Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 133 (2020) 110304

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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Analysis of air compression, progress of compressor and control for optimal

energy efficiency in proton exchange membrane fuel cell
Yuehua Li a, Pucheng Pei b, c, *, Ze Ma a, Peng Ren b, Hao Huang a
a
Beijing Institute of Mechanical Equipment, Beijing, 100854, China
b
State Key Lab. of Automotive Safety and Energy, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China
c
Collaborative Innovation Center of Intelligent New Energy Vehicle, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 10084, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Compressor is the crucial device for the present fuel cell system, reflected by the compressor’s selection, per­
Fuel cell system formance, cost, and control. The review papers on compressor usually focus on its category and the pros and cons
Compressor in commercial use. This paper reexamines the necessity of the air compression of fuel cell system and system­
Manufacturers
atically reviews the compressor progress and application from criteria for air compression to compressor control.
Screw and centrifugal
Sliding mode control
The leading six parts of this paper answer, respectively, that which kind of stack is suitable for compression,
Extremum seeking control which compressors are commonly used in China market, what features should the compressor have for the fuel
cell application, which phase is the current compressor in and will be in, how to effectively control the
compressor. Of them, the analyzing model for the criteria to conduct compression is firstly proposed because it is
a generalized method and independent of experimental data. Using the thermal dynamics to analyze the phase
and possible ceiling of the compressor is another novelty (DOE or any other organizations will not give this
ceiling and analysis). Finally, the compressor control at the angle of system efficiency improvement is firstly
reviewed, as well. This paper is beneficial for the researchers to know the overall state of the compressor and is of
guidance for them to design a more efficient and commercial fuel cell system.

stoichiometry, etc. On the one hand, the compressor itself is expensive.

1. Introduction
As the extension of fuel cell vehicle [1] and combined heat and
power system [2], the industry sees substantial progress of fuel cell (FC)
sector. The deployment of fuel cell has reached 670 MW all over the
world in 2017 [3]. The research on FC and fuel cell system (FCS) does
not just focus on performance promotion. Cutting cost is attracting more
and more attentions. The Strategic Analysis Inc. studied the influencing
factors on the cost of FCS in 2012 [4] and 2017 [5] respectively, shown
as Fig. 1. The FC stack performance and platinum loading were the main
affecting factors in 2012. Since then, the study on low-Pt catalyst [6] has
made significant development in terms of Pt-M alloys [7], Pt-based
core-shell structure [8], Pt-based nano-structure [9], and even in
terms of the non-precious metal [10]. Actually, the Pt-free catalyst has
been witnessed in the commercial market. For instance, the carbon-alloy
catalyst from Nisshinbo Holdings in Japan has been supplied to Ballard
for the commercialization of 30 W FC [11].
Five years later, in 2017, the most sensitive factor influencing the
system cost shifted to the air-feeding subsystem, e.g., compressor, air
On the other hand, the inappropriate selection, making the compressor
run at low-efficient zone, contributes to a relative high cost as well,
which is because the market cannot supply abundant products for FCs in
every power level. An awkward scenario is that a 15 kW FC has to choose
a compressor with flow rate 30 g s− 1 and pressure ratio (PR) 2.5, which
is more suitable for 30 kW FC. From this point of view, system efficiency
would be a good hub combining many key issues about compressor, e.g.,
the compression selection, targets, applications and even the costs.
Wan and Xu [13] have reviewed the compressors, in 2015, for
vehicle-used FC, focusing on their categories and pros and cons analysis.
In order to counsel the researchers for the better system-compressor
matching in terms of high output efficiency, It is necessary to present
a systematic review through proposing a generalized compression
analysis of FC stacks, updating the compressor progress, investigating
the compressor markets and its control, refining the problems, as well as
suggesting the modification. Note that this paper not only focuses on the
vehicle-used system but also pays attention to the FCSs in the whole
power scale.
The second part answers the question: whether it is worthy of

* Corresponding author. State Key Lab. of Automotive Safety and Energy, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China.
E-mail address: pchpei@mail.tsinghua.edu.cn (P. Pei).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2020.110304
Received 16 September 2019; Received in revised form 23 May 2020; Accepted 21 August 2020
Available online 11 September 2020
1364-0321/© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Y. Li et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 133 (2020) 110304

Nomenclature Sub-script
act Activation
d Disturbance an Anode
F Faraday’s constant ca Cathode
I Current cp Compressor
Ist Current of fuel cells cm Motor of compressor
j Current density fc Fuel cell
jL Limit current density h High
jrel Relative operating current density l Low
j0 Exchange current density mt Mass transfer
h Heat transfer coefficient net Net value
k Specific heat ratio of air origin Original value
m Mass rel Relative value
n Degree of the system rm Exhaust manifold
ne Transferred electron number sm Supply manifold
Nu Nusselt number w Water
p Pressure
P Power superscript
q heat ref Reference value
r Relative degree or reference value * Optimum value
R Gas constant hat
Ra Rayleigh number ~ Estimated value
s Sliding mode variable ⋅ 1st-order derivative
s Laplace operator ⋅⋅ 2nd-order derivative
T Temperature
u Manipulated input abbreviation
V Voltage BLDCM Brushless DC motor
x State CME Compressor-motor-expander
α Charge transfer coefficient or tuning parameter in control DOE Department of Energy of the U.S.
law FB Feedback
γ Coefficient of pressure influencing exchange current FBL Feedback linearization
density FC(S) Fuel cell (system)
ΔG Change in Gibbs free energy FF Feedforward
λ Stoichiometric ratio HIL Hardware in loop
π Pressure ratio SM Sliding mode
Δh Enthalpy change SMC Sliding mode control
θ Valve opening MEA Membrane electrolyte assembly
ω Rotating speed MPC Model predictive control
η Efficiency MRAC Model reference adaptive control
Φ Normalized mass flow rate PID Proportion, integral, derivative
Ψ Dimensionless head parameter PR Pressure ratio

the FCS. The fifth part answers the question: which phase is the
compressor in and will be in. The proposal of development prospect and
modifications using thermal dynamics is another novelty of this paper.
The sixth and seventh parts answer the question: how to utilize the
compressors efficiently. The last section gives the development ten­
dency, summarizes the main problems, and refines to some conclusions
and prospects. The review of compressor control in terms of high effi­
ciency and the proposal of development prospect by analogizing the
inner combustion engine is the last novelty.

2. Compression analysis in system efficiency promotion

One of the approaches to cut cost is to improve the energy efficiency

Fig. 1. Sensitivity analysis of different factors influencing fuel cell system cost:
of the FCS, including compression, membrane electrolyte assembly
(a) status of 2012; (b) status of 2017. The cost data were estimated by Strategic
Analysis Inc. and herein rearranged according to Ref. [4,5,12].
(MEA) modification [14], etc. Many papers have reviewed the mem­
brane and catalyst improvement [15,16]. In the present work, the
compression will be taken into account.
compressing the air. The proposal of a generalized efficiency model
In general, the compression is beneficial, especially for the promo­
independent of experimental data is one of the novelties. The third and
tion of increasing FC power density. However, the relevant papers
fourth part answer the question: which kind of compressor and manu­
[17–21] usually investigate the compression at the specific FC/com­
facturer can be selected and what features should the compressor has in
pressor system based on experimental data, e.g., the static compressor

