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The Learning Cycle: A Reintroduction

Article  in  The Physics Teacher · February 2006

DOI: 10.1119/1.2165443

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The Learning Cycle:
A Reintroduction
Steven J. Maier, Northwestern Oklahoma State University, Alva, OK
Edmund A. Marek, University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK
T
he learning cycle is an inquiry approach to in-
struction that continues to demonstrate signif-
icant effectiveness in the classroom.1-3 Rooted
in Piaget’s theory of intellectual development, learning
cycles provide a structured means for students to con-
struct concepts from direct experiences with science
phenomena. Learning cycles have been the subject of
numerous articles in science practitioner periodicals as
well as the focus of much research in science education
journals.4 This paper reintroduces the learning cycle
by giving a brief description, followed by an example
suitable for a range of physics classrooms.
The development of the learning cycle dates back to
the work of Atkin and Karplus in 1962. Papers
discussing the use of learning cycles can be found in
The Physics Teacher and the American Journal of
Physics.5-11 The most thorough of these deals with the
use of learning cycles for large-enrollment courses.12
More recent articles suggest applications of the learn-
ing cycle for classrooms ranging from conceptual to
calculus-based physics but do not offer details of its
theory base.13,14 This paper serves to reintroduce the
time-tested inquiry approach to science known as the
learning cycle.
Learning cycles consist of three distinct phases:
exploration, concept development, and concept ap-
plication. The phases and the order of the phases were
derived from the mental processes individuals engage
in as learning occurs.15 A brief description will be out-
lined here, followed by an example.
Learning cycles begin with an exploration where
students are charged with collecting data. This phase
THE PHYSICS TEACHER ◆ Vol. 44, February 2006 DOI: 10.1119/1.2165443
has always been called the “exploration,” beginning
with Karplus et al.16 Explorations can be done in
the form of open or guided inquiry, in small or large
groups, or as an entire class. However, the exploration
must result in “good” data that were gathered by the
students. The design of the exploration must be con-
structed so that reproducible data ensure that students
will be armed with the evidence required to derive the
concept. Data collected must also be free of “noise”
that would require students to know the concept a
priori in order to elicit data relevant to the concept to
be developed in the next phase.
Ideal explorations are designed to reveal something
unexpected to students, causing them to think about
how the data or experience they encountered fit with
what they already know. If a student can account for
the data based on prior knowledge or if the experi-
ence was not unexpected after all, assimilation has
occurred. During assimilation, observations or experi-
ences are accounted for by students’ existing knowl-
edge. A failed attempt at reconciling the unexpected
results or observations with what one already knows is
termed “disequilibrium” by Piaget.
Because students have varying experiences and
knowledge bases, it is unrealistic to expect collective
assimilation or collective disequilibrium in the class-
room. Furthermore, some students may have
assimilated the experiences based on alternative under-
standings. That is, students may arrive at correct ex-
pectations based on false premises. For these reasons,
assimilation and disequilibrium will occur among dif-
ferent students simultaneously during the exploration.
109
 Following the exploration is the concept develop-
ment phase, when students analyze and interpret the
newly collected data. Usually this is in the form of a
whole class discussion or group discussions. Although
this phase of the learning cycle is more teacher-cen-
tered, it should not take on the form of a lecture.
Instead, students are guided by the teacher in a discus-
sion designed to let them interpret the class data. Stu-
dents arrange and report their group data so that they
can formulate hypotheses for the phenomenon under
examination. As students develop the science concept
from their data, they re-equilibrate. Piaget termed this
mental process “accommodation.” The second phase
of the learning cycle is designed to allow students to
re-equilibrate and accommodate the new concept.
Appropriate scientific terminology is introduced after
the development of the concept. This phase was origi-
nally called “invention” by Karplus et al.17
For those students whose assimilations were under
false premises, the concept development phase is dou-
bly critical. The analysis of the data collected should
reveal a more plausible explanation than other com-
mon alternative explanations. This possibility clearly
indicates that disequilibrium is not limited to the ex-
ploration phase of the learning cycle. Disequilibrium
should occur prior to the end of the concept develop-
ment phase.
