Lecture 1

Definitions of Translation
1. “The replacement of textual material in one language (SL) by equivalent
textual material in another” (Catford, 1965, p.20).
2. “The term that describes all the processes and methods used to convey the
meaning” (Ghazala, 1995, p.1).
3. “Rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the
author intended the text” (Newmark,1988,p.5)
Why are there different definitions of translation?
• Each definition focus on a particular aspect, whether on the linguistic aspect of
translation, on the culture or on the style (Elewa, 2020).
What is the translator’s main task?
• The translator should “re-create, re-produce, an equivalent function in a different
context to a different audience. S/he must have a wide knowledge in both
languages for getting the equivalence in the target language, because any
deficiency of the knowledge of both languages will result in a poor translation
which does not convey the message” (Elewa, 2020, pp.12-13)
Definitions of Basic Terms (Elewa, 2020)
1- Source Language (SL):
The original language from which a text is translated.
2- Source Text (ST):
The original text to be translated into another language.
3- Target Language (TL):
The language to which a text is translated.
4- Target Text (TT):
The final translated version of the source text which is also called the translated
product.
5- Equivalence:
The relationship of the sameness of meaning that exists between the ST and the TT
6- Translation Process:
It is concerned with all the related activities utilized in the act of translation
7- Translation Theory:
Refers to the set of methods and strategies used in explaining how translation is or
should be done.
8- Translation Studies:
It is a term used to describe any scholarly words on translation that is not regarded
as a fixed theory such as a descriptive analysis of translated works. (True or False)
Lecture 2
Types of Translation
Written Translation
It is the translation of a written material
from a SL to a TL in writing.
Oral Translation (interpretation)
Sight Translation (reading)
It is one kind of oral translation of a written text where translators have to scan the
text and present an oral translation while reading. (True or False)
Consecutive Translation (listening)
It is an oral interpretation where interpreters wait until a full sentence of paragraph
has been spoken and then start interpreting. So we have only one speaker at a time.
Simultaneous Translation (speaking)
It is an oral interpretation where both speakers and their interpreters speak at the
same time, but the interpreter’s voice is only heard through headsets.
Type of text
Each genre has its own style and structure that should be considered in translation.
By the Translation Approach
Intra-lingual Translation
The transfer of a certain message by
interpreting verbal signs by employing other
signs in the same language. For example, to
explain something to a child , use a different
form in the same language with synonyms.
Bright = intelligent = smart
Inter-lingual Translation (Proper)
The actual process of translation from one language to another. It involves the
transfer of verbal signs by using signs of some other language.
Tree = ‫ﺷﺠﺮة‬ Computer = ‫ﺣﺎﺳﺐ آﻟﻲ‬ Table = ‫طﺎوﻟﺔ‬
Inter-semiotic Translation
The transfer of verbal signs by means of non-verbal signs
between two semiotic systems.
Word for Word Translation (SL biased)
The translator sticks to the ST word order overlooking the syntactical features of
the TL. The translator finds the equivalent word in Arabic for the English word,
regardless of difference in grammar, word order, context or special uses.
That child is intelligent = ً ‫ذاك اﻟﻄﻔﻞ ﯾﻜﻮن ذﻛﯿﺎ‬
This sentence is grammatically incorrect.
Literal Translation (SL biased)
It involves word-for-word translation and the meaning of words is derived straight
from the dictionary while keeping TL grammar and word order intact. Translators
should bear in mind that the translated text must respect the grammar of the TL.
He likes cars = ‫ھﻮ ﯾﺤﺐ اﻟﺴﯿﺎرات‬
Sarah went to the shop = ‫ذھﺒﺖ ﺳﺎرة إﻟﻰ اﻟﻤﺤﻞ‬
Semantic Translation (SL biased) (writer-oriented)
Transferring the exact contextual meaning of the ST. It gives high priority to the
semantic (meaning) and syntactic structures (form) of the original (ST).
-The translator usually tries to produce in the TL the closest possible equivalent to
ST. (as in translating religious and literary texts).
Semantic translation is faithful and more literal.
In semantic translation, we stick to the meaning of words and the horizontal
relationship that holds between words (i.e. synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy, etc.)
‫ = ﯾﻮم ﻟﻚ وﯾﻮم ﻋﻠﯿﻚ‬A day for you, a day against you
(Grammatically and semantically correct, but NOT typically used in the TL.)
A better translation would be “ One day you win, another day you lose.”
Communicative Translation (TL biased) (reader-oriented)
Making the target text as close as possible to the source text, functionally and
pragmatically. “It is produced, when, in a given situation, the ST uses an SL
expression standard for that situation, and the TT uses a TL expression standard for
an equivalent target culture situation” (Dickins et al., 2017, p.14).
‫ = ﺑﺎﻟﮭﻨﺎء واﻟﺸﻔﺎء‬Good appetite (correct)
With bliss and cure (wrong)
Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day? = ‫ھﻞ أﺷﺒﮭﻚ ﺑﯿﻮم ﻣﻦ أﯾﺎم اﻟﺮﺑﯿﻊ؟‬
Free Translation (TL biased)
It is unbounded. It produces the TL text without the style, form, or content of the
original, and it includes normal word order and syntax, so that the translation can
be naturally understood. It preserves the meaning of the original but uses natural
forms of the target language.
‫ = ﯾﻮم ﻟﻚ وﯾﻮم ﻋﻠﯿﻚ‬You win some, you lose some
He got nothing at the end = ‫رﺟﻊ ﺑﺨﻔﻲ ﺣﻨﯿﻦ‬
(The grammar and vocabulary are completely different)
Lexical Translation
It involves a lexical-item-by-lexical-item translation, i.e. rendering the basic
meaning of words and their order such as the translation of a SL language
collocation or an idiom into a similar TL item.
Break the ice = ‫ﻣﮭﺪ اﻷﻣﻮر‬
I will go banana = ‫ﺳﺄﺟﻦ‬
Like father, like son = ‫ھﺬا اﻟﺸﺒﻞ ﻣﻦ ذاك اﻷﺳﺪ‬
Exercises
Translate the following sentence: “He likes reading”
A. Literal Translation ‫ﯾﺤﺐ اﻟﻘﺮاءة‬
B. Semantic Translation ‫ﯾﮭﻮى اﻻطﻼع‬
C. Word for word Translation ‫ھﻮ ﯾﺤﺐ اﻟﻘﺮاءة‬
D. Free Translation ‫ھﻮ ﻣﺜﻘﻒ‬
Translate “it is a do or die deal”
Literal translation: ‫ھﺬه ﺻﻔﻘﺔ أﻓﻌﻞ أو أﻣﻮت‬
Semantic translation: ‫ھﺬه ﺻﻔﻘﺔ أﻓﻌﻠﮭﺎ أو أﻣﻮت‬
Free translation: ‫ھﺬه ﺻﻔﻘﺔ إﻣﺎ أرﺑﺢ ﻓﯿﮭﺎ ﺟﯿﺪا أو أﺧﺴﺮ ﻛﻞ ﺷﻲء‬
Write the correct translation approach next to its translation:
‫ > اﻟﺴﻼم ﻋﻠﯿﻜﻢ‬Hello (communicative translation)
I read an inspiring book last night > ‫( أﻧﺎ ﻗﺮأت ﻛﺘﺎﺑﺎ ﻣﻠﮭﻤﺎ ﻟﯿﻠﺔ أﻣﺲ‬word for word
translation)
By the tranlator
1- Human

