutions to ensure installation and removal masts within
their area. Additionally, they ensure that public consultations are carried out in the proposed
neighborhood before installation of masts (Industry Technical Committee, 2010). They are also a
member of the inter-Ministerial Committee that develops and update the standards that regulate
the siting of masts and towers in Ghana (see Appendix IV).

2.6 Factors that Inhibit the Enforcement of Regulations and Standards that Guide the Siting
of Telecommunication Masts

The enforcement of planning standards and regulations has become one of the most crucial
dilemmas in land use planning. Weak enforcement of standards continues to hinder the relevance
of regulatory agencies and city authorities globally (Sarkheyli et al., 2012). Planning standards
and regulations provide the roadmap on how development is carried out and managed.
Additionally, it is primarily targeted at social welfare through the most effective use of resources
in terms of benefits and costs for the current and future generations. (Rezazadeh et al., 2017; Adjei-
poku, 2018). Similarly, Rezazadeh et al. (2017) noted that compliance with the siting of facilities,
infrastructure and public services is important to improve the smooth running and functioning of
the cities. Compliance with the planning regulations represents the planning bodies' ability to
govern and manage urban spatial development

29
(Alnsour and Meaton, 2009). Moreover, the enforcement of planning standards, guidelines and
provisions relating to physical infrastructure or facilities such as telecommunications masts and
base stations is a way of promoting the public interest; the promotion of fairness and safe urban
life (Sarkheyli et al., 2012). Enforcement of planning standards and regulations to ensure that
masts and towers are sited according to the set standard has not been effective in most developing
countries such as Ghana.

However, the weak enforcement of planning standards and regulations in the global south can be
attributed to several factors. Overall, most of the regulatory agencies lack the requisite resources
in human, logistical and data to enforce and monitor compliance (Abu, 2017; UN-Habitat, 2016).
Globally, the capacity of planning agencies varies among countries. There is a strong relationship
between the level of development of countries, their planning capacity and the enforcement of
planning provisions and standards (UN-Habitat, 2016). Compared to their counterparts in the
global south, countries in the global north mostly have well-resourced planning agencies with the
requisite logistics and human resources that enforce planning standards and regulations. It must be
noted that countries in the global south such as Ghana usually demonstrates a clear weakness in
human resource in terms of quality and quantity compared with advanced countries (Olajuyigbe
and Rotowa, 2011). This demonstrates the weakness on the part of regulatory agencies in Ghana;
thus, contributing to the non-compliance of standards and regulations that guide the siting of
telecommunication masts.

Moreover, the payment of a huge amount of money as compensation by telecommunication

operators to landowners to allow masts near their residence and other vicinity is one of the factors
that inhibit enforcement of planning standards and regulations in Ghana. In order to make
supernormal profits, land and property owners accept a huge amount of money from
telecommunication operators to allow masts in their vicinity, with no idea or disregard for the
health and other associated hazards. This practice makes enforcement of regulations and standards
very difficult and complicated.

Furthermore, the limited availability of space as a result of urbanization and competing demand
for land inhibit the enforcement of planning standards and regulations that guide the siting of masts
and other facilities (Metropolitan Planning Coordinating Unit, 2014). Adetokunboh et al. (2018)
identified the challenges telecommunication companies go through in their quest to acquire land

30
for the siting of base station. These challenges include the non-availability of suitable land due to
the competition among land uses in urban areas. Telecommunication operators in order to provide
coverage and survive in business acquire the limited spaces available in urban centers such as
spaces around residential and commercial land uses to site their masts (Adetokunboh et al., 2018).
Eventually, the practice of siting masts in the built up area with limited space poses a threat to the
enforcement of planning standards and regulations.

Additionally, the uncompromising attitude of some community leaders, the extortive attitude of
some government agencies and the multiple entitlements of ownership of appropriate sites also
inhibit the enforcement of standards and regulations that guide the installation of
telecommunication masts (Adetokunboh et al., 2018). The difficulty of some traditional leaders to
come to terms with telecommunication operators regarding appropriate sites for their masts is a
challenge to enforcement of standards. This occurs when operators are made to site at an alternative
location due to the inability to reach an agreement with traditional authorities for an appropriate
site (Adetokunboh et al.,2018). Also, the attitude of the staff of regulatory agencies adversely
affects the enforcement of planning standards and regulations Some staff members demand ransom
from operators for a permit and other works that push them to site their masts in contravention to
the set standards. The situation makes it difficult for the operator to acquire appropriate land for
their masts and in their quest for alternative, locate their mast at locations that defy planning
standards.

In summary, the weak enforcement of planning standards and regulations has contributed to the
haphazard and indiscriminate siting of telecommunication masts, in residential and areas within
the urban setting; thus, posing serious health threats and safety hazards to inhabitants. On this
basis, this study will examine the factors that contribute to non-compliance of standards that guide
the siting of telecommunication masts. It will also make recommendations that will contribute to
the enforcement of standards that regulate the siting of telecommunication masts in Ghana.

2.7 Best Practices in the Siting of Telecommunication Masts-Lessons from the Global South
(The Case of South Africa)

The development and location of telecommunication infrastructure have attracted interest from
society and governments due to public health and aesthetics. As a result, technology and legislative
frameworks have been used by governments and local councils as a new perspective to

31
telecommunication infrastructure development (The City of Polokwane, 2015). The Polokwane
city council in 2004 approved and adopted telecommunication masts policy. The policy was
necessary due to the rapid growth of telecommunication infrastructure in the city. Concerns were
raised by residents of the city that telecommunication masts affect their visibility, they are ugly,
they emit radiation, they are used to spy on them and they do not want them in their backyard (The
City of Polokwane, 2015). The policy was in response to the need to update the guidelines and
provisions the guide the installation masts. This is due to the potential impacts of
telecommunication infrastructure with emphasis on possible health risks associated with exposure
to electromagnetic radiation (The City of Polokwane, 2015).

Firstly, the policy was formulated to promote public health. The policy suggests that masts should
be located away from residential and other densely populated areas. The policy further proposes
that all telecommunication antennas should be sited more than 50m away from any habitable
building. Masts, antennas on rooftops and base stations should be gated to prevent unauthorized
person accessibility within 5m. The council will also task an independent qualified institution to
conduct periodic tests on already installed masts to determine the actual mean Radio Frequency
and other details (The City of Polokwane, 2015).

Furthermore, the policy seeks to address community resistance to the siting of telecommunication
masts. The policy proposes community participation as a means to address their concerns and
integrate their needs into the planning and deployment of masts. It recommended the need for
educational programmes and the formation of project teams to link infrastructure development of
communities to their needs and also create public awareness on alternatives options available in
telecommunication infrastructure development. This should be done through public meetings with
community members especially those who will be affected or have an influence on the siting of
masts. Public meetings are necessary to capture community participation and address concerns of
property owners regarding masts installation. Local authorities are allowed to prevent the
installation of masts if public consultations are not done to satisfaction (The City of Polokwane,
2015).

Additionally, the policy seeks to promote public safety. The policy proposes appropriate location
of telecommunication masts outside areas that could be of threat to flight movement. Special
precautionary measures have been adopted to ensure that no road, airfield and other public

32
transport structures are threatened due to the installation of masts and other telecommunication
infrastructure. Base stations, antenna support structures and other structures per the policy are
supposed to be fenced to prevent public access to them. Access to these areas must be restricted
through a locked entrance. If the structure is going to be co-used by multiple operators with a
lighting system for security reasons, a written agreement with neighboring land users is required.
The lighting system must be tested to avoid light pollution (The City of Polokwane, 2015).

Also, to address the aesthetic problems of masts the policy recommends the use of stealth masts
that are camouflaged to belittle their visibility. Applicants must demonstrate that all the necessary
measures are put in place to assimilate the intended structure with the environment it has been
planned for. Operators are also expected to put in place appropriate periodic maintenance plans to
preserve the attractiveness of the structure. This is described as an effective means of camouflaging
masts to make them visually attractive. The policy also encourages co-location of antennas of
multiple operators. Figure 2.1 depicts installed telecommunication masts in Polokwane city, South
Africa.

Finally, to address noise pollution associated with telecommunication base stations, the policy
proposes the use of windmills generators that are locally produced in South Africa by Brolaz
Projects. The other alternative contained in the policy is to cover the generator box with fiberglass
panels to mute the sound it produces. The measures are recommended to operators to address the
negative challenges of humming sound produced by generators that supply power to
telecommunication base stations.

The authority ensure compliance with the set standards through effective monitoring of base
stations on a regular and random basis. They also implement all the appropriate sanctions
contained in the condition of approval in the events of non-compliance of the standards by
operators.

33
Figure: 2. 1 Installed Telecommunication Tower in Polokwane, South Africa.
Source: The City of Polokwane, 2015

2.8 Best Practices in the Siting of Telecommunication Masts-Lessons from the Global North

Telecommunication continues to be vital to most economies across the world (Balogun, 2000;
Ajiboye et al. 2007; Lum, 2011; Okoli et al. 2018; Cooper, 2019). The siting of masts which is
important to the functioning of the industry has gone through a lot of scrutiny due to the perceived
health and safety concerns (Aderoju et al., 2014). As a result, different countries and cities have
adopted precautionary guidelines to regulate the deployment of masts and towers to minimise their
effects on humans and the environment. Some countries that have succeeded in facilitating the
growth of telecommunication systems while keeping the impact of masts and towers on humans
and the environment to the barest minimum are discussed.

2.8.1 Best Practices in the Siting of Telecommunication Masts: Lessons from the United
Kingdom

The United Kingdom is one of the world's leading mobile telecommunications operators, offering
a variety of competitive and innovative services (UK Government, 2008). The United Kingdom
telecommunications industry is continuing to develop as new networks are introduced, established
ones upgraded and expanded to meet the increasing demand (UK Government, 2008). The United

34
Kingdom Government telecommunication guideline is the Code of Best Practice on Mobile
Network Development. The code was developed by agencies such as the Department for
Communities and Local Government, Arqiva, the Department for Culture Media and Sport, the
Department for Environment, Historic England, Food and Rural Affairs, the Local Government
Association, Mobile UK, National Parks England, Landscapes for Life, and the Planning Officers
Society (UK Government, 2016). The code of practice acts as guidelines for telecommunications
providers, their agents and contractors and the United Kingdom's local planning authorities. The
code is also a useful regulatory tool for other stakeholders, such as infrastructure and amenities
organisations, community groups and individuals interested in mobile telecommunications
connectivity (UK Government, 2016). The Code 's ultimate aim is to achieve policy commitment
to the efficient delivery of telecommunications infrastructure that is essential to socio-economic
growth and development (UK Government, 2016). The Code also has a vital role in ensuring
appropriate involvement and engagement of interested parties and local communities in decisions
on telecommunication infrastructure development (UK Government, 2016).

The United Kingdom National Planning Policy Framework (NPPF) recommends that the aim of
planning systems is to safeguard sustainable development and proposes to local planning bodies
to work proactively with mobile operators to ensure progress which translates into the social,
economic and environmental development of their operational areas. The NPPF further
recommends the need operators to maintain the number of telecommunications masts and facilities
unless the need for additional infrastructures is justified. Encouraging telecommunications
operators to share infrastructure to minimize the number of masts remains a long-standing policy
goal of the UK Government.

Moreover, the planning authorities request clarification whether the operator wants to
upgrade/redevelop existing masts and other facilities or to share them with other operators or to
build a new facility. The authority requests documents relating to the compatibility of the proposed
development with the plans for local land use. Consultations with the city transport authority on
the proximity of masts to the models of traffic light and how masts could be installed without
posing challenges to the traffic lights and the transport network are also carried out. Similar
consultations are needed for schools and colleges near the location of the proposed masts. The
Civil Aviation Authority must also be consulted for endorsement to ensure the proposed masts is

35
of no threat to the functioning of airlines. Specifically, the standard recommends a minimum of
3km setback between masts and airfields. Developers are also expected to provide descriptions of
their proximity to key areas, services and other features of the city on maps showing the position
of the proposed development. The maps are necessary to ensure that the proposed development
complies with planning standards (UK Government, 2016).

Additionally, developers are expected to provide information on the: type of structure example
masts or tower; overall height of the masts; width; length; material to be used and color of
tower/mast; the height of existing buildings; and the reasons for the choice of design. Similarly, a
statement in agreement with the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Safety
Guidance on Public Access to Radio Frequency shall be applied to all applicants seeking to erect
masts. Compliance of standards is calculated by mathematical calculations based on guidelines
from the Council of the European Union (EU).

Furthermore, developers must also provide technical specifications on the coverage plots they want
to provide network coverage. Proposals to improve the capacity of a network in an area will not
generally need coverage plots (UK Government, 2016). The process of acquiring a permit takes
56 days (8weeks). The period allows planning authorities to make the necessary consultations and
make a decision on the application. The authorities begin reviewing the application, evaluating
key content about its position and appearance, informing key stakeholders, including public
consultations, and advising the applicant of their decision to accept or offer reasons for refusal.
When no notice is issued within 56 days from local authorities the application shall be deemed
approved (UK Government, 2013).

Authorities in the United Kingdom use enforcement notice, stop work notice, fines and penalties
and judicial hearings to enforce compliance of standards that regulate the siting of
telecommunication masts and towers (UK Government, 2014). Appropriate measures are
employed depending on the magnitude of contravention. It is against this background that this
study will examine the factors that contribute to non-compliance and enforcement of the standards
that guide the siting of masts in Ghana.

2.8.2 Best Practices in the Siting of Telecommunication Masts: Lessons from Canada

36
Industry Canada is the official authority that regulates the installation of telecommunications mast
/tower and related facilities in Canada under Section 5 of the Radio Communication Act (Industry
Canada, 2012). Health Canada sets requirements for governing cell phones, Wi-Fi access and
telecommunications masts location that mitigate the effects of electromagnetic radiation from base
stations (Industry Canada, 2012). The exposure limit from base stations has been set in safety code
6 base on scientific studies (Industry Canada, 2012). Industry Canada has the sole responsibility
to accept or deny applications from mobile operators on the siting of telecommunication masts and
other facilities. Industry Canada partners with local municipalities and
telecommunication companies to address challenges with the local mobile industry. The most
current Industry Canada Client Procedures Circular CPC-2-0-03, Radio comm nica ion and
B oadca ing An enna S em , a e ha P o onen m follo he land-use process for the
siting of antenna systems, established by the land- e a ho i . Ho e e , Industry Canada can
supersede the consultation procedure of the municipal authority where it is deemed unreasonable
(Industry Canada, 2012). Even though Health Canada sets the standard found in Safety Code 6
used by Industry Canada, it is not responsible for the licensing and enforcement of
telecommunications infrastructure location standards. Health Canada only provides advisory
service to industry Canada.

Moreover, land use Authorities also known as Town provide guidance on how to make the planned
construction or replacement of telecommunications infrastructure compliant with land use plans,
zoning plans and other guidelines. The Town also initiates a public consultation process on the
proposed development to solicit the views of key stakeholders and interested parties. Such inputs
help Industry Canada accept or reject applications in its decisions. The details of the guidelines
focus on requirements on preferred location and siting of the base station, general design and visual
impact. Specifically, the authority assesses details such as transmission; design; massing; colour;
lighting; fencing; tower type; equipment shelters; and signage. Consultations are carried out to
solicit concerns and views of stakeholders and interested parties. This policy is reviewed every
three years or upon the adoption of new practical requirements by Industry Canada (Industry
Canada, 2012).

However, non-compliance of the set standards by mobile operators is usually accidental and is
resolved by communicating and working with the violator to find solutions and ensure compliance

37
(Government of Canada, 2015). In other instances, a written notice may be issued advising the
violator of the need to ensure compliance to the set standards. An administrative monetary penalty
which comes in the form financial penalties is also imposed on companies that violate the standards
as a means of discouraging non-compliance. Additionally, the authority carryout compliance
promotion programmes, compliance monitoring and enforcement activities to promote and ensure
compliance to the standards that govern the siting of telecommunication masts and towers in
Canada (Government of Canada, 2015). It is against this background that telecommunication masts
in Kumasi will be examined according to the Ghanaian standard and regulations to determine
whether the due process was followed before they were sited; the design, and appearance and its
compatibility with the surrounding environment; whether the public and key stakeholders were
consulted before siting them.

2.9 Overview of Emerging Policy Interventions on the Siting of Telecommunication Masts in

Ghana

Privatization and liberalization of the telecommunication industry in Ghana during the economic
recession in the 1980s resulted in the removal of government monopoly and total control of
telecommunication in the country (Osei-owusu, 2015). Removal of monopoly and absolute state
control in telecommunication operations in Ghana have since upsurge the use of mobile phones
and its related services in the country, making it one of the fastest-growing in Africa. The growth,
however, requires investment in infrastructures such as masts and base stations to enhance service
delivery to the growing customers (Hatsu et al, 2016). The siting of masts has become a concern
due to the perceived health and safety concerns (Aderoju et al., 2014; Imran et al., 2018). As a
result, policies have been enacted by countries and cities to manage the proliferation of masts.
Some of the policies adopted by Ghana by to manage the siting mast amidst health and safety
concerns have been discussed.

2.9.1 Infrastructure Sharing Policy

The Government of Ghana is championing infrastructure sharing policies through its regulatory
body called the National Communication Authority (NCA) to ensure that mobile
telecommunications operators share infrastructure to minimize the economic and social costs
associated with the deployment of telecommunications infrastructure, in particular the masts.
Infrastructure or resource sharing in practice is the situation where multiple telecommunication

38
operators use the same infrastructure. Under the policy, mobile telecommunication companies in
Ghana (Mobile Telecommunication Network (MTN), Vodafone, AirtelTigo, Globacom (GLO)
and Expresso) are supposed to coordinate and share infrastructure and equipment. This is to ensure
coverage in areas that are difficult to obtain permits to install masts by different operators and
municipalities with limited land and restrictions making it difficult to install mast by each operator
(Hatsu et al, 2016). The goal of the policy is to limit the growing number of telecommunication
masts and towers in the cities, as a means of ensuring fair competition, to minimize public
inconvenience and cost and to protect people and the environment from the harmful effects of
telecommunication infrastructure (Government of Ghana, 2004).

Critiques of the policy according to Hatsu et al, (2016) questioned the charges that one operator
imposes on the other, employees from different firms can damage equipment belonging to other
operators and how these competing operators can cooperate for deployment and planning of
infrastructure for new sites. Koumadi et al. (2013) also identified some technical challenges with
infrastructure sharing which has to do with constraining with antenna loading and the height of
telecommunication mast.

2.9.2 Infrastructure Licensing Policy

The government of Ghana in response to the growing demand for telecommunication services
coupled with the proliferation of masts adopted an infrastructure licensing policy (Osei-owusu,
2015). The policy opened the door for tower business in Ghana. The main objective of the policy
was to allow independent companies to own and be in charge of telecommunication infrastructure.
As a result, tower operators were allowed to build infrastructures like masts and towers, and rent
them out to multiple telecommunication operators. The aim of the policy is to reduce the number
and cost of infrastructure, leveraging competition among mobile operators while improving
network in remote areas that would have been difficult financially for a single operator (Osei-
owusu, 2015; Hatsu et al, 2016).

The policy was to address some of the shortcomings of the infrastructure sharing policy due to the
ownership of masts and towers by competing operators. Infrastructure licensing was to allow
separate and independent companies to own masts and towers (Osei-owusu, 2015). Therefore,
multiple operators can use a single infrastructure owned and control by an independent masts
operator. In return, the growing number of masts across the cityscape will be reduced to limit their

39
effects of humans and the environment. Infrastructure licensing was to promote compliance with
the standards that guide the siting of masts in Ghana by ensuring that there is competition in the
provision of masts for telecommunication operators (Osei-owusu, 2015). Mast operators who
refuse to site the masts according to the set standards were supposed to be sanctioned appropriately
which can lead to the risk of losing customers to other operators. The policy also ensures that the
responsibility of compliance and sanctions for non-compliance are directed to independent
companies rather than mobile operators. This studies main objective is to assess the level, drivers
and barriers to compliance with standards that regulate the siting of telecommunication masts.
Mast operators are interviewed to examine the factors that contribute to non-compliance of
standards that guide the siting of masts in Ghana.

2.10 Regulatory Bodies Responsible for Enforcing Regulations that Guide the Siting of
Telecommunication Masts in Ghana

The regulatory bodies responsible for enforcing the regulations that guides the siting of
telecommunication masts are important interest group when it comes to the formulation,
implementation and enforcement of planning standards and regulations. In the Ghanaian context,
there are four regulatory agencies that issue permit for installation of telecommunication masts
and towers. These agencies are the Ghana Civil Aviation Authority(GCAA), Radiation Protection
Institute(RPI), Environmental Protection Agency(EPA) and the Metropolitan, Municipal and
District Assemblies(MMDAs). Other bodies involved in the siting of telecommunication masts are
the National Communication Authority (NCA), Ghana Atomic Energy Commission (GAEC),
Ministry of Communications, Ministry of Environment, Science and Technology, Ministry of
Local Government and Rural Development. The Ghana Chamber of Telecommunications,
Property Owners and Residents, the media and the general public are all stakeholders involved in
the location of telecommunication masts in Ghana.

An inter-ministerial Committee also exists to champion and collaborate with other stakeholders to
facilitate the development and implementation of standards and guidelines of the industry. It
comprises the Ministry of communication, Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development
and the Ministry of Environment, Science and Technology.

Stakeholders and their roles are presented in Table 2.1.