The third phase of the learning cycle, known today
as concept application, was originally called “discov-
ery.”18 It should not be assumed that once students
have collected the data and developed the concept that
learning is complete. According to Piagetian theory,
there is more required on the part of the learner for a
full understanding of the concept. In concept applica-
tion, students must apply the newly accommodated
concept in a different setting or context and relate it to
held conceptions. Concept application, therefore, of-
fers additional opportunities for students to apply the
newly accommodated concept to what they already
know. This effectively tests and reinforces students’
understandings of the concept. To summarize, the
purpose of concept application is to simultaneously
reinforce the concept, validate the newly developed
concept, and foster thorough understanding. This
process is termed “organization” in Piaget’s theory of
intellectual development.19,20
110
Circles & Bubbles: A Learning Cycle
Here we briefly describe a learning cycle that is
appropriate for an introductory nonscience major’s
course or general physical science course. The full
version of this learning cycle, including the teacher’s
guide, is available online and by contacting the au-
thors.21 The concept students develop by the comple-
tion of the second phase is the following
Data following a linear trend are related by a
single slope while data of nonlinear trend are
not. This means the slope of a graphed non-
linear trend is not constant. Despite the differ-
ence, the plots of linear and nonlinear trends
can still be used to make predictions.
Establishing the difference between these two types
of relationships and understanding some of the
implications of those differences are powerful aids for
understanding numerous other concepts in physics.
Exploration
We have divided the exploration for this learning
cycle into two parts. In part I, students are asked to
make a prediction about how much the circumfer-
ence of a circle will change if the diameter is doubled,
tripled, or quadrupled. They then begin taking mea-
surements of the diameters and circumferences of an
assortment of supplied circles. As students collect data
the instructor visits with each group and asks ques-
tions such as “Can you identify any trends in your
data” or “In looking at your data, can you come up
with a general rule that applies to all of your data?”
The instructor needs to make certain that data are
being recorded carefully and accurately. Once all of
the data are collected, specific questions lead students
to look for a relationship among the diameters and
circumferences. As an example, students could be
asked to predict what the circumferences would be for
circles of diameters different from any of the supplied
circles. Generally, it does not take long for students to
conclude that the circumference is about three times
the length of the diameter, and multiplying the diam-
eter by three is straightforward enough that the pre-
dictions are easily done. Recognizing what this factor
represents and its role in the linear relationship is not
THE PHYSICS TEACHER ◆ Vol. 44, February 2006
 200
Linear Fit For: Data Set: Circumference
y = mx+b
m(Slope): 3.14 cm/cm
b(Y-Intercept): -0.220 cm
Correlation: 1.00
150
Circumference (cm)
100
50
10 30
Diameter (cm)
Fig. 1. From the raw data or from a plot, students can
easily make predictions for circumference within and
beyond their collected data.
critical at this point.
In part II of the exploration, students are provided
a stopwatch, an angle indicator, and a water-filled
glass tube with an air bubble trapped inside. Students
are first asked to record their predictions for how the
time will vary for the air bubble to traverse a certain
length of the tube as a function of its angle from the
horizontal. To prompt discussion among groups, the
teacher could simply ask how fast the bubble will
move if the tube is lying flat on the table versus held
perpendicular to the table. Students then begin re-
cording the time it takes for the trapped air bubble
inside the tube to travel a specified distance for several
different angles from the horizontal.
Due to the nature of the nonlinear trend, students
should collect at least nine pairs of data between 0
and 90. They should soon realize this trend is not like
that of part I; that is, one measurement of a paired
data set is not just a simple factor of another. Despite
the lack of a linear relationship, students are asked to
make time predictions for various angles.
An integral part of the exploration in this learning
cycle is graphing the data. Although there is value in
having students make predictions from inspecting
the raw data, graphs help reveal trends that might not
be seen otherwise. Students are asked to draw best-
fit curves for parts I and II of the exploration and to
THE PHYSICS TEACHER ◆ Vol. 44, February 2006
Auto Fit For: Data Set: Time
y = A + BX + CX2 + DX3
30 A: 45.8 +/- 2.85
B: -1.69 +/- 0.238
C: 0.0283 +/- 0.00553
RMSE: 1.30
25
Time (s)
20
15
50 70 0 20 40 60 80 100
Angle (o)
Fig. 2. Despite the nonlinear trend of the data, time
predictions can still be made from inspection of the raw
data, albeit use of the graph reveals the general trend
and illustrates the changing slope.
compare their predictions to trends of the graphs.
This phase of this particular learning cycle also dem-
onstrates the need for continuity of data and the value
of graphing data as the best-fit lines confirm or chal-
lenge their predictions.