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Y. Li et al.
map. For FCS and the industry, a generalized model is needed, at least
independent of any experimental data, to counsel the researchers for the
effectiveness in compression. This section presents the criteria appro­
priate for compression using the model proposed in the Appendix. The
model takes into account the influence of the pressure change on ex­
change current density.
Using this model, the efficiency of 30 kW system is obtained as the
function of FC pressure, voltage, and operating current density, shown
as Fig. 2. For instance, (200%, 0.7 V, 44%, 0.437) means in case of the
average voltage with 0.7 V, and relative current density with 44%, the
system efficiency is 0.437 after the pressure is increased by 200% (or PR
3.0).
From Fig. 2, the increase of current, voltage, as well as pressure all
help to improve the system efficiency. Of them, the efficiency gets a
higher promotion through increasing voltage than through increasing
inlet pressure. In lower current densities, which is under 44% in relative
current density, compression reduces the efficiency, instead. Then it
obtains the positive benefits when the FC operates at higher currents,
but the promotion becomes slight after the compression ramps up to
more than 250%. Therefore, it is not suggested to make compression if
the FC has to operate at lower currents, e.g., considering water man­
agement. In this case, alternatively increasing the voltage could promote
efficiency, but the FC requires better catalyst, carbon paper, MEA pro­
cessing technique, as well as more reasonable bipolar design [22]. It is
beyond the scope of this paper. Generally, the efficiency increases
remarkably at the compression level lower than 200%. Actually, the PR
of most of the compressors is lower than 3.0. Moreover, most of the FC
stacks work at voltage ~0.7 V, relative current ~45%. For this scenario,
the efficiency promotion is not so conspicuous. Therefore, the operation
point of the FC needs to be optimized, which will be discussed in section
7.
3. Compressor manufacturers in China market
The papers [13,23] reviewed the advantages and drawbacks of
compressors and its application in FC vehicles, but without detailed
market analysis.
The commonly used compressors are in the type of screw, centrifugal
turbo, roots, scroll, rotary vane, or axial flow, etc. Of them, large flow
rate, for instance, more than 90 g s− 1, could be easily realized if in the
type of screw, centrifugal turbo, and roots. For screw and centrifugal
compressors, the high PR is easy to achieve, as well. The commonly used
Fig. 2. 30 kW system efficiency as a function of inlet pressure promotion,
original voltage, and relative operating current density. Prior to inlet pressure
promotion, the fuel cell is operated at 1.0 bar (abs). The relative current per­
centage is defined as the ratio of operating current to limiting current. The
efficiency is in higher heating value, which is ~0.83 times of the efficiency in
lower heating value.
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 133 (2020) 110304
compressors, and their manufacturers, categories, as well as perfor­
mance comparison, are listed in Table 1. Fig. 3 demonstrates the per­
formances and manufacturers of different compressors commonly used
in China market. The vertical coordinate is the specific power and the
speed, reflecting the performance and technical level.
The specific powers of all the compressors are almost lower than 1.0
kW kg− 1, except for the centrifugal compressors of FischerSpindle [24].
These compressors are applicable for 30–90 kW FCS, having large flow
rate, PR, and meanwhile high compactness. Compressors from Vairex
[25] are all in rotary vane, and their flow rate and PR are relatively low,
suitable for the fuel cell system lower than 30 kW. A series of products
from AirSquared [26], in the type of scroll, and with the maximum flow
rate below 20 g s− 1, maximum PR ~2.5, are applicable for the FCS below
10 kW. The blowers from Domel [27] have a medium flow rate and
lower power consumption owing to its lesser PR, as low as 1.5. This is at
the same level as the products from Vairex.
Other products in Fig. 3 are basically aiming at vehicle FCSs, thereby
do not form the product series. In June 2019, the Ministry of Science and
Technology of China (MOST, China) launched the 2019 key project of
renewable energy and hydrogen energy technology, of which, the
compressor development with 125 g s− 1, PR 2.5, 16 kW, and 15 kg is one
of the subprojects. Obviously, the government hopes to tackle the
problem of low power density, flow rate and PR in the field of vehicle FC.
The centrifugal and screw compressors would be an ideal choice for
medium and large scale of FCS due to their lower weight and higher PR.
Of them, the turbo compressor has high efficiency and reliability,
especially the use of air foil bearing (Honeywell [28,29], ExcaTurbo
[30], FischerSpindle [24]) enables the centrifugal compressor to pro­
mote its rotating speed, PR, and efficiency significantly.
The compact axial fans are also included in Table 1, which are usu­
ally used for the air-cooled or air-breathing FC. Although the discharge
pressure is almost zero, the dimension is only several centimeters.
4. Characteristics of compressors in fuel cell system
Start with this section, the application of compressor will be
reviewed based on its intrinsic property and the state-of-the-art will be
analyzed as well. Fig. 4 shows the schematics.
4.1. Characteristics
The compressors are usually in the dynamic and positive displace­
ment. The dynamic compressor, mainly in the type of centrifugal, inhale
the gas and elevate the kinetic energy through the rotating impeller in
high speed, followed by the velocity lowering and pressure boosting via
the diffuser. The screw, scroll, as well as rotary-vane compressors, are all
in the type of positive displacement [37–41], which boost the pressure
through the shrinkage of inner chambers.
The characteristics of centrifugal compressors (Fig. 5a) are reflected
in the narrow flow range and the soft curve of PR-flow rate, resulting in
the apparent decline in pressure as the flow rate is promoted in case of
constant revolution.
More importantly, the operation is surrounded by many lines
(Fig. 5a), including the surge, maximum flow rate or choke zone, and
even the minimum revolution line. When the compressor is operated at
the lower flow rate, in case of a sharp increase in the outlet pressure, the
flow will be pushed back to the impeller and divorced from the impeller
surface which results in the intensive turbulence at the reverse side of
the impeller. At this moment, the surge occurs reflected by the flow rate
and efficiency decreasing and noise devastating. In general, the manu­
facturers will give the surging line with enough margins. Meanwhile, the
compressor is prohibited from surpassing the surging line. Semlitsch and
Mihaescu [42] depicted the inner flow clearly through simulation when
the surging occurs. Sun et al. [43] verified the instability of inner flow
via acoustic signal analysis. In structure, the shroud [44,45] is used to
link the inducer tip and the impeller entrance to decrease the pressure
Y. Li et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 133 (2020) 110304

Table 1
Comparison of commercial compressors commonly used in China market [24–36].

Fig. 3. (a) Specific power and (b) speed statistics of air compressors commonly used in China market as a function of flow rate and pressure ratio. Different
compressor manufacturers are listed in different marks. Various dots in the same mark denote versions of their products. The specific power is defined as the ratio of
power consumption to weight. For the raw data, see Supplementary Material.

gradient from discharging port to suction port to restrain the surging and sound barrier, which will result in the drastic vibrating and considerable
expand the flow range. Moreover, the minimum revolution line, e.g., the decline in PR.
25% revolution line in Fig. 5a, is set to restrict the unstable flow. Finally, Different from the centrifugal compressor, the positive displacement
the compressor is not allowed to surpass the maximum flow line to avoid compressor has a relative stiff PR-flow rate curve (Fig. 5b), which means

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Y. Li et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 133 (2020) 110304

Fig. 4. Schematics of the applications of compressor based on its intrinsic property and the fuel cell requirements. The orange circles represent sections that give the
details. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)

Fig. 5. Operating characteristics and structure diagrams of compressors. (a) Centrifugal compressor; (b) Positive displacement compressor. (c) Structure diagrams of
centrifugal, screw, roots, and scroll compressors.

the flow rate almost does not change with the PR at the same revolution.
This is because the flow rate is only related to the product of revolution
and the volume of enclosed chambers between two lobes. The efficiency
of the positive displacement compressor is mainly affected by the fitting
clearance of rotors and the seal of the rotor chamber. However, for the
centrifugal compressor, the efficiency is affected primarily by the inci­
dence, friction, clearance, and volute loss [46]. Wagner and Markham
[47] and He et al. [48] designed screw compressors for the FC appli­
cation, illustrating the aforementioned advantages of this kind of
compressor.
The difference between roots and screw compressor is reflected in
the number of lobes. Typically, the male and female rotor of the roots
have the same number of lobes but the screw not. Besides, the roots do
not have the regime of inner compression; on the contrary, the screw
has, which is measured by the ratio of volume. When it comes to the
rotary vane compressor, it is difficult to reach a higher pressure ratio.
Hence, this kind of compressor is usually regarded as blower [49]. As for
scroll compressor, one of the scrolls is fixed, while the other orbits
eccentrically without rotating, thereby trapping or compressing the air
between the two scrolls. The noise is very low due to no engaging [50].

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Y. Li et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 133 (2020) 110304

Table 2
Features of the compressor application in fuel cell system.
Features Adopted compressor Highlights Ref.

Water injection Displacement type (esp. screw At least 5% isentropic efficiency promotion owing to close to isothermal compression. [51]
compressor) Lower power consumption of water injection device. [52]
Water injected into inter-lobe region helps to improve lubrication and decrease leakage. [53]
Efficiency promotion of scroll compressor and FCS. [54]
An integrated device for inter-cooling and humidification by injecting water. [55]
High-speed motor Centrifugal Switched reluctance motor, 6.5 kW 14 krpm. [56]
Permanent magnet brushless DC motor, 12 kW 100 krpm. [57]
Permanent magnet synchronous motor, 12 kW 120 krpm. [58]
Air-foil bearing Centrifugal Hyundai FCEV 3rd compressor, clearance and lift-off speed are the main concerns. [39]
Honeywell compressor developed for Honda FC vehicle. [29]
Water-lubricated Centrifugal Stable rotating speed as high as 100 thousand rpm. [59]
bearing
Multi-stage – Long endurance FC aircraft employed five scroll compressors owing to its good weight-efficiency [60]
balance.
Compact fans Axial Used in open-cathode air-breathing FCS for cooling and air supplying. [61]

4.2. Features in fuel cell applications 4.2.3. Air-foil bearing

Table 2 lists the features of the compressor application in FCS.
4.2.1. Water-injection design
One of the drawbacks using positive displacement compressor is the
higher discharging temperature owing to the low efficient factor, for
instance, the direct engagement. Given that the FC usually needs
external humidification, many FCSs inject water into the lobes of the
positive displacement compressor, especially the screw compressor, for
efficiency promotion [51], discharging-gas cooling, rotors lubrication
[53], and air humidification, etc. However, the super high speed will
result in the impeller cavitation [62] if injected into water.
4.2.2. High-speed motor
The high-speed motor could promote the power density of the
compressor system (compressor, motor, and motor controller). Besides,
it helps to remove the gear connection between the motor and
compressor, which is beneficial for reducing friction and noise [63,64].
The brushless motor is the promising option for realizing higher
speed. From the perspective of research and development, the brushless
motors such as switched reluctance motor [56] (SRM, 6.5 kW, 14 krpm),
permanent magnet brushless DC motor [57] (BLDCM, 12 kW, 100
krpm), as well as permanent magnet synchronous motor [58,65]
(PMSM, 12 kW, 120 krpm) were all developed for the FC use. Note that
the BLDCM belongs to the PMSM, as well, whose difference is mainly in
the driving mode. The former is driven by the square wave, whilst the
latter by the sinusoidal wave.
From the perspective of commercial products, the roots, screw,
centrifugal compressors all see their combination with PMSM, for
instance, in Fig. 3, the UQM motor (20 kW, 18 krpm), Snowman motor
(7.5 kW, 24 krpm and 14 kW, 22 krpm), and FischerSpindle motor (0.5
kW, 500 krpm and 15 kW, 120 krpm).
Shen et al. [64] and Li et al. [66] reviewed the challenges that the
high-speed motor faces in the aspects of electrical losses, high-speed
bearing, driving mode, and control of rotor position. They believe that
as the volume decreases and speed increases, the heat dissipation
problem (demagnetization and journal sticking) caused by the rotor
eddy loss, and switching loss problem caused by the high-frequency
PWM control (often in the scale of 20 kHz or even much higher) will
be the main challenges. It is promising to replace the traditional switch
by SiC devices or optimize the driving mode. As mentioned in section 3,
in the key project launched by the MOST, China, the ultrahigh-speed
permanent magnet motor and high-frequency motor-control are of the
techniques that need to be tackled in the next several years.
The water-lubricated bearing, for instance, the bearing in lobe-type
profile [67], contributes to elevate the speed of compressor motor to
the scale of 100 krpm. More aggressively, it is the air foil bearing that
enables the motor to rotate at a much higher speed of 200 krpm. One of
the centrifugal compressors from FischerSpindle, with a lower flow rate
of 5 g s− 1, even approaches to 500 krpm. This kind of bearing is bene­
ficial to increase the PR, thereby makes the compressor more compact.
4.2.4. Multi-compressor
It is common for the centrifugal compressor with PR lower than 2.5.
Garrett and XecaTurbo all developed the integrated two-stage
compressor (Fig. 6a), with the intermediate gas for bearing cooling.
Fig. 6b is the two-stage integrated compressor developed by Honeywell
Garrett®, demonstrating that the PR is increased and the effective flow
range (with higher PR) is enlarged.
4.2.5. Fans used in air-breathing fuel cell
The fans are used for the lower power FCs like air-breathing open-
cathode FCs in charge of feeding and cooling the FC system. They are
often compact, with dimension only several centimeters, quiet, and of
diversity, but poor pressure increase (see Table 1). The rotating speed
plays a vital role influencing the FC performance [61]. Lower speed
results in the poor cooling, then bad voltage efficiency and the corre­
sponding poor thermal status again. Higher speed causes the membrane
drying out.
4.2.6. Special design for centrifugal compressor
The FC compressor needs to be designed specially, rather than
directly adopting the compressor used for the inner combustion engine
(ICE). What the ICE needs are a broad flow range and relative lower PR.
However, the FC requires a higher PR with relative narrower flow range
or wider region with high efficiency. If using the existing centrifugal
compressor for FC, the surging is likely to take place because of these
compressors’ lower turndown ratio, which complicates the compressor
control.