40
Table 2.1: Stakeholders and some of their Roles towards Installation of Masts in Ghana
Stakeholders Roles/Responsibilities
Ghana Civil Aviation Issue permits for the installation of masts (based on the
Authority (GCAA) hazard to air space and navigation).
Monitor compliance with standards

Radiation Protection Issue permits for the installation of masts (based on

Institute (RPI) effects of radiation).
Monitor compliance with standards
Environmental Protection Issue permits for the installation of masts (based on
Agency (EPA) environmental hazards).
Monitor compliance with standards
Metropolitan, Municipal Issue permits for the installation of masts (based on
And District Assemblies meeting all the requirements).
(MMDAs) Monitor compliance with standards
National Communication Set standards, guidelines, and regulations for the
Authority (NCA) industry
Ministry of Formulate policies and guidelines
Communications Make inputs into the decisions of IMC
Ghana Atomic Energy Develop and implement guidelines
Commission (GAEC)
Ministry of Environment, Develop and implement guidelines
Science and Technology Make inputs into the decisions of IMC
Ministry of Local Develop and implement guidelines
Government and Rural Make inputs into the decisions of IMC
Development
Ghana Chamber of Provide Telecommunication Services
Telecommunications Represent Telecommunication companies in the country
Property owners and Provide land for masts and towers
Residents

41
 Accept or reject the installation of masts in their
surroundings
Media Communicate industry information to the general public
They make use of masts for their operation

Stakeholders presented in table 2.1 influenced the siting of telecommunication masts in Ghana.
Their roles and concerns are important to the development and implementation of policies,
programmes and other interventions aimed at ensuring compliance to standards that guide the
location of telecommunication in Ghana. However, institutions mandated to manage the siting of
masts are confronted with limited resources in human, logistics and others to monitor and enforce
compliance with the standards. Lack of political will as a country to see the environment as priority
according to Tamakloe (2000) is a challenged to institutions mandated to monitor and enforce
compliance of the standards that guide the siting of telecommunication masts. In other words, the
need to regulate the siting of masts as a result of health and safety concern has not received the
needed attention from government and the public compared with the economic, social and
technological gains presented or expected from mobile technology.

The forgoing reveals the national response institutionally, towards the siting of masts and towers
in Ghana. This study assess the institutional roles, prospects and challenges associated with the
enforcement and monitoring of compliance to standards in the siting telecommunication masts. It
will also examine the factors that contribute to non-compliance of standards and make
recommendations that will promote compliance with the standards that guide the siting of
telecommunication masts.

2.11 Theoretical Underpinning of the Study

In this section of the chapter, theories supporting the siting of telecommunication masts across the
cityscape are discussed.

2.11.1 Rational Choice Institutionalism

The dynamics of siting telecommunication masts is supported in the rational choice

institutionalism argument. Institutionalism applies economic tools, collective action theory, game
theory and all form of rational choices to study human phenomenon (Abbott, 2015). The theory

42
suggests that powers are vested in institutions to maintain state or public interest. State interest
include security, environmental protection, prosperity, freedom from disease and other goals that
are of national interest. However, individuals maneuver and use institutions to maximize their
interest at the expense of wider society (Collier, 2002). This occurs when institutions are unable
to withstand a multitude of external influences and demands by the diversity of actors within the
institutional environment (Collier, 2002; Amenta and Ramsey, 2014; Berthod, 2016). Regulatory
agencies have been mandated to regulate the siting of the telecommunication masts due to the
perceived health, aesthetics and safety concerns associated with them. These institutions are vested
with the power to allow and refuse the siting masts in the country based on the set standards. All
telecommunication operators are supposed to obtain approval from these institutions before they
can install masts. These institutions also have the power to force the removal of masts that are sited
in contravention with the set standards.

Moreover, masts are mounted by telecommunication operators at an advantageous position to

provide coverage to mobile users to maximize profit while landowners also lease their parcel of
land to telecommunication operators to make a supernormal profit. This, however, brings about a
private or individual interest in the siting of masts.

Therefore, rational choice institutionalism argued that institutions will be important if they are
designed to limit the influence of individual behavior. Institutions mandated to regulate the siting
of masts are important and necessary when are able minimize the influence of individuals'
economic and social interest in the siting of telecommunication masts. Institutions in this direction
are supposed to withstand all parochial interests and ensure that all telecommunication masts are
sited according to the set and acceptable locational planning standards and regulations. Therefore,
from the perspective of rational choice institutionalism, regulatory institutions are not able to
monitor and enforce compliance of standards effectively due the parochial interest of individuals
involved in the siting of masts, and the inability of institutions to respond accordingly to private
interest.

2.11.2 Location Theory

Location theory has become an essential part of spatial economics, geography, and planning. The
theory is associated with the contribution of Von Thünen, Christaller, Weber and L sch (Parr and
Reynolds-feighan, 2000). The theory explains why a firm decides to locate at a particular location

43
and the reasons behind their choice. In practice, their choices may emanate from either to take
advantage of an opportunity in that location or as a means of reducing cost as compared with other
locations (Dube et al, 2016). Location theory largely assumes that entities, firms, and individuals
act in their own interest and their choice of location is mainly influenced by profit motives.
Location theory is classically linked with human settlements, siting of industries and facilities,
service competitions and consumer behavior (Murray, 2017)

Gorter and Nijkamp (2001) suggested that location theory is essential to the rapidly evolving
technological changes which include changes in information communication technology. He
encouraged location theory to become a frontline as new industries emerge to compete in the
cityscape.

Telecommunication operators choose a particular location for their masts and other infrastructures
in other to maximize profit and survive competition from their competitors. The site is also
expected to enhance network coverage as opposed to other locations. The decisions of
telecommunication operators are mostly influenced by the quest to grow and meet their financial
targets and less is cured about the externalities of effects of their operation. Landowners also leased
their lands or part to telecommunication operators to erect masts to make supernormal profit. They
also make the decision to make supernormal profit based on the realization that the land is located
at a place suitable for telecommunication masts.

The basic tenant of the location theory is that telecommunication masts are located at locations
due to the economic gains that both the operator and the landowner's received or envisage to
receive from the masts at the location. The distinctive qualities of a particular location in both
economic and technical terms are the reasons behind the choice of site by telecommunication
operators for their masts.

2.12 Conceptual Framework

As shown in figure 2.2, the study focused on planning response to the siting of telecommunication
masts. The framework illustrates how telecommunication operators in their quest to site their masts
across the cityscape, negotiate with land and property owners. It also outlined the establish
institutions (Ghana Civil Aviation Authority, Radiation Protection Institute, Environmental
Protection Agency, National Communication Authority and Metropolitan, Municipal and District

44
Assemblies) mandated to enforce the planning responses (Regulations, standards, policies,
controls etc.) that manage the siting of masts.

The framework also revealed that the siting of masts is confronted with limited availability of
appropriate land/space, anti-sentiments towards masts, land tenure system/ownership and
enforcement challenges. The siting of masts in contravention to the set standards leads to health
and safety concerns, environmental, emotional and psychological challenges. However, the siting
of masts in compliance with the standards that guide the siting of masts as illustrated in the
framework guarantees a healthy and safety surrounding while preserving the aesthetic nature of
the environment. The framework concludes with the possible interventions that can be adopted to
promote compliance of standards that guide the siting of masts in Ghana.

It is however, important to note that telecommunication operators upon discussion with

land/property owners with all the institutions and the various responses are still able to site masts
in contravention with the set planning standards as illustrated in the framework. The situation calls
for interventions that will ensure compliance to the set standards amidst continuous proliferation
of masts as a results of rapid urbanization and increasing demand for telecommunication services.
The conceptual framework for the study is showed in figure 2.2.

45
 Negotiation for land

Land/Property
Telecom. Operators
Owners

Negotiation for land

Limited Availability of
Planning Responses Land/Space
Regulations/Standards Institutions Anti-Sentiment Towards
Policies GCAA, RPI, NCA, Masts
Legislations EPA, MMDA S, Land Tenure System/Land
Control etc. NCA etc. Ownership
Enforcement Challenges

Rational Choice
Institutionalism Theory

Location of
Telecommunication
Masts

Noncompliance of Standards Compliance of Standards

Environmental Challenges Safety and Healthy Environment
Health and Safety Challenges Promote Aesthetic Environment
Emotional and Psychological
Challenges

Inspection of Sites before and

Public Education on Telecommunication after installation of masts
Masts Enforcement of Penalties and
Integration of Telecommunication Sanctions
Infrastructure into Land Use plans Adequate collaboration between
Camouflaging, Co-Location and Making Regulatory Institutions and
Use of Existing Structures Operators to develop one stop
shop permit scheme

Figure 2.2: Conceptual Framework for the study LEGEND

S ce: A h C c , 2019 Positive Effect
Negative Effect

46
2.13 Summary of Literature

The literature review has demonstrated the importance of telecommunication to the socio-
economic growth and development of Ghana. The telecommunication industry has promoted the
economic growth of Ghana, by contributing up to 10 percent of government income and 2.2
percent of GDP, while attracting 7 percent of the co n o al in e men (Na ional
Communications Authority, 2017). The industry continuous to remain important to the functioning
of small, medium and large-scale businesses in Ghana (Lum, 2011; Ussher 2015; and Adei et al
2015). The literature also revealed how increasing demands for telecommunication services has
influenced the installation of masts. The siting of these masts has attracted a lot of attention due to
the perceived health and safety risks associated with their presence in close proximity to where
people live or work. The review demonstrates how the Polokwane city in South Africa, the United
Kingdom and Canada have responded to the siting of masts amid increasing demand for
telecommunication services. These countries and city developed appropriate plans and techniques
that ensure that masts and towers are installed without exposing people to the various health and
safety risk while maintaining aesthetic environment (UK Government, 2008; Industry Canada,
2012; The City of Polokwane, 2015).
Moreover, the government of Ghana through the National Communication Authority and other
stakeholders has developed standards and regulations to guide their installations. Documents that
communicate these guidelines and standards in Ghana include; Guidelines on Communications
Towers (2010), and the Zoning Guidelines and Planning Standards (2011). However, enforcement
of these standards and regulations has not been effective as some masts are sited without
compliance with the set standards and regulations (Sampson, 2012). The review identified limited
availability of land/space as a result of urbanization and competing demand for land, Limited
resources of enforcement institutions, and payment of huge compensation by operators to
landowners as a constraint to the enforcement of standards and regulations (Abu, 2017; UN-
Habitat, 2016). The uncompromising attitude of some community leaders, the extortive attitude of
some government agents and multiple entitlements of ownership of appropriate lands also serve
as a constraint to the enforcement of the set standards (Adetokunboh et al., 2018).

However, researches on telecommunication masts focus on the possible health risks associated
with siting telecommunication masts close to residential areas (Everaert and Bauwens, 2007;

47
Akintonwa et al.,2009: Eneh, 2015; Olanrewaju, 2016; Sadiq, et al.,2017), the impact of cellular
phone base station masts and towers on property values (Foster, 1999; Santini et al., 2002; Bond
et al., 2003; Wolf and Wolf, 2004; Abdel-Rassoul et al., 2007; Timotijevic et al., 2007; Filippova
and Rehm 2012; Adeniji et al. 2015; Odunola et al. 2015) and analysis of residents perception on
living close to telecommunication masts (Adebayo, 2010). Other studies focus on the optimal use
of telecommunication mast (Støttrup-andersen et al., 2017). Research on how telecommunication
masts are sited according to the set standards and regulations is less common in conventional
literature. This study seeks to address the existing gap by exploring and assessing, the level, drivers
and barriers to compliance with the set standards. The study will provide more insight into how
telecommunication companies adhere to regulations and standards that guide the deployment of
telecommunication masts. It will also assess the roles of the various institutions associated with
the siting of masts, and the challenges they faced in enforcing compliance to standards and
regulations. It will however, revealed the reality of how telecommunication masts are sited in the
Kumasi city.

48
 CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction

This chapter presents the profile of the study area and an overview of the telecommunication
industry in Kumasi. The chapter also discusses the epistemological foundation of the study, the
research approach, the key variables and unit of analysis, sampling procedures, and sample
techniques of the study. Additionally, the sources of data, methods of data collection, data
presentation have been presented in this chapter.

3.2 Description of the Study Area-Kumasi

3.2.1 Demographic Characteristics

Kumasi has a population of 1,730,249 out of the 4,780,380 population of the entire Ashanti region
representing 36 percent of the region's inhabitants (GSS, 2014). The city currently has a population
density of 8,075 persons per sq. km. Kumasi is rapidly urbanizing and its population is growing
e fa . The ci o la ion ha almo do bled ince he ea 2000. The o la ion of he ci
is further estimated to be 2.5 million people during the daytime due to its role as a center for
commercial, health, and education in Ghana and neighboring countries (Kumasi Investment Guide,
2013). The situation and characteristics make Kumasi an ideal city for investment in
telecommunication as a result of increasing demand for its services. This has attracted
telecommunication operators in the country to invest massively in infrastructures such as masts
and base stations to meet the increasing demand of its overgrowing customers. Mobile phones and
telecommunication services are used across the city. As a result, masts are installed in all the
communities in Kumasi. Three communities in the city were selected for the studies. Specifically,
Nhyieaso, Bantama and Oforikrom were selected to reflect high, middle and low-class average
income neighborhoods based on the Kumasi Metropolitan Assembly classification of communities
in the city. The selection was necessary to get the cross-section of how masts are installed in
Kumasi Metropolis. Figure 3.1 shows the map of the Kumasi and the communities selected for the
studies.

49
Figure 3.1: A Map of Kumasi and the three communities understudy
Source: Authors Construct 2019

3.2.2 Telecommunication Industry in the Kumasi City

According to the Ghana Statistical Service (2014) out of the total population who are 12 years and
above, 72.4 percent own mobile phones. The percentage of males and females who own mobile
phones is estimated at 76.3 percent and 69 percent respectively. It was also estimated that only
16.1 percent of the population 12 years and older in the city use internet facilities. The figures are
projected to increase in the coming years considering the rate of urbanisation and demographic
characteristics of the city.

The cellular phone operators in Ghana namely; MTN, Vodafone, TigoAirtel, Glo and Expresso
operate and have coverage in the city. These companies deliver a wide array of voice and data

50
services to customers (GSS, 2014). Telecommunication services are widely used in the city to
promote business, information sharing, education and other aspects of human development. The
combination of rapid urbanisation and increasing demand for telecommunication services has
resulted in the proliferation of telecommunication masts in Kumasi. The rate at which these masts
are sited according to the set standard is very limited in conventional literature. It is therefore
important to reveal the level at which masts are sited according to the set standards and regulation
to inform policy formulation, research and other interventions the will promote the harmonious
location of telecommunication masts in Kumasi and similar cities.

3.3 Epistemological Foundation of the Study

Epistemology is the philosophical orientation of research that determines the approach used in
enquiring for the truth or knowledge of the phenomenon under study. (Carnaghan, 2013; Grover,
2015). Subjective evidence is gathered based on individual views and perceptions from research
conducted in the study area. The epistemological foundation to research represents the researcher's
way of knowing reality and how to conclude knowledge, truth, and authority (Reybold, 2010).
This study is to inquire about he h of how telecommunication masts are sited in accordance
with planning provisions and the factors that contribute to compliance with planning standards.
The basic set of beliefs that guide the actions of the study is pragmatism philosophical worldview.
Pragmatism is a philosophical foundation that focused on the use of mixed methods, different
assumptions, and worldviews, as well as varieties of data collection, analysis, and presentations.
Pragmatic epistemic principles will allow the research to focus on the outcome by using pluralistic
approaches to derive knowledge about the research problem (Onwuegbuzie et al, 2009). Reality
is, however, seen as what is practical and works (Ontology). The study, therefore, employed a
variety of useful methods and approaches to solicit and analyse data on the level, drivers and
barriers to compliance of standards that regulate the siting of telecommunication masts.

3.4 Research Approach

The research approach refers to plans and procedures for a study that encompasses the steps from
broad assumptions to detailed methods of data collection, analysis, and presentation (Grover, 2015;
Akhtar, 2016). It simply gives the blueprint of how research work is carried out specifying what
the study is about, its purpose, methods, data required, sources of the data, sampling techniques
and other key components of the study ( Peniel, 2011; Akhtar, 2016).

51
The research involved a study of regulatory institutions and operators. Also, a spatial analysis was
conducted on installed masts in the study communities to determine the extent of compliance with
standards and regulations. The study adopted a convergent parallel, mixed-method design.
Convergent parallel design according to Creswell and Pablo-Clark (2011), entails that quantitative
and qualitative data are collected concurrently in the same phase of the research process, the two
components of data are analysed independently and separately from each other, and the results are
interpreted together. The research combined both qualitative and quantitative research approaches
to investigate the siting of telecommunication masts. The combination of qualitative and
quantitative approaches offers a more comprehensive understanding of the research problem than
either approach in isolation (Creswell, 2014).

The mixed-method according to Ellingsen, et al (2010) provides the researcher with the technique
to study systematically qualitative features of human subjectivity in a manner that reduces the
in e fe ence of he e ea che e m ion . The qualitative approach was used to generate data
on determinants of compliance with standards, institutional roles and the challenges in discharging
their duties. It was also used to solicit date on the processes that telecommunications operators go
through to acquire land/space for their masts and the compatibility of policy that regulate the siting
of masts. The quantitative approach, on the other hand, was also used to generate data on installed
masts regarding set back to the nearest structure, proximity to electricity supply lines and the
proximity of installed masts to education and health centers. It was used to reveal the figures
behind the number of masts in each community and their characteristics.

3.5 Sources of Data

The data used for this study were derived from both primary and secondary sources. Secondary
data used for the study include Medium Term Development Plan (MTDP) of the Kumasi
Metropolitan Assembly, Guidelines that guide the siting of telecommunication masts and towers
in Ghana and Zoning Guidelines and Planning Standards of Ghana. Additionally, reports from the
Bank of Ghana, Ghana Statistical Service and the National Communication Authority were also
used for the study. Primary data were collected using an observational checklist, interview
schedule and open-ended questionnaire. The data were collected from telecommunication
companies, house/property owners who give out land/space for masts and households who live
within a 50m radius of installed masts in the study communities. Also, primary data were collected

52
from regulatory institutions such as the National Communication Authority, Radiation Protection
Institute of the Ghana Atomic Energy Commission, Ghana Civil Aviation Authority,
Environmental Protection Agency and the Kumasi Metropolitan Assembly. Installed masts in the
study community were also assessed to determine their numbers, their proximity to the nearest
building, electricity supply lines, health and educational centers, and how they are generally sited
according to locational planning standards that guide the siting of masts in Ghana.

3.6 Data Collection Instruments

The primary data for the study were collected using an interview schedule, open-ended
questionnaire and observation checklist.

3.6.1 Interview Schedule

Interview schedule is the process of acquiring data from respondents using a list of themes, topics,
and questions that are prepared in advance to facilitate effective semi-structured interviews on a
topic under study (Mason, 2011). Interview schedules were used to generate data on the land
acquisition process for masts from land and property owners who have given out land/space for
masts. A face-to-face interview was conducted at the houses of ten (10) property owners in the
study communication. The instrument was also used to generate data on neighborhood consultation
which forms part of the level of compliance to the standards that guide the siting of masts. As a
result, data were collected from 212 households in the study communities who live within 50m of
installed masts. The interviews were conducted at participants' place of residents for an average of
seven (7) minutes per respondents.

3.6.2 Open-Ended Questionnaire

Questionnaires, on the other hand, is a research instrument involving a list of questions on a topic
or set of topics that are used to generate both qualitative and quantitative data from respondents.
Open-ended questionnaires are a set of questions that allows a respondent to provide answers in
text format such that they can answer based on their feelings knowledge and understanding. This
guarantees that response to questions is not limited to a set of options (Bhat, 2019). Open-ended
questionnaires were used to generate data on the process that telecommunication masts providers
go through to acquire land/space for their masts and the challenges in the process from the
representatives of ATC Ghana Limited, Eaton Towers, Helios Towers and NETIS Ghana Limited.

53
The instrument was also used to generate data on the factors that contribute to non-compliance of
standards that guide the siting of masts in Ghana from the aforementioned masts producing
companies.

Open-ended questionnaire was again used to generate data on institutional roles, prospects and
challenges in ensuring compliance with the set standards from the representatives of regulatory
institutions mandated to guide the siting of masts in Ghana (National Communication Authority,
Radiation Protection Institute, Ghana Civil Aviation Authority, Environmental Protection Agency
and Kumasi Metropolitan Assembly). Data on the factors that contribute to non-compliances of
standards were also collected from the representatives of regulatory institutions using an open-
ended questionnaire.

3.6.3 Observation Checklist

Observation checklist is also a data collection instrument that allows researchers to collect primary
data by observing the type of activities, events, behaviours, features, and development within a
particular setting (Kawulich, 2014). The instrument was used to generate data on the level of
compliance of installed masts in the study communities according to the Ghanaian standard and
regulations. As a result, data regarding masts position, set back from buildings, electricity supply
lines and other structures, plot size, public safety zones among others were generated.

3.7 Sampling Techniques

Sampling is the process of selecting a representative subset of a given population to study

(Showkat and Parveen, 2017). Sampling is broadly divided into probability and non-probability
sampling. Probability sampling is where each element of the population has an equal chance of
being selected through the use of a random selection procedure (Etikan et al, 2016; Showkat and
Parveen, 2017). The method is largely used for quantitative studies. Probability sampling
techniques include simple random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified sampling, cluster
sampling, and multi-stage sampling. Non-probability sampling, on the other hand, is a sampling
technique that employs nonrandomized methods to select the sample. This method usually
involves judgments and is mostly suitable for qualitative studies. Some of the non-probability
sampling methods include purposive sampling, convenience sampling, snowball sampling and
quota sampling (Showkat and Parveen, 2017).

54
The research employed multi-stage sampling techniques to choose the respondents. Multi-stage
sampling is the process of dividing a large population into stages to make the sampling process
practical (Glen, 2014). It is usually the combination of cluster sampling or stratified sampling and
simple random sampling. This study adopted a combination of stratified and simple random
sampling to choose households for face-to-face interviews. Communities in Kumasi were grouped
into high, middle and low-income strata. Proportions of the strata were, therefore, selected using
simple random sampling. The technique was appropriate to highlight the dynamics and differences
between installed masts and households in low, middle and high-class average income
communities who live within 50m of installed masts in Kumasi.