Concept Development
A plot of the data from part I of the exploration is
obviously different from that of part II (see Figs. 1 and
2, respectively). Determining the slope of the graph
from part I is straightforward but meaningless for
the bubble data of part II due to its nonlinear nature.
Recognizing how data from each part of the explora-
tion can be used to make predictions, while at the
same time being confronted with the fact that the two
trends are very different, serves as the beginning of
the concept development phase during which “why”
questions are asked and answered by the students.
By the time the class begins the concept develop-
ment phase of Circles & Bubbles, students are well
prepared for the interpretation of their collective data.
The instructor’s role during this phase is to facilitate
discussion and guide students as they develop the
concept.
Regarding exploration part I, the linear nature of
the relationship between a circle’s diameter and cir-
cumference can easily be observed by having students
111
report the corresponding circumferences for diameters
of 4 cm, 8 cm, 12 cm, and then 2 cm, for example.
Then students can be asked to make predictions about
the circumference of a circle whose diameter falls out-
side the range of their data. Students should be able
to arrive at a solution by multiplying the diameter by
a factor of about three or by setting up a proportion
based on data already collected—prompted by the
questions asked of them moments earlier. Important
to the concept is the fact this proportionality holds
true for linear trends regardless of the numeric value
of the slope.
In contrast, the data for exploration part II yield
predictability although they do not follow a simple
rule. To demonstrate this, student groups could be
asked to estimate the angle for which the bubble will
travel the specified distance in the shortest and lon-
gest durations of time based on their findings. They
could then be asked, if the tube was placed at an angle
exactly between these angles, would the time be twice
the shortest duration of time? Such questions help
students recognize and understand the nonlinear be-
havior of the data.
As part of the discussion, students should contrast
the constant slope of part I’s graph with the varying
slope of part II’s graph. After they make the connec-
tion between the behavior of the slope and the charac-
teristics of the trends, the terms “linear” and “non-
linear” should be introduced. The descriptions of
terminology introduced during the concept develop-
ment phase must coincide directly with student ex-
periences within the current learning cycle. This does
not preclude referring back to previous experiences.
Instead, this is a means to avoid “telling” in lieu of
“learning” by introducing anachronistic terminology.
To conclude the concept development phase of
the learning cycle, a final question should be asked
of the students so that they have the opportunity to
express in their own words the concept that has been
developed. Typically this is in the form of a concept
statement. It could also be in the form of a summary
of the activity using the appropriate terminology. Stu-
dent statements or summaries should closely parallel
the concept indicated at the beginning of the teacher’s
guide of the learning cycle.
112
Concept Application
For the third phase of the learning cycle, students
apply the concept to a different context during a stu-
dent-centered activity. Often the concept application
phase of a learning cycle serves as a lead-in for the next
learning cycle. For Circles & Bubbles, concept ap-
plication involves collecting data using toy cars. Each
group is provided a car that travels equal distances for
equal times (constant speed) and a car that does not
(accelerating). The constant speeds and the accelera-
tions need not be identical among student groups. It
may be beneficial to have a variety of speeds and accel-
erations to offer opportunities for students to see the
relevance of the newly developed concept to a variety
of systems.
The structure of the third phase is variable and can
serve as a means of evaluation. For the concept ap-
plication phase of this learning cycle, students record
the position of their two cars as a function of time.
Recalling the need for several pairs of data in the ex-
ploration, students are instructed to collect as much
data as necessary to accurately represent the position
of their cars as a function of time. To make this clear,
ask students if they can make accurate predictions for
specific times or distances based on the data collected.
Whiteboards (2-ft-x-4-ft sections of white bathroom
wall paneling) and dry erase markers have been used
in the past for students to record their data, generate
graphs, and answer questions during the concept ap-
plication phase of this learning cycle. For additional
material on questions designed to probe students’
understandings and on the importance of the concept
developed in this learning cycle, see the first chapter of
Teaching Introductory Physics by Arons.22
Comments
Each learning cycle has at its core a concept for stu-
dents to develop. This does not mean that learning cy-
cles are limited in depth or level of use. For example,
in Circles & Bubbles, students could determine the
numerical relationships for each of the data sets using
graphing software. If the concept application included
an investigation of distance or velocity as a function
of time, taking the derivative or integral, respectively,
of the mathematical functions representing the trends
THE PHYSICS TEACHER ◆ Vol. 44, February 2006
would be appropriate for a calculus-based physics
course.