2- Machine Translation (MT)

It aims at assembling all the information required for translation in one program
to have NO human intervention afterwards.
3- Computer-assisted Translation (CAT)
The translator does the job from the beginning to end with the help of some
tools that make the process of translation more quickly.
4- Audiovisual Translation (AVT)
It is a new field in translation that focuses on the translation of audiovisual
materials such as movies and documentaries. It is often called audiovisual
translation, screen translation or multimedia translation.
The different modes of AVT:
-Subtitling: It can be defined as providing synchronized translation for video or
screen dialogues.
-Dubbing: It is where “the foreign language is adjusted to the mouth movements
of the actor in the film” (Dries, 1995, p.9)
-Voice-over: This form of translation involves dubbing but it keeps the original
soundtrack operating simultaneously (the original soundtrack can be heard but in a
lower sound than the translated version).
-Surtitling: It refers to subtitling a live performance on the stage or the back of
seats at theatres.
Lecture 3
Equivalence
Correspondence between two or more items
which could be, to some extent, a counterpart
of synonymy. Moon = ‫ﻗﻤﺮ‬
Formal Equivalence
The quality of a translation in which the
features of the form of the source text have
been mechanically reproduced in the receptors language.
Why is formal equivalence more oriented to the ST?
Because translators try to keep its basic features intact irrespective (without
considering) of the peculiarities of the SL, to maintain the accuracy and
faithfulness of the ST.
It is preferred in legal and religious texts where translators prefer to be
straightforward and unwilling to change the wording of the ST.
Amal has a sharp tongue = ‫إن أﻣﻞ ﻟﺴﺎﻧﮭﺎ ﺣﺎد‬
In formal translation, the SL form + content are respected on the expense of the
target language reader.
Formal equivalence is just a technical term for literal translation
The president's speech shed light on the current situation
‫ٕان ﺧﻄﺎب اﻟﺮﺋﯿﺲ ﺳﻠﻂ اﻟﻀﻮء ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻮﺿﻊ اﻟﺤﺎﻟﻲ‬
Black market = ‫اﻟﺴﻮق اﻟﺴﻮداء‬ Cold war = ‫اﻟﺤﺮب اﻟﺒﺎردة‬
Dynamic Equivalence
The message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language
that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptor.
This type is unbounded and gives the translator a free hand to render any item of
the original text into any TL form that has the same connotative meaning.
Romeo and Juliet = ‫ﻗﯿﺲ وﻟﯿﻠﻰ‬
Functional/Descriptive Equivalence
Rendering the function of an SL item into a TL equivalent that suits a similar
context. It means that two items in the SL and TL are used in similar context, they
become functionally equivalent.
‫ = ﻣﻊ اﻟﺴﻼﻣﺔ‬Goodbye ‫ = ﺣﻠﻮل ﻋﻨﺘﺮﯾﺔ‬Heroic solutions ‫ = ﻛﺒﯿﺎض اﻟﺜﻠﺞ‬As white as snow
The treaty has remained a dead letter since then.
.‫وﻗﺪ ﺑﻘﯿﺖ اﻟﻤﻌﺎھﺪة ﺣﺒﺮا ً ﻋﻠﻰ ورق ﻣﻦ ذﻟﻚ اﻟﻮﻗﺖ‬
These terms are translated into ordinary Arabic terms to avoid the ambiguity of the
literal translation of words, which would sound strange to Arabic readership.
Textual Equivalence
It refers to equivalence in structure, form, and shape.
This sort of equivalence can be easily noticed by translators or bilinguals through
the repeated usage of a certain two items as equivalents. When we translate such
repeatedly used items, the translated text must exhibit the same unified style.
The boy = ‫ اﻟﻔﺘﻰ‬،‫ اﻟﻐﻼم‬،‫ اﻟﺼﺒﻲ‬،‫اﻟﻮﻟﺪ‬