Fig. 6. Compressor in the form of multi-stage. (a) Garrett® two-stage

compressor and (b) its performance enlargement [29].

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Y. Li et al.
According to Wan et al. [68], many ICE compressors are designed
based on specific speed. However, the specific speed should be different
in case of the same non-dimensional flow but different PR. Therefore,
they specially designed a new centrifugal compressor enlarging the
effective operational range; especially expanding the region with high
efficiency at the lower flow rate. Zhang et al. [69] optimized the
compressor to improve the isentropic efficiency near low mass flow zone
using optimization and data mining method. Ismagilov et al. [70]
developed an ultrahigh-speed motor for fuel cell centrifugal compressor,
with the power density 0.21 kW kg− 1. Zhao [71] and Zhao et al. [72]
designed an ultrahigh-speed compressor in Zhao’s doctoral thesis for
medium and lower power FC, with 0.6 kg, 250 krpm, 12 g s− 1, PR1.4.
4.2.7. Low temperature operation
On the one hand, for compressor, the low temperature mainly affects
the viscosity of lubricant, and then the friction. However, for the com­
bination of high-speed motor and air-foil bearing, low temperature has
little impact because this kind of compressor is absolutely oil-free.
On the other hand, low temperature influences the FC and system
greatly, involving cold startup and shutdown with the key issue being
water and thermal management [73]. Luo and Jiao [74] have the
detailed review about this issue. To solve it, shutdown with purging and
startup with heating are the two broad directions that could be adopted,
besides the FC optimization in material. There are many ways to heat the
FC, e.g., inner and outer heating, physical and chemical heating. Liu and
Xu [75] summarized the heating methods, influencing factors, and
startup strategies for the FCS. Of them, the compressor could assist
system startup utilizing the temperature increase after the air is com­
pressed. According to
⎡ ⎛ ⎞⎤
( )k− 1
1 ⎝ p2 k
⎣
T2 = T1 1 + − 1⎠⎦ (1)
ηcp p1
for the compressor with efficiency 0.65, the air temperature could be
increased from − 30 ◦ C to 15 ◦ C with PR only 1.5. This method had been
used for physical preheating [76]. Kirlin et al. [77] used the compressor
for preheating, where the compressor is driven by battery, followed by
FC in case the battery capacity is not enough. Jiang et al. [78] adopted
compressor and front-placed heater for air preheating.
4.3. Screw or centrifugal
As mentioned above, the main drawback of the centrifugal
compressor is the surging problem. Surging usually takes place at the
higher outlet pressure, e.g., FC starting or shutting down, load-
decreasing, or flooding, etc. In case of these conditions, the alterable
range would be limited dramatically by the surging line and minimum-
rotating-speed line. Hence, the selection of the compressor is in diffi­
culty. The well-selected compressor according to rated operation con­
dition may not meet the demand at lower load [46]. To maintain the
performance at lower load, the pressure should be increased, which may
result in the surging. Moreover, in the process of lowering flow rate to
accommodate the lower load, the pressure has to be declined in order to
keep away from the surging line, which in turn leads to the decrease of
FC performance. Of course, the technique of variable nozzle turbine
could be used for solving the low-efficiency problem in lower load.
However, for FC-used electric-driven compressors, this would bring the
difficulty in development.
To sum up, the main concerns of the centrifugal compressor are:
(a). Narrower high-efficiency operational range;
(b). Difficulty in selection;
(c). Complicated in restricting surging;
(d). Complicated in optimal control.
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 133 (2020) 110304
As far as our knowledge, for the FCS above 20 kW, the screw
compressor is the promising option, although the centrifugal compressor
is mostly used in the present vehicles. (In fact, several years ago, the
twin-screw compressor from OPCON (now sold to Snowman) were the
main compressors in FC buses or vehicles globally). The reasons are
listed as the following.
(a). The flow rate is almost independent of pressure, which decouples
the revolution and the valve-opening. Hence, the control can be
simplified.
(b). The screw compressor has a wide range with relative high isen­
tropic efficiency [48], which is beneficial for the selection.
(c). The lobe number of male and female is different, which enables
the driving rotor rotating at a relative lower speed. Therefore, the
compressor does not rely on the high-speed motor anymore,
which helps to reduce cost significantly.
(d). The screw compressor is suitable for water-injection while for
centrifugal compressor the cavitation will do harm to the
impeller. Besides, the condensation of vapor will impact the air
foil bearing [79].
(e). The device for injecting water could substitute the humidifier or
the integrated humidifier and inter-cooler, which helps to
simplify the system in structure and cost. The commercial prod­
ucts used for humidification are the humidifier in the type of
Nafion tube from PERMA PURE [80,81] and the humidifier
Ecomate® in the type of Nafion membrane from FUMATECH
[82]. These products applicable for 30 kW FCS usually cost 2000
USD.
5. Targets, state-of-the-art, and progress ceiling
Analyzing the current phase and theoretical ceiling of the
compressor are of guidance for investigating the routine of the FCS with
different power scale.
5.1. Compressor-motor
Fig. 7 demonstrates the comparison between industrial compressors
and DOE 2020 targets. The state-of-the-art is illustrated using three
different commercial compressors. Firstly, the value of DOE 2020 target
in power consumption is higher than the theoretical upper line. Sec­
ondly, the power consumptions of the selected screw, centrifugal, and
roots compressors are all lower than the DOE 2020 target at their rated
flow rates. Finally, the consumption could be declined further via
isentropic efficiency promotion, which needs to be realized through the
optimal design [83] of impeller or lobe, and, more importantly, the
accurate match between compressor and FC.
Fig. 7b demonstrates the accomplishment level of other DOE 2020
targets. The outer line of this radar map represents the DOE 2020 target,
with the specific indicator shown as (c) [84]. The main concerns are cost
and noise. The noise problem could be solved by structure for noise
reduction. However, the cost, with DOE target 500 USD, is challenging
to cut prominently. The costs of the compressor and high-speed motor
need to be decreased simultaneously, especially for the motor. On the
one hand, the industry of FC should expand further. On the other hand,
the compressor should be designed for a wide operation range. Another
routine is to enlarge the product serialization, especially for the cen­
trifugal compressor.
5.2. Compressor-motor-expander
The compressor, motor, and expander (CME) are usually combined.
Their connection with the FC is shown in Fig. 8c. The Carnot’s theorem
gives the ceiling for energy recycling via expander. The ratio of energy
utilization from the exhaust gas is calculated as:
Y. Li et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 133 (2020) 110304

Fig. 7. Compressor comparison be­

tween DOE 2020 targets and present
status. (a) Power consumption. (b)
Other indicators. (c) DOE 2020 targets
of the compressor without an expander.
The circle symbol coupled with a black
line in (a) represents the specific DOE
power target at different flow rates. The
threshold in (a) represents the theoret­
ical power consumption based on our
model in the appendix. The upper limit
of this threshold is derived with the
DOE target of pressure ratio and effi­
ciency. The lower limit is derived in
case of efficiency equals one; thereby,
the lower limit cannot be approached.

Fig. 8. Compressor-motor-expander
(CME), its theoretical power consump­
tion threshold and the comparison be­
tween research results of Eaton CME
product and DOE 2020 targets. (a) The
theoretical threshold of CME power
consumption and expander power recy­
cling. (b) Detailed DOE 2020 targets of
the compressor with expander. (c) En­
ergy recycling in the form of CME [87].
(d) CME product developed by Eaton
Corporation [87]. In (a), the lower limit
of the threshold in terms of expander
power recycling is derived with DOE
2020 target of expander efficiency. The
upper limit is derived through setting
this efficiency to one. The upper and
lower limits of CME power consumption
are derived through subtracting the
relevant expander limit from
compressor limit.

Tambient In 2015, a compressor-motor-expander (CME) [87,88], jointly

ηexhaust− =1 − (2)
expander
Texhaust developed by UQM and Eaton and sponsored by the DOE, is used at a 90
kW FCS with 8% exhaust energy being recycled. Note that its expander is
The exhaust temperature is ~348 K, thereby the ratio of energy
in the type of roots with aluminum alloy (Fig. 8d) so the integral mass is
utilization is less than 14%. For 90 kW FC stack, 1.7–3.5 kW can be
very low. Fig. 8a and b demonstrate the state-of-the-art of CME and DOE
recycled from the exhaust gas (assume 25% energy is taken away by
2020 target. The marks in Fig. 8a refer to data of the model machine.
waste gas [85]), whereas the power consumption is ~12 kW if power
Apparently, this CME did not achieve the DOE target no matter for the
supplied only by the motor with PR 2.5. Therefore, the expander reduces
expander or the CME as a whole. In detail, the expander recycled 3.4 kW
energy consumption substantially. Sayadi et al. [86] verified our anal­
and did not reach the lower line of the yellow region. The main reason
ysis mentioned above.
for this no compliance is the low efficiency of the expander.

