Teaching Dilemmas, Challenges Opportunities Ewing Et Al

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WCN 02-200-202
Dilemmas, challenges
and opportunities
Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
Teaching: Dilemmas, challenges and opportunities © 2020 Cengage Learning Australia Pty Limited
6th Edition
Robyn Ewing Copyright Notice
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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 23 22 21 20 19
v

Brief contents
PART 1 CHALLENGES AND DILEMMAS OF TEACHING 1
1 So, you want to be a teacher! Working in a changing context 2

2 Ethical practice 24
PART 2 UNDERSTANDING LEARNING 41
3 Understanding learner diversity 42

4 The nature of learning 68
5 The learning environment 103
6 Communication in the educational environment 129
7 Teaching, learning and curriculum in a changing world 161
PART 3 THE EFFECTIVE TEACHER 189
8 Teacher as co-learner 190

9 Planning, preparing and assessment for teaching 220
 Managing a positive learning environment 250
 Building family–school–community partnerships 274
 Practitioner inquiry 300
 Drawing the challenges, dilemmas and opportunities together 325
vi
Contents
GUIDE TO THE TEXT xii
GUIDE TO THE ONLINE RESOURCES xv
PREFACE xvii
ABOUT THE AUTHORS xix
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS xxi
PART 1 CHALLENGES AND DILEMMAS OF TEACHING 1
CHAPTER 1 CHAPTER 2
So, you want to be a teacher! Working in a Ethical practice 24
changing context 2
What is ethical practice? 25
The school as text 9 A code of ethics for teaching 28
Deconstructing texts 10 Learners and educators 28
Considering education stakeholders 10 Parents, caregivers and families 29
Becoming critical 10 Colleagues 29
The diversity of the teaching profession 11 Community and society 30
Schools as postmodern places 12 Teachers as professionals 30
Globalisation 12 Implications of a code of
Wellbeing and learning 13 ethics – learning to be reflective 30
Dilemmas of schooling 14 Ethical dilemmas 31
Applying the Berlak dilemmas 15 Bullying and cyberbullying 33
Contributions of the social sciences and Legal issues 35

humanities disciplines 18 Duty of care 36
New teaching for new times 20 Professional conduct in education settings 37

Conclusion 21 Conclusion 37
Go further 21 Go further 38
Following through 22 Following through 38
Useful online teaching resources 22 Useful online teaching resources 39
References 23 References 40
PART 2 UNDERSTANDING LEARNING 41
CHAPTER 3 Using funds of knowledge 47

Understanding learner diversity 42 Children and young people living in
poverty and growing inequality 48
Defining diversity 43 Disadvantage and educational opportunity 49
Family life and funds of knowledge 44 Living on the edge 49
Difference, not deficit 45 Reinforcing disadvantage 50
Contents vii
Australian Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Multi-age classes 87

learners 51 Peer mentoring 88
Indigenous Australians and education 52 Learning centres 88
Cultural diversity 54 Shared decision making 89
Reggio Emilia 89
Thinking about cultural diversity 56
Project for Enhancing Effective
Sex, gender and sexuality 57 Learning (PEEL) 90
Understanding sex and gender 57 Teaching for Effective Learning framework 91
Sex and gender issues in education 58 Quality teaching models 92
Sexuality and education 60 Revitalising Indigenous languages 94
Learning difficulties and disabilities 61 Big Picture Education Australia 95
Middle school initiatives 95
Supporting gifted and talented learners 63
Relational pedagogy 96
Conclusion 64 The Arts as critical quality pedagogy 96
Go further 64 Visible Thinking 96
Following through 64 Conclusion 97
Useful online teaching resources 65 Go further 98
References 65 Following through 98
Useful online teaching resources 99
CHAPTER 4 References 100
The nature of learning 68
Defining learning 69 CHAPTER 5
How learning happens 70
The learning environment 103
Major theoretical approaches to learning 71 Learning environments 104
Behaviourist views of the learning process 71
The classroom as a learning environment 106
Cognitive theories about learning 72
Physical environment 108
Constructivist theories about learning 74
Social–emotional environment 111
Learning as a social, collaborative process 76
Interactions 112
The importance of language in the learning
Developing positive learning relationships 114
process 78
Know learners’ names 114
Motivation, engagement and the learning Get to know learners individually 115
process 80 Share yourself with your learners 116
Learning what is intended and what is not Establish yourself as ‘the educator’ 117
intended 82 Building positive self-esteem 120
Investigating learning styles 83 Building class cohesiveness 123
Providing for learning: some principles and Conclusion 125
exemplars 86 Go further 126
Clear expectations 86
Following through 126
Educator knowledge 86
Inclusivity 87 Useful online teaching resources 127
Grouping for different purposes 87 References 127
viii Contents
CHAPTER 6 CHAPTER 7
Communication in the educational Teaching, learning and curriculum in a
environment 129 changing world 161
What you already know about Schooling for an industrial age: school as place 164
communication 130 Technological changes 166
Communication in educational settings 133 Social, cultural and environmental changes 168
Significant relationships 135
The future of formal education 169
Effective interpersonal communication 137
Implications for curriculum decision
Effective interpersonal communication making in early childhood and school contexts 171
skills 139 1 A rational or ends-means approach 171
Listening skills 140 2 A process or procedural approach 172
Speaking skills 145 3 A critical approach 174
Questioning 151
Multiliteracies 175
Effective conflict-management skills 154
Education for sustainability 176
Restorative Justice 156
Learning outside the classroom 177
Conclusion 157
Implications for teaching and learning 178
Go further 158
Transitions 179
Beginning school 180
Useful online teaching resources 159 The middle years transition 181
References 159 Conclusion 182
Go further 183
References 185
PART 3 THE EFFECTIVE TEACHER 189
CHAPTER 8 4 Cultivate collaborative work practices 208

Teacher as co-learner 190 5 Build your capacity to be resilient 210
Maximising the value of your experiences 213
The changing context 192
Early career teaching 214
Opportunities and challenges for
Conclusion 215
pre-service educator learning during
professional experiences 193 Go further 216
How to maximise your learning in professional Following through 216

experiences 198 Useful online teaching resources 216
1 Analyse your attitude towards your learning 198 References 217
2 Reflect on your learning 201
3 Understand the context within
which you are working 205
Contents ix
CHAPTER 9 Guidelines for managing the learning

environment 262
Planning, preparing and assessment for
Case study examples 265
teaching 220
Managing challenging classroom behaviour 269
Factors affecting educator planning 222 Conclusion 271
External factors 223
Go further 271
Internal factors 225
Planning 226
Principles of planning 226
Careful preparation balanced with flexibility 226
References 273
Planning based on current knowledge
about how students learn 229 CHAPTER 
Planning needs to consider diversity 230 Building family–school–community
Planning backwards: analysis of partnerships 274
achievements and future needs 232
Planning must be negotiable 232 Defining family–school–community partnerships 276
Planning should consider integration
possibilities 233 Reasons to build family–school partnerships 277
Planning involves attention to Understanding diversity in families and family
detail and resources 233 structures 279
Planning includes planning for assessment 234
Getting to know your learners 279
Assessments many purposes 234 Understanding sociodemographic influences 280
The challenges of assessment 236 Understanding some perceived tensions between
Balancing efficiency and effectiveness parents and educators 281
in assessment 237
Classroom assessment 239 Parent involvement and participation 283
Reporting to families 241 Parent involvement – what it ‘looks like’ 284
Lesson planning 243 As a pre-service educator, what can I do? 287

Writing a program 244 What happens if things come unstuck? 288
Getting started 245 What would I do? 289
Conclusion 246 Working with the wider community 294
Go further 247 Conclusion 296
Following through 247 Go further 297
Useful online teaching resources 247 Following through 297
References 248 Useful online teaching resources 298
References 298
CHAPTER 
Managing a positive learning CHAPTER 
environment 250 Practitioner inquiry 300
Managing classroom interaction 253
Communities of professional practice 301
Managing classroom behaviour 256
Dynamic and intelligent learning
Approaches to classroom management 257
organisations 302
x Contents
Inquiring into professional practice through CHAPTER 

action research 307 Drawing the challenges, dilemmas and
Why practitioner inquiry? 308 opportunities together 325
Action learning 308
Planning for evaluation through centre/ Purposes of education 326
school-based inquiry 309 The competent learner 327
Gathering evidence 311 Human diversity in schools 327
Avoiding harm 311 Teachers as learners 328
Being explicit 311
Teaching as an ethical profession 329
Participatory interpretation 312
The dilemmas of schooling 329
Data analysis 321
Go further 330
Conclusion 321
Go further 322
References 330
Useful online teaching resources 323 GLOSSARY 332
References 323 INDEX 337
xii
Guide to the text

As you read this text you will find useful features in every
chapter to enhance your study of Teaching and help you
understand how the theory is applied in the real world.
PART OPENING FEATURES

© source line to come
PART 2
Understanding
learning
3 Understanding learner diversity
4
5
The nature of learning
The learning environment
The Chapter list outlines the chapters
6
7
Communication in the educational environment
Teaching, learning and curriculum in a changing world
contained in each part for easy reference.
Each learner brings a unique personality, together with a wealth of

experiences, to the learning process. Educators need to consider this
Part opening quotes give an insight into the
diversity in planning an inclusive classroom. content to be covered in the part.
41
BK-CLA-EWING_6E-190044-Chp03.indd 41 27/07/19 12:47 PM
FEATURES WITHIN CHAPTERS
1
So, you want to be a teacher!
Working in a changing
context
Good teaching cannot be reduced to technique;
good teaching comes from the identity and
See the teaching experience through the eyes

Mara
integrity of the teacher.
Parker Palmer
of a student with chapter opening student

artworks, related to the content covered in the
A sh er
chapter.
When children imagine what

a teacher is, they see them
doing things differently.
CHAPTER 3 UnDERsTAnDIng lEARnER DIvERsITy 47
perceived her own attitude as not particularly relevant. The extract below outlines her
thoughts:
I sort of went into it thinking ‘Well let’s get this five weeks GUIDE TO THE TEXT xiii
Using funds of Iknowledge
over with’. And it wasn’t until after the first week that I
thought ‘Hell, could probably get something out of this’. I
went into it half-hearted. It’s a bit scary isn’t it?
Educators need to acknowledge the experiences, strengths and resources of families and
communities to respond
Your attitude toHow
is crucial. individual learners.
you view Gonzalez,
professional Mol & Amanti
experiences (2005)
and your rolerefer
willto ‘funds
make all
of knowledge’
the difference totohow
describe
muchthe mosaic
you learn of bodies
during of knowledge,
your placements. skills and practices
A positive and openthat exist
mindset
within your
during the daily experiences
professional of individuals.
experiences Learners
will enable you toare
getactive, skilled
the most out ofandtheknowledgeable
opportunities
in their lives,
presented. Your and actively
attitude willuse thehave
also resources
an effectandonrepertoire of practices
your emerging available
professional to them
identity, as
to learn,
‘being develop,
a learner’ hasgrow
beenand shownnavigate
to be the
a keyworld.
aspectThe challenge
of identity for educational
(Cohen, 2010; Johnson settings is
et al.,
to recognise
2012). Many and value the
situations canknowledge,
be interpretednorms,
in a behaviours and literacies
number of different ways.that learners bring to
FEATURES WITHIN CHAPTERS classroom
Consider contexts. Not doing
the following
and miscommunication.
this can lead to disengagement, under-achievement, conflict
case studies.
When educators build bridges and make connections between learners’ homes and
educational settings, they are able to develop trusting and respectful relationships with
families and communities. Educators can use the formal curriculum as a ‘cultural broker’ to
mediate between the experiences of home, community and school contexts. For educators, Case study
Attimeans
this tudes connecting
a r e i m p o rwith
t a n t what it is that the learner knows and using this as the basis for
·4
introducing new knowledge (McLachlan et al., 2018). Negotiating curriculum and planning
Two pre-service educators were sent to the same school for their first professional experience.
learning experiences in this way enables learners to access their ‘virtual schoolbag’ (Thomson,
They were placed in the same classroom with an enthusiastic educator who was very pleased to
2002). This cannot be tokenistic though. Rather, learners should be enabled to meaningfully
have them. After the first few days, this educator became ill and was unable to return to school.
draw upon their household and community resources to participate in learning experiences
Another educator, who was obviously not happy about having two pre-service educators, was primary secon dary
that are relevant to them.
placed in the class. One pre-service educator was very upset about the change in educators and
However, sometimes there are challenges and dilemmas. Learners and families may feel
complained constantly to his pre-service teacher colleague and everyone at home. He did not
uncomfortable using their funds of knowledge. Hedges (2015) provides an example of a child
initiate conversations with the replacement educator and was irritable throughout the two-
living in a household where more than one language is spoken. Where the educator viewed
week professional experience. When asked what he had learnt from the experience his reply, e a r ly
the child’s bilingualism as a valuable resource, the parents (who were not native speakers of childhood
not surprisingly, was ‘Not much’. The other pre-service educator was naturally disappointed
English) viewed it as detrimental to their child’s learning. The parents expected their child
by the change in educators, but spent time talking to the replacement educator and reflected
to only use and learn English at school. There are examples,CHAPTER though,4 ofTHE
strategies
nATuRE of tolEARning
support 79
upon the differences in teaching styles between the first and the second educator. He enjoyed
families; for example, Dutton et al.’s (2018) work on oral and written identity texts shows
his placement even though it was only by the end of it that he felt more comfortable with the
how learners’ home language(s) and personal stories might be used to support language and
replacement. He was able to identify many areas of learning during the placement.
literacy development.
In Australia, Brian Cambourne (1984) proposed that children’s successful learning Reflection
of Opportunity
language usually by the age of three provides some important principles that should underpin
1 learning
all How could this situation
situations. Hishave been handled
‘Conditions differently for
for Learning’
Respondi ng t o l e a r n e r s ’ d i f f e r e n c e s
by the replacement
successful educator?
language Howinclude:
learning could it Case study
• have been handled differently byinthe
thecomplaining pre-service educator? ·1
Case studies present issues in 2
immersion,
If you
Educators were in
or involvement
this
need to know
• the importance
situation, how
about their
of modelling
would
learning process
you respond?
learners, which what
or demonstrating mightisinclude learning
to be learnt by about
a moretheir families,
experienced
context, encouraging you to family norms and expectations, the communities they live in and belong to, the language/s
knower
spoken at home, household chores, family outings and experiences, favourite TV shows and
• the need for joint construction or scaffolding of the process with the learner as an
integrate and apply the family occupations.
apprentice
Use the vignettes below to evaluate the alignment (or lack thereof) between the home life of
primary secon dary
• perhaps
concepts discussed in the the learners most
and theimportantly, the expectation that the learner will succeed in learning to talk;
expectations of the learning setting described.
that is, children learn to talk by talking.
Budi is seven years old and has recently moved to Australia from Indonesia. His life in Indonesia
chapter. While these conditions for learning are important, too much emphasis on the naturalness
was very different to that in Australia. He loves running, playing and watching sports, and is
of language learning can also be problematic given that language learning is also about learning
described by others as a ‘free spirit’. He struggles to follow the school rules where he must sit down,
a particular rather than a universal way of life or culture. In addition, many children living
line up before class, listen to and read stories selected by the educator, complete worksheets and
in poverty or experiencing difficult family circumstances do not always experience these
follow classroom rules. Budi’s educator thinks his lack of English language proficiency is causing
conditions at home and will need to be provided with these opportunities in early childhood
him to not concentrate and follow instructions.
centres, preschools and schools.
Consider199
BK-CLA-EWING_6E-190044-Chp08.indd Jake’s case below. 21/05/19 5:17 PM
Capti ve i n t h e cl a s s ro o m Case study

·1
Jake, 10 years old, has limited English on arriving in Australia with his family after seemingly
endless years of being on the run and then in a refugee camp. His family fled Sierra Leone
during the civil war. Both parents are not able to read and write in their mother tongue and have
264 PART 3English.
difficulty with THE EFFECTivE
Jake hasTEACHER
thus had limited experience with books. There are only a small primary
number of African children in his school and there is little understanding of the ordeal Jake’s
family has experienced. It is clear Jake seems to feel captive or constrained in the classroom,
especially when reading and writing tasks begin. He sits alone when he is in the classroom and
on the playground,
• Establish andclear
already appears
routines andisolated from (e.g.
procedures the other
how students. Heday
to start the is gruff when his
or lesson), although be
teacher tries to encourage
open him tothese
to changing play when
with his peers.
and The
if the teacher
need is worried
arises. Workableabout his progress
routines and procedures
but finds it difficult
ensure to communicate
that her concerns
recurring activities to his parents.
flow smoothly. Also, establish verbal and/or non-verbal cues
to guide and direct learner conduct (e.g. placing one’s hands on one’s head or beginning a
rhythmic hand clap to get attention or indicate a transition to theReflection
next part ofOpportunity
a lesson).
1 What are some of the issues that need to be addressed for Jake and his family?
2 Reflection
How shouldOpportunity
they be approached?
Reflection opportunities
Establishing routines and procedures makes expectations in the learning environment clear, and this
The waystructure
learners helps learners will
use language engage in their
depend learning.
upon howFor example,
language some at
is used educators
home and ensure that on their
in their
prompt you to pause and arrival inSome
local communities.
more highlysong,
the morning
while than
regarded otherothers
learners
‘ways with
educators
are welcomed
words’
establish
in the
and asked
(Brice Heath,
the routine
preschool
1983)how they are, others
as discussed
of having primary
and classroom context:and
start the
in Chapter
it issecondary
day with a
3 are
clear thatschool
some students
reflect on the way certain children beginlinewithout
up quietly
theoutside the classroom
‘linguistic to establish1990)
capital’ (Bourdieu, order.needed
Createfor
a list of routines
success and procedures
with language
and literacy.thatAsyou expect will
educators we be useful
need to and importantto
be sensitive for:these cultural differences and provide
issues reflect teaching 210 explicitPART 3•• THE
learning beginning and TEACHER
EFFECTIVE
experiences ending theenable
that will day all learners to extend their use and understanding
of language •in beginning
• ways thatand
willending
enhancelearning
theirexperiences
learning as well as their growth as individuals.
practice. •• steering the learning experience.
can’t get to that level you have to hold them back and give them
Manage
Specialand
Ed. monitor educator conduct
•Danielle
Act confidently. In primary
held a different view: and secondary school contexts, students need to see you as
efficient, organised, prepared, consistent and authoritative (but not authoritarian). You
My views are a result of working with children with special
need to disguise any nerves because students are very good at reading body language (see
needs. You come to realise that it doesn’t matter what their
Hughes, 2010).
Read authentic educator
chronological age is you can’t push them to know stuff. I mean
• Cultivate
I used to theget
ability to be flexible
really angry and usethem,
with opportunities
saying for learning
‘You thatknow
should arise rather than
sticking rigidly what
to what youyou
havedoing?’
planned But
for itsthen
own it
sake.
insights that illustrate key
this stuff, are suddenly hits you,
‘Are you going
• Concentrate to let
on positive them
aspects fail constantly
of learners’ because
behaviour. Take youto want
the time focus on individual
them to know fractions when they can’t tell the time, what’s the
points of interest. These are effort and involvement, and provide constructive feedback on behavioural improvements
point?’... And like non-Special Ed. kids, why should you expect
and the progress of their learning. We all need to be affirmed. Giving positive feedback needs
them to reach a particular line? Then you have the danger that
embedded throughout to to be bright
the
(for
authentickids
and appropriate.
reach thatEnsure that praise
so they just given
stop.publicly
That’sis silly.
understood
Andby others
how example,
long are ‘I appreciated
you goingthe toway
keep you waited
them patiently
down? ... for yoursee
I can turn, Enrico’). In this
what
ensure the reading flow is not way,
Sam’syoutalking
are modelling
abouttheand
positive
I can affirmation that learners
understand can also give
his feelings to each other.
entirely
but educator
• The then atshould
the same time
always work I to
don’t think an
de-escalate I issue
want ortoconflict
jeopardise my it from
to prevent
interrupted. health and my entire class’s health just to try and get them to
getting worse or from damaging the learning atmosphere in the room. If something that
the stage where some will go beyond and some will never reach.
happens makes you angry, try not to respond or discipline while you are still emotionally
Byinvolved
engagingasin wethis debate,say
sometimes Samandand
do Danielle are enabled
things in anger that weto listen
later to more sides than
regret.
one.
• This is an
Follow enactment
through of Dewey’s ifprecept
on consequences of open-mindedness.
these are expected or stated. The Theyimportant point
should always
here isbebeing prepared
emotionally to be open-minded
neutral, and being able
rational and depersonalised to express
(Larivee, your
2005), andview. As noted
conducted in
in Chapter 1, you need to be able to engage in critical debate in a context that recognises
private if appropriate (e.g. to protect a student’s self-esteem). Take the time to ensure that
that the
youdiscourses
are being are
fairmanifold and vexatious. Although they are difficult, and consensus is
and consistent.
sometimes
• Monitor impossible
your useto
of reach, debates
sanctions such
as their as these enable
effectiveness pre-service
often varies – missingeducators to further
breaks and giving
understand the complexities,
detentions dilemmas and
can be counterproductive opportunities
to encouraging involved
engaged learningin educators’ work
(Payne, 2015). and
Severe
the implications
punishmentsofcan their
lead beliefs for and
to defiance classroom practices.behaviour
further disruptive These discussions
(Way, 2011).are notensure
Also, about
proving a point but
punishments doare
notdialogues
damage yourwhere differentwith
relationship views
the are expressed in a supportive and
learner.
encouraging environment. We may not agree with one another but may well learn from
others if we remain open-minded and whole hearted.
Reflection Opportunity
How do May
Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. you disagree
not be agreeably?
copied,Whatscanned,
do you say oror
doduplicated,
to indicate to someone else that
in whole or you
in part. WCN 02-200-202
respect their view, even though you may not agree with it?
xiv GUIDE TO THE TEXT
FEATURES WITHIN CHAPTERS

