Name: Mary Kate L.

Ceballos Date : November 2,, 2021

Course/Year/Sec: BSN 1-YA-18 Teacher: Dr. Ramon Lirio

EXERCISE NO. 7

NERVOUS SYSTEM

GIO : To study the different parts and functions of the central and peripheral nervous system.

SIO .
A. Introduction to Nervous System

1. Describe the organization of the nervous system according to morphology and

functions.
➢ The Nervous System is the system in the body that regulates and
controls all the activities of our body. It is a group of tissues that
possesses excitability and conductivity characteristics.
According to morphology, the Nervous System is divided into two
divisions mainly, Central Nervous System (CNS) and Peripheral
Nervous System (PNS). CNS consists of the brain and the spinal cord.
It is responsible for the synthesis of information from the body and
systemizing activities. On the other hand, PNS consists of the cranial
nerves, spinal nerves, and the autonomic nervous system. It is the one
that connects the CNS to the parts of the body such as limbs, organs,
and skin to carry out its specific functions/activities.
According to function, the Nervous System is divided into
Somatic Nervous System (Somatic Efferent) and Autonomic Nervous
System (Visceral Efferent). Somatic Nervous System controls the
voluntary actions of the body. The Somatic Efferent innervates the
Somatic structures or the voluntary muscles like the skeletal muscles
and skin. On the contrary, the Autonomic Nervous system is
responsible for the involuntary movement of the structures such as
smooth muscles, cardiac muscles, and glands.

2. Illustrate and label the component parts of a nerve cell.

3. Explain the transmission of nerve impulse.
➢ A nerve impulse is a signal that travels along the axon or dendrites
because of the movement of the ion through voltage-gated channels. It
contains three phases mainly, polarized state (resting potential),
depolarized state (action potential), and repolarized state.
The voltage-gated channels open and close in response to an
electrical voltage. When an axon is in its resting stage, it does not
transmit any nerve impulses. This is referred to as the resting potential
or the polarized state. When a neuron is at rest, a charge difference
between the inside and outside the cell is maintained. Active transport
using sodium and potassium pumps generates and maintains this
difference. The force pushes sodium ions out of the cell while bringing
potassium ions inside. The accumulation of uneven charge distribution
in a resting cell causes the resting membrane potential (RMP). In the
RMP, the concentration of K+ is higher inside the cell membrane, and
the concentration of Na+ is higher outside the cell membrane.
When a stimulus disrupts the plasma membrane on a dendrite,
sodium channels open, resulting in a nerve impulse. Then, sodium ions
enter the cell, reducing the charge difference. If the charge is high
enough, nearby voltage-gated sodium channels will open. As this
voltage-gated opens, sodium ions flow, making the membrane
depolarized. The depolarization resulted in a net positive charge inside
the cell and a net negative charge outside the cell. The neighboring
voltage-gated sodium channels are affected by the net charges, which
causes depolarization along the membrane.
The moving depolarization is called an Action potential. The action
potential is due to the reversal of charges across the membrane. This
membrane is now more permeable to Na+ because the voltage-gated
channels specifically open up for Na+. And to restore the resting
membrane potential, changes are made to the action potential. Then,
the sodium voltage-gated channels close, and potassium voltage-gated
channels open. The opening of voltage-gated channels allows K+ to
rapidly permeate the repolarizing membrane, restoring the interior to a
negative state and the outside to a positive state. Following that, Na-K
pumps are used to restore the resting membrane potential and re-
establish correct Na+ and K+ concentrations within and outside the cell.