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Y. Li et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 133 (2020) 110304

For the modification, both the compressor and expander could adopt
the screw or centrifugal type to promote efficiency [89,90]. Besides, the
direct connection between motor and expander is suggested, instead of
Eaton’s gear reduction connection. Of course, the optimization of
expander lobe or impeller is crucial for matching the compressor, as
well. Anyway, the commercialization is difficult for current CME. But for
the single expander, its commercial application can be seen already, e.g.,
the expander from AirSquared in the type of scroll [50], which operates
at the inverse process of compression.
conduct the control. The static or dynamic mass flow rate and pressure is
required mathematically. For the static ones, there are many ways to
describe them. As for dynamic model, they are mainly established
through mass conservation and state equation of ideal gas, relating to
the compressor itself and its downstream components, such as FC supply
manifold.
6.1. Compressor model

5.3. Blower 6.1.1. Air compression

According to thermodynamics, the state parameters of air in the
The increase in FC number could compensate for the performance compression process are deduced primarily based on the adiabatic
decline caused by the lower operating pressure. For instance, according assumption (pvk = constant) and ideal-gas assumption (pv/T = con­
to the Appendix, the voltage decreases by 25% as the PR declines from 4 stant). The following equations are valid regardless of dynamic com­
to 1, thereby the number of FC should increase by 25%. This plan is pressors or positive displacement compressor [91].
beneficial for simplifying the system and lowering the weight. The mass The discharge pressure is:
of the blower from Domel for 30 kW FC is less than 3 kg, whereas the ( )k
η ⋅Δh k− 1
typical weight of a compressor-motor is above 10 kg. Actually, the FCS p2 = 1 + is p1 (3)
T1 cp
from Hydrogenics adopts the Domel blower.
The real concern for using the blower is that the channel of the bi­ The isentropic efficiency is:
polar plate must be compressed so deeply to lower the FC pressure drop. ( )k−k 1
This requires more advanced mould pressing or caving [22] draft and p2
− 1
will result in the weight increase of FCs, in turn. p1
ηis = T2 (4)
T1
− 1
5.4. Comparison and evaluation on compressor system 1
The required compression work in W⋅kg− is:
Table 3 lists the state-of-the-art of the commercial compressors ⎡
( )k− 1
⎤
compared with DOE 2020 targets. As far as we know, none of the Pis =
RT1 ⎣ p2 k
− 1⎦ (5)
commercial products compliance with the DOE 2020 targets completely, k− 1 p1
further illustrating special design should be conducted for the FC use.
Considering the energy-saving, several products achieve the DOE Hence, the mass flow rate is:
target. Not only that, these products have approached the theoretical ηmotor2air ⋅Pmotor
minimum energy consumption. Thus, further improvements should be Wcp = (6)
Pis
focused on the promotion of compressor-motor-controller efficiency and
noise on the basis of the well trade-off of all the indicators. When it where, the subscripts 1 and 2 denote the inlet and outlet, respectively; R
comes to the CME, another 8% energy could be saved theoretically is the gas constant of air in J⋅(kg⋅K)− 1;Δh is the actual enthalpy change; k
compared with single compressor. DOE 2020 imposes a strict require­ is specific heat ratio; ηmotor2air is the efficiency from motor to air.
ment on energy-saving through the expander, because this requirement For the dynamic and positive displacement compressors, the model
is almost close to the theoretical limit but in practice this value is still will be changed because of their characteristics, especially the various
very low. Hence, CME can be modified greatly in the future. energy losses (Fig. 9), that impact the actual efficiency and then the
discharge pressure and flow rate.
6. Compressor and system model For instance, for the centrifugal compressor, the mismatch of flow
directions of air entering the impellor, diffusor, volute and the blade
The mathematical model of compressor should be established to bending angle results in the incidence loss, Δhi. Taking into account of

Table 3
State-of-the-art of commercial compressors compared with DOE 2020 targets.
Commercial products Power consumption Efficiency compressor/ PR Weight Noise Remarks
with/without expander
expander

Full 25%
flow flow

Snowman OA075 —/√ —/√ ×/— ✓ U × Noise should be reduced via in structural design.
XecaTurbo XT-FCC300 —/√ —/√ √/— ✓ × U Illustrating multi-stage design is a promising way.
UQM R340 —/√ —/√ ×/— × U U Roots has relative low efficiency compared with centrifugal.
Rotrex EK10AA PT-57 —/× √/— × ✓ U Impellor, diffusor, etc, needs special design for fuel cell use.
FischerSpindle EMTC- —/× —/√ √/— ✓ ✓ U Relative promising solution.
120 K
UQM-Eaton ×/× ×/√ U × × × Target in energy recycle is extreme strict which is near theoretical value.
Great gap in net power and noise.

* √, ×, — denote achieved, not achieved, not involved. U denotes unknown.

* Products in this table should firstly meet the DOE requirement for flow rate. Then, the pressure ratio (PR) should be CLOSE (not above) to the demand at corre­
sponding flow rate because many products do not achieve the DOE targets of PR.
* Cost data not included due to the determination on order quantity. But as far as we know, for predictable reasonable quantity, costs do not meet DOE requirement.
* Efficiency: compressor efficiency at full flow, motor and controller are not considered.
* Detailed DOE targets see Figs. 7c and 8b, and [84].

9
Y. Li et al.
Fig. 9. Schematics to illustrate (a) various losses and special water injection design in screw compressor; (b) routines to determine static mass flow and outlet
pressure. Losses are very important for obtaining the efficiency and then the pressure.
the impact of frictional loss, clearance loss and other mechanical loss,
the work consumption of the motor is expressed as:
Pmotor = Δhis + Δhinci + Δhfric + Δhcr + Δhbf + Δhm (7)
where, every kind of losses are the function of velocity component,
entering angle, and blade bending angle. Ref. [46] has the details.
Ref. [92] used these details to determine the efficiency and then the flow
rate and pressure. In addition, some special dimensionless parameters
about the flow rate and pressure are defined and used in the further
specific model (see section 6.1.2). The normalized mass flow rate Φ is
defined as:
Φ=π
Wcp
(8)
2
d Uρ
4 2 2 2
The dimensionless head parameter Ψ is defined as:
⎡ ⎤
( )k−k 1
cpT1⎣ p1
p2
− 1⎦
Δhis
Ψ= = (9)
0.5U22 0.5U22
where, U2 is the linear velocity of blade tip, which is the function of
compressor rotating speed.
For the screw compressor, the gas leakage should be specially
modeled. Many compressors employ water or oil injection to reduce the
friction of the engaged rotors (see section 4.2.1). Unfortunately, the
design process attracted much attention whereas models of the flow rate
and pressure are seldom established. The mass flow rate is usually
determined by thermal balance [93]. The basic governing equation is:
du dVchamber
ω = Wcp,in hin − Wcp,out hout + q − ωp (10)
dθ dθ
where, θ is the angle of main rotor; ω is the angular velocity; u, h, q, p,
Vchamber are the inner energy of air, enthalpy, heat dissipation rate, inner
air pressure, and the volume enclosed by rotors, respectively. They are
all functions of θ.
6.1.2. Static flow or pressure model of compressor
As for the control no matter for FCS or ICE, the compressor model
should be differentiable to design the controller.
Two methods are usually used for establishing this model (Fig. 9b).
The first one is the data-driven method and is mostly adopted. Data
fitting is conducted with the MAP used to obtain the fit coefficient. Fang
et al. [94] have reviewed this method in 2014. The Jensen & Kristensen
model [95] is typical, in which the relation between Ψ and Φ is treated
10
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 133 (2020) 110304
as the rational fraction with coefficients being the polynomial of Mach
number, M.
The second one is the theoretical derivation based on thermody­
namics and/or velocity triangle. The advantage is that the surging and
choke zones can be modeled. However, many designing constants are
introduced into the model, such as blade bending angle, slip factor, thus
leading to a complex parameter recognition. Therefore, this method is
only appropriate for some specific conditions, not universal. Song et al.
[96] supposed that the compressor was a converging-diverging nozzle
and proposed a subsonic speed model. The critical state was especially
deduced in the form similar to the traditional flow equation in the
nozzle. Although the shape of impeller is usually not convergent, this
model holds in the sense of thermodynamics. The match between
theoretical and experimental data verifies it. Giuffrida [97] focused on
the screw compressor and proposed a mass flow model in the perspec­
tive of thermal balance among compression work, inner torque loss,
inner friction loss, external heat dissipation, and gas enthalpy increase.
As the scroll and screw compressors are all in positive displacement,
their models are similar. Chen et al. [98] established a flow rate model
for scroll compressors using similar thermal balance. The difference is
that their heat dissipation is in the form of thermal resistances between
different components, such as rotor, stator, pipe, and gas.
These two methods require a lot of parameter recognitions. How­
ever, the method based on artificial intelligent, e.g., the artificial neural
network (ANN), does not demand the compressor physics. In this paper,
this method is still classified into the first method because it is essentially
data-fitting using the compressor MAP. Zhao et al. [99] structured a
dual-hidden-layer ANN to fulfill the recognition from inputs (rotating
speed, N, and pressure, p2) to output (flow rate, Wcp). The activation
functions of the two hidden layers are tansig function and linear func­
tion, respectively. The disadvantage is the poor extrapolation, especially
for surging and choke zones.
The compressor widely used in ICE is in the type of compressor-
turbo. In FCSs, the compressor is driven by motor. As mentioned in
section 4.2.6 and 4.3, the centrifugal compressor for FC usually origi­
nates from the design of mechanical super charger or even the
compressor-turbo from ICE. Hence, they do not match the FC very well.
However, the model is universal. In the next several subsections, the
compressor models used for FC compressor control are almost all
established with the first method.
Table 4 lists the compressor models that are not included in the
previous paper [94].
L, W1 and W2 are the weight matrix; C, E, D are the bias matrix. αinner-
load is the inner loss coefficient of screw compressor, αfric is the frictional
coefficient of screw rotors, β is the heat dissipation rate, μ is the dynamic
Y. Li et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 133 (2020) 110304

Table 4
Static flow and pressure model of compressors.
Type Method Model Application Ref.