(The translator should use one translation option through out the whole text to
maintain textual equivalence.) (True or False)
It also refers to equivalence between a SL text and a TL text with regard to
information and cohesion. (Consistency)
In Arabic, a pronoun can easily function as a textual reference of a given noun.
The boy is playing football. The boy is having fun.
.‫ ھﻮ ﻣﺴﺘﻤﺘﻊ‬.‫اﻟﻔﺘﻰ ﯾﻠﻌﺐ ﻛﺮة ﻗﺪم‬
To maintain cohesion between SL and TL texts, one should consider three
factors: (multiple choices)
1. The target audience
2. The purpose of the translation
3. The text type
Dictionaries
In a dictionary, one can know the meaning and the pronunciation of an unfamiliar
word, the parts of speech, examples, and origins of words along with the context.
Types of Dictionaries
1. Monolingual
2. Bilingual
3. Specialized
Dictionaries differ in terms of:
1. Users
2. Size
3. Approach
Dictionaries help you find the following:
• the meaning
• part of speech
• the morphology of the word
• the negative positive sense
• the word origin
• sample examples
• collocation
To make the process of translating new words less tiring , you can follow the
following steps:
a. Guess the meaning from the context.
b. Look up key words in a dictionary
c. Look up some new words in a dictionary and ignore others
d. Identify the word category (Noun, Verb, Adjective, Adverb )
e. Analyze the morphology of the word (root, suffixes, prefixes)
f. Guess the negative/positive sense
g. Identify the word origin (Latin , French , Greek )
h. Read the sample example to know how to use the word
Electronic Dictionaries
Electronic dictionaries can be accessed online or on a CD-ROM for use with a
computer. Electronic dictionaries can provide an immediate access to word
meaning and related themes.
Lecture 4
Translation Method
According to Newmark, “a translation method is used for the whole text.” Such as
literal, free, communicative, and semantic translation.
Translation Strategy
Loescher says that a translation strategy is “a potentially conscious procedure for
solving a problem faced in translating a text, or any segment of it.”
Bell differentiated between “global strategies and local strategies.” (True or False)
Global strategies deal with the whole text while local strategies deal with text
segments.
Translation Procedure
A translation procedure is often applied by translators to solve a given problem in
the ST. Newmark said that a translation procedure is for sentences and smaller
units of a text.
There are four kinds of category shifts according to Catford:
1- Structure shift
2- Class shift
3- Unit shift
4- Intra-system shift
*Category shifts are used for justifying translation
Structure Shift
It refers to the change in grammatical structure between two languages. For
instance, word order might change from one language into another, like English
SVO that is rendered as VSO in Arabic.
Ali came to school = ‫ﺟﺎء ﻋﻠﻲ إﻟﻰ اﻟﻤﺪرﺳﺔ‬
Class Shift
It involves a change in parts of speech , i.e. nouns can be transferred as verbs,
verbs as nouns , nouns as adjective and so on.
ST: The university gives a great support to distinguished students
TT:ً ‫ﺗﺪﻋﻢ اﻟﺠﺎﻣﻌﺔ اﻟﻄﻼب اﻟﻤﺘﻤﯿﺰﯾﻦ دﻋﻤﺎ ً ﻛﺒﯿﺮا‬
He smokes heavily Adverb to ‫ﺟﺎر وﻣﺠﺮور‬ ‫ﯾﺪﺧﻦ ﺑﺸﺮاھﺔ‬
Unit Shift or Rank Shift
It involves a change of linguistics unit or ranks, i.e. to change the hierarchical
positions of the linguistic units like for instance changing a phrase to a single word
or a sentence to a phrase, etc.