Purposive sampling techniques were employed to select institutions and telecommunication

operators as respondents. The institutions are the National Communication Authority, Ghana Civil
Aviation Authority, Radiation Protection Institute, Environmental Protection Agency, Kumasi
Metropolitan Assembly. Purposive sampling also known as judgmental sampling is a non-random
technique that allows the researchers to deliberately choose study participants based on the
qualities and experiences they possess (Etikan et al, 2016). Institutions were selected based on the
review of guidelines that regulate the siting of masts in Ghana. The guidelines outline the
institutions as regulatory bodies mandated to regulate the siting of masts in Ghana.

The review of telecommunication policies in Ghana also mentioned licensed companies such as
ATC Ghana Limited, Eaton Towers, Helios Towers and NETIS Ghana Limited to be mandated
independent companies that installed and rent masts for telecommunication operators. The
institutions were purposively selected for the study.

The selection of households for the study involved the following procedures;

a. Division of Communities in Kumasi into stratas such as low, middle and high-class
residential areas. The division of the communities was based on the Kumasi Metropolitan
Assembly income classification of residential areas in the Kumasi city (KMA, 2014).
b. Three communities Oforikrom, Bantama and Nhyiaeso were purposively selected to reflect
low, middle and high income respectively residential continuum in Kumasi.
c. A reconnaissance survey was conducted to identify the locations of masts, and the number
of households who live within a 50m radius of installed masts in the three communities
(i.e. Oforikrom, Bantama, and Nhyiaeso). This was necessary because they were no official

55
 statistics on the locations and the number of households who live within a 50m radius of
installed masts in the selected communities.
d. Determination of a sample size for each of the communities based on the number of
households identified during the reconnaissance survey (see table 3.2).
e. Respondents (i.e. sample) were conveniently selected from the number of households (i.e.
population) identified to live within 50m of installed masts for each of the communities

3.8 Sample Size Determination

The study adopted a mathematical approach to estimate the sample size for each community using
an online sample size calculator (survey software) developed by Creative Research Systems. The
sample size (n) was calculated for each of the communities using a 95 percent confidence level,
an 8 percent margin of error and the use of various sample frames (N) obtained from the
reconnaissance survey. The sample sizes for households, the number of people interviewed and
the response rate in each of the communities are indicated in table 3.3

Table 3.3: Sample Sizes for the communities

Communities Sample Frame(N) Sample Size(n) Total Response
Responses Rate
Oforikrom 322 103 103 100
Bantama 300 100 100 100
Nhyiaeso 10 9 9 100
Total 632 212 212 100

3.9 Ethical Consideration

Research ethics according to Bell (2005) is about being explicit about the nature of agreement you
have entered into with your research respondents or subjects. It also involves getting the consent
of those you are going to question, interview, observe or claim materials from. Other ethical
considerations include explaining how data generated from respondents are going to be used and
how the final analysis of the study will be disseminated or reported. Ethical considerations of the
study started with a review of questions. The review confirms there were no sensitive issues in the
interview schedule and questionnaire.

56
A letter of introduction was obtained from the head of the Department of Planning of the Kwame
Nkrumah University of Science and Technology. A duplicate copy of the letter was handed to the
heads of telecommunication masts producing companies and the various institutions that were
selected for data collection in the study. Telecommunication masts providers and institutions were
sufficiently informed about the purpose of the research before data collection began.

Cover notes introducing and explaining the research purpose and relevance to respondents were
attached to the interview guides as a means of enhancing respondents' understanding of the study.
Land and property owners before the start of interviews were briefed about the relevance and
purpose of the research and the duration to complete the interview. Respondents were also
reassured that their responses to questions would be preserved with deserving confidentiality.
Consent was sought from participants by a consent form introducing the study and their approval
before collecting data. Participants willingly gave all the necessary information without any sort
of coercion or influence. Also, the study duly acknowledged authors of scholarly works that were
paraphrased or referred to in the writing of this thesis/report in both the running in-texts and the
list of references.

3.10 Reliability and Validity of Findings

Reliability is the extent to which a data collection instrument like questionnaire, interview
schedule, observation and other measurements produce the same results on repeated trials (Roe
and Just, 2009). It refers to the consistency and stability of scores over time or across
measurements. The study ensured reliability by clearly outlining the methods employed to collect
primary data on installed masts in the study communities. It also demonstrates how data were
generated from households, property owners and representatives of regulatory institutions and
telecommunication masts companies. The study also clearly outlined the research approach,
sources of data, data collection instruments, sampling technique as well as data analysis and
presentation.

Validity in empirical studies is commonly concerned whether a particular finding generated from
research represents a good estimation to the true inference or conclusion (Roe and Just, 2009).

Internal validity is the degree to which research design and methods are free from errors and any
variation in measurement that is attributed to an independent variable and not the measurement in

57
itself (Surbhi, 2017). Internal validity was ensured by acquiring data from both primary and
secondary sources. Primary were collected from diverse groups and institutions using appropriate
data collection tools. As a result, data were gathered from land and property owners,
telecommunication mast providers and regulatory institutions involved in the siting of
telecommunication masts. The instruments for primary data collection were pre-tested before the
main data collection exercise.

External validity is the ability to generalize findings and relationships that emanate from a
particular study to other peoples, periods and settings (Roe and Just, 2009). External validity was
enhanced by the adoption of appropriate design, the suitability of the sampling techniques,
representativeness of samples and acquiring primary and secondary data from multiple sources.
The use of these reliability and validity procedures makes the findings of the study generalizable
to similar cities.

3.11 Data Analyses and Presentation

The purpose of data analysis according to Kelley et al. (2003) is to summarise data such that it is
easily understood and deliver answers to research questions. It encompasses breaking data into
components, combining and recombining the components to identify patterns. It also involves
evaluating, describing, examining or explaining phenomena after a careful investigation in
consonant with research questions (Akinyoade, 2013).

The data obtained from face-to-face interviews were thoroughly scrutinised to ensure consistency
and accuracy. Editing was done to ensure that the data are accurate and consistent with other data
obtained. The data was arranged to facilitate coding and tabulation. Coding is the assignment of
numerals to responses in a limited category of the data. Close-ended questions were assigned codes
to ensure easy entry and analysis using statistical tools.

Data obtained from the field were analyzed using both qualitative and quantitative methods of
analysis. Quantitative data were collated and presented in the form of tables, text, charts and
diagrams. Computer-based Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) was used to generate
central tendency and dispersion. It was used to generate an average compliance level of masts
according to the set standards, average, and range of compensations paid to property/landowners
to allow masts on their plots or property.

58
Qualitative data were grouped to identify the pattern of similarities and differences of the
responses. Content analysis was carried out to group responses into major themes such as processes
in land acquisition, challenges with land acquisition, and institutional roles the siting of
telecommunication masts. Other themes were the determinants of compliance and compatibility
of policy that regulates the siting of masts in Ghana. Responses to interviews on the themes were
analysed to identify the trend of responses and how they answer the research questions.
Paraphrases and direct quotations from respondents were also used in the presentation of
qualitative data.

ArcGIS was employed in the spatial analysis of how masts are sited in close proximity to
residential and other facilities and how their locations compare with planning provisions. A digital
camera was also used to captured digital photography to provide data on personal observations.
Data on the spatial location of masts were analysed per the standards contained in the Guidelines
on Communications Towers (2010), and the Zoning Guidelines and Planning Standards (2011).

3.12 Summary of Research Methods

This chapter presents the systematic approach that was used to carry out this study. There was a
brief description of Kumasi, the study area with regards to its demographic characteristics,
geographical scope and the characteristics of the telecommunication industry in the city. It was
declared that both qualitative and quantitative methods will be used for the study. Data for the
study were sourced from both primary and secondary sources. Primary data were collected from
regulatory institutions such as the National Communication Authority, Radiation Protection
Institute, Ghana Civil Aviation Authority, Environmental Protection Agency and Kumasi
Metropolitan Assembly and telecommunication mast providers such as ATC Ghana Limited,
Eaton Towers, Helios Towers and NETIS Ghana Limited. Additionally, property and landowners
who give out land/space for masts and households who live within a 50m radius of installed masts
in the study area were also consulted for data. There was also an assessment of installed masts in
the study communities. Primary data were generated using an interview schedule, open ended
questionnaire and observation checklist. The data were processed, analysed and presented in the
form of tables, text, charts, diagrams, and maps using both qualitative and quantitative methods of
analysis. Table 3.4 presents the research objectives, variables, unit of analysis and tools for data
collection.

59
 Table 3.4: Detailed research objectives, Variables, unit of analysis and tools for data collection
Variables Unit of Analysis Tools for Data Collection
1. To examine the processes involved in land acquisition for the siting of telecommunication masts in the Kumasi Metropolis
1.1 Land acquisition process for Masts o Interview Schedule
o Telecommunication masts providers o Open Ended
1.2 Challenges in land acquisition process o Property Owners Questionnaire
2. To assess the level of compliance in the location of telecommunication masts in the Kumasi Metropolis according to the planning
standards that guide the siting of masts
Level of compliance to standards o Telecommunication masts providers GPS Essential
o Households Digital Camera
Interview Schedule
3. To examine the factors that contribute to non-compliance of standards that guide the siting of telecommunication masts
Determinants of compliance with
Standards Open Ended
Enforcement and inspection o Telecommunication operators Questionnaire
Land value and compensations o Regulatory Institutions (NCA, GCAA, RPI, EPA, KMA
Rewards and penalties for
compliance and noncompliance
4. To assess the institutional roles, prospects and challenges associated with the enforcement and monitoring of compliance to
standards in the siting telecommunication masts.
4.1 Institutional roles in ensuring
compliance Regulatory Institutions (NCA, GCAA, RPI, EPA, KMA) Questionnaire
4.2 What factors affect their effectiveness
in ensuring compliance
4.3 Compatibility of policies and o Telecommunication masts providers o Questionnaire
arrangements o Regulatory Institutions (NCA, GCAA, RPI, EPA, KMA) o Literature Review
So ce: A ho Con c , 2019
60
 CHAPTER FOUR
DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS ON THE SITING OF
TELECOMMUNICATION MASTS
4.1 Introduction

This chapter presents the analysis of data obtained from the study communities and institutions
that are involved in the siting of telecommunication masts in Kumasi. The data were analysed in
line with the research objectives. The chapter specifically presents results on the level of
compliance of institutions with the locational planning standards that govern the siting of
telecommunication masts in Ghana. It also examines the factors that influence non-compliance of
standards that regulate the siting of masts as well as the institutional roles of regulatory agencies
in the deployment of masts and towers. The chapter further examines the major challenges
confronting regulatory institutions in ensuring compliance to standards as well as the processes
that telecommunication operators go through in acquiring land or space for their masts.

The analyses and presentation of the data are organised under four main sub-sections based on the
objectives of the study, namely: (i) critique of the processes involved in land acquisition for
telecommunication masts; (ii) assessment of the level of compliance of the guidelines that guide
the siting of masts; (iii) factors that contribute to non-compliance of standards in the siting of
masts; and (iv) institutional roles, prospects and challenges associated with enforcement and
monitoring compliance with planning standards.

4.2 Critique of the processes involved in acquiring land for the siting of telecommunication
masts in the Kumasi Metropolis

This section covers a critique of the processes involved in acquiring land for telecommunication
masts with specific reference to the steps telecommunication operators followed, the source they
acquire land/space, the terms of the agreement and the amount paid as compensation. The section
assesses the strength and weaknesses of the process and how it impacts the siting of masts in
compliance with the standards that guide the siting of telecommunication masts. The section also
assessed the compatibility of guidelines that govern the siting of telecommunication masts and
other policies in Ghana.

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4.2.1 Processes involved in Acquiring Land/Space for Telecommunication Masts

Ownership and acquisition of land is a crucial element in the political and social structure of every
city and community in Ghana (Gyamera et al, 2018). The study discovered that telecommunication
operators go through several processes to acquire land or space for developing masts. These
procedures are broken down into 5 major phases namely, identification of suitable land/space,
negotiations with land/property owners, investigations and verification of land/property
ownership, detailed suitability check of the site in technical terms and payment for all permits
before proceeding with the installation of the masts as shown in Figure 4.1.

Figure 4.1: Processes Telecommunication Operators go Through to Acquire Land/Space

So ce: A ho Con c , 2020

Figure 4.1 outlines the summary of the steps from site identification, negotiations with
land/property owners, verifications and suitability test to payments of stakeholders before
telecommunication operators acquire land/space for their masts. There could be variation in the
62
process in some instances but the usual and the most followed process is what is outline in figure
4.1. Critique of the processes involved in acquiring land for the siting of telecommunication is
discussed.

4.2.1.1 Identification of Suitable Lands

Mobile telecommunication functions through a base station as a result telecommunication

operators acquire land/space at different locations across the city for their masts. The identification
of suitable lands according to operators is the first stage of the land acquisition process. This
happens after the operator has decided to extend or improve coverage in the area upon completion
of different technical, market and economic analysis. Adetokunboh et al, (2018) suggested that
due to technical and marketing reasons, telecommunication service providers acquire land at
precise locations for construction of base stations. With reference to this, it was discovered that
operators search for land/space within the geographical area for their base station. The search is
backed by the ability of the area to provide the necessary height suitable to provide coverage for
telecommunication users in the area. A representative of telecommunication masts company
during the study has this to say;

When we want to extend coverage in an area, we first visit the community in search of
space that will support our antennas. We search based on the appropriateness of the space
to support the technical requirement of the mast. (A statement by a representative of a
telecommunication firm, 14th January, 2020, Accra).

It should however be emphasised that land is fixed in supply (Olima, 2003; Lasisi et al. 2017) and
does not expand with population growth and the upsurge in socioeconomic activities. The search
for suitable land for telecommunication has increasingly become a difficult task due to
urbanization and competing demand for different uses. The findings showed that operators also
face competition from other telecommunication operators in search of a suitable site for their
masts. This however makes identification of suitable sites an expedient activity among
telecommunication operators. The foregoing poses threat to compliance with standards since
operators are under some form of economic pressure to site masts at all costs in the built-up area
to survive competition from other operators. Therefore, the practice of telecommunication
operators searching for suitable land/space for their masts in already built-up area is a complicated
task which has a great potential of leading to non-compliance with the set planning standards. The
63
search for suitable space for masts supports the location theory (Parr and Reynolds-feighan, 2000).
The findings support why telecommunication operators decide to locate their masts and base
stations at a particular location and the reasons behind their choice. This in a way supports the
assertion that urban planning in the global south mostly falls short of integrating
telecommunication infrastructure in its settlements layout (Olajuyigbe and Rotowa, 2011; Ahmed
and Dinye, 2011; G¨uneral et al., 2017).

Moreover, several scholars (Foster, 1999; Santini et al., 2002; Wolf and Wolf, 2004; Abdel-
Rassoul et al., 2007; Everaert and Bauwens, 2007; Adeniji et al. 2015; Danladi et al. 2016;
Gibson, 2017) have provided evidence to suggest health and safety risks when people live or work
in close proximity to installed telecommunication masts. Prolong exposure to telecommunication
masts has been widely discussed to expose humans to different diseases and health concerns. This
has led to different campaigns and movements to regulate and limit the siting of masts in close
proximity to where people live or work. As a result, people have developed anti-sentiment or
negative attitudes or beliefs towards telecommunication masts. The situation according to
operators has led to rejection and resistance towards giving out land/space for telecommunication
masts. It was revealed as earlier discussed that operators are already limited to few areas in the city
due to the competing demand and usage. However, the resistance or rejection of the proposal by
land/property owners at an appropriate site, that meets the planning standards makes land/space
identification difficult and complicated.

The study participants from the telecommunication masts institutions suggested that anti sentiment
towards telecommunication masts is growing rapidly in Ghana. The fear of telecommunication
masts due to perceived cancer and other concerns is spreading across the country. This therefore,
makes the land acquisition process more difficult and complicated with time.

4.2.1.2 Negotiation with Land/Property Owners

Telecommunication operators upon identifying a suitable land/space approach respective owner(s)

to request for its use. Although land in the community traditionally belongs to the stool or
traditional authorities, it was revealed during the study that negotiation to allow masts are
exclusively done between operators and land/property owners. Traditional authorities are
consulted only when identified land/space are stool lands that are solely owned by them.

64
The decision to accept telecommunication masts was reported to be as a result of the bargaining
power and negotiation between the owner and the telecommunication firm. Operators negotiate
based on the distinctive quality of the site to enhance network coverage. This is done in line with
the expected benefit they envisage from siting the masts at the identified location. It was further
revealed that land/property owners negotiate based on rational calculations of personal benefits in
kind or cash they stand to obtain from operators. An agreement is reached when both parties settled
on the amount of compensation, mode of payment, duration of the agreement and other covenants.
The practice, according to the respondents, removes institutional bottlenecks and delays in
negotiations towards the siting of masts as well as ensures that the right to property of owners is
respected and compensated appropriately. However, the practice is exposed to allowing masts at
locations that defy planning standards. Land/property owners are likely to be influenced by
operators to accept masts once it is a practice to negotiate directly with them. One respondent
during a face-to-face interview has this to say;

They came to us that they want to site their masts on our compound, my senior brother
who is away from town discussed with them. I later heard the masts are dangerous to our
health but my brother upon discussion with them refuses all our attempts to reject the masts
(A statement by a 51-year-old co-owner of a house where a mast is installed, 3rd December,
2019, Oforikrom).

The statement supports the claim that direct negotiation with landowners is likely to influence
property/land accept masts which could have a negative impact on compliance of standard.

Furthermore, negotiation with property owners to install telecommunication masts during a face-
to-face interview with households who live within 50m of installed masts revealed a lack of
consensus with adjoining property owners. Some property owners complained about lack of
consultation and decision making before masts are installed in their neighborhood. Some
households who own property within 50m of installed masts in the study communities has this to
say;

I own this house and was living here before the mast was installed, they only consulted
the house owner of the house at where it is installed. The reality is we are hardily hit by
the negatives of the masts such as the noise, vibration, smoke and the cancer effects we
d k so much about. How can we suffe beca e f e e ec ic i e e .

65
 We would have resisted it installation if we were consulted but we were not. And we cannot
do anything about it because it not on our property. (A statement by a 55-year-old owner
of a house at Oforikrom where a mast is installed, 3rd Dece be , 2019, Of ik ).

Other respondent declared;

The mast is just on the border with my neighbor but I was not involved in the decision to
accept it. The owner of the house accepted a huge amount of money to allow the masts.
The painful part of the story is he has relocated and the house is occupied by tenants. How
can our life be i da ge beca e f e a elfi h e . (A statement by a 60-year-
old house owner at Bantama where a mast is installed, 6th December, 2019, Bantama).

The foregoing discussion reveals that the practice of telecommunication operators negotiating with
land/property owners directly and alone is a flaw and contradiction to the public consultation of
households and adjoining property owners. Their involvement will be critical in ensuring public
interest at the expense of individual parochial interest. There is therefore, the need to put in
structures that will ensure that households and adjoining property owners are involved in the
decision to site masts at a given location. The suggestion is actively practiced in the United
Kingdom, South Africa and other developed countries (UK Government, 2008; The City of
Polokwane, 2015).

4.2.1.3 Investigation and Verification of Land/Property Owners

Urbanization in Africa according to Olajuyigbe and Rotowa (2011); Ahmed and Dinye (2011);
G¨uneral et al., (2017) is often characterized by unregulated and unstructured land market in most
cities. As a result, there exist cases of multiple ownership and other anomalies in the urban land
market. Land seekers are expected to do thorough background checks and verifications to avoid
litigations.

Operators during the study acknowledged to conduct background checks to determine or confirm
the true ownership of the proposed site from the land secretariat. It was however gathered from
the field observation that most of the masts in the study communities were usually installed in
built-up neighborhoods. As a result, telecommunication operators usually acquire spaces in and
around houses for masts, which are difficult to confirm ownership from the land secretariat.
Telecommunication operators during the study revealed that due to the lack of proper official

66
documentation and registration of lands and properties, the issue of multiple ownership of land
and properties is very common in Ghana. Multiple ownership of spaces used for masts usually
comes from family and siblings who co-owned a property. The buyer therefore must do a thorough
check before deciding to acquire land/space. This process usually takes a lot of time and may
require additional resources. Litigations arising from multiple ownership may occur even with all
the background checks. The assertion by operators is supported in the conventional literature (e.g.,
Agbosu, 2000 and Gyamera et al., 2018) who suggested that Co e em o hich i an la ed
as b e be a e is the golden rule that can guide all prospective land buyers/seekers in Ghana.
Land buyers/seekers must be aware of lands they buy and that buyers who fail to investigate the
seller's title does so at his own risk.

The multiple sales/rent of land/space are closely linked with multiple ownership of land. It
connotes a situation where a parcel of land/space has been sold to multiple buyers. Land
seekers/owners who refuse to do proper background checks fall prey to land mafias. Operators
during the study highlighted how multiple ownership of land affect their accessibility of land for
telecommunication masts in Kumasi and other major cities in Ghana. It is therefore important to
intensify land registration and documentation in Ghana to eliminate cases of multiple ownership
and sales of land.

4.2.1.4 Suitability Checks of the Site

This is the stage where detailed technical checks are conducted to determine the suitability of the
site for the proposed masts. The checks include a careful examination of the soil/space and how
they can support the proposed mast. The ability of the site to support the masts while meeting the
locational planning standards that regulate the siting of the mast in Ghana are also examined.
Additional check includes a critical assessment of the site with regards to its viability to support
masts that will contribute to achieving revenue targets.

Officials from telecommunication masts firms highlighted the importance of suitability checks
since poor or wrong suitability checks could be very damaging to the firm. Payments and other
commitments advance after conducting suitability checks and making decisions based on the
results of suitability analysis. This therefore, makes this stage important in the process. However,
the practice of confirming true ownership of land/space before assessing to see if they meet
standards connotes the seriousness of compliance of standards to operators. The forgoing

67
demonstrates that getting approval from land/property owner for land/space is more important than
meeting the standards. The practice of assessing the suitability of land/space in meeting the
standards before confirming its true ownership will have suggested how important or priority of
meeting the standards means to operators. Authorities and institutions should enforce compliance
of standards effectively, to make meeting the standards a top priority for operators.