Centrifugal Data-driven k1 + k2 Φ ICE [95]

Ψ = , ki = ki 1 + ki2 M, i = 1, 2, 3
k3 − Φ
Ψ = AΦ2 + BΦ + C, A = A2 U22 + A1 U2 + A0 , Wcp,max = b2 U22 + b1 U2 + b0 , ICE [100]
B = − 2AWcp,max /U2 , C = C2 U2 + C1 U2 + C0
( )
[ Ψ ] FCS [101]
β − 1 ∑ ∑ ∑
Φ = Φmax 1 − e Ψ max , Φmax = 4k=0 ak Mk , β = 2k=0 bk Mk , Ψ max = 5k=0 ck Mk
Thermo-dynamics ⎞⎤0.5 ICE [96]
)( )1 )( )k − 1
⎛ ⎡ ⎞⎛
2
A2 p1 ⎜p2 p2 k ⎢ 2k p2 ⎟⎜p2 p2 k + μflow U2 ⎟⎥
Wcp = √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅⎝ ⎣ ⎠⎝ ⎠⎦
RT1 p1 p1 k − 1 p1 p1 p1 cp T1
( ( [ ] ) )
ANN N FCS [99]
Wcp = W2 × L × tansig W1 × +C +E +D
p2

Screw Thermo-dynamic Wcp Δh = (Wcp + Wleak )⋅(Δhis + wv )(1 + αinner− load ) Refrigeration [97]
( )2 5
πN
+ αfric μVsw − β(Tw − T1 )4
30
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
Wcp
∫ phigh
= αρA 2 plow vdp Refrigeration [102]

Scroll Thermo-dynamic Tpipe − Tgas Trotor − Tgas Tstator − Tgas Refrigeration [98]
Wcp Δh = + +
R1 R2 R3
Wcp = Vs Nρ Refrigeration [103]

viscosity, wv is the isochoric compression work. α is the corrected co­
efficient considering loss and irreversible effect of the scroll compressor,
Vs is the swept volume, ρ is the inlet gas density after heat exchange.
6.2. Dynamic model of fuel cell system
states. Pukrushpan [101] proposed a 9-state model, depicted in Fig. 10.
Its description and the specific inlet and outlet flow rates are shown as
Fig. 11. Of them, the model of water transport across the membrane and
the water produced by the electrochemical reaction are reviewed
comprehensively by Ref. [105].

cmṪ = Ptotal − Pelectrical − q̇ (12)

For centrifugal compressor, the dynamic model of compressor
angular velocity is related to the driving motor torque τcm and the static
resistant torque τcp. They could be described as specific explicit
expression, with τcm determined by motor voltage or current and τcp
determined by the compressor thermodynamics [101].
dω 1 ( ) They gave a relative complete thermal model as:
= τcm − τcp
dt J
For screw compressor, it is consistent with that of the centrifugal
compressor, excepted from the torque, which includes another friction
term of the engaged lobes [104]. Almost all the compressor controls
involve this model. The dynamic compressor flow and discharge pres­
sure is determined by the dynamic angular velocity, static model, and
the downstream component of the FCS. Hence, this section reviews the
model of the system.
For FCS, the relationship between the input (motor voltage and back-
pressure valve opening) and output (FC voltage, compressor flow rate
and pressure) is highly nonlinear and time-varying, involving many
Fig. 10. Typical 9-state fuel cell-compressor controlling model. In most optimal
stoichiometric ratio controls, the flow rate Wcp is unnecessary owing to its much
slower measurement compared with pressure and rotating speed of the motor.
The opening θ of the valve, typically the butterfly valve for large flow area, is
usually used for pressure control. Subscript w and rm represent water vapor and
exhaust manifold, respectively.
where c, m, P are specific heat and mass of air, and power, respectively.
The dissipated heat q can be modeled below. Ismail et al. [107]
considered the heat transfer by conduction in GDL, membrane, current
collector; and by natural convection in the ambient region next to GDL.
(11)
q = qt + qb
TCL − Ts,c ( )
qt = kGDL
LGDL
= hc Ts,c − Tamb
( ) (13)
Td − Ts,a
qb = = ha Ts,a − Tamb
Lmem LGDL Lcc
+ +
kmem kGDL kcc
h = hconv (Nu(Ra)) + hrad (Ts , Tamb )
where, qt is the heat flux between ambient region and cathode CL, qb is
the heat flux from cathode CL cross anode to ambient region; the sub­
scripts cc, a, c, s represent current collector, anode, cathode and surface,
respectively; h is the heat transfer coefficient consisting of convective
coefficient hconv, related to Nusselt number Nu and Rayleigh number Ra,
and the radiative coefficient hrad, related to the temperature of surface
and ambient. Ondrejicka et al. [108] ignored the heat transfer in the
MEA, proposing a reduced thermal model. To solve the difficulty in
placing a flow meter in the air pipeline, Meyer et al. [109] estimated the
air stoichiometric ratio based on thermal balance by just collecting the
data of FC voltage, current and temperature.
Obviously, the 9-state or 10-state model is a very complicated de­
rivative equation which is time-consuming to be solved online. For the
simulator replacing real FC, the 9-state equation can run at a high speed
CPU in real-time. However, for controller design, especially the state
observer, this model must be reduced to a lower order for faster solution.
Ref. [110] reduce it to a 6-order model by neglecting the hydrogen and
water production. Ref. [111] gave a 1-order model by recognition from
the input-output data. The below sections will present the detailed

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Y. Li et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 133 (2020) 110304

Fig. 11. Schematic view of state equation and output [101] of fuel cell system based on mass conservation and the determination of specific inlet and outlet flow
rate. The subscript v, w, l, ca, an denote vapor, water, liquid water, cathode, and anode, respectively. The subscript mem and gen represent the water transportation
across the membrane and water produced by electrochemical reaction. Note that there is still not effective model on the flow rate of discharged liquid water, Wl,out,
therefore many papers neglected it. Note that the heat transfer is not included in this 9-state model. But for air-breathing FCS, the thermal problem is vital as is
mentioned in section 4.2.5. Sankar et al. [106] took the air temperature as another state.

controller and the relevant model. 7.1. Optimal control of compressors for maximum net power

7. Compressor control There are two kinds of compressor controls for promoting system
efficiency.
Daud et al. [112] have reviewed the thermal management, water
management, and control for avoiding hydrogen starvation. Different (a). Regulating the operation conditions from the perspective of fuel
from this paper, the current section focuses on the compressor control, cell physics.
especially the optimal control of FC-compressor system for promoting
the system efficiency. Many new methods will be reviewed. Li et al. regulated the air flow rate [113], FC temperature, pressure,
humidity [114], as well as current density [115] to find the better
conditions for avoiding flooding. The flow rate control [113] that they
presented based on pressure drop [116] could make the stoichiometric

Fig. 12. Schematics of fuel cell/compressor system

control in the objective of improving system effi­
ciency. The numbers in this figure represent different
control methods. The green-filled blocks describe
different control laws. λ, I, P, and Vcm stand for air
stoichiometric ratio, fuel cell current, power, and
motor controlling voltage, respectively. x, u, d denote
the state variables of fuel cell, the motor voltage of
compressor, and the system disturbance, respectively.
s stands for the sliding mode variable, for instance,
the error between optimal and manipulated stoi­
chiometric ratio. * denotes the optimal value. (For
interpretation of the references to colour in this figure
legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of
this article.)

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Y. Li et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 133 (2020) 110304

Table 5
Detailed review of different compressor controls in objective of improving system efficiency.
Method Coupled method Control law Model Compressor Verification Description Ref.