What is expressed by a word, is
expressed by a group of words /
what is expressed by a group of
words, is expressed by a clause or a
sentence in the other language.
Intra-system Shift
When we find items within each
language that have similar meanings but they do not fully correspond within each
language system, like for instance nouns that may differ between Arabic and
English in number (plural/singular), abstract/concrete, countable/uncountable, and
definite /indefinite, etc. Homework ‫ واﺟﺐ – واﺟﺒﺎت‬Harm ‫ﺿﺮر – أﺿﺮار‬
.‫*ﺻﯿﻐﺔ اﻟﻤﺜﻨﻰ ﺑﺎﻟﻌﺮﺑﯿﺔ ﻏﯿﺮ ﻣﻮﺟﻮدة ﺑﺎﻹﻧﺠﻠﯿﺰﯾﺔ؛ ﻧﺘﺮﺟﻤﮭﺎ ﻟﻠﻤﺜﻨﻰ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺮﻏﻢ ﻣﻦ ﻛﻮﻧﮭﺎ ﺟﻤﻊ ﻓﻲ اﻹﻧﺠﻠﯿﺰﯾﺔ‬
‫ = ﯾﺪاي‬My hands ‫ = ﻋﯿﻨﺎي‬My eyes
‫ = أﺣﺐ دﻛﺘﻮرﺗﻲ‬I love my Doctor, she ‫*اﻟﻤﺴﻤﯿﺎت ﺗﺤﺪد ﻣﻦ اﻟﺠﻨﺲ ﺑﻨﺎء ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺴﯿﺎق‬
Abstract-Concrete
English only adds “the” to concretes. Arabic adds a definite article to both.
Definite-Indefinite
In English, we use “a” for indefinite nouns that were not mentioned before. We
add the definite article “the” when they are mentioned again.
Vinay & Darbelnet (two strategies
and seven procedures) (1)
Direct Translation
Borrowing
The SL word is transferred to the TL
“to introduce the flavour of the SL culture into a translation.” (Vinay & Darbelnet,
1995, p.31)
Imam = ‫إﻣﺎم‬ Hijj = ‫ﺣﺞ‬ America = ‫أﻣﺮﯾﻜﺎ‬ Sandwich = ‫ﺳﺎﻧﺪوﯾﺘﺶ‬
Calque
It is a strategy used to “borrow” the SL expression or structure and then transfer it
to a literal translation.
Lexical calque: skyscraper = ‫ ﻧﺎطﺤﺔ ﺳﺤﺎب‬non-violence = ‫ﻻ ﻋﻨﻒ‬
Full-time worker = ‫ﻋﺎﻣﻞ ﺑﺪوام ﻛﺎﻣﻞ‬
Structural calque: (by- structure) as a whole = ‫ﻛﻜﻞ‬
The house was cleaned by Ahmad
‫ﻧُﻈﻒ اﻟﺒﯿﺖ ﻣﻦ ﻗﺒﻞ أﺣﻤﺪ‬
Literal Translation
“Refers to the capability of transferring the ST expression, phrase, sentence and so
on into the TT literally without any change apart from those required by the TL
grammar.” (Almanna, 2016, p.58)
This “word-for-word” translation is “most common between languages of the same
family and culture.” (Monday, 2016, p.89)
Where were you? = ‫أﯾﻦ ﻛﻨﺖ؟‬
This train arrives at Union Station at ten.
.‫ﯾﺼﻞ اﻟﻘﻄﺎر اﻟﻰ ﻣﺤﻄﺔ ﯾﻮﻧﯿﻦ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻌﺎﺷﺮة‬
Vinay & Darbelnet (two strategies and seven procedures) (2)
Oblique Translation
Transposition
It involves “replacing one word class with another without changing the meaning
of the message.” (Vinay & Darbelnet, 1995, p.36)
The program was a success ً ‫ﻛﺎن اﻟﺒﺮﻧﺎﻣﺞ ﻧﺎﺟﺤﺎ‬
Hold can upright… (in instructions) ‫اﻣﺴﻚ اﻟﻌﺒﻮة ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻋﻤﻮدي‬
It makes the translation feel as if it were written in Arabic
Equivalence
“The same situation can be rendered by two texts using completely different
stylistic and structural methods.”
It is often used with translating proverbs and cliches.
He returned empty-handed = ‫رﺟﻊ ﺑﺨﻔﻲ ﺣﻨﯿﻦ‬
‫ = ﻋﻠﻰ أﺣﺮ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺠﻤﺮ‬To be on tenterhooks
Adaptation
“It is used in those cases where the type of situation being referred to by the SL
message is unknown in the TL culture. In such cases translators have to create a
new situation that can be considered as an equivalent.”
Romeo and Juliet = ‫ﻗﯿﺲ وﻟﯿﻠﻰ‬
He is as rich as Croesus = ‫ﯾﻤﻠﻚ ﻣﺎل ﻗﺎرون‬
Modulation
“It is a variation of the form of the message, obtained by a
change in the point of view.”
Lecture 5
Newmark (1)
Transference
A strategy when an SL word is transferred into
TL text in its original form