12 PART 1 CHALLEngES AnD DiLEMMAS oF TEACHing
engaged in extended sociopolitical action that requires them to be concerned about equity and When you see key terms marked in
bold, study the margin definitions
social justice for their learners and for their learning. In addition, they need a sophisticated
38Pedagogy refers PART 1 CHAllENGES AND DilEMMAS OF TEACHiNG
understanding of pedagogy and how different strategies meet the needs of individual learners.
to the interface
between teaching
38and learning and Schools as postmodern places
PART 1 CHAllENGES AND DilEMMAS OF TEACHiNG nearby to learn important vocabulary
curriculum. It is not
only what is taught,
but also how it
Schools are physical sites with a great diversity of actors within their walls. They are also
of the professional
situated historically,can be found in
ideologically, that profession’s
micropolitically andcode of ethics’
socially. They are (p. beset
207). bySociety has a
dilemmas,
for your profession. See the Glossary
is taught, why it is right to consider that its teachers
on allare honest, fair, sense
trustworthy
we canand seecommitted
schools asprofessionals
taught and how it is
received.
tensions
who recognise
texts.
and opportunities
‘Postmodern’and respect
is a wordtheused
human
sides.
to
In this
dignity of
describe thethose with whomcondition,
contemporary
of the professional can be found in that profession’s code of ethics’ (p. 207). Society has
they deal.inWe
postmodern
all have
which thereaa at the back of the book for a full list
responsibility to uphold professional behaviour in teaching.
alongsideThis requiresthecourage, fortitude,
are
rightcontradictions
with
to consider that
intelligence
the and the
novel,
andits
insight.
past
juxtapositions.
leaps into
The oldfair,
teachers are honest,
Behaving ethically
the
lies
lies Anyone
future.
trustworthy
at the very
theand
heart one
visiting
who recognise and respect the human dignity of those with whom they deal. We all have a
new,committed
of teaching,
of our
customary
for teachers
large cities
battles
professionals
have
would of key terms and definitions.
aseegreat
old responsibility
facadestobehind in educating
standfor what the St James Ethics Centre has called ‘a good
responsibility upholdwhich professional new buildings;
behaviour nostalgia
in teaching. for requires
This the pastcourage,
is combined with
fortitude,
society’ functionalism.
modern (St James Ethics Centre & The Philosophy in the
Schools Association NSW, 2001).and In
intelligence and insight.Many schools
Behaving too have
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at the of very past through
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END-OF-CHAPTER FEATURES capacities

to beand
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of – aof children
just who will
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society toall.
negotiate an as yet unforeseen future.
A good society is a socially just society – one in which the wellbeing of individuals is bound up
Globalisation
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withchapters
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need toto consider
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be part of –asa you
follow we shall
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society for all.
you will
want
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as youfeature
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to these issues, whether world
theyinbewhich we should
in relation have an interest
to communicating is the one
in the classroom,
In the chapters that follow we shall be turning to the many practical matters that you will
Atglobalisation
the end
results
from a relentless of each chapter you will find several tools to help you to review, practise and extend
characterised
assessing
resurgentyou
learning,
by learning,
student the twinconducting
nationalism.
will keepWe
and apparently
see,
these
contradictory
yourselves
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as a professional of globalisation
or considering
need to consider as you take up the challenges of becoming an educator. It is our hope that
in mind astransnational
theoriesand
a touchstonecorporations
of
and
for being a fully
interchange of world as you attend to these issues, whether they be in relation to communicating in the classroom,
your knowledge
practices in such
fields as economics of the key topics.
localised struggles
actualised for language and place. Globalisation is reflected even in popular culture.
practitioner.
assessing student learning, conducting yourselves as a professional or considering theories of
Reality television programs such as My Kitchen Rules crop up in countries all over the world,
and impacts directly learning, you will keep these ethical considerations in mind as a touchstone for being a fully
on education. from Austria to Australia, but each country’s program has its own particular features. The
actualised practitioner.
school in the postmodern world similarly takes part in global functions as well as operating
in highly localised ways. Knowingly – or otherwise – much of the information that flows
Go Further contains extra
STUDY TOOlS through schools is part of an ever-shifting global discourse. It may be curriculum information,
resources and study tools for each
information about assessment and reporting strategies, information about ways for teaching
STUDY TOOlS reading or mathematics, information about technologies, even information about school
management. Or it may be about issues such as the gun control debate following the shootings chapter. Ask your instructor for
Go further in a range of United States schools. At the same time, each early childhood centre and school
Go Further with extra resources and study tools for this chapter. Ask your instructor
is encouraged to develop highly localised responses to its immediate community, to run the Go Further resource and
for the Go Further resource and deepen your understanding of the chapter content.
Go further itself as an independent small business. Schools and early childhood centres are accountable
Go Further with
nationally. extra resources
Nationwide andisstudy
testing eventools
beingforsuggested
this chapter. Ask
for allyour instructorsix year olds.
Australian deepen your understanding of the
topic.
Following
1 Make a list of ethical dilemmas you may experience when planning and evaluating a curriculum unit
through When we think of preschools and schools as postmodern texts and apply to them principles of
on a sensitive topic like the environment or refugees. Imagine that you are an educator in a small
deconstruction, we can read for the contradictions and difficult questions.
Following country town that is dependent on the local timber industry, which CHAPTERis significantly
2 ETHiCAl logging
PRACTiCE native 39
1 Make
Whya list
is itofthat
ethical
our dilemmas you may experience
most disadvantaged learners act when planning and
sometimes evaluating
against a curriculum
their own long-term unit
through forests. Imagine you work in a community that is a site where many newly arrived refugees settle or in
on a sensitive
interests by being topic like the environment
complicit in disrupting or refugees.
their Imagine that you are an educator in a small
own learning?
a community where there is strong political opposition to immigration.
country
How has
2 particular
town
During aImagine
forests.
it that
comeis to
professional
learning you
dependent
be that fun
experience
work
process?
on the
has local
become
placement,
in a community
timber
that
an industry,
a pre-service
is a site where
which
end in itself,
teacher
is significantly
rather
manybecomes
logging native
than a by-product
awarerefugees
newly arrived
of a
that learners
settleare
or in Test your knowledge and
3 In the category for isparents,
amisbehaving and caregivers
verythere isand
disrespectfulfamilies in the
during our generic
weekly code of ethics,
religious it was posited
lesson provided that in the
voluntarily
community
Why
teachers ‘respect
school.family
However,
where
intellectual
privacy
theand
strong
playfulness political
not
treat information
pre-service
opposition
recognised
teacher iswith
as fun?to immigration.
an appropriate
concerned that if helevel
wereoftoconfidentiality’.
2 During a professional experience placement, a pre-service teacher becomes aware that learners are
You the class
intervene or advise consolidate your learning through
witness in the staffroom
teacher he may of be
thereducing
school a the
discussion in quite
authority of thepejorative terms about
visiting teacher. Whataother
familyconsiderations
that seems might
misbehaving and very disrespectful during the weekly religious lesson provided voluntarily in the
to be knownaffect
to several teachers,to
his reluctance and the ways Isinitwhich
intercede? thishis
possible family
own conducts
stance onitself. Howeducation
religious and with in
school. However, the pre-service teacher is concerned that if he were to intervene or advise the class
whom
government Following through exercises.
should you schools
raise thisis matter?
affecting his actions?
teacher he may be reducing the authority of the visiting teacher. What other considerations might
4 Select one affectof the his
other categories
reluctance in the codeIsofitethics
to intercede? possibleforhis
teaching described
own stance in this chapter
on religious educationandinwrite
government
indicators for practice.
schools For example,
is affecting what would indicate to you that a teacher was ‘demonstrating
his actions?
unconditional respect for the uniqueness and dignity of each individual student’?
5 Begin to construct your own philosophy of practice. We encourage you to return to it from time to
time; is it changing? How and why?
http://www.qct.edu.au/standards-and-conduct/code-of-ethics Ethics code from the Queensland College

BK-CLA-EWING_6E-190044-Chp02.indd 38
Useful 18/05/19 4:40 PM
of Teachers
online
teaching
https://www.vit.vic.edu.au/professional-responsibilities/conduct-and-ethics Ethics code from the Victorian
resources
Institute of Teachers
http://educationstandards.nsw.edu.au/wps/portal/nesa/about/who-we-are/open-access-information/
policy-documents/conduct-ethics Ethics code from the NSW Education Standards Authority
https://www.trb.sa.edu.au/code-of-ethics Ethics code from the Teachers Registration Board of South
Australia
https://www.education.act.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0007/17692/TeachersCode_ Extend your understanding
ofProfessionalPractice.pdf Ethics code from the ACT Education Directorate
40 PART 1 CHAllENGES AND DilEMMAS OF TEACHiNG
https://www.apa.org/ethics/code/index.aspx APA ethics code
through the Useful online
http://www.ethics.org.au/articles.aspx This is the website for the St James Ethics Centre. It contains a
range of definitions, articles and accounts of research.
teaching resources and
References
http://www.curriculum.edu.au/verve/_resources/National_Declaration_on_the_Educational_Goals_for_
Cross, D., Shaw, T., Hearn, L., Epstein, M., Monks, H., St James Ethics Centre, www.ethics.org.au/ things_
References relevant to each
Young_Australians.pdf This document sets out theCovert
stated national to_read/articles_to_read/professions/
educational goals. Each state and article_0118.
chapter.
Lester, L., & Thomas, L. (2009). Australian
territory has developed
Bullying websites
Prevalence for(ACBPS).
Study responses that
Child contain arguments
Health shtm,in relation
accessed to the2005.
8 March efficacy of
these goals.Promotion Research Centre, Edith Cowan University, McBurney-Fry, G. 2002, Improving Your Practicum: A
Perth. deewr.gov.au. Retrieved on June 6, 2018. Guide to Better Teaching Practice, 2nd edn, Social
http://www.aitsl.edu.au This is the website for the Australian Institute Science
Dempster, N. & Berry, V. (2003) ‘Blindfold in a minefield:
for Teaching and School Leadership
Press, Katoomba, NSW.
(AITSL). It Principals’
is a new organisation established
ethical decision in 2010 (replacingMcCallum,
making’, Cambridge Teaching Australia) and the website
F. 2001, ‘Inhibiting and enabling factors that
continues to grow ofand
Journal develop.33 (3), pp. 457–78.
Education, influence educator reporting of suspected child abuse
Education and Care Services National Regulations, and neglect’, in I. Berson, M. Berson & B. Cruz
http://www.earlychildhoodaustralia.org.au/our-publications/eca-code-ethics/
New South Wales Government, last modified 1 July
Early Childhood Australia
(eds), Cross Cultural Perspectives in Child Advocacy,
has also developed a set of statements about ethical behavior specifically
2018, https://www.legislation.nsw.gov.au/#/view/ for early
Information childhood
Age Inc., educators.
Connecticut.
regulation/2011/653, accessed 9 April 2019. —— & Johnson, B. 2002, ‘Decision making processes used
Ellsworth, E. 1992, ‘Why doesn’t this feel empowering’, by teachers in cases of suspected child abuse and
in C. Luke and J. Gore (eds), Feminisms and Critical neglect’, Child Maltreatment, 14 (1), pp. 7–10.
Pedagogy, Routledge, London, pp. 90–119. Melbourne Declaration on Educational Goals for Young
Ewing, R. Fleming, J. & Waugh, F. 2019, Becoming Australians 2008, Ministerial Council on Education,
reflective: Exploring the contribution of reflective Employment, Training and Youth Affairs, www.
practice on the employability of graduate teachers curriculum.edu.au/verve/_resources/ National_
and social workers. Symposium, University Declaration_on_the_Educational_Goals_for_
of Sydney, February. Retrieved from https:// Young_Australians.pdf, accessed 13 March 2010.
reflectionsemployability.net. Office of the High Commissioner 1989, Conventions
Higgins, D., Bromfield, L., Richardson, N., Holzer, P. on the Rights of the Child, United Nations
& Berlyn, C. 2009, Mandatory Reporting of Child Human Rights, https://www.ohchr.org/en/
Abuse, Resource Sheet #3. Australian Institute of professionalinterest/pages/crc.aspx, accessed 9 April
Family Studies, www.aifs.gov.au/nch/pubs/sheets/ 2019.
rs3/rs3.html, accessed 24 August 2009.
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St James Ethics Centre & The Philosophy in Schools 18/05/19 4:40 PM
Johnson, B. 1995, Teaching and Learning about Personal Association NSW 2001, Educating for a Good Society:
Safety, Painters Prints, Adelaide. A National Conversation, St James Ethics Centre,
Kervin, L. & Mantei, J. 2019, ‘“We don’t have time”: The Sydney.
challenge of designing interventions for time-poor Tangen, D., Campbell, M. (2010), ‘Cyberbullying
students’, in R. Ewing, J. Fleming & F. Waugh (eds), prevention. One primary school’s approach’,
Becoming reflective: Exploring the contribution of Australian Journal of Guidance and Counselling,
reflective practice on the employability of graduate 20 (2) pp. 225–34.
teachers and social workers. Tsekeris, C. & Katrivesis, N. 2008, ‘Reflexivity in
Le Cornu, R. & Peters, J. 2005, ‘Towards constructivist sociological theory and social action’, Philosophy,
classrooms: The role of the reflective teacher’, Journal Sociology, Psychology and History, 7 (1), pp. 1–12.
of Educational Enquiry, 6 (1), pp. 50–64. Whitton, D., Sinclair, C., Barker, K., Nanlohy, P. &
Longstaff, S. 1995, ‘Professions in society’, Australian Nosworthy, M. 2004, Learning for Teaching: Teaching
Financial Review, December, republished by the for Learning, Thomson, Melbourne.
xv

Guide to the online resources

FOR THE INSTRUCTOR
Cengage is pleased to provide you with a selection of resources

that will help you prepare your lectures and assessments.
These teaching tools are accessible via cengage.com.au/instructors
for Australia or cengage.co.nz/instructors for New Zealand.
MINDTAP
Premium online teaching and learning tools are available on the MindTap platform – the
personalised eLearning solution.
MindTap is a flexible and easy-to-use platform that helps build student confidence and gives you a
clear picture of their progress. We partner with you to ease the transition to digital – we’re with
you every step of the way.
The Cengage Mobile App puts your course directly into students’ hands with course materials
available on their smartphone or tablet. Students can read on the go, complete practice quizzes
or participate in interactive real-time activities.
MindTap for Ewing’s Teaching: Dilemmas, challenges and opportunities 6th edition is full of
innovative resources to support critical thinking, and help your students move from memorisation
to mastery! Includes:
• Ewing’s Teaching: Dilemmas, challenges and opportunities 6th edition eBook
• Portfolio activity: Your Philosophy of Teaching
• Lesson plan templates
• Video activities and more!
MindTap is a premium purchasable eLearning tool. Contact
your Cengage learning consultant to find out how MindTap can
transform your course.
INSTRUCTOR’S GUIDE
The Instructor’s Guide includes:
• learning goals
• chapter structure and pedagogy
• additional cases and discussion activities.
POWERPOINT™ PRESENTATIONS
Use the chapter-by-chapter PowerPoint slides to enhance your lecture presentations and
handouts by reinforcing the key principles of your subject.
xvi GUIDE TO THE ONLINE RESOURCES
ARTWORK FROM THE TEXT

Add the digital files of graphs, tables, pictures and flow charts into your course management
system, use them in student handouts, or copy them into your lecture presentations.
GO FURTHER RESOURCE
Provide your students with the Go Further resource to help deepen their understanding of the
content. It includes:
• “Your Philosophy of Teaching” portfolio activity
• Lesson plan templates.
FOR THE STUDENT
GO FURTHER RESOURCE
Deepen your understanding of the chapter content by asking your instructor for your Go Further
resource, which includes:
• “Your Philosophy of Teaching” portfolio activity
• Lesson plan templates.
MINDTAP FOR TEACHING: DILEMMAS, CHALLENGES AND

OPPORTUNITIES 6TH EDITION
MindTap is the next-level online learning tool that helps you get better grades!
MindTap gives you the resources you need to study – all in one place and available when you need
them. In the MindTap Reader, you can make notes, highlight text and even find a definition directly
from the page.
If your instructor has chosen MindTap for your subject this semester, log in to MindTap to:
• Get better grades
• Save time and get organised
• Connect with your instructor and peers
• Study when and where you want, online and mobile
• Complete assessment tasks as set by your instructor
When your instructor creates a course using MindTap, they
will let you know your course key so you can access the
content. Please purchase MindTap only when directed by your
instructor. Course length is set by your instructor.
xvii

Preface
How does one learn to become a teacher? How does one learn to be patient, to be analytical, to be inspirational, to
be resourceful, to be creative, to be hopeful, to be ethical and to be courageous? How does one learn when to hold
on and when to hold back, to do and to undo? How does one learn that choosing to become a teacher is choosing
a profession that is endlessly gratifying, but always incomplete?
These were the opening words to the preface of the first edition of Teaching: Challenges and Dilemmas and
we would not change one of them. In fact, we would alter few of the remaining words of the preface because,
while the educational landscape is dynamic and some features have shifted greatly, the principles remain the
same. In this sixth edition of the book you will find new issues, case studies and resources that illustrate the
paradoxical nature of teaching, which constantly changes and simultaneously remains the same. In more
recent editions of this book we have seen intervention by the federal government in education, especially in
relation to national testing, national curriculum development and the establishment of professional teaching
standards. Traditionally, the states and territories have exercised significant autonomy in determining what
happens in education. Today, there is stronger direction by the Commonwealth.
Throughout the book we argue that the first step in becoming a competent and respected educator is to
recognise that good teaching, done well, is both hard and satisfying. It is intellectual, emotional and physical
work and it is also socially responsible work. It is incontestable that teachers need a considerable array of skills
in identifying, analysing and assessing learning, and in designing, implementing and evaluating programs.
Educators must be capable communicators beyond the centre or classroom. They need to be effective
colleagues, careful and sensitive in working with the community and guided by precepts of equity and justice.
HOW THIS BOOK IS ORGANISED