Linear control Perturbation and FF Unnecessary Unidentified simulation Seeking optimal power by altering λ or [17,
observation method pressure. 118,
146]
2-state 0-order model Verify, 1 kW Seeking optimal power by altering motor [119]
voltage according to ∂P/∂Vcm ; Step size
alterable; Sampling time 1 ms; Saving 6%
energy vs. conventional control.
Extremum Band-pass filter FB 9-state Centrifugal Simulation Imposing periodic motor-voltage [123]
seeking disturbance, extracting gradient, ∂P/∂Vcm ,
control via filtering; Observation for λ with
(ESC) constraints to improve convergence.
FF, output is fuel Unnecessary Irrespective Simulation Imposing periodic current disturbance, [147]
cell ref. current extracting the gradient, ∂P/∂Ist , via filtering.
FF, output is Unnecessary 2nd-order Simulation Disturbance current incl. high and low freq. [124]
ref. net current model signals with alterable amplitude, effective in
searching and stable stage, respectively.
Unnecessary 0-order model Simulation Optimize net power and fuel consumption [122]
via similar signal-processing ESC.
Linear control – Open loop + FF Unnecessary centrifugal Simulation Incl. both static and dynamic FF [148]
Quadratic optimizition State FB 7-state Diaphragm Verify, 1 kW Local linearization via Jacobian matrix + [149]
vacuum pump Kalman filter to determine optimal FB gain.
State FB with 8-state Centrifugal Simulation Local linearization via Jacobian matrix + [101]
integral Riccati equation to determine optimal FB
gain.
Sliding mode Robust for uncertainty Super-twisting 6-state Centrifugal Simulation Differ from traditional super-twisting SMC, [132]
control SMC approaching speed alterable.
(SMC) Adaptive for SM Super-twisting 4-state Screw HIL, 25 kW Cascaded SMCs: outer loop for λ and outputs [130]
parameters; Robust. SMC + FBL ref. speed; inner loop for speed and outputs
motor current. Robust via cascaded control
with uncertainty of fuel cell parameters
considered.
Robust via cascaded Super-twisting 3-state Centrifugal Simulation Cascaded SMCs: outer loop for λ and outputs [131]
control with fuel cell SMC + FBL ref. flow rate Q*cp ; inner loop for flow rate and
parameter uncertainty *
outputs motor voltage; Q̇cp estimated by SM
considered
differentiator.
Sub-optimal 2nd- 4-state Screw HIL, 33 kW Cascaded SMCs: outer loop controls λ ratio [104]
order SMC and outputs reference speed; inner loop
controls speed and outputs motor current.
Sliding mode Robust; SM-state- Super-twisting 6-state Unidentified HIL, 75 kW Cascaded SMC; SM-state-observer for mO2, [110]
control observer SMC; PID; Fuzzy mN2 and observability theory;
(SMC) logic control. Comparison: PID, and cascaded SMC with FF
via u = offline(Ist) and u = fuzzy(Ist); Settling
time of λ via SMC + fuzzy is 71 ms vs. 3.6 s
via only PID.
– FF + FB SMC 1st order linear Blower Verify, 1.2 ∫ 1 [111]
s = e(t) + e(t)dt; u = [τθe(t) + y(t)] +
model kW K
S(t)
KD ; Sampling rate 1 ms.
|S(t)| + δ
Model – Linear control; Experimental λ Blower Verify, 1.2 The λ prediction does not utilize past [127]
predictive recognition kW information. Sampling time 20 ms,
control prediction and control horizon are seven.
(MPC) – Nonlinear λ recognition, Blower Verify, 1.2 The λ prediction utilizes the past, present, [135]
control; Volterra series kW and future input information. Sampling time
5 ms. Prediction and control horizon are 16
and 5.
MRAC Lyapunov design FB of state and 9-state (linear) Irrespective Simulation A ref. model to track the real model; FB gains [143]
ref. adaptively adjusted according to Lyapunov
stability; Comparison between adaptive and
traditional PID control.
Param. recognition, FB 3-state (linear) Unidentified Verify, 1 kW FB gains adaptively adjusted according to [144]
polar placement polar placement.
Fuzzy logic Perturbation and Iref = fuzzy(ΔIst, Static η model Blower Verify, 500 Tracking maximum system efficiency using [138]
control observation method Δη) W fuzzy 4 rules. Output is fuel cell ref. current.
(FLC) – Vcm = fuzzy(Qcp- Static model Screw Simulation Off-line calibration for optimal flow rate [139]
Qcp*) Qcp*.
Particle swarm Fuzzy PD + I Static η model Rotary vane Verify, 5 kW PD-fuzzy + I to regulate Vcm dynamically; [142]
optimization (PSO) fuzzy-control regulate static ref. Vcm ; PSO
algorithm to optimize motor consumption. λ
lowers to 1.5.

FB: feedback; FF: feed-forward; FBL: feedback linearization; SM: sliding mode; SMC: sliding mode control; HIL: hardware in loop; MRAC: model reference adaptive
control; λ: stoichiometric ratio; Ist: stack current. In many papers, the controlling objective is the optimal stoichiometric ratio; The output of the controller is the voltage
or current of compressor motor; the input is the stoichiometric ratio, flow rate, and other fuel cell parameters. The fuel cell current is regarded as system disturbance.
The performance of controls, such as rising time, overshoot, and settling time, is not separately compared here in this table because it is greatly different in fuel cell
power, volume of tubes and channels, and dynamic response of actuators and sensors.

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Y. Li et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 133 (2020) 110304

ratio as low as 1.8. Ljaodola et al. [117] reviewed this kind of method as
well.

(b). Regulating the compressor based on the control theory, especially

for the optimal efficiency. This section focuses on (b). Fig. 12 is
the schematics of FC-compressor system control in the objective
of improving system efficiency. In a typical compressor control,
feed-forward calibration, model linearization, linear or nonlinear
control law, parameter adaptive, as well as, robustness will be
reflected comprehensively. The detailed controlling methods are
reviewed in Table 5.

7.1.1. Perturbation and observation method

This method is to impose a perturbation and then observe the output
evolution, essentially belonging to the optimal control via gradient
descent. It is a commonly used method in the commercial system.
Zhao et al. [118] sought the maximum net power in a 10 kW FC
combined with 600 W compressor through perturbing λ. It is a static
control with a long settling time, which means the next perturbation
could not take place until the system is stable again. In addition, it is not
strong robust against the system disturbance, such as the current den­
sity, water state changing, etc. In order to improve the robustness, the
dynamic responses for disturbance should be considered in advance.
Jang et al. [119] analyzed the influence of the disturbance of FC current
on the zeros of the dynamic system, based on which they determined the
adaptive step size of the perturbation and the sampling interval, which
are usually a trade-off. This modification is similar to the sliding mode
control.

7.1.2. Extremum seeking control imposing a periodic signal

The extremum seeking control is another method for the maximum
net power. It is through imposing a periodic signal or perturbation that
automatically extracts the gradient. This method overcomes the draw­
backs of poor robustness and the difficulty in finding the global optimum
of the perturbation and observation method.
Tan et al. [120] and Zhong et al. [121] illustrated the extremum
seeking control from the perspective of theory and application, respec­
tively. They explained the principle of extracting the gradient, proposed
the control law, and verified the stability of this control. Formally the
manipulated input, e.g., the reference net current, was obtained from
the filtered net current of FCS and then multiplied by the perturbational
periodic current followed by an integrator (Fig. 13a).
Chang and Moura [123] sought the optimal net power by imposing a
periodic perturbation to motor voltage intending to find the gradient of
the net power to motor voltage. In order to increase the convergence, the
amplitude of the signal is aggressive guaranteed by constraints for λ and
Vcm . Unfortunately, λ should be estimated, e.g., through Luenberger
state-observer, which make the extremum-seeking lose the merit of
model-independent. This thought is illustrated in Fig. 13c.
Bizon [124] divided the perturbation signal into two parts with high
frequency and low frequency, respectively (Fig. 13b). The amplitude of
the high-frequency part was the derivative of the net current, making the
searching speed very high but decay to zero after approaching to the
optimum. The amplitude of the low-frequency part is very small, making
the searching speed lower after approaching to the optimum. Bizon
[122] used a similar method to achieve the optimum control of both net
power and hydrogen consumption.
7.1.3. Linearization and linear control
Many studies use the classical linear control to manipulate the
compressor. This linear control usually involves PID, polar placement,
and Kalman filtering. For instance, using Kalman filtering to give the
optimal state estimation, and then through polar placement to deter­
mine the gain for quickly stabling the closed-loop system [125], or using
Riccati equation to give the optimal gain in the control law. Pukrushpan
Fig. 13. Typical control with global extremum seeking control (b) through
periodical current dither [122] and (c) through periodical motor-voltage dither
[123] via signal processing with their principle shown as (a) [121].
[101] systematically compared the usually used linear controls.
However, prior to the linear control, the controlling model should be
linearized firstly, using state-feedback linearization or local
linearization.
The method of state-feedback linearization is to conduct linear
transformation for a system with relative degree r so as to form the chain
of r integrator via Lie Derivative, thereby realizing the linearization
between the inputs and outputs. But if the original system is in n-degree
with n > r, the transformation of the rest n − r is of strong skill. For the
scenario of n = r, the system could be fully linearized. Sankar and Jana
[126] used this method to realize the full linearization for a
dual-input-dual-output system, followed by the state observation and
polar placement to stable the system.
The local linearization usually uses the Jacobian matrix to expand
the original state and output equation linearly around a certain static
operating point. Gruber et al. [127] linearized a 7-state model firstly,
then estimated the motor speed and the flow through the humidifier,
finally gave the optimal motor voltage via solving the linear quadratic
problem.
The nonlinear control overcomes the shortcomings of robustness,
poor global control, and tricky transformation for the linear control.
Commonly used methods are the sliding mode control, model predictive
control, and intelligent control.
7.1.4. Sliding mode control
The sliding mode control (SMC) is the most used method in
compressor control. The sliding mode variable s is usually selected as the
difference between real value and reference value in terms of the