(transcription/transliteration).
‫ = اﻟﺠﮭﺎد‬Jihad Bank = ‫ﺑﻨﻚ‬ Pancake = ‫ﺑﺎﻧﻜﯿﻚ‬
Naturalization
This procedure adapts a SL item to the normal pronunciation of the TL, then to its
normal morphology. It makes the SL item seems natural in the TL.
Democracy = ‫دﯾﻤﻮﻗﺮاطﯿﺔ‬ Ideology = ‫اﻷﯾﺪﯾﻮﻟﻮﺟﯿﺔ‬ ‫ = اﻟﺠﺒﺮ‬Algebra
Cultural Equivalent
A SL cultural item is translated by an equivalent TL cultural item while
maintaining the same connotations.
Romeo and Juliet = ‫ﻗﯿﺲ وﻟﯿﻠﻰ‬ My fellow brother = ‫أﺧﻲ ﻓﻲ اﻹﺳﻼم‬
Functional Equivalent
The use of a cultural-neutral (culture- free) item. It involves both neutralization and
generalization of the SL word. Making a cultural word in the SL general in the TL.
Heroism= ‫ﻋﻨﺘﺮﯾﺔ‬
Descriptive Equivalent
In this procedure, the translator describes the meaning of the cultural item in
several words. A skiff = ‫ﻗﺎرب ﺻﻐﯿﺮ ﻟﮫ ﻣﺠﺪاﻓﺎن‬
The Arabic word ‫ اﻟﺨﻠﻊ‬cannot be explained in few words because it has no exact equivalent in the
TL. We can say, “divorce initiated by the wife”, “release for payment by the wife”, “redemptive
divorce”, “divorce by redemption”, “abdicative divorce.”
Synonym
To use a near TL equivalent to an SL word in a context, where a precise equivalent
may or may not exist. This procedure is used for a SL word where there is no clear
one-to-one equivalent and the word is less important than other components of a
sentence. ‫ = ذﻛﻲ‬smart = intelligent
Newmark (2)
Through Translation
It is the literal translation of common collocations, names of organizations and
components of compounds . It can also be called: calque or loan translation.
Black market = ‫اﻟﺴﻮق اﻟﺴﻮداء‬ Batman = ‫اﻟﺮﺟﻞ اﻟﺨﻔﺎش‬ The High Dam = ‫اﻟﺴﺪ اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻲ‬
Modulation
It occurs when the translator reproduces the message of the original text in the TL
text in conformity with the current norms of the TL, since the SL and the TL may
appear dissimilar in terms of perspective.
(See Vinay & Darblent’s translation strategies and procedures)
Recognized translation
The use of the official or the generally accepted translation of any institutional
terms (or others).
Ministry of Health = ‫وزارة اﻟﺼﺤﺔ‬ Gulf Cooperation Council = ‫ﻣﺠﻠﺲ اﻟﺘﻌﺎون اﻟﺨﻠﯿﺠﻲ‬
Compensation
It is to compensate (make up) for the loss of meaning in the TT. “This is said to
occur when loss of meaning, sound-effect, metaphor, or pragmatic effect in one
part of a sentence is compensated in another part, or in a contiguous sentence”
Naughty children are being labeled “hyperactive” by their teachers.
ٔ ‫ﻻطﻔﺎل ا‬
.‫ﻻﺷﻘﯿﺎء اﻵن ﻋﻠﻰ أﻧﮭﻢ ﻣﺼﺎﺑﻮن ﺑﻔﺮط اﻟﺤﺮﻛﺔ‬ ٔ ‫ﯾﺼﻨﻒ اﻟﻤﺪرﺳﻮن ا‬
ٔ ‫ﻻطﻔﺎل ا‬
.‫ﻻﺷﻘﯿﺎء ﻓﻲ اﻟﻮﻗﺖ اﻟﺤﺎﺿﺮ ﺑﺎٔﻧﮭﻢ ﻣﺼﺎﺑﻮن ﺑﻔﺮط اﻟﺤﺮﻛﺔ‬ ٔ ‫ﯾﺼﻒ اﻟﻤﺪرﺳﻮن ا‬
The act of redeeming the loss of meaning in the target language.
Componential Analysis
The splitting up of a lexical unit into its sense components, often one-to-two, -three
or –four translations.
Continental breakfast = ‫ ﺷﺎي وﻗﮭﻮة وﺧﺒﺰ ﻣﺤﻤﺺ‬:‫ﻓﻄﻮر أوروﺑﻲ‬
Newmark (3)
Paraphrase
In this procedure the meaning of the culture-specific terms is explained in more
detail, longer than descriptive equivalents. But the translator should be careful lest
he breaks the “Maxim of Quantity.” Not too much nor too little.
Ham = ‫ﺷﺮاﺋﺢ ﻓﺨﺬ اﻟﺨﻨﺰﯾﺮ‬ Steak = ‫ﺷﺮﯾﺤﺔ ﻟﺤﻢ ﺑﻘﺮ‬
Couplets
It occurs when translators combine two of the above mentioned procedures
respectively for dealing with a single problem. They further can use triplets and
quadruplets.
Parkinson’s disease ‫داء ﺑﺎرﻛﻨﺴﻮن‬ (translation + transference)