With Piagetian theory as its foundation, the learn-
ing cycle is a time-tested approach to instruction. The
purpose of this paper is to reintroduce the learning
cycle by articulating some of the finer details of the
three phases of the learning cycle by example, while at
the same time stressing the importance and rationale
for each.
References
1. E. Marek and S. Methven, “Effects of the learning cycle
upon student and classroom teacher performance,” J.
Res. Sci.Teach. 28, 41–53 (1991).
2. V. Birgit and A. Lawson, “Effects of learning cycle and
traditional text on comprehension of science concepts
by students at differing reasoning levels,”J. Res. Sci.
Teach. 36, 23–37 (1999).
3 J. Renner, M. Abraham, and H. Birnie, “The neces-
sity of each phase of the learning cycle in teaching high
school physics,” J. Res. Sci.Teach. 25, 39–58 (1988).
4. For example, a brief search for “learning cycle” yields
numerous references in Journal of Research in Science
Teaching, International Journal of Science Education,
Science Scope, The Science Teacher, Journal of Science
Teacher Education, and Science Education periodicals.
5. J. McKinnon and J. Renner, “Are colleges concerned
with intellectual development?” Am. J. Phys. 39, 1047–
1051 (Sept. 1971).
6. J. Renner and A. Lawson, “Piagetian theory and in-
struction in physics,” Phys. Teach. 11, 165–169 (March
1973).
7. J. Renner and A. Lawson, “Promoting intellectual de-
velopment through science teaching,” Phys. Teach. 11,
273–276 ( May 1973).
8. R. Sapp, “Titius-Bode law: An astronomy project for a
cloudy night,” Am. J. Phys. 48, 138–141 (Feb. 1980).
9. D. Dykstra, “A learning cycle on exponential growth
and the energy crisis,” Phys. Teach. 20, 245–246 (April
1982).
10. D. Zollman, “Learning cycles for a large enrollment
class,” Phys. Teach. 28, 20–25 (Jan. 1990).
THE PHYSICS TEACHER ◆ Vol. 44, February 2006
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11. S. Gang, “Removing preconceptions with a ‘learning
cycle,’” Phys. Teach. 33, 346–354 ( Sept. 1995).
12. See Ref. 10.
13. L. Escalada, N. Rebello, and D. Zollman, “Student ex-
plorations of quantum effects in LEDs and luminescent
devices,” Phys. Teach. 42, 173–179 (March 2004).
14. P. Engelhardt, K. Gray, and N. Rebello, “How many
students does it take before we see the light?” Phys.
Teach. 42, 216–221 (April 2004).
15. J. Renner and E. Marek, “An educational theory base
for science teaching,” J. Res. Sci.Teach. 27, 241–246
(1990). See also Ref. 3.
16. J. Atkin and R. Karplus, “Discovery or invention?” Sci.
Teach. 29, 45–51 (1962).
17. Ibid.
18. Ibid.
19. J. Piaget, Biology and Knowledge Theory: An Essay on the
Relations between Organic Regulations and Cognitive Pro-
cesses (University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL, 1975).
20. J. Phillips, The Origins of Intellect: Piaget’s Theory, 2nd
ed. (W. H. Freeman, San Francisco, CA ,1975).
21. Send requests for electronic copies to sjmaier@nwosu.
edu or eamarek@ou.edu. Circles & Bubbles can also be
downloaded from http://www.ou.edu/education/ilac/
science/homepage.htm. Follow the “Current Happen-
ings” link.
22. A. Arons, Teaching Introductory Physics (Wiley, New
York, 1997). In particular, see Chap. 1 for the emphasis
placed on linear trends and student reasoning of graphs.
PACS codes: 01.40.gb, 01.40.Ha
Steven J. Maier received his M.S. in physics from
Oklahoma State University. He is currently working on his
Ph.D. in science education at the University of Oklahoma.
Northwestern Oklahoma State University, 709
Oklahoma Blvd., Alva, OK 73717; sjmaier@nwosu.edu
Edmund A. Marek received his M.Ed. and Ph.D. in sci-
ence education from the University of Oklahoma.
University of Oklahoma, Science Education Center,
Physical Sciences Building, Room 323
Norman, OK 73019; eamarek@ou.edu
113