The book’s structure has three sections:
PART 1:
• The nature of teachers’ work including the ways in which it has been historically constructed and the
ways in which it has changed
• Teacher professionalism and ethical behaviour
PART 2:
• Learner diversity
• The nature of learning
• The learning environment
• Learning in changing times
PART 3:
• Practical skills and competencies
• Teacher learning
• Assessment and reporting of student learning
• Working with parents in building family/community partnerships
• The forms of practitioner inquiry
xviii Preface
PEDAGOGICAL FEATURES
Each chapter identifies and explains key terms, and challenges you, as the reader, to pause and reflect upon
the important issues raised. We anticipate that you will find yourselves fully engaged in these moments of
reflection. Perhaps they could be an opportunity for you to have a conversation with your peers.
Each chapter draws extensively upon a wide range of literature in the field and upon the profession’s own
voice through case-study material. A ‘following through’ section concludes each chapter to enable you to
pursue the major issues that have been raised. Again, we hope they will be useful in generating discussions
and debate. After all, inquiring teachers are committed to investigating taken-for-granted practices.
OUR LEARNING
As authors we too have been learners. We have read chapters aloud and debated their structure, function and
content. Over time, we have variously experienced schooling in New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland,
South Australia, Western Australia and England. We have been early childhood, primary, secondary and
tertiary teachers, drawing upon our own narratives and biographies. We have refused technical reductionism
as a way forward in the professional education of teachers.
This edition of the book explores early childhood learning as well as the primary and secondary years of
schooling. A number of studies have shown a pattern of regression, even alienation, as learners move from
one sector to the other.
As readers of this text, we encourage you to read against the grain and to question and challenge
implicit assumptions. We hope that you will be prompted to reread this book – that, as you become more
experienced, both through your initial teacher education and as you embark on teaching careers, you will
return to the text and continue to be provoked and stirred by it.
Robyn Ewing
Lisa Kervin
Chris Glass
Brad Gobby
Susan Groundwater-Smith
Rosie Le Cornu
xix

About the authors

DR ROBYN EWING AM, PROFESSOR OF TEACHER EDUCATION AND THE ARTS,
SCHOOL OF EDUCATION AND SOCIAL WORK, UNIVERSITY OF SYDNEY
A former primary teacher, Robyn continues to work extensively alongside teachers interested in creative
pedagogies and curriculum reform. Her current research interests include: the role of the Arts in
transforming learning; using drama-rich learning processes with literature to enhance children’s language
and literacies; issues in teacher education, especially the experiences of early career teachers and mentoring;
teacher professional learning; the role of reflection in professional practice; and arts-informed research
methodologies. She has worked in partnership with Sydney Theatre Company on the School Drama teacher
professional learning program since 2009.
DR LISA KERVIN, PROFESSOR IN LANGUAGE AND LITERACY, FACULTY OF SOCIAL

SCIENCES, UNIVERSITY OF WOLLONGONG
Lisa also leads research on Play, Curriculum and Pedagogy in Early Start Research. Lisa’s current research
interests are focused on young children and how they engage with literate practices and she is currently
involved in research projects funded by the Australian Research Council focused on young children and writing,
digital interactions and literacy learning. She has researched her own teaching and has collaborative research
partnerships with teachers and students in tertiary and primary classrooms and prior-to-school settings.
DR CHRIS GLASS, HONORARY RESEARCH FELLOW, SCHOOL OF EDUCATION,

MURDOCH UNIVERSITY
Chris started in education as a primary teacher and has had a varied career across the years of schooling and
works with pre-service teachers to support their developing capacity as a teacher. Her research interests
are the development of teacher identity, international professional placements for pre-service teachers and
the use of arts based research methodologies and methods.
DR BRAD GOBBY, SENIOR LECTURER, SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, CURTIN UNIVERSITY

Brad is the Chief Investigator of an Australian Research Council funded national project entitled School
autonomy reform and social justice in public education. He has experience as a secondary school teacher, and
currently researches and teaches in the areas of education policy, school autonomy and curriculum. Brad’s
research into education policy has been widely published in international peer-reviewed journals and edited
books.
DR SUSAN GROUNDWATER-SMITH AM, HONORARY PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION,

SCHOOL OF EDUCATION AND SOCIAL WORK, UNIVERSITY OF SYDNEY
Susan is the Honorary Professor of Education, Sydney School of Education and Social Work, University of
Sydney, and also chairs the Teacher Education Advisory Board. In recent years she has given her attention to
issues in relation to consulting with children and young people and has published and researched extensively
in this area of ‘student voice’. Thus her commitment to teacher inquiry has extended to include students as
active inquiring agents into the circumstances of their learning.
xx About the authors
DR ROSIE LE CORNU, ADJUNCT ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR, SCHOOL OF EDUCATION,

THE UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA
Rosie has worked in education for over 40 years, which includes 12 years as a primary teacher, R-12 Advisor
and deputy principal and 30 years as a teacher educator. She has a strong commitment to high-quality
teaching and teacher education, underpinned by the notions of reflection, collaboration, partnerships
and social justice. Her research has focused primarily on pre-service teachers and early career teachers,
providing insights and ideas that can help them become creative and agentic professionals who are able to
support student learning effectively and responsibly.
xxi

Acknowledgements
In this book there are photographs of students working in many contexts across Australia. These images are
more than mere illustrations; they remind us of the diversity of learners and the many ways in which they
are engaged in learning in our schools. We want to thank the owners of these photographs for their use. Each
chapter opens with student drawings that we have selected from many that were submitted to us by children
and young people aged from three to 12 years. So, of course, we also wish to thank them. We also thank the
many teachers in schools across Australia with whom we have worked and who have kept us grounded in
their complex worlds of practice.
We would like to thank Shanti Clements for her contribution on how to develop a positive learning
community in Chapter 10. We would also like to thank Jaci Hockley and Bronwyn Honey for their
contributions on how to work with parents and communities in Chapter 12. Finally, we thank the School of
Education and Social Work at the University of Sydney and University of Wollongong, Murdoch and Curtin
Universites and the University of South Australia for providing the thinking space necessary to work on this
reconceptualisation of the original text.
The authors and Cengage Learning would also like to thank the following reviewers for their incisive
and helpful feedback:
• Robyn Babaeff Monash University
• David Cleaver University of Southern Queensland
• Anne Coffey University of Notre Dame
• Lexi Cutcher Southern Cross University
• Anitra Goriss-Hunter Federation University
• Gillian Kidman Monash University
• Lynette Longaretti Deakin University
• Bill Lucas University of South Australia
• Michelle Ludecke Monash University
• Robyn McCarthy University of Tasmania
• Amanda McFadden Queensland University of Technology
• Peter O’Brien Queensland University of Technology
• Rebecca Reid-Nguyen University of South Australia
• Jennifer Ryan La Trobe University
• Lisa Sonter University of New England
• Matthew Thomas Deakin University
• Kenneth Young University of Sunshine Coast
PART 1
Challenges and
dilemmas of teaching
1 So, you want to be a teacher! Working in a changing context
2 Ethical practice
Good teaching, done well, is challenging but rewarding intellectual,

emotional and physical work. It is also socially responsible work, given it
profoundly affects children’s life chances. Teachers must strive to ensure
that learners will achieve success not only in literacy and numeracy,
but also in developing their creativities and imaginations, their critical
thinking and their understanding and appreciation of the many cultures
that will touch their lives.
1
1
So, you want to be a teacher!
Working in a changing
context
Good teaching cannot be reduced to technique;
good teaching comes from the identity and
integrity of the teacher.
Mara
Parker Palmer
Asher
When children imagine what

a teacher is, they see them
doing things differently.
2
CHAPTER 1 So, you want to be a teacher! Working in a changing context 3
C ongratulations on your decision to teach! You are beginning an important journey,

one that can have enormous potential to change learners’ life chances. On receiving his
Honorary Doctorate from the University of Western Australia, Tim Minchin’s nine
reflections about life included that:
Teachers are the most admirable and important people in the world.
Speech transcript from Tim Minchin. Retrieved from https://www.timminchin.com/2013/09/25/occasional-address/
We wondered if people have responded to your decision to teach similarly? Or have there
been different kinds of responses?
In reflecting on your decision to teach, we thought that thinking about the way teachers and
their role in today’s ever-changing world are perceived and represented might be interesting.
For example, think about how the actor Chris Lilley represented the drama teacher, Mr G.,
in the comedy Summer Heights High.
Recently, Eddie Woo, a passionate mathematics teacher at Cherrybrook High School in
Sydney, was named 2018 Australian local hero. His decision to record his mathematics lessons
and make them available online has had a profound influence on many people all over the
world. The Australian Story aired on ABC in 2018 included a number of his current and former
students’ testimonies of how their perceptions of mathematics had been transformed. Later
in 2018 Eddie was named as one of the world’s 10 best teachers. Eddie’s story demonstrates
how teachers can make a huge difference in the lives of the learners they teach.
In May 2018, a report, Through Growth to Achievement: Review to achieve educational
excellence in Australian schools (also known as Gonski 2.0) asserted that there was a pressing
need to raise the status of the teaching profession by ‘strengthening the attractiveness of
the teaching and school leadership professions by creating clearer career pathways, better
recognising expertise, and strengthening workforce planning and development’ (p. xi).
There are many depictions of teachers in popular films and great film classics, representations
of teachers in popular culture and lots of stories about iconic teachers who have changed the
lives of their students. Have any of these influenced your decision to teach? Are there real-life
inspirational teachers who have played a critical role in your life?
Parker Palmer’s words above from The Courage to Teach written in 1998 are as true today
as they were two decades ago. They underline that teaching is at one and the same time a great
pleasure and a great responsibility. Choosing to be a teacher is not an easy path to take. It
involves myriad skills, attributes, knowledge and understandings, which must be embodied
Can you think of a movie or a television series Or is there a real-life teacher who has
about a teacher that was really inspiring? Why changed your world? Who? How?
did it inspire you? What teacher qualities are List three reasons why you have chosen to
highlighted in the way this teacher is portrayed? teach. What kinds of reasons are they? Intrinsic
Are there similarities and differences in these reasons around making a difference in the lives
portrayals? What kinds of learners do they teach? of children/young people? Or are they more
Where? (For example: Miss Honey in Matilda; Dead extrinsic; for example, related to the pay or
Poets Society; Mr Holland’s Opus; Freedom Writers;The conditions?
Classroom; Stand and Deliver;To Sir with Love.)
4 PART 1 CHALLENGES AND DILEMMAS OF TEACHING
and enacted daily in a complex and dynamic environment – and in ethical and socially just
ways. Educators must meet the needs of many stakeholders, ranging from the students and
their parents to the community, and more broadly to the education sector in which they
work, and to state and federal governments.
We have touched on the way some filmmakers have represented teachers. As Nicole
Mockler (2017) writes:
The way teachers are talked about in the public space is important. It affects teacher morale and
how people might interact with them both professionally and socially. It even affects the way
new teachers perceive their career pathway unfolding, or not.
The media also constructs teachers in a variety of ways and helps shape public opinion
about them. Yet it does not always portray teachers in a positive light (Shine and O’Donoghue,
2013). Sometimes it seems that teachers are held solely responsible for improving all learners’
academic and emotional needs and improving Australia’s standing in international literacy
and numeracy benchmarking tables. And many community members also have advice for
teachers based on their own or their children’s experiences at school. In addition, it frequently
seems that teachers must respond to every new community issue that arises. These issues
must be addressed in the classroom – from bike safety to sexual education. As you navigate
others’ perceptions of teachers, it will be important to develop your own identity as a teacher.
In this sixth edition of our book it is our purpose to discuss with you, as active readers,
the skills, attributes and understandings of and about teachers. Education draws upon a range
of underlying disciplines, including psychology, sociology, philosophy, history, anthropology
and social geography. Each of these will be briefly explored later in this chapter, as will the
process of reading not only this book as a text, but also schools themselves as richly woven
texts. Throughout the book we will embody the portrayal of teaching and learning through the
use of authentic case study material, which will anchor our various themes, discussion areas and
arguments in real-life teaching and learning situations spanning preschool to secondary contexts.
Given it is our intention to draw across educational contexts – from prior-to-school, through
primary to secondary – as such we shape our conversation of the work of ‘educators’ to be
inclusive of the important work in all stages of education. Some of the cases we share thoughout
this book arise from our own experiences as teachers and as researchers in the classroom; others
are drawn from our colleagues and students, others from publications in the field.
Irrespective of source, the cases emphasise the importance of context. While all educational
institutions share a great many fundamental characteristics, no one preschool or school is
quite the same as another. They vary in size, in the composition of the student and community
populations, in social class, in settings and in the ways they are organised for teaching and
learning. We believe that too often people’s understanding of the work of school teachers
is oversimplified and codified and based on their own past experiences. It is as though, by
mastering a series of formulae and atomistic skills, as well as the tricks of the trade and tried
and true recipes, it is possible to train those engaged in a teacher education course to become
highly technically competent. Teaching is far more sophisticated than using so-called best
practice models in challenging learning settings. Good teaching requires intellectual, creative
and critical thought and careful, systematic reflection to meet the needs of individual learners.
We see this book as one that will engage you in making sense of what it is that preschools
and schools are, what they do and why they do it. Professional knowledge about education
today differs significantly from how we might remember our own experiences of preschool
and school. While throughout the book we encourage you to reflect upon your own experiences
through a series of reflection opportunities and to consider the experiences of others around
you, we remind you that though these may colour what we imagine a ‘good’ education to
be, it is important to reach more deeply into the field of practice and understand something
of its purposes and the ways in which it may be captured by specific interests. We wish to
emphasise that, in the end, the education that matters contributes to both the development of
individuals and that of our society in terms of national and global consequences. In writing
of the work of Professor Petra Ponte, a highly regarded Dutch educator, Groundwater-Smith
described a meaningful and transformative education as one that:
nurtures a human flourishing, building on both the desirable features of the past that has
provided us with a rich legacy, and an openness to the future in which young people can be
active and imaginative agents.
Transmission
Groundwater-Smith, 2012, p. 14 model of schooling
is a model of
The current discussion about whether robots could replace educators underlines how education that sees
the educator as
lamentable it would be if teaching were to become subservient, semiskilled and unreflective. merely transmitting
Today’s teachers need not only to be resourceful, adaptable and knowledgeable, they also have knowledge and
skills they have into
to be activist professionals, capable of being discerning, imaginative problem solvers who are
the minds of their
visionary and able to deal with constant and relentless social, economic and technological passive learners.
change. They need to appreciate and foster the artistry in their teaching as they strive to meet Community
the needs of each learner. And they need courage to assert their professional understandings of practice
A community of
in a world looking for simple recipes that will work for all learners and also imposing narrow practice refers
and rigid notions of teaching, curriculum and forms of learning. to a collective of
More than 40 years ago a famous Brazilian educator, Paolo Freire, urged societies to change the practitioners with
a shared interest,
traditional banking model of education in which educators deposited education in their learners’ who are prepared
minds. For education to transcend a mere transmission model of schooling, where educators to work together to
better understand
transmit knowledge to passive learners, requires that learners are acknowledged as active their professional
participants in the learning process, as they explore and question the many and varied experiences work and the ways
that they encounter in the classroom and beyond. They must also be able to see their educators as in which it can be
improved.
co-learners who are members of communities of practice (Lave and Wenger, 1991, 1998) that are
Collective
mutually supportive and generous to its members. In her investigation of collective responsibility responsibility
among teachers, Whalan (2012) argues that when educators take joint ownership of monitoring emphasises that
educators are not
the quality of the learning experience in the learning environment and when they engage in mutual operating alone
trust, the result is the enhanced achievement of the many outcomes that they would wish for their behind closed doors,
learners. Teaching should not be seen as a solitary profession with the classroom doors closed but are members
of a community of
against all comers; instead it is one that is dynamic, collegial and welcoming. practice with shared
In this book we shall set before you the challenges, dilemmas and opportunities of responsibility for the
learning of all within
teaching in ways that we hope will lead you to understanding that your work as an educator the school.
is best done in a framework of career-long reflective learning and built upon passion, Beginning
artistry, skill development and professional judgement. At the end of your initial teacher competencies
education, as graduates you should expect to have beginning competencies that will permit are the essential
capabilities that you
you to be safe practitioners in the classroom, working relatively independently but hopefully need as an early
with mentoring support. All the way through your teaching lives you need to be alert for career educator
that will grow and
opportunities to further your professional growth and development. We have included many develop as you gain
opportunities for your reflection, but we are mindful of the fact that reflection is an activity experience.
that goes beyond ‘just thinking about’ things. Rather, reflection requires us to simultaneously
examine our ideas and critically explore where those ideas came from, how they are shaped
and, if they need to change, how they might be re-conceptualised.
As well as taking examples from theories of teaching and learning, we shall be examining
and debating practices that have been used with success in early childhood centres, preschools
and primary and secondary classrooms.
In the interests of obtaining a quick snapshot of the complexity of what it is to be an educator,
we have asked many educators over the years at various meetings to recall where they had
been and what they had been doing at 10 a.m. on Tuesday morning. Some had been sharing
a picture book with their students, some were coaching sport, others overseeing individuals
and groups of young learners in literacy and numeracy activities, others had been listening to
older learners using multimedia resources to report upon their project research, several had
been organising learners into groups so that they might work together effectively as a team,
one had been comforting a learner who was distressed about events outside school, another had
been in conference with a school counsellor about special assistance needed for a learner in her
class, a few were engaged in curriculum planning with colleagues and others were developing
assessment strategies for a new project; still others were learning about recent changes in ways
in which they might employ multimedia tools in their early learning centres or classrooms.
Each was professionally engaged in one of the broad range of activities that we can loosely call
‘teachers’ work’. Over the years the list has grown and expanded, particularly in relation to the
use of information and communication technologies and all that this entails.
Already, it must be clear to you that becoming an educator means far more than just
being an instructor. Educators are arbitrators, accountants, nurses, data analysts, stock clerks,
judges, guides, counsellors, investigators, mediators, navigators and much more. Closely
observing one educator for just one day would quickly disabuse you of any idea that teaching
is an easy or undemanding profession.
In preparing for the first edition of this book more than two decades ago, Lorna Parker,
an experienced school principal, was asked to complete the sentence ‘Teaching is …’ She
compiled the list shown in Figure 1.1 based on her observation of her teachers at work. We ask
you if it still holds true today.
FIGURE 1.1
WHAT IS TEACHING?
Teaching is:
➜➜ writing programs for key learning areas and special-focus areas
➜➜ preparing and implementing lessons
➜➜ organising and preparing for excursions
➜➜ setting assessment tasks
➜➜ cutting up fruit for morning tea
➜➜ marking students’ work (preferably with them)
➜➜ assessing student performance
➜➜ diagnosing reasons for performance levels
➜➜ designing remedial programs
Teaching is:
➜➜ doing library research
➜➜ attending inservice professional development courses
➜➜ compiling individual student portfolios
➜➜ getting to know new curricula documents
➜➜ collecting data about student progress
➜➜ contributing to the formulation of school plans
➜➜ undertaking playground and bus duty
➜➜ discussing professional issues with other staff
➜➜ coaching for sport, chess, debating
➜➜ attending parent and citizen meetings
➜➜ talking with parents
➜➜ talking about student progress with parents at interviews
➜➜ writing submissions for special-purpose grants
➜➜ ordering and purchasing
➜➜ designing a stimulating learning environment
➜➜ attending to student welfare
➜➜ settling playground disputes
➜➜ compiling personal professional development profiles
➜➜ maintaining social relationships with other staff
➜➜ keeping up with professional reading
➜➜ talking with newly arrived refugees
➜➜ referring students requiring special assistance
➜➜ evaluating own teaching behaviours
➜➜ keeping attendance rolls and other records
➜➜ assessing student health problems
➜➜ identifying child abuse and sexual assault
➜➜ implementing behaviour management programs
➜➜ monitoring occupational health and safety issues, etc., etc., etc.
Looking at the list, a group of early career educators added that they also see teaching
as a profession where it is important to be supported and mentored by their colleagues.
There are increasing opportunities for educators to observe each other at work, particularly
in situations where they are in teams. While examining such a list, principals commented
that their additional responsibilities are multiplying given all the changes associated with
‘the education revolution’. Nevertheless, they also emphasised how important it is to have a
How does this list compare with your own expectations about being an educator today? What other
activities can you add? Talk to any educators you know and see what they would add to the list.
deep understanding of learners’ interpersonal skills, idiosyncrasies and intrinsic and extrinsic
motivation in a world of social networking.
While teaching itself is multidimensional, so too are schools. Each school has its own
history, and each is bound up in the regulatory frameworks that govern different sectors and
systems in states and territories. Education is still a state and territory responsibility, even
though the Commonwealth government is exerting more and more pressure to standardise
learning, so that we need to be mindful that each school is set in a different context. A
newly built school in a wealthy Darwin suburb differs from one that has served a Hobart
community for over a 100 years, or a remote two-teacher school in Far North Queensland, or
a middle school that is part of a Kindergarten-to-Year 12 low-fee-paying private independent
college in Adelaide. The above list of the ways in which educators work is a generic one. The
specifics of that work, however, vary from one school to another. Managing behaviour will
be done somewhat differently if one is working in an independent Christian school in one
state or territory than it will if the teacher is employed in a government-funded preschool
in another. Meeting the needs of refugee children in urban schools (Lynch, 2011) is a very
different challenge than taking action for the social inclusion of Indigenous children in remote
communities (Rigney, 2011).
To better understand the great diversity in educational contexts we suggest that preschools
and schools, like this book, should be read as complex social texts. To read schools well
requires skill and insight. As well, we need to be ready to read ‘against the grain’; that is, to
bring a critical eye to the text.
Consider the people who are around you in your teacher education program – where did they go
to school? What is the same and different about their experiences when compared with your own?
What do they consider to be the core work of today’s educators?
Alamy Stock Photo/Bill Bachman
Shutterstock.com/photobank.ch
Old and new:

two contrasting
school buildings
The school as text

Let us turn now for a moment to the notion of reading a school and imagine each preschool
and school can be read as a text. What do we mean by that? Any text, whether it is a novel,
a magazine, a radio program, a television show or a digital text, such as might be found on
YouTube, is something that has been constructed by its author(s), and so it is capable of being
taken apart by its reader, listener or viewer. If we read a preschool or school as a narrative,
what kind of story does it tell? How has this story been shaped by the cultural influences in
the community? If it were read as a television documentary, what kind of information would
it contain and how would it be viewed?
Robyn Ewing (2014), in the preface to Curriculum and Assessment: Storylines, reminded
us that we ‘live our lives through stories and it is thus natural that as teachers [educators]
we frequently make sense of our work through narrative’ (p. xix). Using narrative, Robyn
created her account of curriculum and assessment as a series of storylines, each with its own
history and particularity. Just as these practices have their own ways of being narrated, so too
does the school itself. Hence our claim that the school can be read as a text; and that just as
the world of literature is rich and layered, so too are educational communities, in all of their
infinite variety.
Alamy Stock Photo/Greatstock Photographic Library
What can you

read about this
classroom from
Whether recent school leavers or mature-age learners, you are experienced readers. You the image?
have been engaged in reading and analysing literary texts during your own learning journeys
and hopefully when reading for pleasure over many years. In this chapter we are asking you
to consider reading preschools and schools as different kinds of texts.
Deconstructing texts
Deconstruction Texts can be deconstructed. Deconstruction is an important tool for exploring the surface and
involves taking a deep features of a text to identify the hidden contradictions, while embedded vested interests
text apart so that
its messages can be are made explicit and problematic. It pushes to one side the notion of a single preferred
identified, analysed reading. Every text’s meaning is subjective, as each of us will interpret a text through the lens
and critiqued.
of personal experience and feelings. But each reading, if defensible, must itself be available for
the consideration and critique of others. We should be prepared to engage in recursive reading;
that is, reading and rereading in the light of ongoing debate and discussion. So we can read and
reread the way a particular preschool or school presents its philosophies, expectations and goals
to the parent and broader community. Are there different ways its policies, procedures and
practices can be interpreted by different families depending on their own cultural experiences
and understandings? How, for example, might a learner interpret a sign that says ‘No children
past this point’ or ‘Staff only’? Or, if we were to explore the subtext of power in a school
we may find that while an educator may feel powerful and respected in their own centre or
classroom, they may feel powerless in the face of the policies of external agencies.
Breaking apart the binaries

Deconstruction also breaks apart traditional binaries such as teacher-learner, teaching–
learning. More and more we find in the classroom that educators are learners and learners may
be educators, that the roles of educator and learner are interchangeable. This is clearly evident
when it comes to new technologies and social media, a space where young people are often
more comfortable and confident and their educators may be less experienced and tentative.
Considering education stakeholders

Considering preschools and schools as texts is not a neutral activity. We also need to consider
how portrayals of schooling are actually made and by whom. Nameless workers, educators,
parents, learners, policy makers, government officials, members of parliament and media
personalities all play a part in constructing the texts about education. As we have already
suggested, educators are often powerful characters in these texts. At the same time they are
subject to the regimes of power that lie outside the early childhood centre or school and which
themselves shape and reshape the text. Education, after all, is a big budget item. State and
territory governments and the federal government all have an interest in it and will, from time
to time, bring acts and regulations before parliament that will impact directly upon educators’
work. In a number of chapters that follow we shall be closely examining the ways in which
the federal government has significantly changed the educational text with the introduction
of a national curriculum, national testing and national professional standards for educators.
Becoming critical
To be an intelligent reader of schooling one needs to be familiar with the conventions and
codes of early childhood centres and schools but not to be blinded by that familiarity. One
of the great challenges that you face in becoming an educator is, at one and the same time, to
acknowledge your own educational experience and the way it has shaped your understanding
of educational institutions and to subject that experience to questioning. For many people
intending to become educators, preschools and schools were places where they experienced
success so it can sometimes be difficult to understand that for many others schools were – and
sometimes continue to be – threatening and uncomfortable places. Those who had negative,
even painful, times may find it difficult to analyse the context and interactions that led to such
experiences.
We emphasise throughout this book that there are many ways in which the work of
educators and of learners can be represented. We challenge you, as readers of this particular
text, to be intelligent and acute readers and to be cautious about attempts to romanticise
preschool or schooling. Too often teaching has been laden with romanticised notions of
what the work is and how it is best conducted. The preschool or school is constructed as
an unproblematic caring and nurturing environment. The leader is generous and just, the
educators are even-handed and even-tempered, the learners are innocent and eager to learn.
The consequences of reading preschools and schools as idealist texts are most significant
when we relate them to the least advantaged and least powerful in our society, for they are the
most silenced and marginalised by such a stereotypical and linear narrative. Stroud’s (2018)
extraordinary personal memoir, Teacher, presents a more authentic portrayal of the joys and
the challenges she faced everyday of her 16 years of teaching.
Can you identify other examples of the way educators have been represented in popular culture?
What impact do such representations have on how the educator is positioned in society and
what might be the implications? How are educators across different stages positioned (e.g. early
childhood compared to secondary)?
The diversity of the teaching profession

Another concern that is often cited by employers and parents is that early childhood and
primary teaching in particular is perceived to have been feminised since the 1960s when this
kind of data was first collected. McGrath and Van Bergen (2017) actually found, however, that
from 1977 the decline in male representation in the profession was similar in both primary
and secondary schools, and that this was more marked in the government sector. There have
never been many male early childhood educators. Perhaps it is important to consider why this
is the case. Cruickshank’s (2017) study of male primary teachers examined the gender-related
challenges that were sometimes triggers for male primary teachers to leave the profession. He
suggested it was important to focus on retention of those men who were already teachers.
Nevertheless, it is well documented that the distribution of power and responsibility in
schools is not necessarily equitable. For example, the ratio of males in executive positions and
in physical and science education is higher than women in these roles, despite the fact that
there are twice as many women in the profession.
Perhaps a far more significant issue, however, is that we want to ensure that educators
reflect the diversity in their communities. For example, it has been difficult to attract and
retain Aboriginal teachers in the profession (Burgess, 2013). What message does this send
learners about what is appropriate in education?
Caring for young children and young people is highly worthy but educators, as responsible
professionals, need to go beyond the caring ethos. They need to acknowledge that they are
engaged in extended sociopolitical action that requires them to be concerned about equity and
social justice for their learners and for their learning. In addition, they need a sophisticated
Pedagogy refers understanding of pedagogy and how different strategies meet the needs of individual learners.
to the interface
between teaching
and learning and Schools as postmodern places
curriculum. It is not
only what is taught, Schools are physical sites with a great diversity of actors within their walls. They are also
but also how it situated historically, ideologically, micropolitically and socially. They are beset by dilemmas,
is taught, why it is tensions and opportunities on all sides. In this sense we can see schools as postmodern
taught and how it is
received. texts. ‘Postmodern’ is a word used to describe the contemporary condition, in which there
are contradictions and juxtapositions. The old lies alongside the new, the customary battles
with the novel, the past leaps into the future. Anyone visiting one of our large cities would
see old facades behind which stand new buildings; nostalgia for the past is combined with
modern functionalism. Many schools too have echoes of the past through their architecture and
design (the industial model talked about in Gonksi’s report referred to earlier) combined with
modern teaching resources. As educators we were often successful learners in schools that were
institutions built in the past. Now we are working in a context of rapid change to help build the
capacities and skills of children who will need to negotiate an as yet unforeseen future.
Globalisation
One feature of the postmodern world in which we should have an interest is the one
Globalisation results characterised by the twin and apparently contradictory tendencies of globalisation and
from a relentless resurgent nationalism. We see, at the same time, burgeoning transnational corporations and
interchange of world
practices in such localised struggles for language and place. Globalisation is reflected even in popular culture.
fields as economics Reality television programs such as My Kitchen Rules crop up in countries all over the world,
and impacts directly
on education. from Austria to Australia, but each country’s program has its own particular features. The
school in the postmodern world similarly takes part in global functions as well as operating
in highly localised ways. Knowingly – or otherwise – much of the information that flows
through schools is part of an ever-shifting global discourse. It may be curriculum information,
information about assessment and reporting strategies, information about ways for teaching
reading or mathematics, information about technologies, even information about school
management. Or it may be about issues such as the gun control debate following the shootings
in a range of United States schools. At the same time, each early childhood centre and school
is encouraged to develop highly localised responses to its immediate community, to run
itself as an independent small business. Schools and early childhood centres are accountable
nationally. Nationwide testing is even being suggested for all Australian six year olds.
When we think of preschools and schools as postmodern texts and apply to them principles of
deconstruction, we can read for the contradictions and difficult questions.
Why is it that our most disadvantaged learners act sometimes against their own long-term
interests by being complicit in disrupting their own learning?
How has it come to be that fun has become an end in itself, rather than a by-product of a
particular learning process?
Why is intellectual playfulness not recognised as fun?
Wellbeing and learning

The Melbourne Declaration (MCEETYA) states that, ‘Schools play a vital role in promoting
the intellectual, physical, social, emotional, moral, spiritual and aesthetic development and
wellbeing of young Australians’ (p. 4) (© 2008 Curriculum Corporation as the legal entity for
the Ministerial Council on Education, Employment, Training and Youth Affairs (MCEETYA)).
We acknowledge ‘wellbeing’ is an ubiquitous term that has different interpretations, but
it is often identified as a significant concept in education systems. We define ‘wellbeing’ as
the state of being comfortable and happy, and emphasise the importance of emotions within
this. We also want to emphasise that both educator and the learner wellbeing are important.
In considering a school as a text, we look to learning spaces (such as classrooms) as complex
social worlds where people interact in multifaceted ways with other people, spaces and materials.
These are, then, complex and dynamic spaces where the experiences enacted within are in part
determined by the educators’ and contexts’ philosophies of education as they interplay with
the lives of learners. The sense of wellbeing from all participants within these spaces therefore
is critical. Learning spaces are social and negotiated spaces as learners and educators navigate to
make sense of what is expected of them. For example, the learner that is deliberately seated near
the educator’s desk comes to realise that s/he is often the subject of educator attention, sometimes
to be helped, sometimes for behaviour management purposes. It is through the process of
negotiation in learning spaces that learning identities are constructed and consolidated.
So then, in this understanding of wellbeing it is critical to consider how our emotions
affect our ability to teach, and for our learners, their ability to learn. We might consider the
impact of emotions on learning as Groundwater-Smith and Kelly (2003) did when examining
how young people experienced what assisted and inhibited their learning in the Australian
Museum. Learners wanted to be emotionally connected while at the same time not be
emotionally confronted. A sabre-toothed leopard exhibit was so powerful for some that they
could not look at it because they were frightened by it. The exhibit was quite explicit in that
it portrayed the leopard with its fangs embedded in the skull of its prey – a young boy. It
had been reconstructed from an archaeological dig. The exhibit invoked both awe and fear
simultaneously. That a creature could so attack its prey clearly engaged the learners. Even
though they were in no personal danger, many still felt threatened and found themselves
turning away from both the exhibit and its educational purpose.
Reading is not a passive, one-way process. Rather it is one in which readers bring to the text a
range of experiences and dispositions that colour how they understand particular phenomena.
At the same time we should not become entrapped by the limitations of our own experiences.
We need to explore how our own biographies influence the ways in which we read the text of
schooling. As mentioned earlier, Stroud (2018) brilliantly demonstrates the interplay between
her own life history, her emotional journey as she worked hard to meet the individual needs
of all her students and her professional role as a teacher as she tells her story.
In initially developing this book we found the use of a dilemmas framework valuable.
It enabled us to examine what happens in our preschools and schools and ways in which
educators can manage in them. In this edition of Teaching: Dilemmas, Challenges and
Opportunities, we continue to draw upon the notion of dilemmas as a central construct for the
book. Teaching will never be straightforward; it will always require the exercise of carefully
considered professional judgement in the context of competing demands, expectations and
opportunities.
Case study Divers e p re - s e r v ice tea ch e r i d e n t i t i e s

·1
Consider the following preservice teachers who are just beginning their teacher education
courses.
Mia is a mature-age Aboriginal student from western New South Wales. Over a number
of years she has worked in her community, encouraging young people to stay at school. She
has qualified and worked as an Aboriginal education assistant in several primary schools, but
now feels ready to develop her qualifications and take on the full range of challenges facing
the classroom teacher. Mia is more than a little apprehensive. Will she cope with the distance
education elements of her program? How will she manage her large family’s needs? When Mia
was a secondary school student all those years ago she felt alienated and marginalised; she has a
great determination that her students will not have similar experiences. Mia’s reading of school
is one marred by pain and hurt.
How different from Andy’s experience. Andy is a school leaver in Perth. Although his exit
qualifications could have gained him a place in a range of high-status courses, he deliberately
chose primary teacher education. He attended a prestigious independent boys’ school where he
was acknowledged for his achievements in athletics and swimming. His family were surprised at
his career choice of primary school teaching, but they respect it and have encouraged him. Andy
is accustomed to success.
Unlike Mia and Andy, Houda was born overseas. Houda and her parents came from Lebanon
when she was three. They settled in a part of Melbourne that had a well-established Arabic
community. Houda had no encounters with English until she started school and she is the first
in her family to attend university. Andy and Houda’s reading of schooling will vary as much
from each other’s as they will from Mia’s.
Identify two different texts in your own journey through preschool and primary and secondary
schooling. Were there times when you experienced education as an adventure, a tragedy, an
experiment or a comedy? How do those readings influence and affect you emotionally?
Dilemmas of schooling
Dilemmas are defined by Lyons (1990, p. 169) as ‘practical conflicts’ with no ready answers
to these conflicts. A variety of resolutions each carrying its attendant costs and benefits are
plausible. Normally, when thinking about dilemmas, we imagine being trapped between a
rock and a hard place. Whichever way we turn we are beset by unimaginable difficulties and
the choice is that of the lesser of two evils. If this were so, teaching would be impossible.
Rather, we are constructing dilemmas as complex situations where the choices have to be
unravelled and the consequences for taking particular paths weighed up to find potential
opportunities.
An often cited dilemma faced in education is that of the theory/practice divide, a divide
which itself is the kind of binary that deserves to be challenged. The literature on teaching
often asks the profession to consider what counts as valid knowledge about teaching – the
theoretician’s knowledge or the practitioner’s knowledge? Academics and practitioners often
see things in different ways. This is a dilemma you will face when you first begin teaching in
your professional experiences. Whose view of good practice should I follow? Does the divide
really exist? More and more, through current professional learning strategies, educators are
becoming theorists about their work and academics themselves are recognised as educators
in tertiary settings, not just as idealists, remote from the practical work of the centre or
classroom.
Many writers question the notion of separating theory from practice. Indeed, it is seen
that the reflective practitioner (a term you will come across throughout this book, cf. Schon,
1983) thinks deeply about his or her professional work and challenges not only the practice,
but also the theory that lies behind it. In order to do this it is essential that one’s theories
are explicit and that contradictions are identified. As Ball (2001) puts it ‘Theory is a vehicle
for thinking “otherwise”; it is a platform for “outrageous hypotheses” and for unleashing
criticism’ (p. 19). It offers a language for challenge, and modes of thought, other than those
articulated for us by dominant others. In a similar vein, Carr (2009) argues that educational
theorising is a practice. As we sift through and sort out what we are to do under different Theorising
circumstances we are weighing up the consequences for our learners and ourselves; we are When we engage
in theorising we
effectively enacting our theory of practice. are also doing
For example, an educator might ask, ‘If I believe that learners learn best when they have something that is
practical for the
clear, well-structured goals that they have developed in partnership with me, why do I give consequences will
so little time to establish these goals in the learning process? Is it because I am only paying lip affect what it is that
service to goal setting and don’t really believe in it, or is it because I have let other demands we do and how and
why we do it.
on my time get in the way?’ Clearly, we have a dilemma here.
Applying the Berlak dilemmas