Internet ‫ﺷﺒﻜﺔ اﻻﻧﺘﺮﻧﺖ‬ (translation + transference)

Music note ‫( اﻟﻨﻮﺗﺔ اﻟﻤﻮﺳﯿﻘﯿﺔ‬naturalization + translation)
Sari (‫اﻟﺴﺎري )ﻟﺒﺎس ھﻨﺪي طﻮﯾﻞ‬ (transference + paraphrase/explanation)
Notes, Additions, Glosses
These techniques can be employed to add extra information about a culturally-
specific word / expression in the translated text.
Notes: notes are additional information in a translation; they can appear in the form
of '.’ footnotes
Additions:
This infant bottle is made of PP and does not contain BPA.
‫ﻻﻣﻦ ﺻﺤﯿﺎ ً واﻟﺨﺎﻟﻲ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺒﯿﺴﻔﯿﻨﻮل‬
ٓ ‫ٕان ھﺬه اﻟﺮﺿﺎﻋﺔ ﻣﺼﻨﻮﻋﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺎدة اﻟﺒﺮوﺑﯿﻠﯿﻦ ٕاﺣﺪى أﻧﻮاع اﻟﺒﻼﺳﺘﯿﻚ ا‬
.‫ﻻطﻔﺎل‬ٔ ‫اﻟﻤﺮﻛﺐ اﻟﻜﯿﻤﯿﺎٔﯾﻲ ذو اﻟﺘﺎٔﺛﯿﺮات اﻟﺨﻄﯿﺮة ﻋﻠﻰ ﺻﺤﺔ ا‬
Glosses: The horse’s mouth = (‫ﻣﻦ ﻓﻢ اﻷﺳﺪ )ﻣﻦ ﻣﺼﺎدرھﺎ اﻷﺻﻠﯿﺔ‬
‫*إن ﺷﺎء ﷲ‬
*Is an Arabic language expression for "if Allah wills”. The phrase is used by
Muslims to refer to events that one hopes will happen in the future. It expresses the
belief that nothing happens unless Allah wills it and that Allah’s will supersedes
human will.
Lecture 6
Sentence Structure
Translators should have adequate (enough) knowledge of the structure and
patterning of both the SL and TL. They should be aware of using a good structure
and correct grammar to convey the meaning correctly.
Unlike English, Arabic is a synthetic language; it allows pronouns to combine
with words forming one single word. Such personal pronouns can be suffixed to
nouns, verbs, or particles. We may form an Arabic word that represents a whole
sentence in English.
They hit you = ‫ﺿﺮﺑﻮك‬
‫ = أﻧﺰﻟﻤﻜﻤﻮھﺎ‬Shall we force you to follow it
The grammatical functions in English are mainly based on the word order.
• For example, the verb is often preceded by a subject and followed by an object
(SVO)
There are seven types of basic clauses in English:
• S = subject, V = verb, O = object, C = complement*, A = adverbial**
1. SVA => Mary is in the house / They came suddenly / The train arrived late.
2. SVC => Mary is Kind (a nurse)/ They are players / She is an artist.
3. SVO => Somebody caught the ball/ I love England/ The police arrested the
thief.
4. SVOA => I put the plate on the table / She lost her father last week.
5. SVOC => We have proved him wrong/ She made him happy / She got her
shoes wet.
6. SVOO => She gives me expensive presents/ The principal gave him the
medal
7. SV => The child laughed.
*The complement is anything which adds to the meaning of the subject (subject complement) or
object (object complement). Subject complement usually follows the verb. Object complement
usually follows the direct object.
**These clause elements add to or complete the meaning of the verb element. They may be
single adverbs. But they also include nouns, noun or verb phrases and subordinate clauses: They
ran quickly. He went home twice nightly. We walked on the playground. My friend phoned me
this morning. I was happy when I saw her again.
• In Arabic, on the other hand, the canonical (main/recognized) structure of a sentence is VSO.
• The alternative basic order which is SVO is also possible if there is a good reason. E.g. :“You-(
alone ) we worship” in “iyyaka na’budu"
Word order
The way words are arranged in
sentences may differ from one
language to another. To the
translator, languages that share the
same word order may be easier in
translation than those having
different word order.
For example, English and French
have the same word order, i.e.
SVO, but for the translators from
English into Arabic and vice versa
they should consider the different
word orders in the two languages
involved.
There are other ways to start a sentence or clause:
A. We can start with “other [ extra ] information” and it should be placed initially
or finally without effecting the meaning, as follows:
This term, the team had 8 successive defeats.
.‫ﻧﺎل اﻟﻔﺮﯾﻖ ھﺬا اﻟﻤﻮﺳﻢ ﺛﻤﺎﻧﯿﺔ ھﺰأﯾﻢ ﻣﺘﺘﺎﺑﻌﺔ‬
The phrase this term can move freely in the sentence without affecting the basic
meaning as in the example below:
The team had 8 successive defeats this term.
At the end, she passed the test. She passed the test at the end.
• B. We can start with the object to show contrast or strong emphasis.
Aresenal won their 10th trophy this term. The first trophy they got was in 1959.
• C. You can start with words and phrases that tell us about your attitude.
Unfortunately, they came late again.
Word order can be changed for stylistic reasons:
A. Translators usually put the longest phrase at the end of the sentence to avoid
distracting the reader’s attention.
• “Fronting phrase” is a useful strategy when translators have similar neighboring
adverbial phrases:
.‫ﻣﻦ اﻟﺨﻄﺮ أن ﺗﻘﻮد اﻟﺴﯿﺎرة ﺑﺴﺮﻋﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺸﺘﺎء ﻓﻲ اﻟﺼﺤﺮاء‬
In the desert, it is dangerous to drive quickly in winter.
B. When having more than one adverb of time, translators should start with the
more specific one:
• At 6:00 p.m. on Friday the 11th of February, 2011, Egypt was liberated.
Order of Adjectives
If we have more than one adjectives in English we should follow a certain pattern.
In Arabic , on the other hand , we can put these adjectives in whatever order we
like . For example: ‫ﺣﻘﯿﺒﺔ ﺟﻤﯿﻠﺔ ﻗﺪﯾﻤﺔ – ﺣﻘﯿﺒﺔ ﻗﺪﯾﻤﺔ ﺟﻤﯿﻠﺔ‬