14
Y. Li et al.
stoichiometric ratio or the motor voltage. The objective of SMC is to
attract s, at any state x, back to the sliding mode surface s = 0 by
changing the control law. The sliding mode variable s should have rapid
approaching speed and quality, via the reasonable selection of
approaching law. It should have a good sliding quality at s = 0, via the
selection of switching law. Gao et al. [128] proposed various control
laws, e.g., the control law with exponential approaching speed u = − ε⋅
sgn(s) − ks, where ε and k are tuning parameters; sgn(⋅) is the sign
function. Obviously, this kind of control will result in the frequent
discontinuous changing (chattering) of the motor voltage, which is
harmful for FC owing to the frequent change in flow rate.
In SMC, the system will not be impacted by the uncertainty and
disturbance any more conditionally in case of s reaching the surface of
s = 0 [129]. To solve the chattering problem, the boundary layer, |s| ≤ δ,
is introduced. Using the high-sliding-order SMC is another way to
restrain the chattering. In compressor control, commonly used SMC is
the twisting, sub-optimal [104], and super-twisting [130–132]. The
control law of super-twisting only uses the information of s:
∫ (b). Controller of the feedback system.
u = − λ|s|0.5 sgn(s) − αsgn(s)dt (14)
The sub-optimal SMC only cares about the position of ṡ = 0. Other
second-order SMCs all require ṡ and s̈ in the control law. The difficulty
of SMC lies in the estimation of ṡ and s̈ for determining their boundary.
Levant [133] presented various second SMCs and verified these control
laws enabling the manipulated system asymptotically stable using Lya­
punov function, which is a very important issue for any controls.
In details, the two papers from Matraji et al. [130,131] used cascaded
SMC for improving the robust, with the external loop using
super-twisting SMC to get the reference motor speed and the inner loop
using the same SMC to get the motor current via speed feedback. Both
papers used the sliding mode differentiator to estimate this derivative
and to lower the computation cost. Liu et al. [134] estimated the high
order derivatives of s in real-time using the differentiator for evaluating
the discharging pressure of screw compressor.
Garcia-Gabinetal [111]. adopted the derivative and integrator of the
error as the sliding mode surface. Deng et al. [110] proposed a similar
cascaded super-twisting SMC. The highlight is the six different SMCs
used as the high-order sliding mode observer, through which they got
the estimation of unmeasurable oxygen and nitrogen mass to precisely
estimate the stoichiometric ratio and further the other parameters in the
control laws.
To sum up, four steps are included in the typical SMC design:
(a). Selecting the sliding variable s;
(b). Designing the approaching law. The constant-speed, exponential,
etc. are usually selected. For avoiding chattering, the continuous
treatment should be conducted.
(c). Determining the parameters of the control law through esti­
mating the boundary of ṡ and s̈ in case of second-order SMC.
(d). Structuring the Lyapunov function and analyze the negative
definiteness of its derivative for verifying the existence of the
sliding mode surface and accessibility.
7.1.5. Model predictive control
The model predictive control (MPC) solves the optimization problem
in the present sampling interval to give the optimal manipulated output
prediction of next controlling time via comprehensively using the pre­
dicted outputs at the prediction horizon, and the manipulated inputs in
the present and future or even the past. It is suitable for the energy-
saving of dynamic control and is beneficial for the maximum net
power. However, the MPC requires the high-frequency sampling or else
the prediction is poor due to the mismatch of sampling frequency and
FCS response. Furthermore, the computation speed of the micropro­
cessor should be consequently high enough for solving the optimization.
Finally, the sensors and actuator (motor) should response rapidly as
15
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 133 (2020) 110304
well. Unfortunately, these three factors are in the trade-off. Traditional
9-state model is difficult to be treated during this high frequent sampling
interval. Therefore, the literature reduced this model or adopted intel­
ligent pattern recognition, regarding the system as a black box, to in­
crease the computational speed. Properly extending the sampling
interval is another method. Typical sampling time is 5–100 ms. For
instance, the paper [135] proposed an MPC via pattern recognition
using Volterra series. The sampling time is 5 ms, and the computational
time is shortened to 0.7–2.5 ms. The paper [136] reported a computa­
tional time as long as 98 ms using the conventional model. Details about
MPC review can refer to Table 5.
7.1.6. Intelligent control
The application of the intelligent algorithms [137], such as the
artificial neural network (ANN), fuzzy logic, particle swarm optimiza­
tion (PSO), in controls can be divided into three categories.
(a). Recognition of the manipulated system.
(c). Optimizing the manipulated system.
Cano et al. [138] and Guo et al. [139] proposed the fuzzy logic
controller combined with the perturbation and observation method to
realize the maximum net power control. Methekar et al. [140] recog­
nized the manipulated system using the Volterra series. Zhao et al. [141]
recognized the static compressor map via BP-ANN in the control of
pressure-flow rate decoupling. Tekin et al. [142] utilized the fuzzy logic
controller to manipulate the motor voltage. The fuzzy rules are formu­
lated empirically using FC voltage and its variation, FC current, and its
variation, as well as the output power. Meanwhile, they used PSO to
optimize the net power, evolving 16 variables and 30 particles.
7.1.7. Adaptive and robustness
The 9-state model did not consider the thermal management
resulting in the uncertainty in temperature. Besides, the abnormal vi­
bration in pressure, especially the abrupt change of water state interior
the MEA will affect the system behavior greatly.
The adaptive control and robust control are to solve the uncertainty
problem. The adaptive control needs to tune the parameters in control
law online to accommodate the parameter variation. The model refer­
ence adaptive control (MRAC) is commonly used to force the manipu­
lated system to track the reference model. The tuning of the parameters
could be conducted via Lyapunov redesign [143], polar placement
[144], or system recognition using the intelligent method.
The robust control requires the controller to take into account the
uncertainty and disturbance adequately, which demands the model of
the manipulated system is as complete as possible. Theoretically, the
SMC is of absolute robustness after the system entering into sliding mode
state. Hence, papers on SMC usually discuss the robustness greatly. In
general, this point is realized by giving the parameter uncertainties and
estimating ṡ and s̈ precisely so as to achieve high-quality approaching
and sliding. In this sense, the SMC claims the highest demand on the
manipulated model. For instance, the papers on SMC [104,130–132] all
took into account of parameter uncertainties. Some used the type of
cascade to improve the robustness further.
Another solution handling the robustness is to regard the unknown
information, such as disturbances and uncertainties, as a lump, which
then could be estimated via state observer using the measurable output
information [145].
The comparison of the different controlling methods is listed in
Table 6.
7.2. Decoupling of flow rate and pressure
It is more difficult to simultaneously regulate the pressure and flow
rate because this is a complicated dual-input-dual-output nonlinear
Y. Li et al.
Table 6
Comparison of different control methods.
Method Merits
Perturbation and Independent on models; Easy to be conducted;
observation Long sampling time.
Extremum seeking Don’t need model;
control Global optimization;
Great robustness.
Linear control via state Global linearization;
feedback linearization Basis for adaptive design.
Linear control via local Simple in principle.
linearization
Sliding mode control Strong robust; Simple control law;
Don’t need ṡ and s̈ for super-twisting SMC;
Moderate demand for actuator response; Good
control performance.
Model predictive control Moderate demands for accurate model;
Optimization control.
Intelligent control Independent on physical model;
Good for adaptive design.
problem.
7.2.1. Screw compressor
For the FCS that deploys the screw compressor, the flow rate (motor
speed) is relatively independent of the pressure (valve opening) ac­
cording to Fig. 5b. Therefore, the flow rate and pressure do not require
decoupling. The model of this compressor adopted by Liu et al. [134]
illustrates that the flow rate is affected only by the motor speed. Quar­
tarone et al. [151] controlled the pressure precisely using the MPC.
7.2.2. Centrifugal compressor
For the FCS that deploys the centrifugal compressor, according to
Fig. 5a and the model used by Pucrushpan [101], the flow rate and
pressure are related to both the motor speed and valve opening; hence
they are strongly coupled. The accurate model and reasonable decou­
pling method are required to achieve the decoupling.
One method is to take into account this decoupling relation and
parameter uncertainty as an unknown lump. Then estimate this lump by
state observer. Finally, the decoupling is achieved using the estimated
information and the linear control law [99]. However, this kind of
decoupling demands a faster response for the motor and valve opening.
The frequent sampling (e.g., 10 kHz) is needed as well. Fonseca [152]
et al. linearized the state equation that includes motor speed and
compressor pressure using the state-feedback method mentioned in
section 7.1.3. The linearized system is in the form of integrator chain of
pressure. The gain of the controller is determined by polar placement.
Liu et al. [153] used the conventional feed-forward-feedback control
to realize the fast-response manipulation of super-high flow rate, 110 g
s− 1, at the system with 150 kW FC stack (BallardHD6V2) and centrifugal
compressor (RotrexC15-16). This strategy helps the flow rate to be sta­
ble within 1 s, 5 s faster than traditional PID control.
Zhao et al. [141] achieved decoupling through nonlinear control.
They regulated the motor current and butterfly valve opening by
twisting SMC and super-twisting SMC, respectively.
7.3. Anti-surge control
The phenomena of surging for the centrifugal compressor is illus­
trated in section 4.1. Meanwhile, the method in structure for avoiding
surging is reviewed as well. The surging is harmful to both compressor
and FC, caused by starvation and pressure fluctuation. In the present
section, another kind of anti-surging methods will be reviewed in the
perspective of control. For one thing, to prevent from surging, the
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 133 (2020) 110304
Drawbacks Remarks
Poor robustness for system disturbance; Long settling time; Commonly used.
Static control
Demanding extra device generating dither current; Harmful for Suitable for system with
FC if dither amplitude is too high; Difficult to distinguish dither detection for high freq.
from operating current. impedance [150].
Tricky; Commonly used.
Moderate control performance;
Poor robustness.
Solving Jacobian matrix; Time consuming; Poor robustness. Commonly used.
Highest demand for accurate model; Harmful for FC for Commonly used in FC-
chattering in 1st sliding order SMC; Difficulty in bound compressor system.
estimation of ṡ & s̈.
Highest sampling freq., processing speed, and actuator Moderately used.
response; Good control performance.
Coupling with other controls. Moderately used.
typical method is to regulate the reflux valve of the compressor, back
pressure valve of FC outlet pipe, or voltage of the motor. For another, in
the case of surging, the controlling strategy should enable the FCS to
recover to the normal state as soon as possible, which involves robust
control.
Shehata et al. [154] and Cortinovis et al. [155] conducted both the
two kinds of control at a single compressor. Of them, Shehata et al. [154]
simulated the transient process of the compressor using Moore-Greitzer
model [156], surging was included too. The compressor was recovered
from the surging through promoting the flow rate or pressure by regu­
lating the valve opening. The paper systematically compared the re­
covery effects using six controllers, such as open-loop control, fuzzy
logic control, anti-windup PID control, adaptive PID control, first-order
SMC, and back-stepping control. It was revealed that the SMC obtained
better effect as it consumed lower energy, while longer time, for re­
covery. Similarly, Bartolini et al. [157] achieved the recovery only
through regulating the valve opening.
Cortinovis et al. [155] controlled the valve opening and motor tor­
que to force the compressor far away from the surging line. The method
they used was the MPC, where the penalty function was about pressure,
flow rate, valve opening, and motor torque. In the case of
multi-compressor in serial, this method could be used too [158].
Laghrouche et al. [159] regulated the FC current to force the
compressor away from the surging line through extremum seeking
control mentioned in section 7.1.2. The penalty function was the dis­
tance from the static surging line. Han et al. [160] manipulated the flow
rate in controlling the valve opening and motor voltage using the model
reference adaptive control mentioned in section 7.1.7 The surging was
induced through reducing the flow rate and closing the valve artificially.
After monitoring the surging, the controlling strategy dragged the flow
rate back to the setting value immediately. Herein, the surging is
regarded as a disturbance and the controller is of robustness.
8. Reflection and conclusion
8.1. Tendency of fuel cell system progress
The fuel cell system of the new energy sector is pretty similar to the
gasoline engine of the inner combustion engine (ICE) sector, in
perspective of the technical property. Both are open source systems,
involving the treatment of the reaction medium and forced cooling of
the system. The fuel cell is the most likely alternative to ICE in the long
run. As the 200 years’ development of the ICE, energy conservation is
16
Y. Li et al.
Table 7
Comparison of technique similarity between fuel cell and ICE.
Technique from ICE
Intake supercharging
Exhaust turbocharging
Exhaust gas recirculation
Fuel’s multiple-injection into a cylinder for improving combustion, emission,
and fuel utilization
the most important orientation, which could be referenced by the fuel
cell system. Table 7 compares the technique similarity between the fuel
cell and ICE. The features in fuel cell application and the potentials of
these techniques are also included. This table implies that most contents
are directly related to the present paper. Hence the energy conservation
is one of the essential development directions.
8.2. Current concerns for compressors
(a). Difficulty in selecting an appropriate compressor for 5–30 kW
fuel cell system
The compressor, especially the centrifugal compressors, are usually
designed for 30 kW fuel cell system or even larger. On the one hand, the
compressors for under 5 kW fuel cell system are just a few. But on the
other hand, it is difficult to select an appropriate compressor for 5–30
kW fuel cell system, which is the important section mainly for range-
extender or any other modularized fuel cell systems.
(b). The special design for the centrifugal compressor with a wider
operating range and high pressure ratio is required, as well.
(c). Excessive cost.
The lower cost of compressors, e.g.,719 USD [12], is only possible in
500 thousand systems per year. Even in this way it is hard to meet the
target. At present, the fuel cell industry is far away from this kind of mass
production phase. Hence, the cost is far more than 719 USD.
(d). The optimal control usually considers a simplified scenario.
The present optimal control of the compressors only takes into ac­
count of fuel cell stack, compressors, and regulating valve. The humid­
ifier and the complicated water state variation are seldom considered,
which will affect the dynamic response and robustness. In addition,
many controls were in pure simulation, usually not including the
response of sensors and actuators. If further consider the tracking con­
trol of hydrogen pressure, and the decoupling control of flow rate and
pressure, it will be a real problem with multi-input-multi-output
involving the balance of cost, response, and performance.
9. Conclusions and prospects
(a). Through the proposed net power estimation for an arbitrary
system, the air compression is not helpful to promote the net
power if the fuel cell only operates at medium or lower current
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 133 (2020) 110304
Inspiration for FC Feature in FC application Potentials
Compressor with high PR Centrifugal compressor with wider operating range ☆☆☆☆
Screw compressor ☆☆☆☆☆
Compressor using exhaust Compressor-motor-expander ☆☆☆
energy
Exhaust air recirculation Regulating reaction speed, humidification, strategy ☆☆☆
for shut-down
H2 recirculation Improving fuel utilization, humidification ☆☆☆☆☆
Precise control High-speed optimal control for compressor and H2 ☆☆☆☆☆
injector
H2 injection with high freq. Accurate control of pressure, flow rate by injector ☆☆☆☆☆
Purging with high efficiency Online purging strategy based on water state ☆☆☆☆☆
observation
densities, e.g., the operating current is lower than 44% times of
the limiting current. Except from that, the net power increases
greatly with a higher voltage or pressure ratio.
(b). It is required for the fuel cell system to develop the exclusive used
compressor with a wider operating range, medium flow rate, and
pressure ratio under 3.0.
(c). The screw compressor is the promising option for medium power
scale fuel cell system due to its relatively simple control, espe­
cially needless for the decoupling of flow rate and pressure, and
promising water-injection design. The main drawbacks of the
present centrifugal compressors are the narrower operating
range, complicated control, e.g., the decoupling of flow rate and
pressure, surging, stall, etc.
(d). Compared with the compressor power consumption, the recy­
clable energy of the exhaust air through the expander is still
considerable although the exhaust exergy is low and the
maximum energy utilization is less than 14%. The compressor-
motor-expander is far away from the DOE target in energy con­
sumption and efficiency. The main factor restricting consumption
promotion is the difficulty in increasing the expander efficiency.
The compressor-motor from many manufacturers can meet the
requirement of DOE target in energy consumption. The promo­
tion space is not big enough. The next mission is to cut cost,
weight, and to lower noise.
(e). Among the optimal controls for compressor, the sliding mode
control (SMC) especially the second order super-twisting SMC is
the most commonly reported one due to its strong robustness and
easier control law which does not need the derivative of the
sliding mode variable. Many papers have accomplished it for real
compressor use. However, this control will result in the frequent
vibration of the motor voltage and compressor flow rate, which is
harmful to the fuel cell system. The adaptive control or limited
boundary of the sliding mode surface can be used to restrict this
chattering. Unlike the model predictive control, the SMC does not
require too much for the sampling time and response of the sensor
and actuator.
(f). In theory, the extremum seeking control via periodic perturba­
tion can still find the gradient automatically at operating current
disturbance and parameter uncertainty. The most-reported was
to regulating the fuel cell current and the report to regulate the
compressor voltage was just a few. Subsequently, the latter could
be further explored. In addition, many fuel cell systems use the
high-frequency impedance to monitor the water state interior the
fuel cell, which needs to impose the periodic disturbance signal.
Hence, the extremum seeking control could be coupled with the
17
Y. Li et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 133 (2020) 110304