Arguably the most comprehensive and enduring work that has been undertaken with respect
to dilemmas in education has been that which Berlak and Berlak (1981) engaged with in their
study of British classrooms in the early 1980s. They developed a theory about dilemmas in
schooling by closely observing practice. Their work has been invaluable in thinking through
some of the conflicting values and problems inherent in education that cannot be resolved
Best practice
by the one correct solution. Today, many discourses in education across the sectors are implies that there is
dominated by the notion of ‘best practice’, which, as we commented earlier, undermines sufficient evidence
the complexity of schooling with its contextual and historical variations. It is for this reason to identify a
particular way of
that we have adopted the Berlak framework as one that can guide us throughout this book, doing things as the
more as a tool for thinking than as a set of principles. From time to time we shall enjoin you very best. However,
given the variability
to consider and discuss an issue as a dilemma. For example, in the chapter that focuses upon in contexts and
learning, Chapter 4, we shall demonstrate that the adoption of different learning theories has educator attributes
different implications with regard to what educators and learners do in the classroom. There that we have
discussed thus far, it
are attendant costs and benefits to any one set of practices. may be more helpful
The Berlak dilemmas have been organised into three sets: control, curriculum and societal to think in terms of
‘sound and defensible
(Berlak & Berlak, 1981, pp. 22–3). In each case the researchers have named the choices that practice’ rather than
are to be made and, in the text, they have looked at the consequences of these. Here, we shall the superlative form.
outline the sets and discuss them briefly, but for a fuller account it would be helpful for you
to return to the original work.
Control set
• Whole learner versus learner as student. Here, educators have to consider whether they
will assume a social responsibility for the learner as a whole person or whether they will
concentrate on the learner’s intellectual/academic needs. This decision is influenced by the
developmental needs of the learner (for example, a preschooler compared with a senior
secondary learner). How this dilemma is resolved will have an effect on all those dilemmas
that follow.
• Educator versus learner control of time. Educators may decide upon the time allocation
to individual curriculum areas or they may wish to allow the learner to make decisions
regarding the time they need for learning (in self-directed tasks). Time management in
schools and preschools – and who can control this – has considerable implications for the
ways in which learning is to be organised.
• Educator versus learner control of how things are organised and implemented. Who makes
the decisions about how things are to be done? What resources are used? In some places
the ‘how’ question is resolved by tradition and habit, rather than reason and negotiation.
• Educator versus learner control of standards. The questions that arise in this case are, ‘How
good is good enough?’ and ‘Who decides?’ If the educator determines the standards, then
this has consequences for the ways in which learners will be motivated to learn; on the
other hand, if the learner determines the standards, it may be the case that they have
underestimated his or her own capability, consistently leading to underachievement.
Curriculum set
• Personal knowledge versus public knowledge. Here, the contrast is between knowledge
that is important to the learner and may be quite idiosyncratic and knowledge which
is publicly valued. The greater the orientation to statewide norms, through government
curriculum documents and mandated learning policies, the greater the affirmation of
public knowledge.
• Knowledge as content versus knowledge as process. The decision here is whether to
emphasise the knowledge itself or how to gain it. Currently in Australia we have an
ongoing debate about the relative merits of content knowledge and the key competencies
(process knowledge). Both are essential: how is balance achieved?
• Knowledge as given versus knowledge as problematic. Some believe that knowledge is
fixed and static or absolute, others consider that knowledge itself must be challenged. It
has been claimed that the learners we teach today will be using human knowledge that has
not yet been invented. The more static a view of human knowledge, the more difficult it is
to deal with change.
• Learning is holistic versus learning is molecular. Should teaching and learning be integrated
teaching or siloed? Some preschools and primary schools organise the curriculum
thematically (and even to the interests of learners), while many divide the day into subject
blocks, with little connections made. Secondary schools also often teach in quite separate
faculties, although some middle schools apply more integrated processes.
• Intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation. Educators have to consider their beliefs regarding
how learners are motivated to learn. Is it inherent or do we have to provide rewards and
sanctions? How do the actions of educators encourage motivation among learners?
• Each learner is unique versus learners have shared characteristics. It is suggested by
some educators that individual differences and individual characteristics override group
differences and characteristics such as social class, gender and/or ethnicity.
• Learning is individual versus learning is social. Some programs of learning are directed to
isolated, individual performance, while others look to social interaction with opportunities
for collaboration to support the learning process.
• Learner as person versus learner as client. This dilemma is closely related to the first in the
control set. It determines the educator’s relationship with the learner. Is it one of emotional
bonding or of professional detachment? What about their relationship with the learner’s
family?
Societal set
• Childhood as continuous versus childhood as unique. Is childhood only a part of a lifelong
process of learning or is it an exceptional time for learning? Another concern embraced
by this dilemma is the distinction between the learner as an individual or as a member of a
historically constructed social group.
• Equal allocation of resources versus differential allocation. Some would recommend that
resources are allocated on a per capita basis while others argue that those with special
needs (intellectual, physical, social) require additional support.
• Equal justice under law versus ad hoc application of rules. Do educators set up specific
rules for behaviour and apply them to all at all times, or do they take account of specific
learners or specific circumstances?
• Common culture versus subgroup consciousness. We may see our learners in national
cultural terms or we may construct them in terms of cultural diversity. This is important
as now we have a National Curriculum. For example, should Aboriginal children from
remote areas experience the same curriculum and processes of teaching and learning as
recently arrived non-English-speaking background learners? Or should learners from
strongly oral cultures be taught in the same way as those from strong literacy-based
cultures?
It is clear that there are no easy answers. Too often teaching is constructed as a delivery
system designed to transmit a predetermined body of undisputed knowledge to more or less
passive learners. In such a view, educators are technicians, primarily concerned with effective
and efficient delivery methods and the accomplishment of ends that have been determined by
others. The view we wish to advance is that of teaching as essentially a critical and thoughtful
activity where educators are engaged in questioning the social, educational, moral, ethical and
political implications of their work in order to meet the individual needs of their learners.
This is not to say that there are many requisite skills that an educator needs to have in
order to engage their learners in learning; such skills as explaining, questioning, organising,
communicating etc. are all to be identified and nurtured, and will be closely examined in the
chapters that follow.
Take one dilemma question from the previous section that you see as most relevant to you.
How might you work it through? How does this dilemma look from an early childhood, primary
or secondary perspective?
There are many other intellectual tools that we need to use as well, not the least being the
social science and humanities disciplines, which give us particular insight into practice.
Contributions of the social

sciences and humanities
disciplines
In the past, when you intended to become a teacher/educator and chose to study ‘education’ at
university, you would have taken what were designated ‘foundation’ courses. The metaphor
was a well-chosen one from the perspectives of the day. It was believed that if you had solid
foundations in the contributing disciplines, these would be the bedrock on which you would
build your personal theories of practice in education. The progression was a linear one – from
grand theory to personal theory to practice. Today, the relationship is seen to be far more
interactive. Education itself is far more likely to be constructed as an interdisciplinary study,
and the nexus between theory and practice is a continuing set of connections, disconnections
and reconnections.
At the same time, we need the disciplines as our intellectual touchstones. They provide us
with ways of seeing those problems and challenges that we have written about, as Figure 1.2
demonstrates.
To be serious about the study of teaching and learning we need to return time and again to
the insights that the disciplines offer us, not as foundations, but as powerful intellectual tools.
For example, we may be interested in the question, ‘How should we be providing for
intellectually gifted learners in the primary school?’ Philosophy will help us untangle our
terms in relation to the ways in which intellectual giftedness is defined. Psychology will assist
us in sorting out some of the methods by which giftedness might be identified and assessed
and what the identifiable attributes of the gifted learner might be. Sociology will help in the
consideration of equity questions, such as whether giftedness is constructed in ways that
benefit only specific groups of learners and disadvantage others. History will enable us to
see the patterns and trends in the provision of education for gifted learners, while social
geography will enable us to understand contexts and how and why provisions for the
education of exceptional children are distributed as they are. For example, is it the case that
those who are geographically isolated have the same opportunity as those who are located
in metropolitan areas? Anthropology will assist us in understanding that, for some cultures,
selecting and affirming individual learners is not seen as appropriate, that each member of the
FIGURE 1.2
CONTRIBUTION OF DISCIPLINES TO CONSIDERATION IN
EDUCATION
DISCIPLINE FOCUS
Philosophy Defining the questions more acutely.
Unravelling the issues.
Identifying the contradictions.
Psychology Exploring perception, cognition, motivation and engagement, different kinds
of human intelligence and ways learners learn.
Identifying children’s and young people’s developmental stages and their
consequences.
Sociology Examining how society (the interactions between people, and people
and material objects) produces and maintains phenomena such as power,
knowledge and ideas, emotions, actions, practices, technologies, institutions,
systems, etc.
Analysing how formal education operates as a social phenomenon that
reflects and produces the operation of power, that privileges some and
disadvantages others, and shapes how people perceive the world and what is
true.
History Tracing the antecedents to contemporary educational thought and practice.
Social geography Recognising and analysing the consequences of ‘place’ on the provision of
educational services and opportunities to benefit from them.
Anthropology Developing comparisons between cultures and cultural groups, and the
arrangements they make for the education of their people.
Economics Investigating the allocation of human and material resources to education and
the policies governing such allocation.
group has something to contribute and that individualism is a particularly Western construct.
Economics will tell us something about the notion of treating our gifted learners as a form of
human capital and that the ‘clever country’ needs to invest in its most talented individuals for
the economic good of the collective.
Each discipline thus has the capacity to make a significant contribution to our understanding
of educational issues. It is not within the scope of this book to sufficiently apprise you of the
power of each one. It is assumed that you will be undertaking studies of these areas in their
own right. What is important here is to remind you that such discipline studies are relevant
to your becoming an educator and that you need to apply what you learn in these disciplines
as a careful and reflective practitioner.
Of course, reflection can be problematic. When the practitioner gets caught up in his or
her taken-for-granted world view there is a danger that reflection can become introspection.
Using the disciplines as a touchstone allows us to broaden our perspective. The challenge
we wish to set is embodied in the question, ‘How might we, as educators, be able to engage
in critical debate in a context where there are many discourses and such debates are often
controversial?’ We need to become teacher–scholars, deeply and profoundly connected to our
professional work as intellectual work. We live in preschools and schools that are postmodern
texts; we are not characters in romantic novels and we need to transcend those constructions
of schooling that oversimplify and trivialise the roles and responsibilities of the educator.
Consequently, teacher education must reinvent itself so that its sophistication and
complexity may be revealed through sustained debate. We need to make critical dialogue
a cornerstone of our work. Particularly, we need to discard any suggestion there is an easy
answer, which attends only to the immediate, and move to resolutions which themselves may
continue to be challenged. We cannot intellectually impoverish our profession by treating
schools as simple romanticised sites where, if only educators and learners do their work in a
manner prescribed by others, the outcomes will be fair and just.
New teaching for new times

There can be no question that we need to develop new teaching for these new times where we
see such major changes in learner identities, social structures, workplace reconstruction, new
and converging technologies and globalisation. Technology and social media are changing the
ideas and practices of children and young people At the same time that we are urged to foster
learners’ critical and creative thinking, flexibility and problem-solving processes (see The Four
Cs in Useful online teaching resources), however, educators are also facing many other seemingly
oppositional challenges. These include: constant government intervention; regulation of the
profession; increasingly high stakes testing; increased cultural diversity as well as nationalism;
unprecedented growth of inequality with the ever widening gap between rich and poor; and
increased authoritarianism across the globe (strong leaders) eroding democracy and freedoms.
We need to rethink and reconceptualise the purposes and practices of education. We
need to build with new resources that recognise the changing social, cultural, economic and
technological environment. Recent work in various Australian states and territories, and
federally also, have taken up the challenge in various ways as they develop new frameworks
for learning that will be discussed in the chapters that follow.
International frameworks have also been constructed, such as Project Zero, a major
educational reform unit located at Harvard University (Ritchhart, 2001, 2003, 2012). Ritchhart
has evolved a thinking framework in which he argues that intelligence may be constructed as
a collection of cognitive dispositions that will contribute to good and productive thinking.
He suggests that learning is a consequence of thinking and involves the learner in the flexible,
active use of knowledge. He asks for educators to seek to make learning visible. He has
re-established the agency for learning with the learner through the concept of ‘intellectual
character’. The work offers a significant complement to current Australian frameworks
that focus upon pedagogy and what it is that educators need to do. Ritchhart gets inside the
framework and looks outward from the learner’s point of view.
Ritchhart (2001, pp. 148–9) argues that it is the educator’s role to cultivate the skills and
abilities of learners such that the full array of cognitive dispositions can be operative.
Dispositions depend on the requisite skills and abilities to carry them out. This means that
dispositions must be fleshed out and operationalised as sets of skills. For example, open-
mindedness can take the form of generating alternatives, considering other points of view or
looking for bias in oneself or others. To cultivate the ability to be open-minded necessitates
development of these and many other associated skills.
In developing intellectual character he argues that the learner needs to:

• look out – engage in creative thinking, be open minded and curious
• look in – engage in reflective thinking, use metacognition and be a truth seeker
• look at – engage in critical thinking, be strategic and sceptical (Ritchhart, 2001, p. 149).
Do you think it is an exciting time to be entering the teaching profession? What are the current
challenges that seem greatest to you? What are the opportunities? When you tell people you want
to be an educator, what reasons do you provide in support of your decision?
Conclusion
So, do you still want to be an educator?
In moving through this book you will not find a compendium of ready solutions to
the challenges and dilemmas you will encounter as an educator, but you will find many
opportunities to invigorate your thinking about teaching and challenge some of the
stereotypes you may carry about educators and learners. As Tim Minchin also advised in the
same address quoted at the beginning of the chapter:
We must think critically, and not just about the ideas of others. Be hard on your beliefs. Take
them out onto the verandah and beat them with a cricket bat … Be intellectually rigorous.
Identify your biases, your prejudices, your privilege.
Speech transcript from Tim Minchin. Retrieved from https://www.timminchin.com/2013/09/25/occasional-address/
We hope you will also find a range and variety of ideas and strategies to reflect on as you
begin to develop your own unique professional philosophy and practice.
In this opening chapter we are suggesting that your choice to become an educator will
challenge, confront and delight you. Teaching can be immensely satisfying but it is never easy.
As educators, we bring our own social and personal histories to the preschool, classroom or
alternative learning space as do the children and young people we teach. What wonderful
learning opportunities you will have, alongside the challenges.
STUDY TOOLS
Go further
Following
1 Draw your image of a ‘good’ educator, or create a mind or concept map. What features are prominent?
through Do they relate to a teacher you once had? Or are they in direct contradiction to a not-so-positive
experience?
2 Reflect on a preschool or school that you attended. What sort of story does it trigger for you? What
memories do others share (your family members, peers)? Are there people in your group who have
very different stories to tell? What were some of the things that contributed to those differences?
3 Consider how education should be viewed in terms of responsibility and entitlement. What are the
responsibilities of the learner when he or she engages with schooling? What are the responsibilities of
the educator? And the parent? What happens when we see the learner and their parent(s) as clients?
4 Interview a person who was at school over 30 years ago. Ask your interviewee about the curriculum.
What was the most valuable thing that they learnt? What was the least valuable? What was valued
more greatly – knowing how or knowing what? Compare and contrast your findings with your fellow
learners.
5 Working with some people who have had life experiences that vary from your own in significant
ways, discuss a recent public issue in education. It could be testing, funding policies, some aspect of
behaviour management, selective schooling or issues around school choice. What lens do you bring to
reading the issue as a result of your own education journey?
Useful http://www.nea.org/assets/docs/A-Guide-to-Four-Cs.pdf The Preparing 21st Century Students for a

online Global Society: An educator’s guide to the “Four Cs”, by the National Education Association (2013),
teaching envisions that every learner attains, alongside strong content mastery, the ‘Four Cs’: critical thinking,
resources communication, collaboration and creativity.
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/collective-responsibility Turning to this website provides a further
extension of the concept of collective responsibility.
http://transformativelearningtheory.com/corePrinciples.html A great deal has been written regarding
transformative education. This website clearly sets out the basic principles of transformative education
and their origins.
http://www.qsa.qld.edu.au/downloads/p_10/ey_lt_reflect_teaching_prac.pdf This website has been
developed by the Queensland Studies Authority (QSA) for the Government of Queensland and
provides clear guidance in undertaking reflection when teaching.
http://www.pz.harvard.edu/ This site will link you to a range of resources that have been developed in
relation to Harvard’s Project Zero concept of making learning visible based upon Reggio Emilia
principles.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SjIHB8WzJek Australian Story: Meet Eddie Woo the maths teacher
you wish you’d had in high school.
Ball, S. 2001, ‘Better read: Theorizing the teacher!’, in Lyons, N. 1990, ‘Dilemmas of knowing: Ethical and
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2
Ethical practice
D A N N E LS O N
Teachers confront many ethical dilemmas.
Among them is how to deal with the bullying child.
24
CHAPTER 2 Ethical practice 25
I n the previous chapter you examined ideas and images of educators as you considered
your own experiences and media representations. Take a moment and identify a ‘favourite’
educator – perhaps it was someone from your preschool? Primary school? High school?
What were the qualities that educator had? What effect did that educator have on your life?
As you think about your favourite educator, perhaps ‘ethics’ wasn’t something that you
named. In this chapter we argue that ethics is critical to the work of educators and underpins
every element of their professional life.
Professional ethics in education are founded upon principles of access and equity, behaving
with integrity and being respectful and caring. An educator who is ‘fair’ may be motivated
by concepts of social justice and equality. An educator who ‘cares’ has respect for human life.
Throughout this book we argue that there are no easy solutions in teaching. Rather, it is an
occupation that requires you to think carefully about the decisions you make, knowing that
the consequences of your decisions will affect learners, their families, your colleagues and the
wider educational community. You may be wondering, ‘How will I know if what I decide to
do is appropriate?’
This chapter is devoted to a discussion of professional ethics and ethical practices in Professional ethics
education. The discussion centres on a set of principles, which, although they are implicit are concerned
with what one
throughout the book, will now be explored, so that you will be able to use them to guide your ought to do in
practice. However, we emphasise that principles are not solutions. As we have already stated, good conscience
in professional
there are no easy solutions to difficult questions; principles are better seen as the tools that we practice.
can employ when addressing challenging situations.
What is ethical practice?

Ethics or ethical behaviour encompasses a range of values relating to morality and what is
considered to be ‘the right thing to do’. In 1991, the United Nations Convention on the
Rights of the Child released principles that serve as important guidance in our interactions
with learners. While this document is important on many levels, it promotes four central
principles of the rights of a child: non-discrimination, actions that are in the best interests of
the child; the right to survival and development, and acknowledgement of the views of the
child. Given our work as educators is primarily with children and young people, it is critical
that we acknowledge these rights in our professional, ethical practice.
As we have observed in the previous chapter, ethics and dilemmas go hand in hand.
Being ethical involves careful thinking about everyday actions and the decisions we make
as individuals or as a group when we respectfully respond to all participants. In the complex
world of educational settings (for example, the childcare setting or the school), ‘doing the right
thing’ may not be as simple as first imagined; what may be the right thing for an individual
may impact upon the experiences of others. The norms and values held by educators may
not be those that are shared in a given community. However, educators are in a unique and
powerful position as they interact with children, their families, the community and the
profession, therefore ethical conduct is vital.
We should remember that educational settings are places where power and authority are
manifested differentially. Power can be used to coerce, dominate, manipulate and persuade.
It can also be graciously exercised, taking account of the status and conditions of others. But
whichever stance is taken, power cannot be effaced. It is pervasive, complex and contextual.
A word of caution here – much is written and spoken of ‘empowerment’, treating power as
some kind of gift that may be bestowed on others. However, writers such as Ellsworth (1992)
Power is everywhere would argue that power is not so easily traded or awarded as some sort of ‘gift’. Educators
within relationships.
It is not equally
may claim that they are ‘empowering’ learners as they seek to consult them regarding the
distributed and can set up of the learning space or classroom practices; while at the same time those educators
readily be abused. are themselves subject to many and complex constraints placed upon them by governmental
authorities.
Given the complexity of the education field, where can we begin? We believe that a
compelling touchstone for thinking about ethical professional practice, particularly in
relation to the young people in our care, can be found in important landmark documents
such as the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989) and the Melbourne
Declaration on Educational Goals for Young Australians (2008). Important as it is to consider
ethical behaviours towards parents and caregivers, professional peers and the community,
we believe, first and foremost, that our responsibilities as educators are to the learners in our
settings.
In 2008, there was a historic gathering of all Australian Education Ministers at a meeting of
the Ministerial Council on Education, Employment, Training and Youth Affairs (MCEETYA)
who gathered in Melbourne to set down shared goals for Australian schools. Two major goals
were articulated:
1 Australian schooling promotes equity and excellence
2 All young Australians become:
•• successful learners
•• confident and creative individuals
•• active and informed citizens.
These are discussed in more detail in Figure 2.1.
FIGURE 2.1
TWO MAJOR GOALS FOR AUSTRALIAN SCHOOLS ARTICULATED
IN THE MELBOURNE DECLARATION
Goal 1: Australian schooling promotes equity and excellence
Equity involves Equity is an aspiration for an ethical society. It is cited in the document in recognition
being mindful
of fairness and of the great cultural diversity of Australia. At any one time Australian schools are
impartiality in the catering for children from standard, blended, single-parent and same-sex-parent
treatment of others. families. They live in urban, regional, rural and remote communities. They speak
languages from every continent on the globe. They profess and practise all of the major
religions. They are wealthy, they are impoverished. They live in comfort, they live on
the margins. Their families have been in Australia for thousands of years, they arrived
as refugees yesterday. This goal insists that every sector of schooling in every state
and territory should provide access to all students, free from discrimination on the
grounds of such indicators as gender, language, health, socioeconomic background

and geography. It requires that early childhood centres and schools build on the local
cultural knowledge and experience of Indigenous students; that they work against
social disadvantage in its many forms; that diversity is respected and appreciated and
that high expectations are held for all.
Goal 2: All young Australians become successful learners, confident and

creative individuals, and active and informed citizens
Successful learning is taken to embody both essential skills such as literacy and
numeracy, and a capacity to be creative and resourceful. It is expected that young
learners are able to plan, collaborate, work in teams, communicate and substantively
engage in their learning. As confident and creative individuals, students should have a
sense of self-worth; be optimistic and enterprising; develop values and attributes such
as honesty, resilience, empathy and respect for others; lead healthy and satisfying lives
and be well prepared for diverse life roles. As active and informed citizens they should,
as well as all of the above, be committed to national democratic values and relate
respectfully to their region and to the global material, cultural and environmental worlds.
It is not our intention here to reproduce the minutiae of the declaration or even some of
the arguments that we might have regarding its implementation strategies. It is important
that you read the document in full and consider its implications, and decide – in the light of
the last chapter – what kind of text you believe it to be. Rather, we shall synthesise the major
matters emerging from the document.
Of course these are aspirational goals. Their realisation rests upon an array of decisions
and practices. Can the various educational contexts (e.g. prior to school, primary, secondary),
across sectors (e.g. government and non-government), in all geographical locations (e.g.
urban, rural and remote) commit sufficient resources to meet them? Can educational
contexts provide the conditions for their enactment? Can individual educators manage their
settings in such a way that they can be reached? Think about the case outlined below.
Programmin g f o r a m u lt i- a g e clas s ro o m Case study