The horrible huge old round brown American metallic sport car passed us.
I have Hexagonal green wooden table. = .‫ﻟﺪي طﺎوﻟﺔ ﺳﺪاﺳﯿﺔ اﻟﺸﻜﻞ ﺧﺸﺒﯿﺔ ﺧﻀﺮاء‬
I bought great long comedy novel. = .‫اﺷﺘﺮﯾﺖ رواﯾﺔ ﻛﻮﻣﯿﺪﯾﺔ راﺋﻌﺔ طﻮﯾﻠﺔ‬
Complete the following translations by filling in the blanks:
1- He was wearing a ……New black cotton……….. Shirt (black/cotton/new)
2-I used a (an)………Old square black Italian………..frame
(square/black/old/Italian)
3-I wrote a ………Great Long comic …….. Play (long/comic/great)
4- Sara is an ………Innocent young French……… girl (French/young/innocent)
Parts of Speech
• English phrases & sentences are composed of
units; called parts of speech.
1. Nouns: John
2. Adjective: happy
3. Adverb: really
4. Verb: play
5. Article: the, a(n)
6. Demonstrative : that, this
7. Pronoun: they, anybody
8. Preposition: of, at
9. Conjunction: and, when
10. Interjection: oh, ah, ugh
Proper Nouns (‫)ﻋﻠﻢ‬
A. Names such as ‫ﺳﺎرة‬/‫ﻋﻠﻲ‬/‫ = أﺣﻤﺪ‬Ahmad/Ali/Sara
Use: Transcription & Capitalization
B. Names that have counterparts (equivalence) in the TL
Abraham/Jacob/Moses/Jesus/Joseph = ‫إﺑﺮاھﯿﻢ‬/‫ﯾﻌﻘﻮب‬/‫ﻣﻮﺳﻰ‬/‫ﻋﯿﺴﻰ‬/‫ﯾﻮﺳﻒ‬
Common Nouns (‫)ﻧﻜﺮة‬
A. Countable: abstract/concrete
B. Uncountable: abstract/concrete