4.2.1.5 Payments for all Permits

The results from the interviews with masts operators showed that payments as compensation to
property owners are done after the operator has conducted all the background and suitability checks
and has decided to install the mast at the proposed site. Payments are made upon agreement of
lease between property owners and telecommunication operators. Other payments are also made
for permits and approval from the relevant government and local authorities mandated to regulate
the siting of telecommunication masts in Ghana.

However, data from telecommunication operators revealed that the frequent attempt by some
chiefs and traditional authorities to claim compensation for lands already sold to private
individuals is one of the major challenges in acquiring land for masts. The study also discovered
that other individuals and groups aside chiefs and traditional authorities also attempt to claim
compensation for a parcel of land or space. The situation makes the acquisition of such land
difficult and complicated. Operators in this case risk paying multiple compensations for a parcel
of land/space to multiple claimants. Their claim is corroborated by Adetokunboh et al. (2018) that
the uncompromising attitude of some chiefs and multiple entitlements of ownership of appropriate
sites pose a serious challenge to land acquisition and compliance of the standard that regulate the
siting of masts.

Operators face the challenge of paying a ransom or search for a new site which is very difficult
due to different constraining factors which include limited availability of appropriate sites and
competition with other land users. The situation is more challenging when chiefs demand
compensation in addition to what is paid or expected to pay to an individual/private owner. Chiefs
and traditional authorities have authority within a geographical area, which makes it difficult in
case the operator decides to move for an alternative site. An officer of telecommunication company
during the study has this to say;

68
 Some chiefs and traditional authorities try to benefit from the proceeds in areas where
lands have been sold to individuals by the stool, skin or family. (A statement by an officer
of a telecommunication firm, 14th January, 2020, Accra).

It is therefore imperative to note how chief, traditional authorities and individuals in their attempt
to benefit from compensations make land acquisition very difficult for telecommunication
operators. Their actions can also go a long way to influence the siting of telecommunication masts
according to standards. Resistance and demand for ransom could force operators to acquire
alternative land/space, which may lead to contravention of the locational planning standards and
regulations that govern the siting of masts.

4.2.1.6 Installation of Masts

This is the stage where plans are put to work. The operator after obtaining a lease agreement with
land/property owners proceed with the physical installation of the masts. This is done after
securing all the necessary approval and permission from the relevant government agencies and
local authorities. Below are some of the statements made by some property owners during the
interview

he telecommunication operators consulted me of their desire to site their masts on our

compound, I discussed with my siblings and a date was set for our discussion of the terms
of the agreement. The operators came on the agreed date and together with my siblings,
we agreed to the term of payment with an option for renewal or removal after the end of
the agreed period. They (operators) later came with a written agreement which we sign
after payment. (A statement by a 43-year-old co-owner of a house where a mast is installed,
3rd December, 2019, Oforikrom).

Other respondent declared;

The operators came to meet me and my late husband to allow masts on our compound.
They came later to discuss how much they will pay us and we agreed. They later came to
pay a 5-year advance of the agreed amount. The rest was done by them. (A statement by a
65-year-old woman owner of a house where masts have been installed, 5th December, 2019,
Nhyieaso).

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From the perspective of officials of telecommunication masts providers, it was revealed during the
study that the process discussed is duly followed before masts are installed. They acknowledge the
huge cost of litigation and removal of masts as the main reason to pay due diligence to the process.
Gyamera et al. (2018) similarly argued that land acquisition in Ghana could be punishable or
detrimental if proper steps are not followed. It is therefore important for telecommunication
operators to pay attention to the due process to avoid problems. However, it is quite clear from the
analysis that a lot of time and resource goes into ownership and other checks. Efforts to intensify
land registration and documentation by the relevant stakeholders is recommended.

4.2.2 Source(s) of Land/Space for Telecommunication Masts

Lands in Ghana are predominantly owned by customary authorities which include stools, skins,
families and clans. These authorities owned about 78 percent, the state also owns about 20 percent
of lands while the remaining 2 percent are jointly owned by the customary authorities and the state
(Larbi, 2008; Danso and Manu, 2013; King and Sumbo, 2015).

The study revealed that land/space for telecommunication masts is sourced from stool or skin
lands, family lands, private/individual lands as well as state or public lands. These lands are
acquired through discussions and negotiations with the respective owner(s).

Stool or skin lands are communal lands that are entrusted in a stool/skin. Traditional leaders who
are the occupant of the stool/skin administer these lands on behalf of their subjects based on the
customary laws (Gambrah, 2002; Danso and Manu, 2013; Gyamera et al, 2018). Officials from
telecommunication firms during the study admitted to acquire land from the stool/skin for their
masts. These lands are acquired through negotiations and discussions with respective traditional
authorities.

The study found out that stool/skin lands are leased for the installation of the telecommunication
masts. It is however, unclear whether these lands are lease with the approval of the lands
commission as defined in the 1992 constitution of the Republic of Ghana (clause (3) of Article
267).

Moreover, family lands are lands owned by a specific family where the family head holds the
absolute interest and administers it on behalf of the family (Gambrah, 2002; Danso and Manu,
2013; Gyamera et al, 2018). The family head per the custom exercise usufructury right over family

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lands. It was however, revealed that despite holding usufructury right, family heads can give out
land exclusively for installation of telecommunication masts. Operators during the study admitted
to acquire land exclusively from family heads without the involvement of the stool/skin who hold
the allodia title to the land. Allodia title within the Ghanaian context is described as the original or
supreme owner to lands in Ghana (Agbosu, 2000; Sittie, 2006; Akrofi and Whittal, J. 2011;
Gyamera et al, 2018).

Additionally, Private/individual lands are lands acquired by specific individuals and are described
as private property. Holders or owners of these lands within the Ghanaian context exercise free
right on the said land (Gambrah, 2002; Danso and Manu, 2013; Gyamera et al, 2018). The study
discovered that private/individual landowners like family heads lease out land exclusively for the
installation of masts. The study of telecommunication masts firm further reveals that
private/individual lands have been the leading source of land for telecommunication masts in
Ghana. Private/individual lands are mostly used because the highest number of masts are usually
sited in residential areas where such lands ownership dominates the other sources.

Furthermore, public lands are state-owned land that is bestowed in the president in trust and on
behalf of the people of Ghana. These lands within the Ghanaian context are popularly known as
state lands as defined in the 1992 republican constitution of the country. They are lands
compulsorily acquired by the Government of Ghana for administrative and development purposes
(Gambrah, 2002; Danso and Manu, 2013; Morgan et al, 2016; Gyamera et al, 2018). The state
exercises allodia or absolute right over the said lands (Gyamera et al, 2018).

The study discovers that state/public land is the second most used land for telecommunication
masts in the country. These lands are acquired by telecommunication operators for masts mostly
in commercial and central business districts. The foregoing findings reveal the importance of state
actors when it comes to land acquisition for telecommunication masts. Therefore, any attempt to
streamline land acquisition for masts should include state institutions and not only
individuals/private, family heads and chiefs/traditional authorities.

4.2.3 Means and Compensations Paid for Land

Data gathered from telecommunication masts providers revealed that land is acquired on lease for
telecommunication masts. The agreement of the lease towards the installation of masts are made

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only between telecommunication firm and land/property owners. This suggests that all residents
and property owners who live or own property in the proposed site are not involved in the lease or
any arrangement towards accepting the masts in the area.

The interview findings also revealed a 15-year duration of the lease agreement between
telecommunication operators and land/property owners. The lease is subject to renewal if both
parties agreed on new terms and conditions. Although the lease agreement is 15 years, the findings
showed that compensations are agreed on five year periods. Telecommunication operators
explained that the 15-year period was necessary due to the high cost of installing and removing
the masts. They suggested how damaging decisions by land/property owners to terminate lease
agreement within a short period will be to telecommunication operators. The finding reveals that
the 15-year lease agreement was set to allow mobile operators to use the facility for a reasonable
period. This as a result of the huge cost involved in installing and removing masts.

Moreover, the study also discovered that compensation to allow the installation of masts usually
comes in the form of monetary. Other forms of compensations according to operators come in few
cases and are usually not included in the terms of the agreement. This form of compensation comes
as an additional package to the land/property owner and may include connecting
property/landowner to the generator set during a power outage. Although the Ghana Cedis is the
widely used currency for business transactions in Ghana, it was, however, revealed that
compensations to allow the siting of telecommunication masts in Ghana are negotiated in US
Dollars.

Furthermore, the study revealed that the amount paid as compensation for land/space differs in
terms of the income level of the neighborhood. Operators acknowledged paying a higher amount
as compensation in high-class income communities than in low-class residential areas. An
interview was conducted among land/property owners in the study communities who allowed
masts on their property. Analysis of the data reveals that a monthly USD200 and USD 250 were
paid as compensation to property owners in Oforikrom and Bantama respectively. Oforikrom and
Bantama per the discussions in the previous chapter are categories as low and middle-class income
residential communities in Kumasi. However, it was revealed that a monthly USD 800 was paid
as compensation to property owners at Nhyiaeso, a high-class income residential area in the same
city.

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Additionally, it was revealed that five-year advance payments are usually made to property owners
before leased agreements are signed. Fresh negotiations and compensations are paid after five
years of the initial payment. It is important to acknowledge the fact that the amount of money paid
as compensation could be the main reason why land/property owners allow masts in their backyard
or neighborhood. The amount paid to owners for a piece of land/space is far higher than the amount
they could have received for other alternative usages.

4.2.4 Compatibility analysis among the various regulations that guide the siting of masts

Compatibility analysis is used to assess the comparison of guidelines the regulate the siting of
masts with various policies to identify areas of conflicts and inconsistencies. The analysis also
helped to identify policies that are mutually supporting in achieving the same objectives. Conflicts
are potential factors that could account for non-compliance with the guidelines that regulate the
siting of masts (Weible and Heikkila, 2017). This study therefore used compatibility matrix to
identify conflicts and contradictions between the guidelines that regulate the siting of masts in
Ghana and other sectoral policies in Ghana. The analysis also involved a comparison of the
Guidelines on Communication Towers (2010) with telecommunication sectoral policies such as
infrastructural sharing policy and infrastructure licensing policy. The national sectoral policies
used for this study are; National Urban Policy, Land Use and Spatial Planning Policy, National
Environmental Policy, and National Health Policy. The other policies are; National
Telecommunication Policy, Zoning Guidelines and Planning Standards and the Local Government
Act. The study however, used a three interval likert scale to determine compatibility between the
guidelines that regulate the siting masts and towers in Ghana and other policies. A record sheet
was used to explain identified positive, negative and neutral relationships. A positive score
indicates consistency and supportiveness of policies while a negative score shows a conflict
between the two policies. A neutral or zero score also indicates no direct relationship between the
policies.

Table 4.2: Policies compatibility analysis

Sectoral Policies Other Sectoral Policies
ISP ILP NUP LUSPA NEP NHP NTP ZGPS LGA
GCT 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
S ce: A h c c , 2020

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Key to the acronyms in Table 4.2
GCT=Guideline on Communication Towers
ISP=Infrastructure Sharing Policy
NUP=National Urban Policy
ZGPS=Zoning Guidelines and Planning Standards
LGA= Local Government Act
NHP=National Health Policy
NTP=National Telecommunication Policy
LUSPA=Land Use and Spatial Planning Act
NEP=National Environmental Policy

The study identified no conflicts between the guideline that regulate the siting of masts and other
sectoral policies in Ghana. The record sheet in Appendix V demonstrates that the siting of masts
to promote environmental sanity manifests in all the policies reviewed in this study. The plausible
explanation is that the quest to regulate the siting of masts to protect people and the environment
from the harmful effect of masts and towers is highly recognized to be vital to the growth and
development of Ghana (Burby and Dalton 1994; Addy-Nayo, 2001; Eshun, 2009; Lum, 2011;
Ussher 2015 Osei-owusu, 2015).

The Infrastructure Sharing Policy and Infrastructure Licensing Policy both aim to minimize the
proliferation of masts as a result of increasing demand for telecommunication services amidst rapid
urbanization. The policies encourage the sharing of infrastructure among telecommunication
operators to limit the number of masts and their effects on humans and the environment (Osei-
owusu, 2015; Hatsu et al, 2016). The policies directly resonate with the purpose of the guideline
that regulates the siting of masts in Ghana. Moreover, the Zoning Guidelines and Planning
Standards also complement the guidelines that regulate the siting by outlining permissible
standards for masts across different land uses.

Furthermore, the National Telecommunication Policy recognizes the need to regulate the
telecommunication industry for effective communication in the country (Addy-Nayo, 2001). As a
result, the National Communication Authority is mandated to collaborate with other institutions to
regulate the siting of masts in Ghana. The implementation of the guidelines that regulate the siting
of masts contributes to the achievement of the National Telecommunication Policy objectives. The
Guideline on Communication Towers is therefore compatible with the National
Telecommunication policy.

In the same vine, the achievement of the goal of Guideline on Telecommunication Towers
contributes to the aims of the National Health Policy, National Urban Policy, and Land Use and
Spatial Planning Standards. Specifically, the siting of masts according to the guidelines that

74
regulate the siting of masts contributes to the objective of the National Health Policy of creating a
healthy environment where people live, school and work. The guideline the regulate the siting of
masts also contributes to the goal of the Ghana National Urban Policy of creating sustainable,
spatially integrated and orderly development of urban settlements.

The Guidelines on Communication Towers is also compatible with the Local Government Act and
the National Environmental Policy. The policies are consistent in contributing to a healthy and
safe environment through integrated and coordinated environmental management. Additionally,
the policies embrace the need for regulations and control mechanisms to manage the growth of
human settlement amid rapid urbanization.

In conclusion, the policy compatibility analysis reveals that the guideline that regulates the siting
of telecommunication masts in Ghana is compatible with other policies that promote
environmental sanity and the safety of human settlement in the country.

4.3 An Assessment of the level of compliance of the guidelines that guide the siting of
telecommunication masts in the Kumasi Metropolis

The results of the assessment demonstrate that a large number of masts identified in the three
communities were located at Oforikrom, a low-class average income community. Overall, the
results of the study revealed that 42 percent of the masts for the three communities were installed
at Oforikrom, while 32 percent and 26 percent were located at Bantama and Nhyieaso respectively.
Figure 4.1 shows the distribution of masts in the study communities within the Kumasi city.

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Figure 4.2: Distribution of Masts in the Study Communities
Source: Field Survey, December 2019

The analysis further revealed a large number of households live in close proximity to
telecommunication masts in low and middle-income residential areas as compared with
households in the high-income community. The enumeration of masts in the study communities
reveals that an average of 33 households was recorded to live within a 50m radius of installed
masts in the three communities. An average of 40 and 50 households were recorded to live within
a 50m radius of installed at Oforikrom and Bantama respectively. However, an average of two
households per mast was recorded at Nhyieaso which is a high-class average income community.

The foregoing reveals that a large number of households live close to install telecommunication in
low and middle-class average income areas than in high-class average income communities. As
shown in Table 4.1, 300 and 322 (representing 47 and 50 percent of total household in the three

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communities) households in Bantama and Oforikrom respectively live close to telecommunication
compared with few households in Nhyieaso (2 percent).

Table 4.1: Distribution of Masts in the selected communities

Communities No. of No. Households Living
Masts within 50m Radius
Oforikrom 8 322
Bantama 6 300
Nhyiaeso 5 10
Total 19 632
Source: Field Survey, December 2019

Moreover, the use of google earth image (see Appendix I, II and III.) further demonstrates the
variations of houses and households in close proximity to installed telecommunication masts in
the three communities. It provides pictorial evidence to support the findings that a relatively high
number of houses and households are in close proximity to installed masts in low-class average
income communities than in high-class average income neighborhood. The images in Appendix I,
II and III depict the typical nature of houses and households around installed masts in the
communities. The finding is consistent with the studies of Filippova and Rehm (2012), who
suggested that the presence of masts in neighborhoods is described in New Zealand as locally
nde i able land e . As a result, the siting of masts in close proximity to neighborhoods are
prevalent in low-income communities.

4.3.1 Assessment of the Level of Compliance of Installed Masts According to the Locational
Planning Standards

This section highlights the level of compliance of installed masts in the study communities
according to the set standards and regulations that govern the siting of telecommunication masts
in Ghana. All installed telecommunication masts in the study communities were assessed using
selected benchmarks contained in the guidelines that govern the siting of masts in Ghana. The
standards used to measure compliance for this study are proximity to the nearest habitable
structure, proximity to main electricity power lines and proximity to health and educational
facilities. Other benchmarks included the provision of 5m No-Go Zones, neighborhood

77
consultations, accessibility of site by fire Tenders and aesthetic impact of mast on the environment.
These benchmarks were selected based on their importance to the siting of masts that promote and
address most of the concerns and challenges associated with the siting of telecommunication
masts. The benchmarks were also appropriate and researchable within the social science enquiry.

The d e l on com liance ing the aforementioned standards of installed masts in the
study communities revealed a compliance level of 50 percent. Specifically, masts at Nhyieaso,
were installed at a compliance level of 60 percent. However, masts at Bantama and Oforikrom
were installed at a compliance level of 49 percent and 47 percent respectively. The level of
compliance was obtained by spatial assessment of the installed masts in the study communities
using the locational planning standards that regulate the siting of masts in Ghana. The assessment
of masts using the various components of the standard are further discussed.

4.3.1.1 Proximity to the Nearest Structure

Several studies have reported on the adverse health effects of living or working in close proximity
(within 200m) to installed masts due to the emission of electromagnetic radiation (Santini et al.,
2002; Abdel-Rassoul et al., 2007; Everaert and Bauwens, 2007; Aderoju et al., 2014; Adeniji et
al. 2015; Danladi et al. 2016). This has led to the adoption of different locational standards to
guide the siting of masts. The Zoning Guidelines and Planning Standards (2011) recommend a
minimum setback of not less than 20m from the base of the mast to the boundary fence or nearest
residential structure. The results of the study revealed that the average setback from installed mast
to the nearest habitable building is 7metres. The results fall below the required 20m minimum
setback contained in the standard. Specifically, an average of 10m setback from installed masts
and the nearest buildings was estimated at Nhyiaeso. On the other hand, masts installed at
Oforikrom and Bantama were estimated to have an average minimum setback of 8m and 3m
respectively to the nearest habitable buildings. It was however observed that about 90 percent of
masts installed in the study communities contravene the minimum setback to the nearest building
contained in the locational planning standards that govern the siting of masts in Ghana. This
requires immediate attention by relevant national and local city authorities.

Figure 4.3 illustrates the minimum setbacks between installed masts in the study communities and
the nearest habitable structure. The figure demonstrates that 17 (89 percent) out of the 19 assessed
masts were installed below the 20m minimum setback from habitable buildings defined in the

78
guideline that govern the siting of masts in Ghana. These masts were installed with a minimum
setback of 10m or less. The siting of these masts in violation of the standard is distributed in all
the communities irrespective of their income levels. Only two of the masts were installed in
compliance with the 20m minimum setback required by the locational planning standards that
guide the siting of telecommunication masts and towers in Ghana. They were located at Oforikrom
(32M), on the compound of the Oforikrom police station and in a residential neighborhood in
Nhyiaeso (21m). The siting of masts at the police station at Oforikrom suggests how public/state
lands could be used to ensure compliance of standards in the location of masts across the cityscape.

LEGEND
Masts o
Nearest Building
Proximity to the Nearest Building

Figure 4.3: Proximity of installed masts in the study communities to the nearest structure
Source: Field Survey, December 2019

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4.3.1.2 Proximity to Electric Power Lines

Telecommunication base station in Ghana are electric-powered and are required to be sited at
locations closer to the national electricity supply lines. However, the standards that regulate the
siting of telecommunication masts in Ghana stipulates that no telecommunication masts or tower
should be installed in close proximity to high voltage electricity transmission power lines.
Moreover, the standards the regulate the siting of masts recommend a minimum setback between
install masts and main electricity power lines. The setback is dependent on the height of the masts.
Specifically, a minimum distance between installed masts and the main electricity power line
should be an estimated 120 percent height of the masts. For instance, if a mast is 50m high,
proximity to the main electricity power lines should be at least 60m (i.e., 120 percent of 50m). The
assessment of masts in the three communities revealed that 58 percent of installed masts were
located in close proximity to electricity supply lines (a distance less than 120 percent of masts
height) while 42 percent were identified to have been sited at locations away from electricity power
supply.

Figure 4.4 illustrates the distribution of masts in the study communities according to their
proximity to the main electricity power supply lines. Masts were therefore, grouped according to
compliance and non-compliance with the standard on minimum proximity to electricity supply
lines. Bantama has 50 percent of masts installed in close proximity to main electricity supply lines
while Oforikrom and Nhyieaso had 63 percent and 60 percent respectively masts installed close to
main electricity power supply lines. The analysis from the communities further revealed that the
siting of telecommunication masts in close proximity to high voltage electricity supply lines is not
influenced by the income level of the neighborhood. The assessment of installed masts in the
communities showed a high level (58 percent) of non-compliance with the minimum setback to
main electricity lines. Some of the causative factors to non-compliance include lack of public
awareness and proper understanding of the standard by operators. Representatives of masts
producing firms during the study suggested some misunderstanding and complication with some
aspect of the standards, which include minimum setback from electricity power lines. The general
public is also not aware of the minimum setback of installed masts and electricity lines. This
resonates with Sarkheyli et al. (2012) argument that non-compliance with standards has a direct
relationship with lack of awareness. The results also support Matey et al., (2017) and Salihu et al.

80
(2016) that the level of awareness of existing standards and provisions to developers impact the
extent of their compliance. Therefore, there is the need to create public awareness about the
standards and the dangers associated with sitting masts in close proximity to electricity supply
lines.