·1
Melissa is an early career teacher in a small school in the Melbourne hills area. She works in a
multi-age classroom. This has been an administrative decision rather than one that argues for
the benefits of cross-age grouping. She has set out a history program that covers two years, so
that over that span of time she will have dealt with the major topics in the syllabus. She is aware primary
that learners need to consider both historical knowledge and historical reasoning. She has invited
a local person of Indigenous descent to come and talk to the students about his own and his
family’s history. Several of the older boys in the class declare that the topic is ‘boring’, and they
have heard it all before and can’t they study something more exciting like explorers or gold.
➜➜ How does Melissa negotiate her way out of this morass?
➜➜ What ethical principles can she draw on to sort out the dilemmas inherent in this scenario?
Every profession has implicit understandings among its members about what is right and
proper that form the basis of ethical conduct for that profession. Some professions have pursued
the development of written codes of ethics, which make explicit the standard of acceptable
behaviour for that profession and serve to guide members in their everyday decision making.
Regardless of where you are geographically, there are codes of ethics developed to guide the
practice of educators. For example, in Australia, states and territories all provide explicit
codes of ethics to guide professional practice (see Useful online teaching resources at the
end of this section). Early Childhood Australia has also developed a set of statements about
ethical behavior for early childhood educators (see Useful online teaching resources at the end
of this section). What is common across these documents is the requirement for educators to
demonstrate respect, care, justice and responsibility in their professional practice.
Of course, resorting to a code will not solve Melissa’s problem, but it might give her a
framework within which she can consider the various aspects of the problem that she faces.
The following code draws upon a number of nominated attributes and competencies in
relation to practices from early childhood education through to schooling for the senior years.
A code of ethics for teaching

The following code is presented under a number of categories that reflect the broad range
of educator responsibilities, including those towards students, their families, colleagues, the
community and society, and to themselves as professionals. It draws on a wide range of published
materials from varying sectors of education and from the different states and territories:
The code is based on:
• responsibility
• respect
• caring
– integrity
– diligence
• justice.
Learners and educators

In relation to learners, educators need to:
• accept responsibility for providing appropriate learning opportunities in all curriculum
areas
• base their teaching on the best theoretical and practical knowledge, and knowledge of each
learner’s development
• demonstrate unconditional respect for the uniqueness and dignity of each individual
learner
• provide a safe environment that promotes the physical, emotional, social and intellectual
wellbeing of all learners
• support the relationship between learner and family
• respect the learner’s right to privacy and confidentiality
• help learners to interact effectively and in doing so learn to balance their own rights, needs
and feelings with those of others
• work to ensure that learners are not discriminated against on the basis of gender, age, race,
religion, language, ability, culture or national origin, or health
• engage only in practices that are respectful of and provide security for learners and in no
way degrade, endanger, exploit, intimidate or harm them psychologically or physically
• treat all learners justly and equitably
• avoid using their influence as educators to indoctrinate learners in their personal political
and social values.
Parents, caregivers and families

In relation to parents, caregivers and families of learners, educators need to:
• establish positive relationships based on courtesy, mutual trust and open communication
• respect family privacy and treat information with an appropriate level of confidentiality
• respect parents’ and guardians’ rights of enquiry, consultation and information with
regard to their children
• understand and acknowledge social and cultural differences that may affect parents’
expectations.
• communicate appropriately with families about matters relating to their child
Colleagues
In relation to colleagues, educators need to:
• interact with respect and without discrimination
• be encouraging, loyal and supportive
• work cooperatively and collaboratively in the school environment
• share expertise and knowledge with other members of the profession
• support and assist in promoting the status of the profession
• assert their professional, industrial and civil rights and support their colleagues in the
defence of these rights
• seek opportunities for professional development and engage in professional dialogue with
colleagues.
Community and society

In relation to the community and society, educators need to:
• acknowledge the different experiences learners have within the community (e.g.
participation in extracurricular activities, involvement in community groups)
• provide programs that are responsive and connected to community needs
• promote cooperation among all agencies and professionals working in the best interests of
learners and families
• be aware of and support the development and implementation of laws and policies that
promote the wellbeing of students and families
• promote an interest in community and environmental issues to promote active citizenship
• develop in learners the values of a democratic society: respect for others, freedom, equality,
integrity, participation and the pursuit of truth.
Teachers as professionals
In relation to themselves as professionals, educators need to:
• update and improve their expertise and practice continually through formal and informal
professional development
• participate in professional networks (e.g. professional associations)
• engage in critical reflection to ensure awareness of congruency between beliefs and ethical
practices
• support and involve themselves in research to strengthen and expand the knowledge base
of teaching
• be aware of legal requirements regarding duty of care
• be advocates for learners and the teaching profession.
Implications of a code of ethics – learning to be reflective

Reflective What are the implications of such a code? A code of ethics will support the kind of decision
practitioner
Being a reflective making educators are involved in every day. For example, it is not appropriate for educators
practitioner means to make decisions in regard to the curriculum based exclusively on expediency or practices
both thinking deeply
and critically about that ‘work’ accumulated from other educators. Melissa, in our case study above, might be
one’s practice and tempted to abandon the topic on the grounds that it is ‘not working’ for some of her learners.
examining from One of the implications, then, is that educators continually reflect on what they do. They
where one’s ideas
and beliefs have need not only to be asking ‘What is the right thing to do?’ but need also to supplement this
come. question with the question ‘Right for whom?’ Issues of social justice are central to educators’
Reflexivity work. We need to ensure that all learners, parents and caregivers are benefiting from our
requires us to not
only identify what
actions and pay particular attention to those who are the most vulnerable and least powerful
our values and in our society.
beliefs are about a The significance of being a reflective practitioner cannot be overemphasised. We all bring
particular matter,
but how we came to a set of values, beliefs and attitudes to a situation and when we interact with people these
have those values values, beliefs and attitudes underpin what we think, say and do. However, seeing the ways
and beliefs – what
influenced us over
in which we have developed our ideas is a very difficult, subtle and complex task. This turn
time. is known in the sociology literature as ‘reflexivity’; that is, a process of not only identifying
what it is that we think about a particular event or phenomenon, but also how we came to
develop those views and perspectives. It is a difficult turn for all of us. In their concluding
remarks to their paper on sociological theory and social action, Tsekeris and Katrivesis (2008,
p. 11) note that:
The reflexive process is multi-dimensional and highly ambivalent. Through self-reference,
reflexivity looks for inspiration, as well as purification from loaded conceptions, but also for
re-formulation of fundamental value orientations.
Of course, educators cannot engage in such introspection at every move, but they do
need to be alert to their actions and the ethical consequences. They may not always take the
reflexive turn, but they certainly can be reflective practitioners and share their reflections
with their learners in such ways that reflection also becomes a practice that young people can
engage with (Ewing, Fleming & Waugh, 2019; Kervin & Mantei, 2019; Le Cornu & Peters,
2005). We are often not aware of our own biases, nor do we realise the stereotypes we have.
The ability to reflect on what, why and how we do things as educators and to then adapt
and develop our practice is the key to successful learning for educators, and for learners. In
their evaluation of the South Australian Learning to Learn Project, Le Cornu and Peters
(2005) explored the role of critical reflection both inside and outside the classroom. They
found that successful teachers were able to develop reflective attitudes in their learners;
explicitly teach metacognitive skills and processes; make time and space for reflection; and
use a responsive interaction style. Furthermore, they (p. 55):
regularly shared their own learning experiences and learning processes with their children and
they were also quite up front with their children about the fact that in many situations they were
learning alongside their students.
Think about three key beliefs that you hold concerning the role of the educator in a preschool or
classroom context. In enacting just one of those beliefs, what implications would it have for teaching
and learning?
Ethical dilemmas
The notion of ethics is never unproblematic because what constitutes ethical behaviour is
context-specific. Hence the term ‘ethical dilemmas’. As we have suggested, an ethical dilemma
is a complex problem for which there is more than one solution, each solution having varying
degrees of advantage or disadvantage for different people concerned. With ethical dilemmas,
there is no clear correct answer or solution in that there may be as yet no general agreement
as to the answer. For example, some educators may want to argue that displaying student
progress and achievement (e.g. data walls) is a good thing to do in that it monitors the
progress of learners while also motivating them to improve. But what of the learner who
is unsuccessful? Similarly, it may appear at first glance to be a good thing to have parents
involved in the classroom, listening to reading and so on. However, we may unintentionally
cause harm if the parents are less than comfortable with the roles assigned them. Or, the
parent may feel uncomfortable when another parent asks them what ‘level’ different children
are reading. Consider a child with medical needs. Who requires access to their medical data?
Ethical dilemmas also present themselves beyond the classroom. Consider the following
situations:
• You observe a colleague publicly humiliate a child who is known for bullying behaviour.
Do you say anything?
• A colleague tells you in confidence that she has just been diagnosed with a medical
condition that may cause her to lose consciousness at times. She also tells you that she
is not going to take the prescribed medication. The information has implications for the
safety of the children in her charge. What do you do?
• You are teaching in a small country town and a parent complains to you about the social
behaviour of one of your colleagues. How do you respond?
• A friend’s child is in your class. Your friend asks you for information about the other
families and your opinion of specific children. How do you respond?
• You disagree with a colleague who is expressing a particular view publicly at a parent–
teacher night. What do you do?
• A colleague posts photographs and comments on their social media complaining about the
preschool and what is expected of them in their role. What do you do?
• You are working with a team of colleagues on a project that has received external funding.
One member of the team is not as committed as other colleagues and does not make a
significant contribution. Do you hopefully sort it out with the team or do you take the
matter to the executive and leave the resolution to them?
Each situation demands the educator’s commitment to explore all of the variables in the
situation and to then base any decision making on what is right and just. The matter of who
benefits and who pays a price must be considered.
Can you think of other ethical dilemmas that demonstrate the ways in which expectations and
experiences can shape the ways in which we behave? To what extent does a specific educational
environment influence us?
Another series of ethical dilemmas may be generated from being put in a position where
you are required by your employer to undertake acts that you regard as ethically questionable.
For example, some educators experience an ethical dilemma when they are required to
implement a particular program or to administer national standardised tests for which they
can see little purpose. Others feel conflicted about discussing the notion of marketing their
preschool or school or gaining sponsorship from corporations. What do you do? Educators
have a responsibility to engage government employment authorities and ministers in an
ongoing discussion regarding the propriety of acts and behaviours. They should also use
their professional associations and appropriate groups to ensure that the educational effects
of government directives are fully understood and the attendant costs and benefits made
explicit. Most importantly, educators should be ethically irreproachable themselves. They
need to constantly question why they are doing what they are doing and ensure that their
practices are consistent with the principles outlined in the code of ethics.
Lisa Kervin
Digital play
across ages
Bullying and cyberbullying
Bully ing: a s tu d en t p ers p e c t ive Case study

·2
This case study has been written by a primary school student who explained the circumstances
of her being bullied. It is one of a series of six narratives that were authored by students for their
teachers to examine.
PRU’S STORY: primary
All through my primary school years I have had difficulties with making friends. I see myself as
an ‘easy target’. I believed that part of the problem is that I am quite shy.
In spite of this, when I first came to this school I found that I had a group of friends who
seemed to like and support me. But it wasn’t long before I was at the mercy of other students who
intimidated me. Over the years there has been no single ‘dramatic’ event that has occurred. It is just
the persistence of small, unpleasant behaviours that get under my skin. I’ll give you an example that
occurred last year where some of the members of the ‘popular’ group asked me for some money.
When I objected they threatened to tip water over me. One girl spat at me. I stood my ground and
said ‘go ahead tip water over me, it’s only water’. At this point a friend turned up to help.
At the time of this most recent incident there were no teachers around. But I felt that had
there been, it probably would not have made much difference. I believe that students who are
being teased are in something of a lose–lose situation; because if they actively seek for help ‘they
are scared, because worse could follow’.
Asked if she would give a message to her teachers, this student said:
‘Be aware of groups and how they behave to each other in the group. Be alert to the ways in
which groups are formed and how they interact with other groups.’
As you consider this case, reflect upon the following questions:
1 Which of your professional values is challenged by the case?
2 What do these values represent in terms of your beliefs about bullying and its consequences?
3 What particular personal events in your own life might have influenced the way you see the
situation?
4 How do you see yourself ethically dealing with the situation?
5 Is it possible to deal with it in a non-judgemental way?
6 What strategies and policies do schools put in place to deal with cases such as this?
7 What additional policies and practices are required?
Of course, learners are not the only victims of bullying in school contexts. Adults in
school settings such as teaching assistants, leaders, teachers themselves and even parents can
be subject to bullying, harassment and exclusion. This is why it is important for educational
settings to function as inclusive, collaborative learning communities.
Have you ever encountered bullying of either young people or adults when you have been on a
professional placement? Was it recognised and, if so, how was it dealt with?
Ethical dilemmas may also stem from activities that happen outside of the immediate
Cyberbullying educational context. For example, cyberbullying has increasingly become an issue and is
involves the now a matter that educators must confront. The nationwide Australian Covert Bullying
intentional use of
electronic forms Prevalence Survey (Cross et al., 2009) assessed cyberbullying experiences among more than
of contact (such as 7000 students. They found that rates of cyberbullying increased with age; 4.9 per cent of
social media) as a
means of harming students in Year 4 reported cyberbullying and 7.9 per cent reported it in Year 9. Of Year
and embarrassing 4 students, 1.2 per cent reported cyberbullying others compared to 5.6 per cent of Year 9
others in a repeated students. In a study of a Queensland primary school, Tangen and Campbell (2010) found
manner.
that while teachers are very capable of dealing with face-to-face bullying, they are not well
equipped to deal with bullying that occurs through social media. Given it transcends the
boundaries of the school and is not easily detected by schools, particularly primary schools,
it is difficult to deal with. However, there is ever-increasing support to address cyberbullying
through legislation, public awareness and online supports.
A helpful guide for practitioners when considering the various ethical dilemmas that they
will encounter in the field in relation to children, their parents and colleagues is that which has
been developed in relation to early childhood education. The Early Childhood Association
(ECA) code of ethics was revised in 2016 and can be found in the Useful online teaching
resources at the end of the chapter.
Legal issues
Ethical issues are not to be confused with legal issues. As McBurney-Fry (2002, p. 202)
explains:
Ethics are quite different to rules or laws. Laws are determined and enacted by Parliament and
are both enforceable and punishable … Ethics, however, are not enacted or enforced in our
society. Ethics are in a sense beliefs in the ‘correct’ or right way of doing things.
Teaching has many legal aspects, including issues of criminal and civil law as well as issues
relating to duty of care, copyright and professional practice. It is not within the scope of this
chapter to discuss all of the legal issues. However, it would be remiss not to bring to your
attention your legal responsibilities in regard to child protection. All teachers are mandated
notifiers of suspected child abuse or neglect, which means that they are required by law to
report suspicions of child abuse or neglect. You will need to ensure that you are familiar
with your legal responsibilities prior to undergoing your professional experiences. Some
universities provide a one-day training session, known as Mandatory Notification Training,
to assist with awareness in this area. The Australian Government’s Institute of Family Studies
produces a regularly updated resource sheet on the mandatory reporting of child abuse for all
states and territories (Higgins et al., 2009).
While reporting suspected child abuse is a legal issue, there are clearly strong moral
and ethical arguments also. Indeed, many studies have shown that, despite legally binding
sanctions on a wide range of professionals, under-reporting exists (Johnson, 1995; Elliot, 1996,
cited in McCallum & Johnson, 2002). McCallum (2001) conducted a study that investigated
educators’ decisions around reporting or not reporting suspicions of child abuse and neglect.
She found the following factors influenced educators’ decisions not to report:
• a lack of clear structures within the setting
• lack of experience with teaching and with child protection matters
• personal issues for educators in relation to child abuse and individual cases
• the perceived associated increase in educators’ workloads.
She also found that, for reporters and non-reporters, the decision to report represented a
high level of personal investment; that is, making the decision was not taken lightly.
McCallum and Johnson (2002, p. 10), while acknowledging teachers’ mandated
responsibilities to report suspected child abuse, argue for teachers to have a strong moral
imperative to report. The following excerpts from two teachers in their study provide an
insight into the ethical decision making that guided each teacher’s behaviour and ultimately
resulted in them making a report:
It is my role legally, but, morally – I am a person – so morally
I should go and try and do something about it to prevent this
from happening again.
➜➜ experienced female primary teacher
and
Other thoughts went through my mind on this one. We [the school]
knew that this family was at risk, but we had nothing previously
that we had been able to report on. So, the thoughts that went
through my mind were ‘Am I doing the right thing for the child?’.
I decided it just wasn’t OK, it wasn’t acceptable, so I reported
it.
➜➜ experienced female primary school teacher
Antidiscrimination While it is important to understand that legal issues in relation to child protection are
laws are designed
to ensure that
paramount, there are other legal considerations that govern the way in which we behave in
individuals and the workplace.
groups are not Antidiscrimination laws exist in all Australian states and territories. They refer to matters
singled out in a
negative fashion of harassment on the basis of sex, pregnancy, race, religion, marital status, disability,
in relation to such homosexuality, transgender and age. Harassment is unwanted and uninvited behaviour that
matters as gender,
religious or sexual
is abusive, humiliates, offends or intimidates, or a combination of all of these. In professional
preferences, race or settings this may be behaviour directed to any person in that setting, be that person a child
ethnicity. or adult. Harassment may be unwelcome conduct that is physical, verbal (written or spoken)
or non-verbal (gestural) behaviour. It would seem self-evident to enjoin students during the
Duty of care
requires all professional experience to avoid discriminatory behaviours. Unfortunately, some do not
educators to understand that such behaviours are unethical, illegal and unprofessional.
take reasonable
care to protect
those children Duty of care
and/or young
people in their The unique relationship between educators and learners is acknowledged through duty of
care and control care. Duty of care emphasises the importance of educators taking reasonable care to ensure
from a reasonably
foreseeable risk of
that their learners do not meet with foreseeable injury. Educators have a duty to protect
harm. learners against foreseeable risks of personal injury or harm.
Case study M a n ag in g s p ec if ic m e d ic a l n e e d s
·3
A student in your class is diagnosed with type 1 diabetes. The student’s parents have informed
the school and have provided a medical plan. The parents tell you that blood sugar levels need to
be monitored, the student needs to eat at certain times and insulin needs to be administered via
injections. The student returns to school.
1 What are your responsibilities?
2 What are the school’s responsibilities?
3 What are the family’s responsibilities?
This scenario is not atypical and requires special care. Learners can have a range of medical needs
that require attention; those within educational settings have ethical and legal responsibilities
to ensure appropriate duty of care. Section 90 of the Education and Care Services National
Regulations outline specific responsibilities for the management of medical conditions
(including, asthma, diabetes or an anaphylaxis diagnosis). It is the family’s responsibility
(parents and guardians) to ensure that a medical management plan is provided. It is the
school’s responsibility to ensure that risk-minimisation plans are developed in consultation
with the family to ensure appropriate practices and procedures. Further, those in leadership
must ensure appropriate professional development for all staff the learner comes into contact
with. All staff members and the family should have easy assess to all documentation (under
section 171 of the Education and Care Services National Regulations).
Professional conduct in education