Some important points:

In English when we use abstract nouns, we drop the (the) article in normal usage.
Democracy in Egypt started in the 21st century.
Honesty is the best fruit of friendship.
In Arabic, abstract nouns must follow a definite article (‫)ال اﻟﺘﻌﺮﯾﻒ‬
.‫ﺑﺪأت اﻟﺪﯾﻤﻘﺮاطﯿﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺼﺮ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻘﺮن اﻟﺤﺎدي واﻟﻌﺸﺮﯾﻦ‬
.‫اﻷﻣﺎﻧﺔ أﻓﻀﻞ ﺛﻤﺎر اﻟﺼﺪاﻗﺔ‬
Exception:
• Abstract nouns can be used with articles when they are qualified.
- Followed by a defining relative clause which starting with (who/which /that) or
by the of-phrase
The Democracy of Egypt started in the 21 century .
The honesty that we possess out of friendship is endless.
Names of:
A. Cities, seas, river, etc:
Translators should use their exact equivalent in the TL.

‫ اﻟﻤﺠﺮ‬،‫ اﻟﯿﻮﻧﺎن‬،‫ ﺑﻼد اﻟﺸﺎم‬،‫ اﻟﺪار اﻟﺒﯿﻀﺎء‬،‫ ﺣﻠﺐ‬،‫ اﻟﺒﺤﺮ اﻟﻌﺮﺑﻲ‬،‫ااﻟﺠﺰاﺋﺰ‬

Algeria, The Arabian Sea, Aleppo, Casablanca, Levant, Greece, Hungary

Other cities which have no equivalents should be transliterated.

‫ ﻣﺪﯾﻨﺔ ﻧﺼﺮ‬،‫ ﺣﻲ اﻟﻨﺨﯿﻞ‬،‫ اﻟﻘﺼﯿﻢ‬،‫اﻟﺨﺒﺮ‬

AL-Khobar, Al-Qassim Province/region, Al-Nakheel District, Nasr City

B. Roads, streets, hospitals, universities, stores, etc:

Can be rendered into the TL into two parts: (translated + transliterated)
‫ ﺷﺎرع اﻟﯿﺎﺳﻤﯿﻦ‬،‫ ﺟﺎﻣﻌﺔ ﺷﻘﺮاء‬،‫ ﺳﻮﺑﺮﻣﺎﻛﺖ اﻟﺨﯿﺮ‬،‫ طﺮﯾﻖ اﻟﻤﻠﻚ ﺳﻠﻤﺎن‬،‫ﻣﺴﺘﺸﻔﻰ اﻟﺤﺒﯿﺐ‬
Al-Habib Hospital, King Salman Road, Al-Khair Supermarket, Shaqra
University, Al-Yasmin Street
C. Companies, organizations (recognized translation) United Nations ‫اﻷﻣﻢ اﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪة‬
D. Most abstract nouns that end with specific suffixes
individualism/development

Exercise

‫ﺗﻄﻞ ﺑﻼد اﻟﺸﺎم ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺒﺤﺮ اﻟﻤﺘﻮﺳﻂ‬ ‫اﻟﺘﺤﻖ ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﺑﺠﺎﻣﻌﺔ اﻟﻔﺎﺗﺢ ﻓﻲ طﺮاﺑﻠﺲ‬

The Levant borders the Mediterranean Sea Muhammad joined the Fatih University in Tripoli.