water state monitoring through high-frequency impedance to Acknowledgment

improve the system compactness.
This work has been funded by the National Key Research and
Declaration of competing interest Development Program of China (NO. 2017YFB0102705and NO.
2016YFB0101305), and National Natural Science Foundation of China
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial (NO. 21676158 and NO. 21376138).
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence All the copyrighted figures and tables published elsewhere have
the work reported in this paper. attained permission.

Appendix

The concept of relative operating current is proposed, which means the ratio of operating current to limit current.
j
jrel = × 100% (A.1)
jL
This relative value represents the level of MEA performance. For comparison, the pressure is in terms of relative pressure (%), which means the
percentage the pressure is promoted from ambient pressure 1.0 bar. It is expressed as:
p − 105
prel = × 100% (A.2)
105
The voltage after the pressure is promoted from 1.0 bar to prel is expressed as:
V = Vorigin + Δηact + Δηmt (A.3)

where, Vorigin is the pressure prior to pressure changing; Δη(⋅) is the variation of overpotential caused by the pressure changing. The subscript act
stands for the activation, mt stands for mass transfer.
The overpotential of the activation is:
RT j
ηact = ln (A.4)
αF j0 (T, p)

where j0 is the exchanging current density.

Its differential at content temperature T is written as:
RT dj0 (T, p)
dηact |T = − (A.5)
αF j0 (T, p)
Hence, the variation of the activation overpotential is:
∫
Δηact = ηact |T ⋅ dp (A.6)

The exchanging current density is related to the pressure, Gibbs free energy, and the reference value of current density, pressure, and the tem­
perature. γ is the coefficient between the exchanging current density and pressure. It is expressed as:
( )
( )γ − ΔG 1− T
p
(A.7)
RT T ref
j0 = j0 ref A⋅L ref e
p

where, A is the specific area of the catalyst, L is the platinum loading.

The differential of the exchanging current density is written as:
dp
dj0 |T = j0 ⋅γ (A.8)
p
The overpotential caused by the mass transfer is:
( )
1 RT jL
ηmt = 1 + ln (A.9)
α ne F jL − j
And its differential is expressed as:
( )
1 RT − j dp
dηmt |T = 1 + (A.10)
α nne F jL − j p
Hence, the variation of the mass transfer overpotential is written as:
∫
Δηmt = ηmt |T ⋅ dp (A.11)

The air flow rate is the function of fuel cell power P, voltage Vfc, and the stoichiometric ratio:

18
Y. Li et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 133 (2020) 110304

2 Pfc
Qair = 1.658 × 10− λair (A.12)
Vfc
The power consumption of compressor Pcp is expressed as:
⎛ ⎞
Qair k 1
(A.13)
k− 1
Pcp = ⎝
RTin π − 1⎠
k
60 × 22.4 k − 1 ηcp

where, k is the isentropic exponent, π is the pressure ratio. The net power of the system is:
Pnet = Pfc − Pcp (A.14)

The flow rate of the hydrogen is expressed as:

3 Pfc
QH2 = 6.965 × 10− λ H2 (A.15)
Vfc
The total enthalpy change of the reaction for the liquid water production (in high heat value) is expressed as:
QH2 1
Δh = 285, 835 ⋅ ⋅ (A.16)
λH2 60 × 22.4
Finally, the net efficiency, included the thermal efficiency, voltage efficiency, and hydrogen utilization, of the system is:
Pfc − Pcp 1
ηnet = ⋅ (A.17)
Δh λH2
As depicted in section 2, this model describes the system efficiency in conditions that the cathode pressure is increased from base line 1.0 bar (abs)
with fuel cell voltage Vorigin, to a specific pressure p with voltage increased ΔV, which can be calculated using (A.6) and (A.11). Fig. 2 is obtained by
changing Vorigin from 0.6 V to 0.8 V, changing relative pressure from 0% to 300%, and changing relative current density from 0.11 to 0.66. As the
voltage is calculated in relative ΔV, many parameters can be counteracted, thereby the used constants are just the following parameters: T = 333 K, Tin
= 298 K, α = 0.5, k = 1.4, compressor efficiency ηcp = 0.7, R = 8.314 J/(mol⋅K), γ = 0.8, F = 96485 C mol− 1, Pfc = 30 kW, λair = 2.0, λH2 = 1.1.

Appendix A. Supplementary data

Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2020.110304.

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