Figure 4.4: Distribution of Masts according to their Proximity to Electricity power lines
Source: Field Survey, December 2019

4.3.1.3 Proximity to Health and Educational Facilities

Health and educational facilities are important to most societies and cities across the world. The
health and safety of people who use the facilities are important to state authorities, as a result, plans
and interventions are often employed to promote the wellbeing of workers and users (Kingshott,
2015; WHO, 2015; Diaz-Vicario,2017). The standard that regulates the siting of
telecommunication with reference to the Guidelines on Communications Towers (2010) and the
Zoning Guidelines and Planning Standards (2011) outline a minimum setback of 150m from a
classroom or dormitory and health facilities. This is a result of the concerns associated with
prolonged exposure to masts and base stations. The assessment revealed that 10 percent of

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telecommunication masts in the study communities were sited in contravention with this
component of the standard. The masts were installed at Oforikrom, described in the study as a low-
class average income residential community. Specifically, a telecommunication mast was located
in less than 5m to a clinic with the attachment of a rackety generator set to the wall of this clinic
were patients received medical treatment. Another health center in Oforikrom was identified
within 190m from an installed telecommunication mast. Additionally, a basic school was also
identified to be in the distance of 49m to installed mast.

As illustrated in Figure 4.12, is an installed telecommunication mast at Oforikrom sited in close

proximity to a clinic. Nurses and other workers at the clinic during the study complained bitterly
about the negative challenges the masts posed on the functioning of the clinic. They complained
about excessive vibration, noise from the generator set when there is a power outage and the
distress that workers and patients go through with the presence of the base station. The siting of
masts in compliance with setbacks from educational and health facilities is important in preventing
pupils/students, patients, workers and other people who use the facilities from the harmful effects
of masts and base stations (Eneh, 2015). Prolong exposure to telecommunication masts is widely
supported in the conventional literature to be inimical to human health (Santini et al., 2002; Abdel-
Rassoul et al., 2007; Everaert and Bauwens, 2007; Adeniji et al. 2015; Danladi et al. 2016).

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Figure 4.5: Installed masts close to a clinic at Oforikrom
Source: Field Survey, December 2019
4.3.2.4 Provision of 5m No-Go Zones

Public safety is of great value to society since it contributes to a more secure and stable
environment within which people live and work (Baldini et al, 2014). The safety and security of
telecommunication base station and antenna support structures are important considerations
contained in many standards and regulations that govern the siting of masts and towers. It specifies
the importance of keeping sufficient precautions that is capable of preventing public access to
telecommunication antennas and antenna support structures. The common practice is the fencing
of the antenna structure or the base station with fence wires and walls.

The standard that regulates the siting of telecommunication masts in Ghana requires operators to
fence ba e a ion and an enna o c e in ha i o la l kno n a 5m No-Go Zone .
This section of the standard recommends the fencing of the antenna support structure 5m away
from any possible public access to the base station. The fencing is supposed to have a locked door
or gate. The survey of telecommunication base stations and masts in the study communities
showed that 73.7 percent of masts were installed with the 5m public safety zone while 26.3 percent

83
were installed without the 5m No-Go zone. Figure 4.11 presents images of telecommunication
base stations with and without the 5m No-Go- Zone from the study communities.

Figure 4.6: Installed masts with and without 5m No-Go-Zone in the study communities
Source: Field Survey, December 2019

Furthermore, the assessment of masts in the study communities revealed that about 33 percent of
masts installed in Bantama are without the 5m No-Go-Zone. The results also indicated that 20
percent and 25 percent of masts installed at Nhyieaso and Bantama respectively are without the
5m No-Go-Zone. As shown in figure 4.13, is the illustration of masts in the communities installed
with and without 5m No-Go-Zone. However, contravention of the 5m No-Go-Zone from the
results of the study appears to be prevalent in the low-class income residential areas than in the
high-class income residential community. To emphasize, Nhyieaso has 20 percent of mast installed
without the 5m No-Go-Zone. Meanwhile, Bantama and Oforikrom have 33 percent and 25 percent
respectively masts installed without the No-Go-Zone. The siting of masts in compliance with the
No-Go-Zone helps protect lives and avoidable accidents as a result of public access to a base
station (The City of Polokwane, 2015).

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Figure 4.7: Distribution of Masts in the study communities with and without 5m No-Go-Zone
Field Survey, December 2019

4.3.1.5 Accessibility of Site by Fire Tenders and the Visual/Aesthetic Impact of Masts

The safety of telecommunication base stations is of great importance as they can impact lives and
properties in the areas they are located. The guidelines the regulate the siting of masts in Ghana in
this direction require operators to site masts at locations that are easily accessible by fire tenders.
Accessibility in this context means that the telecommunication base station should be easily
reachable to fire tenders in case there is a fire outbreak (Industry Technical Committee, 2010).
These are precautionary measures to ensure adequate response in case there is an event of a fire
outbreak at the station.

The results of the study showed that 21 percent of the masts in the study communities are not
acce ible b fi e ende . Thi he efo e, denie fi efigh e acce o he i e in ca e of fi e
outbreaks at the base station. The proportion of installed masts in the study communities that are
accessible to fire tenders and those that are not are illustrated in figure 4.8. Additionally, the study

85
discovered that masts installed without accessibility to fire tenders were located at Oforikrom and
Bantama. Figure 4.9 shows the distribution of masts in the three communities that are accessible
by fire tenders. All the masts enumerated masts at Nhyieaso were accessible by fire tenders.
However, two of the masts installed at Oforikrom and Bantama were recorded to have been
installed without accessibility by fire tenders. The reasons for the difference could be attributed to
lack of spaces in Oforikrom and Bantama as revealed earlier with the google earth image of masts
installed in the three communities (see Appendix I, II and III).

Moreover, the visual and aesthetic impacts of masts on the surrounding environment has also
generated some concerns in recent time. Several scholars (e.g., Ajibola, et al. 2015; and Simpson,
et al. 2016; Dalil et al, 2016) have expressed concerns about the impacts of telecommunication
masts on the aesthetics of neighborhoods. They suggested that the indiscriminate proliferation of
masts in an area could disfigure the surrounding landscape. Therefore, such concerns or studies
suggest that masts should be sited with due consideration on the surrounding environment aimed
at preserving its aesthetic nature. On the foregoing, the results revealed that all the masts in the
study communities were built with lattice instead of camouflaged that promote the aesthetic
environment. As a result, masts in the communities according to the standards do not preserve the
aesthetic nature of the environment. Camouflaged masts have been recommended globally to
promote and preserve the aesthetic environment (The City of Polokwane, 2015; Adeniji et al. 2015,
UK Government, 2016).

In summary, all the enumerated masts in the study communities do not promote or preserve the
aesthetic environment. All the masts were built with lattice instead of camouflaged that preserve
the aesthetic nature of the neighborhood. The study also revealed that about 21 percent of masts
enumerated during the study were installed without compliance with the locational planning
standards that required all telecommunication masts to be sited at locations that make them
accessible by fire tenders. The masts recorded to have been sited in contravention with this
standard were located in middle and low-class income residential areas. The plausible explanation
is due to the lack of spaces in low and middle-income communities compared with the high-class
average income community (see Appendix I, II and III).

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Figure 4.8: Accessibility of Sites by Fire Tenders
Field Survey, December 2019

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Figure 4.9: Accessibility of Sites in the various communities by Fire Tenders
Field Survey, December 2019

4.3.1.6 Neighborhood Consultation

Neighborhood or stakeholder consultation is a crucial step to obtain the views and concerns of
people who may be affected or otherwise have an interest in the siting of telecommunication masts.
Feedbacks from these people are of great significance especially from those who may be adversely
affected by the masts (Industry Canada, 2012; UK Government, 2013; The City of Polokwane,
2015). A well-conducted neighborhood consultation provides the likely affected people a proper
understanding of the changes the proposed mast will have on them.

Neighborhood consultation is an important component that features in most standards that regulate
the siting of telecommunication masts across the world. The locational planning standards that
govern the siting of telecommunication masts in Ghana requires public and neighborhood
consultations before permits are issued for installation of masts (Industry Technical Committee,

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2010). The standards state that before a mast is sited in a residential area immediate neighborhood
within a 50m radius should be consulted individually before applying for a permit (Industry
Technical Committee, 2010). Additionally, a group consultation with residents who live within a
500m radius is also required. Telecommunication operators applying for permits must provide
evidence of public or neighborhood consultations before their application is approved. The proof
of public consultation must be endorsed by an assembly member in the area before it is accepted.

The results of the study showed that about 53 percent of residents were present in their current
houses before telecommunication masts in their neighborhood were installed. However, only 11
percent of residents interviewed from the three communities were consulted before the masts in
their neighborhood were installed. Further analysis reveals that about 38 percent of residents in
Nhyieaso, a high-class income residential area, were consulted before masts were installed in their
neighborhood. However, only 12 percent and 7 percent of residents in Bantama and Oforikrom
(middle and low-income residential) respectively were consulted before masts were installed in
their neighborhood. A resident in Bantama has this say during a face-to-face interview;

is very close to my house but because it is not on my compound I was not consulted at all.
The f aei e i he e h acce ed he a d e a he e any longer. I
tried to protest its installation but nobody listens to me. (A statement by a 61-year-old
woman who lives close to the installed mast, 21st December, 2017, Bantama).

Another resident had stated that;

he l c l ed he e f he h e he e i i i ed. The did a a hi g

us (surrounding property owners and residents) towards the mast installation. (A 45-year-
old man who lives close to the installed mast, 5th January, 2019, Nhyieaso).

Analysis from the study communities revealed that, although public or neighborhood consultation
in the study communities was generally low, contravention of the standard is higher in low-income
communities than in high-income residential areas.

4.4 Factors that contribute to the non-compliance of standards that guide the siting of
telecommunication masts

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In this section of the chapter, factors that contribute to non-compliance of standards that regulate
the siting of masts are assessed using. The study also used variables such as enforcement and
inspection, land value and compensations and rewards and penalties for compliance and
noncompliance to measure compliance with the standards that regulate the siting of masts in
Ghana.

4.4.1 Determinants of Compliance

The study participants also shared their opinions on other factors that determine compliance with
the standard that regulate the siting of masts in Ghana. Opinions from representatives of regulatory
institutions and telecommunication masts firms are summarized in Figure 4.10.

Fig 4.10 Determinants of Compliance of Standard in Siting Telecommunication Masts

S ce: A h C c , 2020

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As illustrated in Figure 4.10 compliance with standards and guidelines that regulate the siting of
masts and towers are influenced by factors such as population density, availability of suitable land
and space within the already-built neighborhood, land tenure system and the ownership of land in
general and the effectiveness of zoning in the city.

Furthermore, the attitude of residents and property owners towards telecommunication masts was
also mentioned to be one of the factors that influence compliance of standards that regulate the
siting of masts. Telecommunication masts providers during the study revealed that the acceptance
of masts by property owners and residents at an appropriate site promote compliance of standards.
However, rejection of masts at the appropriate site means operators will have to seek an alternative
location which at times leads to non-compliance with some aspects of the standards.

Moreover, the motivation to meet standards were also identified as one of the factors that influence
compliance of standard that govern the siting of masts. Telecommunication operators during the
study suggested that compliance with standards ensures continuous operation and security of
investment. It therefore, motivates them to comply with the standard in other to sustain their
business and revenue.

Lastly, the effectiveness and appropriateness of the standard that regulates the siting of masts were
also mentioned as some factors which largely influence the siting of masts according to standards.
Representatives of masts firms suggested the friendliness of the standards and permit scheme to
operators to promote compliance. It can therefore, be deduced that the adequacy of the regulatory
framework is crucial in ensuring compliance of standards.

4.4.2 Enforcement and Inspections

Enforcement of standards that guide the siting of masts by regulatory institutions is vital in
ensuring compliance by telecommunication operators in deploying their base stations
(Gunningham, 2017). Inspections/monitoring of telecommunication base stations and sites by
regulatory bodies is also recognized as the effective tools to monitor compliance of standards that
govern the siting of telecommunication masts (Vivoda, 2017).

According to the officials interviewed, enforcement and inspection are key in the siting of
telecommunication masts in the country. According to the NCA official,

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 enforcement and inspection is the process of ensuring compliance to planning standards
and regulations through periodic checks and assessment. The process is conducted to
prevent the detrimental effects of masts on the en i e a d e le . (A statement by
an officer of National Communication Authority, 5th February 2020, Accra).

The checks include environmental impact assessment, structural integrity assessment and physical
measurement of radiation emission. The inspection and assessment of masts in Ghana are carried
out by the Environmental Protection Agency, Metropolitan, Municipal and District Assemblies,
Ghana Civil Aviation Authority and the Radiation Protection Institute of the Ghana Atomic Energy
Commission (GAEC). The NCA official during the study stated that operators whose masts or
towers failed to meet the required measurements of the standards are notified and are required to
remedy the situation within one (1) month. The failure of the operator to remedy the shortfalls
within the stipulated period attracts further sanctions and penalties.

Regulatory institutions during the studies provided evidence to suggest how enforcements and
inspection contribute to compliance of standards that regulate the siting of masts and towers. They
suggested that inspections and enforcement allow them to engage operators and other stakeholders
on defects and issues with masts which contribute to compliance of standards. Inspections also
inspire operators to site masts according to plans and standards. This is necessary because
deviation from plans and standards will be identified by regulatory bodies during the inspection.

e f ce e a d i ec i b ele a akeh lde e e ha he ii g f

telecommunication mast complies with the guidelines of the institutions. They also inform
stakeholders on concerns(non-compliance) and the measures that will be implemented to
address non-c lia ce . (A statement by an officer of EPA, 16th December, 2019,
Kumasi).

Therefore, operators are limited to comply with the standards since deviations and noncompliance
are expose to periodic checks and inspections. The need to ensure enforcement of guidelines is
supported by Gunningham (2017), he suggested that enforcement is critical to compliance of
standards, and guidelines or legislations that are not enforced hardly achieves its objectives. The
need for enforcement and inspections to ensure compliance is also in agreement with Vivoda
(2017), who pointed out that monitoring and inspections are the only means of determining if

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operators are adhering to guidelines. Therefore, enforcement and inspections are essential in
ensuring that the siting of masts is done in accordance with the set locational planning standards.

Moreover, Telecommunication masts providers also supported the claim that inspections and
enforcement contribute to compliance of standards and regulations. They explained that defects
and noncompliance are exposed during inspections and periodic assessments. Addressing these
defects comes with a huge cost and the failure to remedy them comes with penalties and sanctions.
Operators therefore, suggested that it is safer to site masts according to standards and regulations
to avoid the challenges and sanctions associated with noncompliance, that are detected during
inspections and assessments.

4.4.3 Land Value and Compensation

Compensations, as discussed earlier in the chapter, refers to the amount paid as lease to land or
property owners to allow masts. Interview findings showed that the amount paid depends on the
value placed on that particular land/space based on their location and negotiation power of their
owners. On the influence of land value and amount paid as compensation on compliance with the
standard, the EPA suggested that the inability to meet the demands of land/property owners could
mean siting of masts at alternative locations which could lead to non-compliance with standards.

Other regulatory institutions such as the NCA, GCAA and RPI as well as telecommunication masts
companies like, ATC and Helios towers interviewed had a contrary view on the influence of land
values and compensations as a determinant of compliance with the standard that regulates the
siting of masts. They suggested that there is no relationship between land values and compensation
and compliance of standards. They were of the view that compliance of standards is influence by
other factors aside land value and the amount paid as a lease for their usage.

The foregoing demonstrates that compensations and land values can affect the compliance of
standards that regulate the siting of masts in Ghana. Although the majority of institutions aside the
EPA admitted that compensations and land values influence compliance with the set standards and
guidelines. As a result, compliance with standards to them is not influenced by land value or the
amount paid compensations. However, the practice of operators moving to different land/property
owners as a result of their inability to settle on compensation and lease agreement with earlier
land/property owners opens up the possibility of siting of masts in contravention with the

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locational planning standards that regulate the location of masts in Ghana. As discussed earlier in
this report operators are limited to few areas in the already built-up area in the cities for their masts.
They also make a rational calculation of expected benefit before they commit to siting of masts.
Therefore, moving for alternative land/space amidst stiffer competition for different uses could
expose them to siting of masts at locations that could contravene some aspects of the set standard
and regulation.

4.4.4 Rewards and Penalties for Compliance and Non-compliance

Compliance usually comes with a reward as motivation to encourage continuous adherence to the
set standards and ethics. Punishments and penalties on the other hand are applied to serve as
deterrence to discourage contravention of ethics and standard (Kobayashi and Grasmick, 1990).
The siting of masts comes with rewards and penalties based on how operators apply the standards
and guidelines that govern the siting of masts. Compliance with the standards comes with a reward
although it is not common in the Ghanaian context. However, punishments and penalties as a result
of non-compliance are stipulated in the standards and guidelines that regulate the siting of masts
in Ghana.

Some of the penalties in the Guidelines for the Deployment of Communication Towers (2010) that
addresses the growth and environmental sanity are; i) a decommissioned mast/tower which is not
emo ed b he o ne i hin i (60) af e di con in ance of e hall a ac a fine of GH
10,000 per day and ii) after a notice is served to the owner of mast/tower that is not compliant with
the set standards and requirements if it is not removed within sixty (60) days attract a penalty of
GH 35,000. The e enal ie a e a lied o en e ha o e a o abide b he condi ion con ained
in the standards that regulate the siting of masts and towers in Ghana.

The study revealed that rewards and penalties for compliance and non-compliance influence how
telecommunication masts are sited based on the standards. The study participants from the
regulatory institutions and mobile operators overwhelmingly agree that the application of sanctions
and penalties enforce compliance of standards in the siting of masts. Operators cited that the
purpose of their operation is for-profit and the avoidance of such damages that are charged for
noncompliance is a good fortune for their business. They also acknowledged that, although there
is no clear reward for compliance but adherence to the set standards ensures continuity of operation
and the safety of their investment.

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 e al ie a d decommissioning of masts serve as a deterrent for noncompliance. The
assurance of knowing that you will not be fined or your site will not be decommissioned
ensures that your investment is safe. (A statement by an agent of telecommunication
operating company, 14th January, 2020, Accra).

Representatives of regulatory institutions such as the EPA, GCAA, NCA and the KMA during the
study also suggested that compliance to the set standards and guidelines is rewarding to
telecommunication companies in the form of safer operations devoid of high remediation and
damage cost to the mobile industry. They indicated that the demolishing of the unauthorized mast
at the cost of operators should be enough deterrent to enforce the siting of masts according to the
set standard.

According to the NCA official

penalties sited in the guidelines for the deployment of Communication Towers (2010
Guidelines) and regulations from permitting agencies is enough to discourage companies
to abide b he c di i ( a da d a d eg la i )

They however, suggested that cases of non-compliance could give rise to the formulation of harsh
policies, regulations and strategies which may result in the creation of an unfavorable economic
and regulatory environment for the telecommunication industry. It is therefore important for
operators to site mast in compliance with the guidelines the regulate the deployment of masts to
maintain a healthy business environment.

The foregoing findings revealed that penalties and rewards influence the siting of masts and towers
according to standards and guidelines. Key stakeholders in the mobile telecommunication industry
in Ghana (regulatory bodies and operators) admitted that penalties are pragmatic measures to curb
non-compliance of standards in the siting of masts. The standard that regulates the siting of masts
in Ghana as discussed earlier has clearly outlined penalties and sanctions to guide the growth and
environmental sanity amidst rapid urbanization in Ghanaian cities.

4.5 Institutional roles, prospects and challenges associated with the enforcement and
monitoring of compliance to standards that guide the siting telecommunication masts

95
This section of the chapter presents results on the roles played by the various relevant institutions
in the siting of telecommunication masts in Kumasi, with the relevant documents (specifically,
Guidelines on Communications Towers (2010), and the Zoning Guidelines and Planning Standards
2011) that culminate the standard and regulation that govern the siting of telecommunication masts
and towers in Ghana. The section also presents some of the prospects and challenges faced by
institutions in ensuring compliance with the guidelines that regulate the siting of masts in Ghana.
Institutions selected for this study are the National Communication Authority (NCA), Ghana Civil
Aviation Authority (GCAA), Radiation Protection Institute (RPI), Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) and Kumasi Metropolitan Assembly.

4.5.1 National Communication Authority

The National Communication Authority is one of the regulatory institutions mandated to regulate
the siting of telecommunication masts in Ghana. It was revealed that NCA issues license to
telecommunication mast or tower firms to provide communication infrastructure services in the
country. It was further revealed through interviews that the NCA facilitates the development and
innovation of infrastructure and technology to enhance the delivery of quality communication
services. The NCA also helps to address the issues of environmental insanity that are associated
with telecommunication infrastructure. They however, promote environmental sanity by ensuring
that appropriate measures are put in place to limit the potential effects of mobile
telecommunication infrastructure like masts and towers on the surrounding environment. The
NCA during the study acknowledged to collaborate with the Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) and Me o oli an, M nici al and Di ic A emblie (MMDA ) o en e ha ma ae
sited without exposing humans and the environment to different hazards. Protecting humans and
the environment from the harmful effects of masts is extensively backed in the conventional
literature (Aderoju et al., 2014; Dalil et al, 2016; Imran et al., 2018) as one of the main reasons
why the siting of should be regulated.

The NCA additionally, heads the Industry Technical Committee (ITC) that is instituted by the
Inter-Ministerial Committee. Under the Industry Technical Committee, the NCA collaborates with
stakeholders and other agencies such as; Ghana Civil Aviation Authority (GCAA), Ghana Atomic
Energy Commission (GAEC), Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Metropolitan, Municipal,
District Assemblies (MMDAs) and the Town and Country Planning Department to develop a set

96
of standards to guide the siting of telecommunication masts and towers in Ghana. The guidelines
serve as a permitting scheme that telecommunication masts companies follow to acquire official
approval for the installation of telecommunication masts. The Director of NCA during the study
suggested the NCA is working assiduously to ensure all masts in the country are installed
according to the set standards. He also submitted that the authority in collaboration with all the
relevant stakeholders is currently at the final stage of reviewing the 2010 guidelines.