settings
The hallmark of a profession is that its members ‘act in a spirit of public service. That is, they
are bound always to put the interests of others before their own’ (Longstaff, 1995, p. 2).
Educators at all career stages are expected to understand that the consequences of their
professional practice must enhance the wellbeing and learning of their learners and of their
professional associates. No risk of significant harm is permissible or warrantable. This has
already been spelt out to you. Educators must have respect for the dignity and worth of
all people, and perceive that the welfare of the learners with whom they are dealing takes
precedence over their own self-interest.
Consider the ways in which you can participate positively in the educational setting as a community
of practice and contribute to safe and supportive environments free from any form of abuse or
discrimination.
Professional misconduct in the first instance is deemed to be behaviour within the practice
of teaching that contravenes the civil and criminal code of law. Professional misconduct by
an educator engaged in professional experience may also encompass behaviours which, while
not contravening legislation, are also inappropriate because the educator:
• behaves in a disgraceful or improper manner
• harasses or vilifies members of the professional setting where they work
• refuses to follow reasonable directions of those in authority in the professional setting.
It is in the interests of the profession itself that all of its members behave in professionally
appropriate ways that demonstrate a commitment to just and fair outcomes for all.
Conclusion
Behaving ethically is a responsibility of all educators. It is of vital importance in changing the
society in which we all participate. As McBurney-Fry (2002) has observed, ‘the personification
of the professional can be found in that profession’s code of ethics’ (p. 207). Society has a
right to consider that its teachers are honest, fair, trustworthy and committed professionals
who recognise and respect the human dignity of those with whom they deal. We all have a
responsibility to uphold professional behaviour in teaching. This requires courage, fortitude,
intelligence and insight. Behaving ethically lies at the very heart of teaching, for teachers have
a great responsibility in educating for what the St James Ethics Centre has called ‘a good
society’ (St James Ethics Centre & The Philosophy in Schools Association NSW, 2001). In
their conversations with teachers they concluded (p. 32):
A good society is a socially just society – one in which the wellbeing of individuals is bound up
with that of the whole community. It is the kind that good people from the outside would want
to be part of – a just and enthusiastic society for all.
In the chapters that follow we shall be turning to the many practical matters that you will
need to consider as you take up the challenges of becoming an educator. It is our hope that
as you attend to these issues, whether they be in relation to communicating in the classroom,
assessing student learning, conducting yourselves as a professional or considering theories of
learning, you will keep these ethical considerations in mind as a touchstone for being a fully
actualised practitioner.
STUDY TOOLS
Go further Go Further with extra resources and study tools for this chapter. Ask your instructor
Following
1 Make a list of ethical dilemmas you may experience when planning and evaluating a curriculum unit
through on a sensitive topic like the environment or refugees. Imagine that you are an educator in a small
country town that is dependent on the local timber industry, which is significantly logging native
forests. Imagine you work in a community that is a site where many newly arrived refugees settle or in
a community where there is strong political opposition to immigration.
2 During a professional experience placement, a pre-service teacher becomes aware that learners are
misbehaving and very disrespectful during the weekly religious lesson provided voluntarily in the
school. However, the pre-service teacher is concerned that if he were to intervene or advise the class
teacher he may be reducing the authority of the visiting teacher. What other considerations might
affect his reluctance to intercede? Is it possible his own stance on religious education in government
schools is affecting his actions?
3 In the category for parents, caregivers and families in our generic code of ethics, it was posited that
teachers ‘respect family privacy and treat information with an appropriate level of confidentiality’. You
witness in the staffroom of the school a discussion in quite pejorative terms about a family that seems
to be known to several teachers, and the ways in which this family conducts itself. How and with whom
should you raise this matter?
4 Select one of the other categories in the code of ethics for teaching described in this chapter and write
indicators for practice. For example, what would indicate to you that a teacher was ‘demonstrating
unconditional respect for the uniqueness and dignity of each individual student’?
5 Begin to construct your own philosophy of practice. We encourage you to return to it from time to
time; is it changing? How and why?
http://www.qct.edu.au/standards-and-conduct/code-of-ethics Ethics code from the Queensland College

Useful
of Teachers
online
teaching
https://www.vit.vic.edu.au/professional-responsibilities/conduct-and-ethics Ethics code from the Victorian
resources
Institute of Teachers
http://educationstandards.nsw.edu.au/wps/portal/nesa/about/who-we-are/open-access-information/
policy-documents/conduct-ethics Ethics code from the NSW Education Standards Authority
https://www.trb.sa.edu.au/code-of-ethics Ethics code from the Teachers Registration Board of South
Australia
https://www.education.act.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0007/17692/TeachersCode_
ofProfessionalPractice.pdf Ethics code from the ACT Education Directorate
https://www.apa.org/ethics/code/index.aspx APA ethics code
http://www.ethics.org.au/articles.aspx This is the website for the St James Ethics Centre. It contains a
range of definitions, articles and accounts of research.
http://www.curriculum.edu.au/verve/_resources/National_Declaration_on_the_Educational_Goals_for_
Young_Australians.pdf This document sets out the stated national educational goals. Each state and
territory has developed websites for responses that contain arguments in relation to the efficacy of
these goals.
http://www.aitsl.edu.au This is the website for the Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership
(AITSL). It is a new organisation established in 2010 (replacing Teaching Australia) and the website
continues to grow and develop.
http://www.earlychildhoodaustralia.org.au/our-publications/eca-code-ethics/ Early Childhood Australia
has also developed a set of statements about ethical behavior specifically for early childhood educators.
References Cross, D., Shaw, T., Hearn, L., Epstein, M., Monks, H., St James Ethics Centre, www.ethics.org.au/ things_
Lester, L. & Thomas, L. (2009), Australian Covert to_read/articles_to_read/professions/ article_0118.
Bullying Prevalence Study (ACBPS). Child Health shtm, accessed 8 March 2005.
Promotion Research Centre, Edith Cowan University, McBurney-Fry, G. 2002, Improving Your Practicum: A
Perth. deewr.gov.au. Retrieved on June 6, 2018. Guide to Better Teaching Practice, 2nd edn, Social
Dempster, N. & Berry, V. (2003), ‘Blindfold in a minefield: Science Press, Katoomba, NSW.
Principals’ ethical decision making’, Cambridge McCallum, F. 2001, ‘Inhibiting and enabling factors that
Journal of Education, 33 (3), pp. 457–78. influence educator reporting of suspected child abuse
Education and Care Services National Regulations, and neglect’, in I. Berson, M. Berson & B. Cruz
New South Wales Government, last modified 1 July (eds), Cross Cultural Perspectives in Child Advocacy,
2018, https://www.legislation.nsw.gov.au/#/view/ Information Age Inc., Connecticut.
regulation/2011/653, accessed 9 April 2019. —— & Johnson, B. 2002, ‘Decision making processes used
Ellsworth, E. 1992, ‘Why doesn’t this feel empowering’, by teachers in cases of suspected child abuse and
in C. Luke and J. Gore (eds), Feminisms and Critical neglect’, Child Maltreatment, 14 (1), pp. 7–10.
Pedagogy, Routledge, London, pp. 90–119. Melbourne Declaration on Educational Goals for Young
Ewing, R. Fleming, J. & Waugh, F. 2019, Becoming Australians 2008, Ministerial Council on Education,
reflective: Exploring the contribution of reflective Employment, Training and Youth Affairs, www.
practice on the employability of graduate teachers curriculum.edu.au/verve/_resources/ National_
and social workers. Symposium, University Declaration_on_the_Educational_Goals_for_
of Sydney, February. Retrieved from https:// Young_Australians.pdf, accessed 13 March 2010.
reflectionsemployability.net. Office of the High Commissioner 1989, Conventions
Higgins, D., Bromfield, L., Richardson, N., Holzer, P. on the Rights of the Child, United Nations
& Berlyn, C. 2009, Mandatory Reporting of Child Human Rights, https://www.ohchr.org/en/
Abuse, Resource Sheet #3. Australian Institute of professionalinterest/pages/crc.aspx, accessed 9 April
Family Studies, www.aifs.gov.au/nch/pubs/sheets/ 2019.
rs3/rs3.html, accessed 24 August 2009. St James Ethics Centre & The Philosophy in Schools
Johnson, B. 1995, Teaching and Learning about Personal Association NSW 2001, Educating for a Good Society:
Safety, Painters Prints, Adelaide. A National Conversation, St James Ethics Centre,
Kervin, L. & Mantei, J. 2019, ‘“We don’t have time”: The Sydney.
challenge of designing interventions for time-poor Tangen, D., Campbell, M. (2010), ‘Cyberbullying
students’, in R. Ewing, J. Fleming & F. Waugh (eds), prevention. One primary school’s approach’,
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Longstaff, S. 1995, ‘Professions in society’, Australian Nosworthy, M. 2004, Learning for Teaching: Teaching
Financial Review, December, republished by the for Learning, Thomson, Melbourne.
PART 2
Understanding
learning
3 Understanding learner diversity
4 The nature of learning
5 The learning environment
6 Communication in the educational environment
7 Teaching, learning and curriculum in a changing world
Each learner brings a unique personality, together with a wealth of

experiences, to the learning process. Educators need to consider this
diversity in planning an inclusive classroom.
41
3
Understanding learner
diversity
Jo s h
Learner diversity is not just

about physical diversity
but includes intellectual
and cultural diversities too.
Educators need to create
inclusive classrooms.
42
CHAPTER 3 Understanding learner diversity 43
L earners bring their personalities, varied backgrounds and diverse life experiences to their
learning. In the past, the organisation of teaching and learning led to large groups of learners
being taught with little heed paid to this diversity. Today, the diversity of learners in any
one learning centre or classroom is an important consideration for the educator, a source of
both challenge and opportunity. This chapter explores the kinds of diversity that are influential
in society and education, and which today’s educators need to have some understanding and
appreciation of to create inclusive, positive and supportive learning environments where
learners are recognised, feel they belong and have equitable access to resources and participation.
Inclusion ‘involves taking into account all children’s social, cultural and linguistic diversity
(including abilities, disabilities, gender, family circumstances and geographic location) in
curriculum decision-making processes’ (DEEWR, 2009, p. 27, © Commonwealth of Australia
2009. Released under CC BY 3.0 Australia. Link to license: https://creativecommons.org/ Inclusive (learning)
licenses/by/3.0/au/). Chapter 4 then examines the curriculum implications of this diversity and refers to every
learner being able
some current approaches to teaching and learning that are being used to ensure that learning at to participate in
school is inclusive, meaningful and challenging for all learners. learning situations.
Defining diversity
What is diversity? In this chapter, diversity refers to the varied social, economic and ethnic Diversity
backgrounds of learners, the different expression of learners’ sex, gender and sexuality, and Understanding
the uniqueness
the cognitive and physical needs of learners. While the world is made up of differences, these of each individual
are not value free. That is because our perception and understanding of differences reflects and recognising
and respecting our
cultural ideas, beliefs and values. From a very young age, children can hold and perpetuate differences along
bias and discrimination against those they perceive as ‘different’ (Robinson & Jones Diaz, dimensions of race,
2005). As well, educator perceptions of social status, educational background and ethnicity ethnicity, gender,
sexual orientation,
can result in some differences between learners being regarded as strengths and others as socioeconomic
deficits. So, a child from an economically advantaged background who is frequently absent status, age, physical
abilities, religious
from school because she travels overseas with her parents may be regarded as benefiting beliefs, political
from experiencing the world outside school. However, the absence of an Aboriginal child for beliefs.
two weeks following the death of an uncle (because it is customary to grieve for this length
of time) may be regarded as detrimental to the child. In this example, the two learners are
thought about differently because of the way their differences are perceived, made sense of
and judged, rather than because of the differences per se (Keddie, 2012; Nieto, 2010).
While educators often avoid addressing issues of diversity out of fear of offending
people or getting it wrong (Keddie, 2012), educators must become informed about issues
surrounding diversity if they are to know their learners and create effective and inclusive
learning environments. Along with curriculum and government policies, educators’ Curriculum includes
perspectives on diversity and differences impact how they think about and respond to learners the intended
knowledge and skills
and their families. When educators acknowledge their own ‘world views’ – the ideas, beliefs, described in formal
assumptions and prejudices they possess from their upbringing and culture – they are more syllabus documents,
a framework of
able to promote educational and social equality, and positively influence learner engagement principles and
(Robinson & Jones Diaz, 2005). This means becoming what Raewyn Connell (2009) describes outcomes that
as an ‘intellectual worker’, someone with a depth of knowledge about society and culture that shape the decision
making of educators
helps them to meaningfully and critically interpret and engage with the world around them. and the experiences
A reminder too about the benefits of being a reflective practitioner, a theme of this book. of learners.
44 PART 2 UNDERSTANDING LEARNING
In this chapter we discuss learner differences and diversities. Through engaging with
reflection, we are able to move beyond our commonsense knowledge and beliefs, to
understand and interrogate the ideas, perceptions and beliefs that shape our decision making
as educators, and subsequently improve our professional understandings and practices.
Brainstorm a list of differences you might expect to see among learners.
1 What possible challenges and opportunites might each of these differences bring to different
educational contexts?
2 What might your perceptions of these challenges and opportunities say about our own world views?
Family life and funds of

knowledge
Our ideas about family and families are shaped by our own experiences within cultural and
historical contexts. Family structures differ between countries and cultures, and families in
Australia today do not all resemble those of 50, 100 and 200 years ago. Our learners may come
from families with a single parent or same-sex parent/s; families where multiple languages
are spoken; and families with different levels of access to resources. Family structures differ
through their norms, ideas, beliefs and knowledge, all of which pose significant considerations
for educators across educational settings.
Although it is now more than 30 years since Shirley Brice Heath published her study,
Ways with Words, it remains one of the most powerful illustrations of the different cultural
expectations that learners bring to their schooling. She describes three different subcultural
groups who lived and worked in one geographic community in North Carolina in the United
States of America. Her work demonstrates clearly how these three groups of children arrived
at school with completely different orientations to language and learning. Each group of
parents wanted their children to do well at school and knew that success at school would
be important in helping to shape their life chances. Heath (1983) called the three subcultural
groups ‘Trackton’, ‘Roadville’ and ‘Maintown’. She lived and worked among them for more
than 10 years. Her book draws three very different pictures of the way children were oriented
to school and to literacy.
The children living in Trackton were mostly from African-American working-class
backgrounds. They had been immersed in a culture that was highly dependent on oral tradition.
Storying is a process People were encouraged to tell stories, and imaginative storying was valued. While their parents
of constructing were able to read and write, these skills were only used when necessary and they often needed
and relating ideas
through narrative assistance to complete formal documents. For these children, the messages constructed about
rather than simply reading and writing were framed as functions largely to do with obligation and/or necessity.
‘telling a story’.
Although not avid readers and writers themselves, the group of Roadville parents, who were
largely white and working class, believed that it was important to prepare their children for
school by reading to them and encouraging them to learn the alphabet and watch educational
TV programs. Imaginative storying was not a cultural
Getty Images/FatCamera
tradition for Roadville families; in fact, embellishment
of stories was regarded as being untruthful. Once again,
reading and writing practices were not often engaged in
for enjoyment. The orientation to literacy was much more
about functionality (i.e. achieving a defined purpose).
In contrast, both African-American and white
middle-class parents and caregivers from the group called
Maintown involved their children in a range of reading
and writing experiences along with oral storying from
birth. These children then developed a broader orientation
In Maintown families
than Trackton and Roadville children to the many ways storytelling, reading
reading and writing was important. and writing were
engaged in for
While most of the children from all three groups began school with high expectations enjoyment
and excitement, it was the Maintown children whose early socialisation and orientations to
literacy had better prepared them for formal education. Learning at school was largely a
continuation of many of the cultural practices they were already familiar with. While the
Trackton children initially excelled at storytelling and creative tasks and the Roadville children
were well prepared for decoding early reading texts, by the end of their primary schooling
many from these two backgrounds had decided schooling was not relevant for them.
In Australia, Geoff Williams’ (1995, see also 2016) research on the reading experiences of
mothers and their four-year-old children resonates strongly with Heath’s findings. In Williams’
study, transcripts of mothers from differently advantaged areas across Sydney reading with
their four-year-old preschoolers were analysed. Those mothers from well-educated, highly
advantaged backgrounds effectively prepared their children for the reading experiences that
would be part of their schooling. They linked the child’s own life experiences with those in
the story being shared, asked the child pertinent, often open-ended, questions and encouraged
the child to display their own knowledge and understandings about the story. In contrast, less
advantaged mothers read more to ‘settle’ their children before bedtime or because they knew
it was a valuable thing to do. Reading sessions were more often characterised by the child
being read to, and there was little interaction and questioning about the story. Consequently,
reading time at school was a different phenomenon for these children.
Difference, not deficit

Basil Bernstein’s (1971, 1990) research is useful in understanding how cultural and language
differences impact on a child’s experience of schooling. It must be emphasised that Bernstein’s
work seeks to explain differences rather than focus on differences as deficits, or lack in
comparison to some ‘standard’. Most families develop ways of knowing, being and speaking
that are special to that family, and often include specific vocabulary and references that are
sometimes not easy for an outsider to interpret. Children’s early attempts at words (blanky for
‘blanket’, by my own for ‘on my own’, for example) may become absorbed into the family’s
vernacular. In her daily phone call to her mother, one of the authors would typically begin
with ‘It’s only me’. Her mother would respond ‘Hello only you’. This is an example of, in
Bernstein’s words, ‘restricted code’, a way of speaking that is highly specific (and appropriate)
to one family’s particular context. A phone call to a new work colleague or school principal
that began in such a way would be met with raised eyebrows, at the very least!
In less familiar contexts our language needs to be used more formally – or, to use Bernstein’s
Elaborated (codes) term, in a more elaborated way – to ensure that everyone understands. Children who are
refers to the use exposed to a wide variety of codes and discourses grow to understand the different purposes
of more formal
language so that for which language is used and become adept at using these codes in socially expected and
the meaning is less valued ways, and often without thinking about them. Children who have not experienced
dependent on a
particular context. this range of discourses may use words ‘inappropriately’. They may, for example, initially
Dialect is a variety use swear words in educational settings because they are not aware these are regarded as
of a language that inappropriate or offensive. It is knowing when it is appropriate to use which dialect or
characterises a language register and how to use it that is important.
particular group of
speakers of that Beyond the use of language, families also have their own ways of living, thinking and doing shaped
language. by local circumstances, family history and ideas. The Australian Broadcasting Corporation’s (ABC-
Register refers to TV) Life At television series chronicles the lives of 10 children from a range of Australian families and
language used for a
particular purpose
backgrounds as they move through childhood. Based on a government-funded research study (The
in a specific social Longitudinal Study of Australian Children – LSAC, see Useful online teaching resources), it contrasts
setting/context. the daily lives, achievement of developmental milestones, needs, interests, personality traits and
abilities of these children growing up. One key finding of this study relates to the impact of family
circumstance. It found 40 per cent of 14–15 year olds spent time caring for a person in their family
or community who is elderly, or has a health condition or disability, and these caregivers were more
likely to live in disadvantaged households (Warren & Edwards, 2016). These caregivers had lower
achievement in reading and writing compared to their peers, with those providing intensive daily
care being more than a year behind their classmates in reading and numeracy. In these cases, family
circumstances impacted on learners’ preparation for and engagement with school-based learning.
We raise these differences not to cast judgement on families and parents. There is
no single ‘best way’ to raise or organise a family, and most families do the best they can
given their circumstances and the resources available to them (Geinger, Vandenbroeck, &
Roets, 2014). Rather, our point is that formal education curriculum and practices tend to
ignore or misunderstand these differences and in so doing align better with (and be more
accommodating to) some families and their children than with others.
The notion of ‘dual socialisation’ is helpful here (McLachlan, Fleer & Edwards, 2018,
p. 67). This term describes the personal experience of conflict between the ordinary practices,
experiences, expectations, knowledges and norms of a learner’s home life, and those of their
learning setting that seek to define how they will learn, develop and be. These learners,
especially those from culturally diverse and at-risk backgrounds, are ‘socialised’ in one way
by their home and in another way by their pre-school or school. This conflict can occur, for
example, when educators unconsciously ignore and/or devalue ways of knowing, behaving
and speaking that are not similar to their own. Research on sharing or news time in early
childhood settings has demonstrated that educators unconsciously affirm those stories and
ways of storytelling that are similar to their own (Ewing, 1996). Many learners must learn to
manage the discord or differences between the expectations, ways of being and behaving, and
values of their home and those of the educational setting where they are expected to fit in.
Think about and research the notion of ‘dual socialisation’. Brainstorm examples where the
expectations and practices of a preschool or school may be different from the established ways of
knowing, speaking and doing of a family or community.
Using funds of knowledge