4. Define synapse and the role of neurotransmitters.

➢ Synapse or also called the neuronal junction, is a point of connection
between neurons. It is the point of electric nerve impulse transmission
when a nerve cell comes into touch with another neuron cell, muscle
cell, gland cell, or sensory receptor. One neuron's axon establishes
functional contact with another neuron's dendrites. Neurotransmitters
are the chemical messengers of the body. They are responsible for the
transmission of signals from nerve cells to other cells. Neurotransmitters
are crucial as help in regulating functions such as heart rate, mood,
movement, digestion, breathing, etc. The best-known neurotransmitters
are epinephrine or adrenaline, norepinephrine, and acetylcholine.
B. Central Nervous System

1. Enumerate the embryological divisions and subdivisions of the brain.

➢ The brain is an organ part of the central nervous system located within
the skull. It is a soft, wrinkled, most complex, and the largest mass of
nervous tissue. Embryologically, the brain is divided into three parts
mainly, the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain.
1. The Forebrain or Prosencephalon consists of the telencephalon
(cerebrum with basal ganglia) and diencephalon (thalamus and
hypothalamus). It is the one responsible for functions such as
processing information, thinking, producing language, perceiving,
and controlling motor function.
2. The Midbrain or Mesencephalon makes up the brain stem
together with the hindbrain. It is the section of the brainstem where
it connects the hindbrain and the forebrain. It is responsible for
auditory and visual responses.
3. The Hindbrain or the Rhombencephalon, which contains the
metencephalon and myelencephalon. The metencephalon is
composed of the cerebellum and pons that aids in maintaining
balance, movement coordination, and conduction of sensory
information. The myelencephalon is composed of the medulla
oblongata, which is responsible for heart rate, breathing, and
digestion.

2. Illustrate and label the different lobes of the cerebrum.

3. Enumerate the important cortical areas and their functions.
➢ The important cortical areas are:
1. Primary Motor Area or Pre-central gyrus
- The primary motor area is responsible for the initiation or control
of voluntary movements on the opposite side of the body.
2. Pre-frontal Area
- The Pre-frontal area covers emotion, complex thought, behavior,
character, problem solving, abstract thinking, and foresight.
3. Primary sensory/Somesthetic Area or Post-central gyrus
- The primary sensory is responsible for receiving tactile
information such as pain, temperature, position and movement,
and pressure and touch.
4. Motor speech area
- The motor speech area or Broca's area is for the articulation and
production of speech.
5. Sensory speech area
- The sensory speech area or also known as Wernicke's area is
for the comprehension of languages.
6. Auditory or Hearing Area
- The auditory or hearing area is responsible for the hearing, such
as detection of sounds and processing the auditory information.
7. Visual Area
- The visual area is for the simple visual stimuli detection and
processing of complex visual information.
8. Olfactory or smell Area
- The olfactory or also known as the smell area is responsible for
the smell sensation.
9. Taste Area
- The taste area or also called the gustatory cortex, is responsible
for the taste sensation

4. Describe the functions of the component parts of

diencephalon.
➢ Diencephalon is a part of the brain located between the brainstem and
the cerebrum. Its components are the thalamus and the hypothalamus.
Thalamus is the largest part of the diencephalon responsible for
relaying all sensory information except the smell to the cerebrum. It
also influences the mood and the uncomfortable perception of pain.
The hypothalamus is located in the inferior part responsible for the
control function of body temperature, hunger, and thirst. It also
manages the sensation such as fear, relaxation, and sexual pleasure.

5. Explain the functions of the basal ganglia and its component parts.
➢ The basal ganglia are a group of subcortical nuclei located in the brain
at the base of the cerebrum. It is responsible for motor function,
addictive behaviors, and habit formation. Once the basal ganglia are
injured, it will cause or produce unnecessary movements that are not
controlled by the body, like Parkinson's Disease.
The basal ganglia consist of three parts mainly, the caudate
nucleus, putamen, and globus pallidus. The caudate nucleus or the
medial portion is responsible for controlling voluntary skeletal movement.
It does not only function in the preparation for movement execution but
also for memory, emotion, and romantic interaction. The putamen
located in the lateral portion together with the globus pallidus is
responsible for the regulation of movements in different stages, such as
planning and executing. It also affects the types of learning. Lastly, the
globus pallidus organized the proprioceptive movement, such as heavy
lifting, running, jumping, chewing, etc.
6. Explain the functions of the cerebellum.
➢ The cerebellum is a part of the brain responsible for physical movement.
It is located in the posterior and inferior parts of the brain, behind the
brainstem. It functions to maintain balance, coordination of movement,
vision, motor learning, and other functions.
The cerebellum consists of sensors that can detect balance and
movement and send signals so that the body can move and adjust,
maintaining balance. It also coordinates muscle activities, thus allowing
the body to have its coordination and move smoothly. It does not only
coordinates physical body movements but also aids in eye motions. The
cerebellum is also responsible for learning motor skills. An example is
when we are learning new things, such as playing an instrument or a
sport, the cerebellum is the one functioning.