According to the NCA official, the institution also facilitates the performance of licensed network
providers and ensures that they build and construct telecommunication masts and towers in
compliance with the planning standards and regulations, i.e. the Guidelines on Communications
Towers, 2010. Chapter one (referred to problem statement in section 1.2) of this report highlighted
how locational planning standards originated to curb the health and safety concerns associated
with telecommunication masts in a neighborhood. The NCA in this direction collaborates with
other institutions to ensure masts and towers are sited and installed in compliance with the set
locational planning standards. Representative of the NCA had this to say;

The National Communications Authority (NCA) issues Licences to communication tower

companies to provide communication infrastructure services in the country. The NCA
facilitates the development of infrastructure to enhance the delivery of quality of service
and also addresses the issues of environmental sanity and additionally facilitates the
performance of the Licenced Network . (A statement by a representative of National
Communication Authority, 5th February 2020, Accra)

Moreover, it was also revealed during the study that the NCA is responsible for creating the
enabling environment for the sharing of facilities among telecommunication operators. As a result,
they collaborate with masts firms and mobile operators to ensures that installed masts by licensed
network operators are open to sharing with other operators. The standard that regulates the siting
masts in Ghana recommends co-location as the first option to telecommunication operators in their
attempt to improve network coverage in an area. It is a policy adopted by the government to
minimize the growing number of masts in the cityscape. The standard direct operators to
collaborate and negotiate among themselves co-location agreement regarding compensations, fair
rates, damage insurance, site accessibility and security accessibility of the infrastructure. A
member of the NCA during the interview again has this to say;

97
 Licencee is authorized to build, erect and construct communication towers that are open
to sharing by the Licensed Network and at all times comply with any requirement of the
GUIDELINES FOR THE DEPLOYMENT OF COMMUNICATIONS TOWERS (2010)
regarding mounting and location of communication towers and safeguarding the facilities
from injury/destruction . (A statement by a representative of National Communication
Authority, 5th February 2020, Accra)

The NCA is again responsible for resolving disputes emanating from the co-location of towers and
masts. Disputes arising from the co-location of masts and towers among telecommunication
operators are forwarded to the NCA for resolution. The NCA upon receipt of complaints institute
within five working days, a dispute resolution process according to the legislation that makes
provisions for dispute resolutions. The dispute resolution is defined in the Electronic
Communications Act (Section 84), 2008, Act 775 and the National Communications Regulations
(Regulation 154), 2003, LI 1719.

The abovementioned findings demonstrate the important role the NCA plays in the
telecommunication industry in Ghana, as they link the various stakeholders and institutions for a
common goal. It is however, important to consider the NCA as the most influential institution in
the telecommunication and telecommunication infrastructure industry in Ghana. They therefore
have a big influence on how telecommunication masts are sited in the country.

However, it was revealed during the study that the NCA is confronted with limited resources such
as human and logistics in their efforts to enforce and monitor compliance in the siting of masts
with the guidelines that regulate the deployment of masts in Ghana. Additionally, lack of
appropriate data and proper planning of settlements in most cities in the country amidst rapid
urbanization was cited to be a challenge to enforcement of standards that regulate the siting of
masts. Specifically, the NCA voiced the challenge of ensuring a 20m setback between masts and
habitable buildings in residential areas in the cities.

4.5.2 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

The Environmental Protection Agency was established by the government of Ghana by the EPA
Act 490 in 1994 to promote sustainable environmental development through sound and efficient
resource management while addressing equity and social issues. The official member of the EPA

98
stated during an interview that the agency is one of the institutions mandated to regulate the siting
of telecommunication masts in Ghana. The agency performs its regulatory function in
collaboration with other institutions and stakeholders. The EPA main role in the siting of
telecommunication masts is to ensure that the infrastructure is installed without detrimental effects
on the environment.

In performing the abovementioned role, the EPA conducts an Environmental Impact Assessment
before issuing a permit for the construction of telecommunication masts and towers. The Agency
conducts background checks to determine the likely impact of masts and towers on the proposed
environment. The Assessment, according to the official, is deemed necessary to avoid the siting of
the proposed masts at locations that are detrimental to humans and the surrounding environment.
The EPA issues or refuses permit from operators based on the outcome of the environmental
assessment. They issue permit when the proposed mast is of no effect to humans and the
environment and also refuse permit when the proposed mast or tower has the chance to impact the
environment negatively.

The EPA also ensures proper and safe waste management of telecommunication infrastructure.
They supervise the handling, treatment and disposal of waste from telecommunication base
stations. Priority is given to used batteries and other waste materials that are harmful to humans
and the surrounding environment. It is evident from the discussions of this report that most of the
telecommunication base stations are usually sited in the buildup environment with humans and
other living organisms. It however, important to manage contagious waste from the base station to
limit their effects on humans and the environment. The EPA therefore, collaborates with mast
providers like the American Tower Company, Eaton Towers, Helios Towers and NETIS Ghana
Limited to ensure waste from base stations is properly handled and disposed.

The EPA also carries out periodic annual noise monitoring of installed masts. Telecommunication
base stations in the buildup areas usually have a generator or/and solar power as a secondary or
backup source of power. The EPA has developed a permissible sound level standard for generator
sets at base stations. They ensure compliance with the standard through periodic(annual) noise
monitoring of base stations. They also ensure that generator sets are installed on good shock
absorbers to abate vibrations to the very minimum level. The EPA also checks the installation of
generator set to ensure their exhaust is directed away from causing harm to humans and properties

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The EPA during the interview also disclosed to collaborate with MMDAs and in consultation with
the NCA to ensure the removal of decommissioned masts and towers. Decommissioned masts and
towers are facilities that have been abandoned after operators discontinued its usage. Per the
standards that regulate the siting of masts in Ghana, operators are supposed to file a written notice
to the respective MMDAs specifying discontinue use of masts or base station with effective dates.
The decommissioned masts or tower shall be removed by the operato i hin i da af e
discontinued use and failing to do so attract a fine of GH¢10,000 per day. The EPA therefore
collaborates with the respective MMDAs to remove the said facility. They also safeguard the
removal of masts and towers that are sited in contravention with the planning standards.

Furthermore, it was revealed during the study that the EPA is a member of the Industry Technical
Committee (ITC) where they collaborate with other institutions to develop guidelines that regulate
the siting of masts in Ghana. The ITC, as discussed earlier in the report is a committee instituted
by the Inter-ministerial committee to design and update the guidelines and standards that govern
the installation of masts and towers. The EPA is a member of the aforementioned committee and
therefore contributes to ensuring the design of guidelines that promote environmental sanity.

However, it was revealed during interaction with representative of the EPA that the agency like
other institutions has human, logistics and other resource deficits to effectively enforce and
monitor compliance of standards that guide the siting of masts in Ghana. Additionally, the lack of
appropriate data on land use plans of communities in the cities was also mentioned to be one of
the challenges to enforcement and compliance of standards that regulate the siting of masts in
Ghana.

It is however evident from the findings that the EPA has a major role to play in the siting of masts
to promote environmental sanity. It is clear from the conventional literature (Foster, 1999; Wolf
and Wolf, 2004; Kellerman, 2015; Olanrewaju 2016; Gibson, 2017) that environmental insanity is
one of the major concerns associated with masts and towers. Therefore, efforts by government and
other bodies to improve the monitoring and other functions of the EPA will help ensure compliance
with the locational planning standards that guide the siting of masts in Ghana. This will assist in
mitigating the health and environmental challenges associated with the siting of
telecommunication masts.

4.5.3 Ghana Civil Aviation Authority

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The Ghana Civil Aviation Authority (GCAA) is a regulatory agency that is in charge of air
transportation in Ghana. The authority as part of its responsibilities is one of the institutions that
regulate the siting of telecommunication masts in Ghana. The interview of an official from GCAA
reveals that the main role of the agency in the siting of telecommunication masts is centered on
airport and airspace protection. The GCAA is to see to the issuance of permits for constructing
masts based on the conclusion that it will not constitute any hazards to air navigation. The major
compliance ensured by the GCAA is the proximity of masts to airports and aviation installations
as well as obstruction of light paths. The main factors considered include the height of masts and
towers, proximity of mast/tower to airports and aviation installations and the existing ground
elevation of the proposed site. An official of the GCAA has this to say;

Ghana Civil Aviation Authority's main aim is to ensure the proper location of masts
without posing threat to air navigation . (A statement by Official of Ghana Civil Aviation
Authority, 21st February 2020, Accra)

Moreover, it was revealed that the authority carries out inspections before the construction of masts
and towers. The authority also conducts assessments on newly completed masts to ensure their
heights are not of a threat to air navigations. The GCAA also conducts periodic inspections of
masts and towers to ensure compliance with lighting and marking requirements contained in the
guidelines that regulate the siting of masts and towers in Ghana.

The authority also works in close relation with other institutions and stakeholders to ensure the
demolition of unauthorized masts and towers. It was gathered that the GCAA collaborates with
other institutions and in consultation with the NCA for the removal of masts and towers that are
sited in violation with the locational planning standards that regulate the siting of masts in Ghana.
It was however, revealed during the study that the owner of unauthorized masts or towers bears
the cost of their removal. This could have a telling effect on how swift the removal of unauthorized
masts and structure is done.

Additionally, it was revealed during the interview that the GCAA is a member of the Industry
Technical Committee where they collaborate with other institutions to develop guidelines and
standards that govern the siting of masts in Ghana. They make inputs towards the design of a one-
stop-shop permit scheme that is followed before masts and towers are installed. A representative
of the GCAA had this to say during the interview;

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 Ghana Civil Aviation Authority in its bid to ensure the proper regulation on the siting of
telecommunication masts collaborate with the Inter-Ministerial Committee (IMC) headed
by the National Communication Authority to develop a set of guidelines for the deployment
of telecommunication masts and towers . (A statement by Official of Ghana Civil Aviation
Authority, 21st February 2020, Accra)

The findings highlight the important roles the GCAA played in the siting of telecommunication
masts and towers in the country. They issue permits to operators based on the characteristics of
the proposed structure and how they can impact airlines, the aviation industry and their operations.

However, it was revealed the GCAA is confronted with resource challenges in human and logistics
to effectively carryout their mandate of ensuring compliance with the aviation standards in the
siting of masts. In addition to resources, lack of effective collaboration between institutions and
stakeholders involved in the siting of masts was also mentioned to be one of the challenges of the
authority in enforcing compliance.

4.5.4 Radiation Protection Institute

The Radiation Protection Institute (RPI) of the Ghana Atomic Energy Commission is one of the
institutions mandated to regulate the siting of masts and towers in Ghana. The main focus of the
institute during an interview is to ensure the safety of people and the environment from the harmful
effects of radiation from telecommunication masts.

The institute during the study admitted to issue permits to operators before masts are installed to
prevent the public, workers and the environment from the damaging effects of radiation.
Applications for permits are assessed based on information provided by the operator on the non-
ionization form. A representative of the RPI during the study revealed that before the installation
of antennas on telecommunication masts, the service provider provides the institute with the
antenna details. The institute conducts an assessment to predict the possible emission from the
masts. The results of the assessment are compared with the globally acceptable standard
(International Commission for Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection). If the values fall within the
limit of the global standard, the authority issue conditional compliance certificate to the operator
which allows the installation of the masts. Once the mast is mounted and service is online the
institute goes around the community to do a physical measurement of the emission from the base

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station. Operators are adequately adviced on how to redress the unsatisfactory results of the
physical measurement. A research scientist of the institute during the study has this to say;

M i i i i e ible f idi g adia i e ice hich e ha e bee

performing over the period. To be specific, in relation to the siting of telecommunication
masts, we have the responsibility which includes; evaluating and assessing radiation level
f a i ed e e he e i he c . (A statement by a Research Scientist of the
Radiation Protection Institute, 16th March, 2020, Accra)

The institute also carryout periodic assessment of installed masts in the country to determine the
amount of radiation it is emitting into the environment. The institute advices operators whose masts
radiation level exceeds the acceptable standard to address them within a stipulated period. The RPI
also collaborates with the NCA and MMDAs to remove decommissioned and other masts that are
installed in contravention of the planning standards and guidelines.

In addition, the institute is a member of the Industry Technical Committee where they bring their
experience in radiation protection to facilitate the design and upgrade of the standard and
guidelines that regulate the siting of masts in Ghana. it was revealed that the institute is currently
collaborating with other institutions and stakeholders to review the existing policy and standards
that regulate the siting of masts in Ghana.

However, it was revealed during the study that the Radiation Protection Institute in pursuant of its
mandate is confronted with some challenges. Specifically, they acknowledge to have limited
resources to carry out their mandate effectively across the entire country. They also cited the
growing incidence of limited spaces in settlements across cities in the country amid rapid
urbanization and competition for space as a constrain to enforcement and compliance of standards.
Additionally, delays and complications in the legal system of the country were also mentioned to
be one of the challenges the institute faced in enforcing radiation standards in the country.

4.5.5 The Kumasi Metropolitan Assembly

The Kumasi Metropolitan Assembly (KMA) is one of the regulatory institutions mandated to
regulate the siting of telecommunication masts and towers in Ghana. They play this role as the
respective Metropolitan, Municipal, District Assembly (MMDA) in Kumasi according to the
Ghanaian decentralization system. The KMA Planning Unit during the study suggested the

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Assembly is working diligently to ensure telecommunication masts and towers in the Metropolitan
area are installed according to guidelines.

The KMA is again, a member of the Industry Technical Committee (ITC) that development
guidelines and regulations that govern the siting of masts and towers in Ghana. They admitted to
collaborate with the NCA, GCAA, GAEC and the EPA to develop a one-stop-shop permitting
scheme that is followed by telecommunication firms in the deployment of masts and towers in the
country.

The Assembly also revealed to receives applications from telecommunication firms for installation
of masts and towers for approvals. An agent of the KMA Planning Unit during the study suggested
that applications are received for consideration only when the applicant has obtained all the
necessary permissions from the GCAA and the RPI. The applicant also submits four (4) copies of
environmental assessment from the Environmental Protection Agency detailing the site plan, block
plan, GPS coordinate of masts location in decimal units and site photographs. Other details
attached to the application include lease agreement of site, the structure is to be installed, proof of
neighborhood consultation and engagement and evidence of accidence insurance policy of the site.

The applicant also submits four (4) copies of the design of the structure outlining its height,
foundation, members, guys used, ladders, work platforms and rest, aviation lighting, lightning
protection, earthing among others. They received the abovementioned documents and other
important evidence from operators according to the standard that regulates the siting masts in
Ghana.

The KMA verifies all submitted documents to ensure compliance with the set standards. The
Assembly shall inform the applicant whether there is a need for additional information or site
visits. The operator/applicant is informed three (3) days before submission of the
information/before the visit of the site. The Assembly therefore, reviews the application and
communicates its decision to approve or disapprove to the respective applicant within 90 days
from the submission date.

Moreover, it was revealed by the agent of the Assembly that the unit ensures periodic structural
integrity assessment on all base stations at least once every year. The assessment is conducted by
a certified engineer in good standing, who is a member of the Ghana Institute of Engineers. The

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results of the assessment are reviewed by the Assembly. Respective operators who fail to meet the
required standard are informed and are required to address the shortfalls within one (1) month.

The Assembly, furthermore, serves notice to operators who installed masts are in violation of the
set standards or has abandoned its usage for removal within 60 days. The KMA revealed during
the study to collaborates with the EPA and in consultation with the NCA to demolish the said
masts in the Kumasi Metropolitan Area when the operator fails to remove within the stipulated
period.

It was however, revealed during the interview that the Assembly like other institutions has resource
challenges in human and logistics to effectively enforce and monitor compliance of standards that
regulate the siting of masts in the metropolis.

The finding shows the important role of KMA as a decentralized local government in Kumasi.
However, the effectiveness of their role on the field is a concern especially public consultation
before issuing a permit for the installation of masts. The interview of households who live within
a 50m radius of installed masts in the study communities reveals that only 11 percent were
consulted before masts in their neighborhood were installed. Neighborhood consultation is widely
supported by most of the countries that have advanced in telecommunication infrastructure
delivery. The results of the study revealed that only property owners who give out land or space
are consulted before masts are installed. The assessment also revealed several contraventions of
standards in the siting of masts which are discussed in this report. This however, contradicts the
reported efforts of KMA of effectively ensuring all masts in the Metropolitan area are sited
according to standards and guidelines. The findings collaborate the rational choice institutionalism
theory. According to the theory, institutions are vested with the power to protect the public interest,
individuals however, maneuver through institutions to maximize their interest at the expense of
wider society (Collier, 2002; Amenta and Ramsey, 2014; Berthod, 2016). It is therefore prudent
to rethink the role of MMDAs and how they will be pragmatic in ensuring that masts are sited
according to the set standards. Effort by the government through the NCA is required to ensure
that MMDAs are effective in carrying out roles contained in the standard effectually.

4.6 Summary of Chapter

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The increase in demand for telecommunication services has led to the proliferation of masts across
the cityscape of most countries. An assessment of the processes involved in land acquisition for
masts in Kumasi, Ghana discovered five main stages from the identification of suitable land/space,
negotiations with land/property owners, verification of land/property ownership, detailed
suitability check of site and payment for all permits before the installation of the masts. It was also
revealed that land/space for masts is sourced from stool or skin lands, Family lands,
private/individual lands as well as state or public lands. These lands are acquired mainly on lease
through discussions and negotiations with the respective owner(s). However, limited spaces within
the built-up open up the possibility of siting masts at locations that defy planning standards.
Additionally, the practice of direct negotiation with property owners has the capacity of putting
economic interest at the expense of public health and safety. Also due to the lack of effective
property registration, the process of acquiring space for masts is exposed to multiple ownership
among families and siblings. The compatibility analysis also revealed that the guidelines that
regulate the siting of masts are compatible with the telecommunication sectoral and other sectoral
policies in Ghana.

The assessment of masts in the communities revealed a general compliance level of 50 percent.
The masts in Nhyieaso, Bantama and Oforikrom were installed at a compliance level of 60 percent,
49 percent and 47 percent respectively. The level of compliance was obtained by spatial analysis
of the installed masts in the study communities with the locational planning standards that regulate
the siting of masts in Ghana. The components of the standard used as benchmark include minimum
setback to the nearest structure, proximity to main electricity supply lines, proximity to health
facilities and proximity to educational facilities. Other benchmarks are the 5m public No-Go-Zone,
accessibility of masts by fire tenders and neighborhood consultations before installation of masts.

The compliance level recorded from the various communities reveals that there is a higher level
of compliance in high-class income residential areas than in low-income residential areas. The
assessment revealed that Nhyieaso, a high-class income residential area has the highest level of
compliance while Oforikrom, a low-class residential area has the minimum level of compliance
with the locational planning standard that guides the siting of masts in Ghana.

On the determinants of non-compliance with planning standards, the findings show that inspection
and enforcement influence compliance of standards that regulate the siting of a mast. It was

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revealed that land value and the amount paid as lease or compensation for land/space influence
how masts are sited according to standards and guidelines. The findings also reveal that rewards
and penalties for compliance and non-compliance influence how telecommunication masts are
sited according to standards.

The assessment of institutional roles in the siting of telecommunication masts revealed the various
duties the NCA, GCAA, EPA, RPI and KMA played in ensuring the location of masts according
to the set standards and regulations. The NCA plays a coordinating role in the telecommunication
industry in Ghana while the other regulatory institutions' issue permit and also serve on the ITC as
members, where they collaborate with other stakeholders to develop one-stop-shop permit
procedure for siting of masts and towers.

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 CHAPTER FIVE
DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION
5.1 Introduction

The preceding chapter of this thesis presented findings on the following themes: (a) the processes
involved in land acquisition for telecommunication masts; (b) the assessment of the level of
compliance of installed masts according to the locational planning standards; (c), factors that
contribute to non-compliance with locational planning standards that govern the siting of masts in
Ghana and (d) the roles of the various institutions in the siting of masts according to the planning
standards. This section of the report, therefore, discusses the main findings of the study.

5.2 Findings of the Study

The study assessed planning response to the siting of telecommunication masts in Kumasi
Metropolis. The main themes of the study were framed based on the research objectives. They
include; critique of the processes involved in acquiring land for the siting of telecommunication
masts; an assessment of the level of compliance of the guidelines that guide the siting of
telecommunication masts in the Kumasi Metropolis; the factors that contribute to the non-
compliance of standards that guide the siting telecommunication masts; and Institutional roles,
prospects and challenges associated with the enforcement and monitoring of compliance to
standards that guide the siting telecommunication masts.

5.2.1 Critique of the processes involved in acquiring land for the siting of telecommunication
masts in the Kumasi Metropolis

The study revealed that telecommunication operators go through five major processes to acquire
land or space for their masts. The process begins with the identification of suitable land/space,
negotiations with land/property owners, investigations and verification of land/property
ownership, detailed suitability check of the site in technical terms and payment for all permits
before proceeding with the installation of the masts (showed and discussed in Fig.4.1 and 4.1.1).
It was revealed that the process is duly followed by operators to avoid litigations and other
challenges. This supports the argument made by Gyamera et al, (2018), that the acquisition of land
for masts could be punishable and detrimental to operators if the due process is not followed
appropriately.

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The results further revealed that land/space for telecommunication masts is sourced from stool or
skin lands, Family lands, state or public lands and private/individual lands. The sources reflect all
forms of land ownership in Ghana as described in the conventional literature (Gambrah, 2002;
Danso and Manu, 2013; Gyamera et al, 2018). It was revealed that lands are acquired by operators
through discussions and negotiations with the respective owner(s) without the involvement of third
parties.

However, the practice of operators searching for space within a built-up area in the city with
limited spaces opens up the possibility of siting mast at locations that violate planning standards.
Also, the practice of operators negotiating directly with land/property owners gives rise to
prioritizing economic interest at the expense of public health and safety. The implication is that
residents and adjoining property owners are not consulted and involved in the negotiation process.
The practice is exposed to economic gains between the operator and land/space owner at the
expense of other important considerations like environment and health. The need to maintain
environmental sanity is likely to be echoed when more parties/people are involved in the process.
Broad base consultations before allowing the installation of masts is supported by elite countries
in telecommunication (Industry Canada, 2012; UK Government, 2013; The City of Polokwane,
2015).

Furthermore, the process of acquiring land/space for masts is open to multiple ownership among
families and siblings due to the lack of proper property registration and database. Operators are at
risk of paying multiple leases or face litigations. The situation also creates a conditioned for non-
compliance with the guidelines that regulate the siting of masts in Ghana. Efforts to improve
effective land registration and administration by relevant stakeholders is highly recommended.

The study also revealed that land/space for telecommunication masts are acquired on lease. The
duration for the lease was revealed to be a 15-year period and it is subject to renewal upon
agreement between the operator and the landowner. The lease agreement is exclusively made
between operators and land/space owners. It was further discovered that the amount paid as a lease
for land/space for masts were calculated in the US Dollars, and the amount depends on the average
income status of the communities they are located (a monthly USD200 and USD 250 for
Oforikrom and Bantama, low and middle-class residential areas respectively and USD 800 for
Nhyiaeso a high-class residential area). The finding implies that the amount paid for land/space

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for telecommunication masts is influenced by the income status of the neighborhood. The amount
paid as lease increase from low class to high class residential community. Moreover, the amount
paid as compensation for the piece of land acquired for masts compared with other land use is far
higher than the latter use. Therefore, land/space owners are likely to be influenced by rational
calculation of supernormal profits for telecommunication masts than other uses. This could have
implication on compliance of standards, safety and harmonious location of masts. It is therefore
important to reconsider regulating the amount, the terms and style of negotiation to deter and
eliminate land/property owners from accepting masts solely on financial consideration.

The findings revealed that the guidelines that regulate the siting of masts in Ghana is compatible
with telecommunication sectoral policies and other sectoral policies. The compatibility analysis
reveals that the siting of masts to promote environmental sanity feature in all the policies reviewed
in this study. The study identified no conflict between the Guidelines on Communication Towers
and; Infrastructural Sharing Policy, Infrastructure Licensing Policy, Zoning Guidelines and
Planning Standards and National Urban Policy. There guidelines that regulate the siting of masts
is also consistent with the National Health Policy, National Environmental Policy, Land Use and
Spatial Planning Standards, Local Government Act as well as the National Telecommunication
Policy.

Ghana like other countries adopted locational planning standards to guide the siting of
telecommunication masts and towers due to the health and safety concerns associated with the
infrastructure. The current guidelines (i.e. Guidelines on Communication Towers) that guide the
siting of masts are not only compatible with other policies but also complement most of the
interventions, plans, policies and other legislations that seek to promote environmental sanity. It
can be concluded that planning response to the siting of masts in Ghana is compatible and
appropriate but the challenge has been the implementation of the various responses.

5.2.2 An Assessment of the level of compliance of the guidelines that guide the siting of
telecommunication masts in the Kumasi Metropolis

As discussed in the previous chapter, telecommunication masts in the study area were assessed
based on the following stipulations in the standard the regulate the siting of masts in Ghana: (i)
proximity to the nearest habitable structure; (ii) closeness to main electricity power lines; (iii)
proximity to health and educational facilities; (iv) provision of 5m No-Go Zones; (v) neighborhood

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consultations; (vi) accessibility of site by fire Tenders; and (vii) their aesthetic impact on the
environment.

The standard that regulates masts in Ghana recommends a minimum setback of 20m from installed
masts and habitable buildings. The finding reveals an average minimum setback of about 7m
between installed masts and the nearest habitable buildings in all three communities. Specifically,
a minimum average setback of about 8m and 3m were estimated for masts at Oforikrom and
Bantama (low and middle-class income communities) respectively. A minimum average setback
of 10m was also recorded at Nhyiaeso (high-class income residential areas. It reveals that 17 (89
percent) out of the 19 assessed masts were installed below the 20m minimum setback or standard.
Notwithstanding the proliferation of studies (Santini et al., 2002; Abdel-Rassoul et al., 2007;
Everaert and Bauwens, 2007; Aderoju et al., 2014; Adeniji et al. 2015; Danladi et al. 2016) that
provided evidence to suggest possible health and safety risks associated with living closer to
telecommunication masts, records from the study shows that a large number of masts were
installed in violation with the minimum setback to habitable buildings. These masts are distributed
in all the communities irrespective of their income levels.

Moreover, the earlier discussion of this report suggested that planning standards originated as a
response to the health and safety concerns associated with prolonged exposure to masts. The
exposure to masts occurs when one lives or works in close proximity to masts. The minimum
setback in the standard is a direct response to the aforementioned concerns, however, the findings
show that compliance with this component of the standard is not encouraging. This therefore,
implies that the most critical aspect of the standard is poorly adhered to.

Additionally, the standards and guidelines that govern the siting of telecommunication masts in
Ghana propose that no telecommunication masts or towers should be installed in close proximity
to high voltage electricity transmission power lines. The study revealed that about 58 percent of
the installed masts in the three communities were located in violation of the setback from the main
electricity power supply lines component of the standard. This therefore, exposes residents and
properties in the surrounding environment to different forms of hazard. The results further show
that the siting of telecommunication masts in close proximity to high voltage electricity supply
lines is not influenced by the average income level of the neighborhood.

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Furthermore, it was discovered that about 10 percent of masts in the communities were sited in
violation of the minimum setback of 150m to health and educational center. These masts were
sited at Oforikrom, a low-income residential community. It can therefore be concluded that
contravention of the setback to health and educational facilities component of the standard is
prevalent in low income areas in the city. It was also revealed that 26 percent of masts were
installed without the 5m No-Go zone, while 21 percent of the masts assessed in the three
communities are not accessible by fire tenders in events of fire outbreak. The findings revealed
that some significant number of masts posed a lot of health and safety risks to people and
properties.

The results of the study also revealed that only 11 percent of residents who live in close proximity
(50m) of installed mast interviewed from the three communities were consulted before the masts
in their neighborhood were installed. Specifically, 38 percent of residents in Nhyieaso, a high-
class income residential area, were consulted. However, only 12 percent and 7 percent of residents
in Bantama and Oforikrom (middle and low-income residential) respectively were consulted
before masts in their neighborhood were installed. This implies that only a few residents were
consulted before masts were installed. The practice is contrary to the stipulation of the planning
standards and guidelines that regulate the siting of masts in Ghana. It can therefore be concluded
that only land/property owners and few people are consulted before the installation of masts. The
percentage of residents consulted also increase from low-class income communities to high-class
income residential neighborhood.

The assessment of masts in the study communities revealed a general compliance level of 50
percent. Masts in Nhyieaso, Bantama and Oforikrom were installed at a compliance level of 60
percent, 49 percent and 47 percent respectively. The compliance level recorded from the various
communities demonstrates that there is a higher level of compliance in high-class income
residential areas than in low-income residential areas. The analysis demonstrates that Nhyieaso, a
high class income residential area has the highest level of compliance while Oforikrom, a low class
residential area has the minimum level of compliance with the locational planning standard that
governs the siting of masts in Ghana. Therefore, the government and its institutions must intensify
its monitoring scheme to ensure compliance with standards and guidelines. The existing laws and

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regulations should also be updated with strict measures to ensure that masts are sited according to
planning standards.

5.2.3 Factors that contribute to the non-compliance of standards that guide the siting of
telecommunication masts

The study revealed that enforcement and inspection are key determinants of compliance of
standards that govern the siting of masts. The study respondent provided evidence to suggest how
enforcement and inspection impact how masts are installed based on how they respond to the
incidence of non-compliance. The findings revealed how effective inspection and enforcement
influence compliance of standards that regulate the siting of masts. Effective inspections and
enforcement could be a powerful tool to prevent the indiscriminate proliferation of masts. It is
therefore important for the government and other stakeholders to reinvested attention and
resources to inspections and enforcement if they desire to ensure the siting of masts and towers
according to the locational planning standards.

The study findings further revealed that land value and the amount paid as lease or compensation
for land/space influence how masts are sited according to standards and guidelines. Although,
majority of institutions during the study discredit it as determinants of compliance but the practice
of negotiating with land/property owners on the amount paid as lease and cases of moving for
alternatives due to the inability to meet the demands of owners could open up for non-compliance
of standards. The Environmental Protection Agency strongly agree that compensations and land
values influence compliance to planning standards of siting telecommunication masts. As
discussed earlier masts are mostly sited in already build-up areas with limited spaces and the
demand from property owners could be a contributive factor to non-compliance of the locational
planning standards.

The findings from stakeholders also show that rewards and penalties for compliance and non-
compliance influence how telecommunication masts are sited according to standards. They argued
that rewarding operators for complying with the planning standards while punishing violators of
the regulations are key in ensuring compliance to planning standards and guidelines. It is however,
unclear whether these penalties and sanction are applied appropriately and promptly as the study
witnesses a compliance level 50 percent during the survey of masts in Oforikrom, Bantama and
Nhyieaso, the study communities within the Kumasi city. A renewed effort by the government and

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other stakeholders through the NCA to reinforce the application of sanctions and penalties is highly
recommended.

In terms of subjective determinant of compliance, the study found the following factors to
influence how masts are sited according to standard: (i) limited availability suitable land and space;
(ii) land tenure and ownership; (iii) population density; (iv) zoning; (v) Effectiveness of regulatory
framework; (vi) neighborhood reception and others that are similar to variables used in measuring
compliance (discussed in 4.4). Therefore, policymakers, regulatory institutions and stakeholders
are advice to reconsider and manage the afo emen ioned fac o o en e he don nega i el
affect the siting of masts and towers.

5.2.4 Institutional roles, prospects and challenges associated with the enforcement and
monitoring of compliance to standards that guide the siting telecommunication masts

The study found the National Communication Authority, Environmental Protection Agency,
Radiation Protection Agency, Ghana Civil Aviation Authority and Metropolitan, Municipal and
District Assembly as regulatory bodies mandated by the legislation of Ghana to manage the siting
of masts in Ghana. The National Communication Authority plays a coordinating role in the
telecommunication industry in Ghana, as they link the various stakeholders and institutions for the
siting of masts and towers in Ghana. The National Communication Authority also heads the
Industry Technical Committee that is mandated to develop and upgrade the standards and
guidelines that govern the siting of masts. Other regulatory institutions serve on the Industry
Technical Committee as members, where they collaborate with other stakeholders to develop one-
stop-shop permit procedure for siting masts and towers.

The findings further reveal that the aforementioned regulatory institutions in their various
jurisdiction issue permit for installations of masts after reviewing all the technical and other details
of application from operators. They also carry periodic visits and assessments of masts and base
stations to monitor compliance of standards. The institutions also collaborate to remove
decommissioned and other masts that are installed in contravention with the locational planning
standard that guides the siting of masts in Ghana. However, the spatial assessment of masts in the
study communities revealed an incidence of non-compliance with the standards that guide the
siting of masts in spite of institutions and compatibility of standards that guide the siting of masts.
The findings therefore, collaborate with the rational choice institutionalism theory, which posits

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that institutions are mandated to enforce compliance with standards to protect the public from the
harmful effects of masts. Telecommunication operators are able to site masts in contravention with
the set planning standards in spite of regulatory institutions. Land/property owners and operators
are able to maximize their private interest within the institutions. It is therefore evident from the
findings that institutions are crucial in ensuring the safety and harmonious location of masts. The
effectiveness of regulatory institutions is necessary in addressing non-compliance in the siting of
masts according to the guidelines that regulate the siting of telecommunication masts.

The study further revealed that institutions are confronted with a lack of adequate resources (i.e
human and logistics) to monitor and enforce compliance of standards. Limited spaces in the built-
up settlements in most cities and the lack of proper settlement planning and management in the
country were mentioned during interviews to be constraining factors to the enforcement of
standards. Additionally, delays and complications in the judicial system and the lack of effective
collaboration among institutions and stakeholders involved in the siting of mast were also cited to
affect institutional efforts in ensuring enforcement and compliance of standards.

Therefore, efforts by government and other bodies to improve the periodic monitoring and
assessment, and other functions of regulatory institutions will help ensure compliance to the
locational planning standards that guide the siting of masts in Ghana. The move will assist in
mitigating the health and environmental challenges associated with the siting of
telecommunication masts.

5.5 Recommendations

Based on the results of the study, recommendations have been presented to improve the siting of
telecommunication masts and towers according to planning standards. This will ensure the
harmonious location of masts that promote safety and a healthy environment. The focus to improve
the siting of masts and towers across the cityscape is placed on interventions and improvements in
institutional roles and practices. The interventions to improve the siting of masts are categorized
into short to medium term and long term options.

5.5.1 Short to Medium Term Interventions

5.5.1.1 Public Education

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The Metropolitan Assembly and the Ministry of Local Government should collaborate to ensure
the general public is enlightened about telecommunication masts. Public education should focus
on the importance of masts, the dangers associated with them and how they should be located in
the neighborhood. The general public is filled with different and contrary views and information
about telecommunication masts which are mostly sourced from unofficial sources. This
information has created diverging views among citizens in the city on masts and towers. The
situation has created unnecessary tensions and fears among people, which in returns has created
anti-sentiments among some segments of the population towards telecommunication masts. The
study has proven how anti-sentiments impact the siting of masts.

The sensitization and education of the public will help calm the nerves and fears of people towards
masts and towers. It will also create the atmosphere for masts to be accepted at appropriate sites
which will promote the harmonious and safe location of masts across the cityscape.

5.5.1.2 Review of guidelines

The National Communication Authority should collaborate with all the necessary stakeholders to
review the guidelines and standards that regulate the siting of masts in Ghana. The review and
amendment are necessary to ensure the policies and guidelines are sensitive and effective to the
current rate of urbanization and needs. The Director of the National Communication Authority
revealed the authority in collaboration with other institutions and stakeholders are currently at the
final stage of reviewing the current policy that regulates the siting of masts in Ghana. However,
the study revealed that some stakeholders were not adequately involved in the design of the current
standards. Some concerns and needs of mobile operators according to the study were ignored. The
Operators also sited some inconsistencies and conflicts in the current policy.

The study therefore, proposes that the current policy should be a review which all the necessary
stakeholders. The review process should adequately consider the needs and concerns of all
stakeholders especially the concerns of operators. The authorities as part of the review should
ensure operators adequately understand some of the technical details in the standards and
guidelines.

5.5.1.3 Improvement of Monitoring and Periodic Inspection of Sites

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The government of Ghana through the Ministry of Communication and the National
Communication should provide the necessary conditions that will enforce periodic assessment and
monitoring base stations. The study demonstrates that inspections influence compliance to
planning standards the govern the siting of masts. The noncompliance of standards can only be
identified through periodic site visits and assessments by the various authorities and institutions
mandated to guide the deployment of masts in Ghana. Therefore, the government through its top
agencies should roll out measures to strengthen the monitoring and site inspection of mobile base
stations by authorities. The authorities should be equipped with all the necessary logistics to
monitor compliance of standards. There should also be mechanisms to assess institutions, their
activities and agents responsible to monitor compliance of standards.

5.5.1.4 Enforcement of penalties and Sanctions

The National Communication Authority should collaborate with other institutions to ensure that
sanctions and penalties for noncompliance are adequately applied to default operators. The study
revealed the importance of penalties and sanctions on the siting of masts. There are the punitive
measures for not complying with the standards. The partial or poor application of sanctions
encourages non-compliance. Therefore, authorities should adequately enforce all the sanctions and
penalties to operators who site masts in contravention with the standards. The authorities should
also review the sanction and penalties to make them stiffer to enforce compliance of standards.

5.5.2 Long Term Interventions

5.5.2.1 Integration of Telecommunication Infrastructure into Land Use Plans

Future land use and spatial planning by traditional authorities, town and country planners, urban
planners and other bodies should consider spaces for telecommunication infrastructure.
Telecommunication masts are usually installed in the built-up area and spaces for these facilities
are limited. Future land use planners should therefore, collaborate with experts in
telecommunication infrastructure to demarcate appropriate spaces for masts and towers. The plans
could also design specific structures at strategic locations that will support telecommunication
antennas with or without installing masts. These plans will strategically support the harmonious
and safety locations of masts in future neighborhoods.

5.5.2.2 Reinforcement of Co-location/Infrastructure Sharing policy

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To limit the proliferation of masts across the cityscape, the co-location or infrastructure sharing
policy should be strengthened to allow the use of mast by multiple operators. The National
Communication Authority should collaborate with the Ghana Chamber of Communications and
other stakeholders to ensure the infrastructure policy is more effective. The authorities should
create the necessary atmosphere to remove the barriers to infrastructure sharing in the industry.
This will facilitate infrastructure sharing among different telecommunication firms, hence limiting
the proliferation of masts across the cityscape. The co-location as the first option to mobile
operators when they decide to extend or improve coverage appears to be overlooked. Therefore,
the policy should be review by authorities to ensure operators adequately explore all the
possibilities of co-location before they are permitted to install a new mast.

5.5.2.3 Adoption of Camouflage Masts

In order to promote the aesthetic environment, the camouflaged masts should be adopted and
preferred over the lattice masts that disfigure the surrounding environment. The policy that
regulates the siting of masts in Ghana appears to be silent on the need to design and camouflage
masts to promote the aesthetics of the landscape. There is therefore, the need to highlight the need
to appropriately design and camouflage masts in the standard that regulate the siting of masts in
Ghana. The use of camouflage masts has been one of the o ld be t practice in siting
telecommunication masts and towers. They are used by most countries that have advanced and
succeeded in telecommunication infrastructure delivery.

5.5.2.4 Adoption of Proper Power Backup

In order to minimize the excessive noise and vibration from the telecommunication base station,
there is the need to adopt innovative mechanisms to provide alternative power to base station aside
from the national electricity. These mechanisms should offer a better option to the generator set
the produce a lot of humming noise. The first option is to cover the generator box with fiberglass
panels to limit the noise and vibration. The second option is the use of windmills to power mobile
base stations. These methods are used in South Africa and other countries to limit noise and
vibration from mobile base stations. Authorities in the Ghanaian industry should adopt these
methods and/or other alternative means possible to limit the excessive noise and vibration from

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the generator set the power base station. These rackety generators are of great concern to residents
who live near base stations.

5.6 Conclusion

Urbanization and increasing demand for telecommunication services have led to the proliferation
of masts across the cityscape. The health and safety concerns associated with telecommunication
masts resulted in the adoption of planning responses in locational standards, policies and
guidelines to manage how they are deployed. The study revealed average compliance with the set
guidelines that regulate the siting of masts. It was further revealed that the level of compliance is
influenced by the residential status of neighborhoods. The level of compliance increase from low-
class income residential communities to high-class income neighborhoods. The study also revealed
that the level of compliance is influenced by inspection and enforcement, land values and
compensations paid for land and space and rewards and penalties for compliance and non-
compliance of the set standards and guidelines. The findings of the study support the rational
choice institutionalism theory which requires institutional reform and response to address non-
compliance with the standards. The incidence of non-compliance of siting masts can be addressed
through strict enforcement of the standards and guidelines that govern the siting of masts. There
is also the need to improved periodic inspections and monitoring of sites before and after
installation of masts. Since the harmonious location of masts cannot be achieved by government
and regulatory institutions alone, efforts should be made to involve all stakeholders to review the
guidelines and standards to meet the current rate of urbanization and telecommunication growth.
Furthermore, there is the need to educate the public about telecommunication masts to clear the
fears, myth and diverging views that goes a long way to influence how they are sited. The
government through its decentralized institutions and authorities should review and enforce the
co-location policy to ensure infrastructure sharing among telecommunication operators which will
limit the proliferation of masts across the cityscape. Again, spatial, urban and land use planners
are encouraged to integrate telecommunication infrastructure into future land use plans. This will
facilitate the safety and harmonious locations of masts and other facilities that promote sustainable
cities.

5.7 Areas for Further Studies

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The findings of the study revealed average compliance to set standards and regulations that govern
the siting of masts. The study assesses the level, drivers and barriers to compliance of standards
that regulate the deployment of masts. A similar approach should be used to expand the scope of
the study to cover different cities and towns due to the diversity of localities in the country. Also,
there has been a proliferation of studies on the health and environmental impacts of masts and
towers. Future studies should explore the social and economic impacts of telecommunication masts
in a neighborhood. This is because the growing health and safety concerns could have social and
economic consequences in the neighborhood. This study could provide insight into the design of
policies and other interventions to address the siting of masts in cities. The approach to the study
should be supported with qualitative techniques to have an in-de h nde anding of the social
and economic impacts of masts in different neighborhoods.

120
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Women T ade in Acc a ,.

Voig l nde , S., B eckenkam , J. and Ra m, O. (2008) U bani a ion in De elo ing Co n ie .
Trends, health consequences and challenge . Journal of Health & Development.

Weible, C. M. and Heikkila, T. (2017) Polic Conflic F ame o k , Policy Sciences. Springer
US, 50(1), pp. 23 40. doi: 10.1007/s11077-017-9280-6.

Winkelmann, K. and Duch, S. (2019) Basic Sensitivity Analysis of a Telecommunication

To e Com lemen ing S anda d Reinfo cemen De ign P oce , 020061(February).
doi: 10.1063/1.5091922.

World Health Organization (2015) Safe Hospitals Initiative: Comprehensive Safe

Framework

Wolf, R. and Wolf, D. (2004) Inc ea ed Incidence of Cance Nea a Cell- Phone Transmitter
S a ion . , 1(2), . 1 19.

Yeboah, E. and Sha , D. P. (2013) C oma land en e ac ice in Ghana: E amining he

relationship with land- e lanning deli e , International Development Planning
Review, 35(1), pp. 21 39. doi: 10.3828/idpr.2013.3.

Zah a, M. K., A im, P. and Mahmood, A. (2008) Telecomm nica ion Inf a c e De elo men
and Economic G o h : A Panel Da a A oach . , . 1 23.