7. Draw and label the different parts fi the brainstem.

8. Enumerate the meninges covering the brain.

➢ The meninges is the one protecting the brain and the spinal cord. The
coverings are:
A. Pachymeninx
1. Dura mater - The dura mater functions as a covering that
surrounds and maintains the vast venous channels (dural
sinuses) that convey blood from the brain to the heart.
B. Leptomeninges
1. Arachnoid mater - The arachnoid mater, which is connected to
the dura mater, helps in protecting the brain and the spinal cord
from immediate impacts.
2. Pia mater - The pia mater is the innermost layer of the
meninges. It serves as a barrier and helps in producing
cerebrospinal fluid.
9. Trace the cerebrospinal fluid pathway.
10. Describe the spinal cord according to:

a. Location
➢ The spinal cord lies in the vertebral foramen from the cervical (7),
thoracic (12), lumbar (5), sacral (5), and coccygeal (1) vertebrae.
Each segment of the spinal cord is supported by a pair of spinal
nerves.

b. shape and length

➢ The spinal cord is 40 to 50 cm long and is cylindrical, lying within
the foramen magnum to the vertebral foramen of the second
lumbar vertebrae.

c. vertebral levels of upper and lower extremities

➢ The spinal cord extends from the foramen magnum, passing
through cervical (7), thoracic (12), lumbar (5), sacral (5) vertebrae.

d. distribution of gray and white matter

➢ The gray matter in the spinal cord is shaped like the letter H,
creating hornlike structures (posterior, anterior, and small lateral
horns). The surrounding parts of the spinal cord are made up of
white matter.

e. anatomical enlargements
➢ The two enlargements of the spinal cord are cervical and lumbar
enlargement. The cervical enlargement is from the third cervical to
the first thoracic vertebrae (C3 to T1). The lumbar enlargement is
from the first lumbar to the second sacral vertebrae (L1 to S2).

f. features at distal end

➢ The spinal cord narrows and ends between the first and second
lumbar vertebrae (L1 and L2) in adults.

g. attachment of spinal nerves

➢ Spinal nerves are attached to the spinal cord through the dorsal
and ventral roots. The dorsal root contains sensory fibers, while
the ventral root contains motor fibers. These two spinal nerves
roots join together to form the spinal nerve. 31 pairs of spinal
nerves emerge from the spinal cord through its entire length from
the vertebral canal to the intervertebral foramina.
.
C. Peripheral Nervous System

1. List the 12 pairs of cranial nerves and at least one important function for each.
➢ The 12 pairs of cranial nerves are:
1. Olfactory (I) – smell
2. Optic (II) - vision
3. Oculomotor (III) – eye movement and pupil reflex
4. Trochlear (IV) – eye movement
5. Trigeminal (V) – face sensation and chewing
6. Abducens (VI) – eye movement
7. Facial (VII) – face movement and taste
8. Vestibulocochlear/Acoustic (VIII) – hearing and balance
9. Glossopharyngeal (IX) – throat sensation/touch to back of tongue,
taste, and swallowing
10. Vagus (X) – movement, sensation (skin of external auditory
meatus, pharynx, larynx, and thoracic and abdominal visceria), and
abdominal organs
11. Accessory (XI) – neck movement
12. Hypoglossal (XII) – movement, sensation, and abdominal organs

2. Illustrate and label the formation of spinal nerve including a X section of

spinal cord.

3. Discuss the importance of autonomic nerves system

➢ The autonomic nervous system is a part of the peripheral nervous
system responsible for the regulation of involuntary processes such as
heart rate, blood pressure, digestion, respiration, and even sexual buzz.
Its role is to control the body's automatic actions. The autonomic
nervous system also assists the body in dealing with hazards, stress,
and its resting condition.