133
 APPENDICES
Appendix I

Houses identified within 50m radius of installed mast at Nhyieaso

Source: A hor con r c , December2019

134
 Appendix II

Houses identified within a 50m radius of an installed mast at Bantama

Source: A hor con r c , December2019

135
 Appendix III

Houses identified within a 50m radius of an installed mast at Oforikrom

Source: A hor con r c , December 2019

136
 Appendix IV

Institutional Roles in the Siting of Telecommunication Masts

Institution Roles
Ghana Civil Aviation Received applications for installation or alteration of masts and
Authority (GCAA) other telecommunication structures. The following are critically
examined:
The total height of the proposed mast or tower above the
ground level is beyond 10metres and is within a radius of
5000m of an existing or proposed airfield.
The proposed mast or tower is within 100m radius of an
existing or proposed airfield
The proposed mast or tower is beyond a 100m radius of
an existing or proposed airfield and is 46m or higher
above ground level.
The proposed mast or tower is within low-level flying
routes or close to major highways.
The proposed mast or tower deemed higher than an
obstacle limitation surface according to the Ghana Civil
Aviation Regulations
The proposed mast or tower is within an instrument
approach area
The proposed location of the mast or tower is within the
distances above an existing airport, an airport under
construction or planned airport
Periodic Inspection of Sites
Member of Inter-ministerial committee
Radiation Protection Received applications for installation or alteration of masts and
Institute (RPI) other telecommunication structures. Gives approval to assure
that the public, workers and the environment are secured from
any detrimental effect of radiation.
Periodic Inspection and measurement of Radiation Levels
Member of Inter-Ministerial Committee
Environmental Received applications for installation or alteration of masts and
Protection Agency other telecommunication structures. The applicant shall,
(EPA) therefore, submit four (4) copies of the application with under-
listed attachments to the appropriate MMDA for evaluation:
Site plan
Block plan

137
 Site photographs
GPS Coordinates of all tower locations in decimal
units
Lease Agreement
Proves of Consultation with neighbors
Conduct Environmental Impact Assessment to approve or
disapprove application.
Member of Inter-Ministerial Committee
Metropolitan, Municipal Received applications for installation or alteration of masts and
and District Assemblies other telecommunication structures. The following documents
(MMDAs) are reviewed to issue permit;
Four copies of the site plan to the scale of 1:2500 per the
Planning Scheme for the designated site depicting the
location of the proposed mast or tower with the adjoining
structures. The geographical coordinates and dimensions
of the plot should be clearly stated.
Four copies of Block Plan to a scale of 1:50 depicting the
position of the mast or tower and ancillary buildings and
facilities with the mandatory setbacks or dimensions
indicated. The Block Plan shall also show all existing or
proposed structures within the plot.
Four copies each of the prototype design of the structure
showing its effective height, guys, foundation, members,
used, ladders, rest and work platforms, lightning
protection, earthing, and aviation lighting, switch unit,
generator among others.
Witness of ownership of the telecommunication property
and/or the property on which the structure is to be
installed or a written agreement of the owner
Approval issued by the GCAA for the erection of the
mast or tower of the tower in the proposed site
A witness of accident insurance policy
Proves of consultation with the neighbourhood in the
immediate area where the mast or tower is to be mounted,
as per the Standard Consultation Form in Appendix 7 (E)
The evidence may be certified by the Assembly Member
in charge of the area.
A certified Structural integrity report by a Civil or
Structural Engineer in cases where mast or tower is to be
mounted on an existing structure.

138
 A duly certified Geotechnical investigation report by a
Geotechnical Engineer
The proposed design wind speed
A completed Building Permit Application Form
Relevant fees for Development and Building Permits
Member of Inter-Ministerial Committee

National Coordinate institutions mandated to issue permit

Communication Chair the Inter-Ministerial Committee
Authority(NCA) Approve and coordinate the removal of decommissioned and
masts sited in contravention with the set standards

139
 Appendix V

Policies Compa ibili Ma ri

Policies Score Explanation for the Score
Guideline on 1 ISP recognises the importance of reducing the growing
Communication number of telecommunication masts and towers in the cities.
Towers (GCT) and In this vein, ISP acknowledges the need for fair competition,
Infrastructure minimize public inconvenience and cost of each operator
Sharing Policy using a separate infrastructure in an area. Again, ISP intends
(ISP) to protect people and the environment from the harmful
effects of telecommunication infrastructure by reducing the
number of masts and towers across the cityscape. These
provisions complement the GCT intent of addressing the
growth and environmental sanity in the siting of
telecommunication masts and towers. The study sees the
guideline and the policy document as compatible.
Guideline on 1 The policy opened the door for tower business in Ghana. ILP
Communication allowed independent companies to build and own
Towers (GCT) and telecommunication infrastructure in the country. ILP
Infrastructure recognize the need to reduce the number and cost of
Licensing telecommunication infrastructures, leveraging competition
Policy(ILP) among mobile operators while improving network in remote
areas that would have been difficult financially for a single
operator. It has a focus to minimise the number of masts
across the cityscape by ensuring that different operators share
infrastructure owned by tower companies. The ILP also seeks
to minimize the negative impacts of masts people and the
environment. The study sees the guideline and policy as
compatible because both intend to reduce the impact
telecommunication masts on humans and the environment.
This practice(ILP) is expected to promote compliance by

140
Policies Score Explanation for the Score
ensuring there is competition in the provision of masts and
towers.
Guideline on 1 The goal of the NUP is to promote a sustainable, spatially
Communication integrated and orderly development of urban settlements with
Towers (GCT) and adequate housing, infrastructure and services, efficient
National Urban institutions, and a sound living and working environment for
Policy (NUP) all people to support the rapid socio-economic development
of Ghana. The NUP aims to address some of the fundamental
issues associated with urban development and management
in Ghana. The issues include urban land use disorder,
uncontrolled urban sprawl, inadequate urban services and
increasing environmental deterioration. NUP also seeks to
ensure efficient urban infrastructure and service delivery
while promoting spatially integrated order of urban centres
on a sustainable basis. The study sees the guideline and
policy document as compatible.
Guideline on 1 The purpose of the LUSPA is to provide for sustainable
Communication development of land and human settlements through a
Towers (GCT) and decentralised planning system, ensure judicious use of land
the Land Use and in order to improve quality of life, promote health and safety
Spatial Planning in respect of human settlements and to regulate national,
Act (LUSPA) regional, district and local spatial planning. The Act stresses
the need to develop District Assemblies and other institutions
for the effective performance of their spatial planning and
human settlement management functions. The need to
eng hen MMDA and o he in i ion fo ainable
implementation of the LUSPA and the effective collaboration
of agencies responsible for monitoring and inspection of
spatial activities which include telecommunication base
stations is in tandem with the goal of GCT of ensuring the

141
Policies Score Explanation for the Score
growth and environmental sanity in the siting of masts. The
study sees the two policy documents as compatible.
Guideline on 1 The NEP sees the need for an environment that is not harmful
Communication to the health and wellbeing of people and is enjoined to have
Towers (GCT) and the environment protected for the benefit of present and
National future generations through reasonable legislative and
Environmental administrative measures. The policy intends to manage the
Policy (NEP) environment to sustain society at large. The NEP under the
aegis of EPA is to ensure integrated and coordinated
implementation of environmental management to promote
ci i en ali of life and hei li ing and o king
environments. NEP supports interventions and the need to
institute regulatory mechanisms aimed at monitoring and
regulating actions that have an impact on the environment.
The study sees the two policy documents as compatible.
Guideline on 1 The NHP recognises the important role of healthy
Communication environments where people live, go to school, and work to
Towers (GCT) and national development. In this vein, the NHP recognizes the
National Health need to engage stakeholders to enact and enforce legislation
Policy (NHP) to reinforce health promotion attitudes and protect the
environment. The study sees the two policy documents as
compatible.
Guideline on 1 The NTC recognises the need to regulate the
Communication telecommunication sector. The NCA is mandated to have the
Towers (GCT) and authority to monitor and enforce compliance with standards,
National and issue penalties that appropriate for non-compliance. The
Telecommunication NTC strongly recommend facility sharing among
policy (NTP) telecommunication operators. Facility sharing is however,
the first option for operators to expand coverage in the GCT.
The NTP largely provides a general context for which the

142
Policies Score Explanation for the Score
telecommunication industry in Ghana can realize its full
potentials and goals. The NTP objective is supported by the
GCT. The study sees the two policy documents as
compatible.

Guideline on 1 The ZGPS provides clarification on the permissible uses of

Communication land and the space requirements for spatial developers. The
Towers (GCT) and guideline specifically, provides clear definitions for land use
Zoning Guidelines activities within each land use zone; the uses that are
and Planning permitted and prohibited in these zones. ZGPS aims to
Standard (ZGPS) supports planning authorities in their efforts to promote
harmonious human settlement planning and management.
ZGPS provides location criteria and safety standards for the
siting of telecommunication masts support the GCT. The
study sees the two policy documents as compatible.
Guideline on 1 The LGA recognize the need fo MMDA o be e on ible
Communication for the development, improvement and management of
Towers (GCT) and human settlements and the environment within the catchment
Local Government area of the Assembly. The LGA also posits that all spatial
Act (LGA) development must conform to planning standards and
ap o al hich i in andem i h he GCT a eg of
regulating the deployment of masts according to standards.
Thus, LGA and GCT are mutually reinforcing to prevent as
much as possible the destruction of the environment. The
study sees the two policy documents as compatible.
S ce: A h c c , 2020

143
 Appendix VI

Checklist for Assessment of Installed Masts and Their Sites in the selected communities
(Page one)
Index Community Actual User(s) Mast Height of Proximity to the
Location Height Minimum nearest structure
Antenna

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23

144
Checklist for Assessment of Installed Masts and Their Sites in the selected communities
(Page two)
Index Proximity to Proximity to Proximity to 5m No- Accessibility Is the site
Power Health Educational Go Zone of Site By prone to
Lines(Less Facilities(<150m) Facilities(<150m) Fire Tenders Flooding
than a
Yes No Yes No Yes No
distance of
120% of the
Mast Height)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23

145
 Appendix VII

Semi-structured Interview Schedule for Property Owners

DEPARTMENT OF PLANNING
COLLEGE OF ART AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT
KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, KUMASI
RESEARCH TOPIC: PLANNING RESPONSES TO THE SITING OF
TELECOMMUNICATION MASTS INSIGHTS FROM KUMASI
INTERVIEW SCHEDULE FOR PROPERTY OWNERS
Comm ni
Introduction
[Enumerator, please read this introduction to every property owner that has been selected for
this study. You can provide further details about the purpose of the study to each of the
respondents. This will assist them to understand the purpose of the study with the hope that you
get their consent].
Rapid urbanization has resulted in rapid population densification, increased demand for urban
lands and rises in land values. The continuous population growth has resulted in an increase in
demand for mobile phones and other telecommunication services. This has led to increased
investments in telecommunication infrastructure like masts and towers over the last few years to
enhance the quality of service for users. Telecommunication operators always look for sites that
offer stability for their cells without meddling with other telephone cells.
Several researchers have provided evidence to suggest the possibility of adverse health and safety
concerns when one lives or works in close proximity to telecommunication masts. Ghana like other
countries, responding to the health and safety concerns, has adopted precautionary space
guidelines and regulations to manage the siting of telecommunication masts. The reality of how
masts are sited according to the set standards and regulations has become a topical issue in the
mass media and other public forums. The purpose of this study is to generate empirical findings
that are significant to the knowledge of how telecommunication masts are sited in Kumasi and
similar cities.
The findings of the research would assist and build on the current knowledge and inform policy
that guides the siting of telecommunication masts.
Informed Consent:
[This section must be completed by property owners before the interview starts].
After listening to/reading the introduction, I agree to participate in the study.
Da e . Signa e .
Th mb in

146
a) Name of Re onden b) Age . . ea
c) Sex (a) Male (b) Female
d) Marital Status [ ] Married [ ] Single [ ] Divorced [ ] Widowed [ ] Consensual Union
e) Level of formal educational (a) None (b) Primary (c) JSS/JHS/Middle School (d)
SSS/SHS/Tech/Voca ional (e) Te ia (f) O he
Processes involved in land acquisition for telecommunication masts
1) Were you the one who gave out land/space for this mast? [ ] Yes [ ] No
If Yes, through what means are the land acquired?
a) Rent
b) Lease
c) Gift
d) O he ( ecif ) .
2) Ho m ch a aid a en ? Gh and ha ea
3) What is the size of land/space given o
4) Were you given other forms of compensation? [ ] Yes [ ] No
If e , like ha

5) Was there agreement before installation of the mast? [ ] Yes[ ] No

4) If e , ha i he d a ion of he ag eemen
5) What processes were followed through to acquire the land?

6) Do they have a land title certificate for the land they acquired?
a) Yes
b) No

147
 Appendix VIII

Semi-structured Interview Schedule for Households

DEPARTMENT OF PLANNING
COLLEGE OF ART AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT
KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, KUMASI
RESEARCH TOPIC: PLANNING RESPONSES TO THE SITING OF
TELECOMMUNICATION MASTS INSIGHTS FROM KUMASI
INTERVIEW SCHEDULE FOR HOUSEHOLDS
Comm ni
Introduction
[Enumerator, please read this introduction to every resident that has been selected for this study.
You can provide further details about the purpose of the study to each of the respondents. This
will assist them to understand the purpose of the study with the hope that you get their consent].
Rapid urbanization has resulted in rapid population densification, increased demand for urban
lands and rises in land values. The continuous population growth has resulted in an increase in
demand for mobile phones and other telecommunication services. This has led to increased
investments in telecommunication infrastructure like masts and towers over the last few years to
enhance the quality of service for users. Telecommunication operators always look for sites that
offer stability for their cells without meddling with other telephone cells.
Several researchers have provided evidence to suggest the possibility of adverse health and safety
concerns when one lives or works in close proximity to telecommunication masts. Ghana like other
countries, responding to the health and safety concerns, has adopted precautionary space
guidelines and regulations to manage the siting of telecommunication masts. The reality of how
masts are sited according to the set standards and regulations has become a topical issue in the
mass media and other public forums. The purpose of this study is to generate empirical findings
that are significant to the knowledge of how telecommunication masts are sited in Kumasi and
similar cities.
The findings of the research would assist and build on the current knowledge and inform policy
that guides the siting of telecommunication masts.
Informed Consent:
[This section must be completed by residents before the interview starts].
After listening to/reading the introduction, I agree to participate in the study.
Da e . Signa e .
Th mb in
a) Name of Re onden b) Age . . ea

148
c) Sex [ ] Male [ ] Female
d) Marital Status [ ] Married [ ] Single [ ] Divorced [ ] Widowed [ ] Consensual Union
d) Level of formal educational [ ] None [ ] Primary [ ] JSS/JHS/Middle School
[ ]SSS/SHS/Tech/Vocational [ ] Te ia [ ] O he ( ecif )
Level of compliance with standards
1) When did you settle in this house/workplace?
a) Before the installation of the mast.
b) After the installation of the mast
1) a (i) If before the installation of the mast, were you consulted before it was installed?
a) Yes
b) No
1)a (ii) If Yes, did you agree to the installation of the mast? a) Yes b) No
1)a (iii) If Yes, what factors influenced your decision?

1)a (iv) Were you given monetary compensation?

a) Ye (Ho m ch? GH .)
b) No
1a) (vi)Were you given other forms of compensation? a) Yes b) No

If Ye , like ha .................

1b) (i) If after the installation of the mast, what factors influenced your decision to live or work
he e? ..

2)(i) Are you aware of possible effects that the mast poses? Yes/No
(ii) If Yes, what are they?
a) Health
b) Safety
c) Economic
d) O he

3)What is your general opinion about the mast in this neighborhood

149
 Appendix IX

Open-Ended Questionnaire for Regulatory Institutions

DEPARTMENT OF PLANNING
COLLEGE OF ART AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT
KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, KUMASI

RESEARCH TOPIC: PLANNING RESPONSES TO THE SITING OF

TELECOMMUNICATION MASTS INSIGHTS FROM KUMASI

QUESTIONNAIRE FOR REGULATORY INSTITUTIONS

Name of In i ion De igna ion of Re onden .

Introduction
[Enumerator, please read this introduction to an officer of regulatory institution that has been
selected for this study. You can provide further details about the purpose of the study to each of
the respondents. This will assist them to understand the purpose of the study with the hope that
you get their consent].
Rapid urbanization has resulted in rapid population densification, increased demand for urban
lands and rises in land values. The continuous population growth has resulted in an increase in
demand for mobile phones and other telecommunication services. This has led to increased
investments in telecommunication infrastructure like masts and towers over the last few years to
enhance the quality of service for users. Telecommunication operators always look for sites that
offer stability for their cells without meddling with other telephone cells.
Several researchers have provided evidence to suggest the possibility of adverse health and safety
concerns when one lives or works in close proximity to telecommunication masts. Ghana like other
countries, responding to the health and safety concerns, has adopted precautionary space
guidelines and regulations to manage the siting of telecommunication masts. The reality of how
masts are sited according to the set standards and regulations has become a topical issue in the
mass media and other public forums. The purpose of this study is to generate empirical findings
that are significant to the knowledge of how telecommunication masts are sited in Kumasi and
similar cities.
The findings of the research would assist and build on the current knowledge and inform policy
that guides the siting of telecommunication masts.
Informed Consent:
[This section must be completed by an officer of regulatory institution before answering
questionnaire].

150
After listening to/reading the introduction, I agree to participate in the study.
Da e . Signa e .

Institutional roles and Challenges

1) How effective has your institution been in regulating the siting of telecommunication
masts?
.......................................

2) Which institution(s) do you collaborate with and what are their roles

Determinants of compliance
3) What factors influence compliance to planning standards in the siting of
telecommunication masts in Ghana?

151
4) Do enforcement and inspections influence compliance with standards that guide the
siting of Telecommunication masts in Ghana? Yes/No
If e , h . ...

If no, h .

5) Do land value and the amount paid/spend as compensation influence compliance with
standards that guide the siting of masts. Yes/No
If e , h . ...

If no, h ... .

6) Do rewards and penalties for compliance and noncompliance influence compliance of

standards that guide the siting of telecommunication masts. Yes/No
If e , h . ...

152
 If no, h .

Compatibility of policies
7) Wha i o in i ion o i ion on he effec i ene of olicie ha eg la e he
siting of telecommunication masts in Ghana?

8) Do your institution know of any inconsistencies with the policies that regulate the siting of
masts in Ghana? Yes/No
If e , ha a e he

9) Do your institution know of any conflicts among the policies that regulate the siting of
telecommunication masts in Ghana? Yes/No
If yes, wha a e he ...

10) Have the policies adequately incorporated the needs of adopters (Telecommunication
Operators)? Yes/No

153
If e , ho ? ...

If no, h ? .

11) What is the way forward to ensuring the compliance of the siting of masts with locational
lanning anda d ............

...........

154
 Appendix X

Open-Ended Questionnaire for Telecommunication Masts Providers

DEPARTMENT OF PLANNING
COLLEGE OF ART AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT
KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, KUMASI

RESEARCH TOPIC: PLANNING RESPONSES TO THE SITING OF

TELECOMMUNICATION MASTS INSIGHTS FROM KUMASI

QUESTIONNAIRE FOR TELECOMMUNICATION MASTS PROVIDERS

Name of Com an De igna ion of Re onden .

Introduction
[Enumerator, please read this introduction to an officer of telecommunication masts providers
that has been selected for this study. You can provide further details about the purpose of the
study to each of the respondents. This will assist them to understand the purpose of the study
with the hope that you get their consent].
Rapid urbanization has resulted in rapid population densification, increased demand for urban
lands and rises in land values. The continuous population growth has resulted in an increase in
demand for mobile phones and other telecommunication services. This has led to increased
investments in telecommunication infrastructure like masts and towers over the last few years to
enhance the quality of service for users. Telecommunication operators always look for sites that
offer stability for their cells without meddling with other telephone cells.
Several researchers have provided evidence to suggest the possibility of adverse health and safety
concerns when one lives or works in close proximity to telecommunication masts. Ghana like other
countries, responding to the health and safety concerns, has adopted precautionary space
guidelines and regulations to manage the siting of telecommunication masts. The reality of how
masts are sited according to the set standards and regulations has become a topical issue in the
mass media and other public forums. The purpose of this study is to generate empirical findings
that are significant to the knowledge of how telecommunication masts are sited in Kumasi and
similar cities.
The findings of the research would assist and build on the current knowledge and inform policy
that guides the siting of telecommunication masts.
Informed Consent:
[This section must be completed by an officer of telecommunication mast providers before
answering the questionnaires].

155
After listening to/reading the introduction, I agree to participate in the study.
Da e . Signa e .
Determinants of compliance with standards
1) What guidelines, standards and/or policies seek to regulate the siting of telecommunication
masts in Ghana?

. .. .

2) Ho ell ha e o com lied i h he anda d ? . .....

3) What factors influence compliance to planning standards in siting telecommunication masts in

Ghana?

4) Do enforcement and inspections influence compliance of standards that guide the siting of
telecommunication masts in Ghana? Yes/No
If e , ho . .

If no, h ...

5) Do land values and the amount paid/spent as compensation influence compliance with
standards that guide the siting of masts. Yes/No
If e , ho ..

156
 If no, h ..

6) Do rewards and penalties for compliance and noncompliance influence compliance with
standards that guide the siting of telecommunication masts. Yes/No
If e , ho .

If no, h .. .

Compatibility of policies
7) Wha i o in i ion o i ion on he effec i ene of olicie ha eg la e he i ing of
telecommunication masts in Ghana?

9) Does your institution know of any inconsistencies with the policies that regulate the siting of
masts in Ghana? Yes/No
If e , ha a e he ..

157
10) Is your institution aware of any conflicts in the policies the regulate the siting of
telecommunication masts in Ghana? Yes/No
If e , ha a e he ..

8) In your opinion, how well have the policies/guidelines incorporated the needs of adopters
(Telecommunication Operators)

............................
12) What is the way forward to ensuring the compliance with the siting of masts with locational
lanning anda d .............

............
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Processes involved in land acquisition for telecommunication masts
13) What source(s) did you usually acquire lands for your Masts?

14)Through what means are the lands acquired? (renting, lease, gift, outright purchase, etc.)

15) Do you have agreement with land/property owners before masts are installed? Yes/No
16) Do you offer monetary compensation?
Ye (Gh Yea s/period/duration of agreement ) [ ] No

158
18) Do you offer other forms of compensation? Yes/No
19) If e, ha ae he ...

21) What processes are followed to acquire land/space for telecommunication masts?

22) Do you have a land title certificate for the land/space you acquired?
a) Yes
b) No
23) What are the major challenges you go through in acquiring land/space for your masts?
. ..

159
1