Educators need to acknowledge the experiences, strengths and resources of families and
communities to respond to individual learners. Gonzalez, Mol & Amanti (2005) refer to ‘funds
of knowledge’ to describe the mosaic of bodies of knowledge, skills and practices that exist
within the daily experiences of individuals. Learners are active, skilled and knowledgeable
in their lives, and actively use the resources and repertoire of practices available to them
to learn, develop, grow and navigate the world. The challenge for educational settings is
to recognise and value the knowledge, norms, behaviours and literacies that learners bring to
classroom contexts. Not doing this can lead to disengagement, under-achievement, conflict
and miscommunication.
When educators build bridges and make connections between learners’ homes and
educational settings, they are able to develop trusting and respectful relationships with
families and communities. Educators can use the formal curriculum as a ‘cultural broker’ to
mediate between the experiences of home, community and school contexts. For educators,
this means connecting with what it is that the learner knows and using this as the basis for
introducing new knowledge (McLachlan et al., 2018). Negotiating curriculum and planning
learning experiences in this way enables learners to access their ‘virtual schoolbag’ (Thomson,
2002). This cannot be tokenistic though. Rather, learners should be enabled to meaningfully
draw upon their household and community resources to participate in learning experiences
that are relevant to them.
However, sometimes there are challenges and dilemmas. Learners and families may feel
uncomfortable using their funds of knowledge. Hedges (2015) provides an example of a child
living in a household where more than one language is spoken. Where the educator viewed
the child’s bilingualism as a valuable resource, the parents (who were not native speakers of
English) viewed it as detrimental to their child’s learning. The parents expected their child
to only use and learn English at school. There are examples, though, of strategies to support
families; for example, Dutton et al.’s (2018) work on oral and written identity texts shows
how learners’ home language(s) and personal stories might be used to support language and
literacy development.
Res pondin g t o le a rn ers ’ d if f ere n ce s Case study

·1
Educators need to know about their learners, which might include learning about their families,
family norms and expectations, the communities they live in and belong to, the language/s
spoken at home, household chores, family outings and experiences, favourite TV shows and
family occupations. primary secon dary
Use the vignettes below to evaluate the alignment (or lack thereof) between the home life of
the learners and the expectations of the learning setting described.
Budi is seven years old and has recently moved to Australia from Indonesia. His life in Indonesia
was very different to that in Australia. He loves running, playing and watching sports, and is
described by others as a ‘free spirit’. He struggles to follow the school rules where he must sit down,
line up before class, listen to and read stories selected by the educator, complete worksheets and
follow classroom rules. Budi’s educator thinks his lack of English language proficiency is causing
him to not concentrate and follow instructions.
Jane is 14 and lives in a single-parent household. Her mother was diagnosed with multiple sclerosis
when Jane was five, and her mother has become increasingly physically debilitated and emotionally
stressed. Since she was 10, Jane has been caring for her, which has also meant taking on many of the
household chores. In her spare time Jane likes to play computer games, although she often feels guilty that
she is not studying and completing her schoolwork. Her online gaming fills an important part of her
social and emotional life – she communicates with other players around the world and has developed
strong friendships with them. Jane is increasingly switching off at school. When she comes to school she is
expected to put her personal life to the side and to focus on learning the academic curriculum, and she
struggles to see its relevance for her.
1 How are the educational contexts not meeting the needs of these learners?
2 What funds of knowledge do these learners bring to their learning? What opportunities do
these funds of knowledge present to the educators? The learners?
3 What might be some challenges the educators face?
Children and young people living

in poverty and growing inequality
The world is increasingly unequal in terms of its spread of wealth, with the world’s richest 1
per cent owning almost half of the world’s wealth (Credit Suisse, 2018), and the gap between
the rich and poor in Australia has been widening over the past few decades (SBS, 2019; Sheil
& Stilwell, 2016). With wealth comes power, and the wealthy exercise significant control
and influence over major corporations, media and government policy making. The growing
disparity in both wealth and power has entrenched poverty in many developing and developed
nations. In many wealthy Western countries with a high standard of living (like parts of
Australia), this disparity has led many people to feel the political and economic systems are
rigged, and that politicians and governments are not looking after the interests of everyday
people. Many are dismayed by governments reducing investment in health, education, and
social and welfare programs while unfairly giving wealthy individuals and corporations tax
exemptions and cuts. The effect of growing inequality is felt not just by individuals, but
Socioeconomic throughout society (Wilkinson & Pickett, 2009). There is a growing sense of a divide between
refers to one’s the ‘haves’ and ‘have nots’ and this is a source of tension between social groups.
social and economic
advantage/ In Australia, wealth inequality between the richest and poorest has been increasing over
disadvantage. It is the past few decades. One in six children now live in poverty in Australia. Single-parent
usually calculated families, especially those with women at their head, are overrepresented below the poverty
according to
household income, line, as are Aboriginal Australians and newly arrived refugees. Poverty also unequally
parent occupation impacts on people who live in regional and remote areas, people with physical and cognitive
type and parental
educational disabilities, people with mental illness and members of transient families. People from the
qualifications. least privileged socioeconomic status (SES) backgrounds often have insecure and precarious
employment, experience intransience and insecure housing, and many have limited access
to social, welfare and educational resources. It is not the case that those who are talented
and work hard enough find their way upwards. Research over decades demonstrates a link
between low SES backgrounds and poor health, employment and educational outcomes
compared to the general population.
Disadvantage and educational opportunity

The children of poor or economically disadvantaged families are vulnerable in terms of
educational opportunity, engagement and attainment. While these students commonly exhibit
talent and aspirations to succeed in life, they are less likely to experience academic success at
school when compared with their more advantaged peers, such as those who live in wealthy
neighbourhoods and those whose parents are university-educated and hold professional
occupations (Lamb et al., 2015). In comparison to their middle-class counterparts, learners
from the most disadvantaged socioeconomic backgrounds are more likely to attend low
quality early childhood education and care centres, are more likely to be developmentally
vulnerable and less likely to be ready for school (e.g. in literacy & numeracy), and therefore
begin their primary school education already needing to ‘catch up’ (Cassells et al., 2017;
Lamb et al., 2015).
With poorer achievement in basic skills like literacy and numeracy, and therefore declining
levels of self-efficacy as learners in the middle years, many of these students are increasingly
disengaged by schooling, which is perceived as not meeting their needs and interests. They
are only half as likely to finish Year 12 as those in the highest socioeconomic group, are less
likely to complete a tertiary qualification and more likely to be unemployed for long periods
of time.
Disadvantage is not evenly spread across the population or geographically. A very small
number of localities across Australia have a much larger percentage than the national average
of poverty, unemployment, low levels of education and family members imprisoned (Vinson,
2007; Vinson & Rawsthorne, 2015). Only 3 per cent of communities, or a handful of postcodes,
in each state and territory bear the greatest burden of disadvantage.
Think back to your schooling.
1 Did your access or lack of access to resources affect your experiences at school at any time?
2 Compare your experiences with others.
Living on the edge

Despite the best intentions of parents and caregivers to value and support their children’s
education, the circumstances of poverty often work against parents and caregivers being able
to parent and rear children in ways they want or know is needed (Geinger, Vandenbroeck &
Roets, 2014). Learners whose families are poor may be under-nourished and living in inadequate
housing that may lack heating and cooling. They may not have the resources to attend school
excursions, buy school materials or access private tutoring, and cannot afford a well-resourced
elite school for their children to attend. They may not have resources that support learning in
the home, such as desks, stationery or internet access (information poverty), and parents may
lack school-based knowledge of literacy and numeracy that would enable them to support
their children to complete school work. As mentioned above, children in these households
often take on responsibilities to support the household, such as caring for their siblings (e.g.
when parents are working), which may limit time on their studies (Warren & Edwards, 2016).
While parents often seek to protect children from the worst effects of poverty, many
children and young people try to ‘protect their parents from seeing the realities of the social
and emotional costs of childhood poverty on their lives’ (Ridge, 2002, p. 140). Living in
poverty ‘frequently involves disrespect and humiliation, an assault on human dignity, or
a loss of self-esteem’ (Smyth & Wrigley, 2013, p. 42). This stigma becomes an additional
obstacle to overcome, especially in a society that treats poverty as an individual choice and
a reflection of a person’s laziness, intelligence and morals (see Naujokas, 2018: https://www.
theguardian.com/australia-news/2018/may/17/life-on-the-breadline-its-a-relentless-daily-
struggle-to-not-feel-bad-about-yourself).
Poverty is usually not a choice. Experiences of poverty and living with modest and irregular
incomes is complex and cannot be addressed by moralising, blaming or ‘fixing’ supposedly
‘dysfunctional’ individuals. The problems of poverty do not reside within the individual and
the family. As mentioned above, poverty is related to restricted access to financial security,
employment opportunities and stable paid work, which can be caused by poor literacy and
numeracy, a lack of qualifications, lack of prior work experience, being low skilled, class bias
or stigma associated with appearances and coming from ‘the wrong neighbourhood’. While
many people are born into poverty (intergenerational poverty), others fall into poverty due
to marital divorce, financial crisis, physical illness or disability.
Many families and communities living in poverty or low SES neighbourhoods are strong and
resourceful partly because ‘surviving poverty requires massive initiative and enterprise’ (Smyth
& Wrigley, 2013, p. 46). They often have supportive social networks, are very connected to the
places they live and do not think of themselves as victims. Educators need to be mindful of this.
Reinforcing disadvantage
The policies, practices and expectations of education systems, schools and educators often
reinforce disadvantage and limit the opportunities of children and young people from these
communities. How?
The perceptions and stereotypes held by educators can hinder their ability to connect
with learners and their families living in poverty. Common myths include that poor parents
are ineffective and disinterested in their children’s education; that intergenerational failure is
to be accepted; that poor parents have the wrong priorities; and that children from low SES
backgrounds are less capable of high-order thinking and abstract academic learning.
Curriculum and teaching strategies do not connect with learners’ lived experiences. This
disadvantages those who find no relevance or enjoyment in what and how they are learning.
The use of standardised tests (NAPLAN), examinations and ability grouping in primary and
secondary schools can contribute to disengagement and poor self-efficacy as learners.
Insufficient funding and resourcing is available for schools that teach students from low
SES backgrounds. Schools need to be linked to a broad range of social and welfare services
focused on supporting learners and building community capacity.
M eeting ch ild re n ’s n e e d s Case study

·2
Read a beginning teacher’s journal entry below:
‘I was so distressed to find out that several children in the breakfast program at the school
where I was placed for my first professional experience were often cared for by their 13-year-
old brother. Their father was in and out of employment and their mother had died of a drug primary secon dary
overdose. Other children in my class regularly came to school hungry and spent most weekends
either alone in their flats watching television or roaming the streets while their parents worked
at low-paying jobs. Some of these children were hard to motivate and often alienated in the
classroom and the playground. I couldn’t believe this was happening in Australia.’
1 Why might the teacher have been surprised about what she observed? Where might her images
and thoughts of poverty have come from?
2 Brainstorm how the teacher and school could respond to these challenges. Discuss the merits of
the approaches you identify.
School choice policies (where parents choose which school their children attend) can
segregate social groups. ‘Middle-class flight’ away from some local public schools is leaving
these schools (known as ‘residual schools’) concentrated with under-achieving students from
the least privileged backgrounds who experience multiple forms of disadvantage (Lamb
et al., 2015; Windle, 2015). Without peers from a mix of backgrounds with varying academic
abilities and dispositions, teaching in these schools can be challenging and result in under-
achievement.
These perceptions, practices and policies often contribute to learner disengagement
and older students ‘dropping out’ as they seek to create more valued social identities for
themselves outside the school (Smyth & Wrigley, 2013; Wyn, 2009).
Australian Aboriginal and

Torres Strait Islander learners
Unfortunately, many Koorie students cannot see themselves in what is offered at school and
they do not see their culture as valued …
Buckskin, Hughes & Teasdale, 2008, p. 8
The Aboriginal culture is the oldest living continuous human culture in the world. Aboriginal
and Torres Strait Islander peoples have a rich history of social and political activism to advance
the interests and rights of Aboriginal people. Against generations of systemic prejudice and
racial discrimination, Australia’s Indigenous people make important contributions to all areas
of Australian life, including education, the arts, politics, civic life, technical innovation and
sports.
The number of people identified by the Australian Bureau of Statistics (2018) as being
of Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander origin was 649 200. This represents 2.6 per cent
of the total Australian population. Half the Indigenous Australian population is under 23
years of age. Given that half the non-Indigenous population is aged 38 years or less, it is clear
that Australian Aboriginals and Torres Strait Islanders represent a growing proportion of
the population. Children aged under 15 years comprised 38 per cent of the total Indigenous
population (compared with 19 per cent in the non-Indigenous population). While seven out
of 10 Indigenous people live in urban areas with more than 216 000 living in New South Wales
and 185 000 in Queensland, they are twice as likely as their non-Indigenous counterparts
to live in remote rural areas. There are approximately 150 Australian Indigenous languages
spoken in homes across Australia, with one in 10 Indigenous Australians reporting speaking
an Australian Indigenous language at home. Those who do were more likely to be living in
a remote area.
While over the long term, the incomes of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples
have been increasing and there is decreasing reliance on income support payments, many
continue to experience poverty, unemployment, high rates of imprisonment, and poor health
(including mental health) and education outcomes compared to the general population
(Steering Committee for the Review of Government Service Provision [SCRGSP], 2016). A
key indicator of health, life expectancy for the Indigenous population is shorter compared
to the non-Indigenous population (a 10-year difference on average), and while the mortality
rate of Indigenous children (0–4 years) improved significantly between 1998 and 2014, it is
still higher than the non-Indigenous population.
Indigenous Australians and education

Educational advantage and disadvantage are shaped by the complex interactions of class
(SES), gender, geographical location and ethnicity, and how these play out in the lives of
individuals and their communities. The organisation of educational systems reflects the
ideas, beliefs, values and expectations of those that create the systems, advantaging some
and marginalising others. The experiences of Indigenous learners are often at odds with the
cultures and practices of educational contexts.
Attending quality preschool education has positive benefits for all children. Increasing the
rates of participation of all children, including Indigenous children, in preschooling has been
a focus. In the area of education, 93 per cent of non-Indigenous children attended a preschool
program in 2015 compared to 79.8 per cent of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children,
with Indigenous attendance rates at 79.8 per cent in major cities, 82.3 per cent in regional
areas and 73.4 per cent in remote areas. (SCRGSP, 2016). These are important statistics given
our understandings around educational transitions and milestones. One of those milestones is
being developmentally ready at the point of entry to school, as measured against five domains:
physical health and wellbeing; social competence; emotional maturity; language and cognitive
skills; and communication and general knowledge (Lamb et al., 2015). Lamb’s research found
that on entry to primary school, 56.8 per cent of Indigenous students are developmentally
ready. This compares to 79.1 per cent of the non-Indigenous population and 84.8 per cent for
the most socially and economically advantaged. These statistics present us with significant
considerations for the importance of engagement with preschool education for all children
and how access to these opportunities may contribute to the readiness of children for school.
The complex interactions of disadvantage and an education system (including educators
not prepared to adequately respond to the needs of Indigenous learners) continue to inhibit
the success of many young Indigenous Australians. The trends continue into the middle
years of school, with 61.6 per cent of Indigenous students not achieving core skills, despite
commonly exhibiting talent and determination (Lamb et al., 2015). School attendance is
sometimes a challenge for both Indigenous and non-Indigenous learners in regional and
remote areas. Since 2008, there are higher proportions of Indigenous students performing
above the minimum standard for reading in Year 3 and 5 and for numeracy in Year 5 and
9 in NAPLAN testing, however, closing the gap between Indigenous and non-Indigenous
students remains a political priority (Department of Prime Minister and Cabinet [DPMC],
2018).
Malin’s (1989, 1990, 1991) research shared the experiences of three intelligent five-
year-old Indigenous Australians who began school enthusiastically but within a year were
totally ostracised. This research showed that despite many obvious tangible differences
between Indigenous children raised in traditional settings and those living in urban settings,
there are a number of important common socialisation practices that contrast with those
typically valued by Anglo-Australian cultural groups. These include self-regulation, self-
reliance and, in some situations, a measure of equality with their parents. Aboriginal
children are expected to be independent and take responsibility for their younger siblings
from an earlier age. There is, typically, a much greater value placed on close relationships
with family and friends, and less importance placed on individual achievement. Therefore,
for some Indigenous students, like many non-Indigenous students, traditional schooling
practices become alienating if educators emphasise individual competition and teacher-
directed approaches, and a focus on the formal curriculum, without much recognition of
the context of the learning environment and the funds of knowledge the children bring to
their learning. This poses consideration about how we organise classrooms and the learning
experiences we present. Guenther & Bat (2013) found that many classrooms in remote
settings are organised like classrooms in urban and regional centres, and therefore don’t
meet the context-specific needs of students.
Education can be a powerful tool for inclusion. Positive change can occur with a well-
resourced education system where educators commit to learning about their students,
and challenge their own cultural stereotypes and worldviews as they work to understand
how their own culture shapes their pedagogies. Engaging in learning that is situated in the
communities and lives of their learners, strategically using the knowledges, strengths and
desires they demonstrate within and outside of schools makes a difference. Educators who
develop culturally relevant teaching approaches and curriculum based on learning about
the experiences and cultures of Australia’s Indigenous peoples are better able to create deep
and collaborative relationships with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander learners and their
families, and build their knowledge of and respect for Aboriginal culture and ways of knowing
(Hardy, 2016; Jackson-Barrett, 2011; Keddie, 2012).
The Australian Curriculum has Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Histories and
Cultures as a cross-curriculum priority. For primary and secondary school educators then,
this provides opportunity to integrate the histories and cultures of Aboriginal and Torres Strait
Islander peoples across learning areas (ACARA, 2018a). Through doing this, Aboriginal and
Torres Strait Islander learners are better able to see themselves and their cultures reflected in
the curriculum, which then motivates their participation in learning, and the engagement of
all learners in recognising and respecting the significance of Aboriginal histories and cultures.
Cultural diversity
Case study Cu lt u ra l d ivers it y
·3
Consider the following facts about Australia’s population from the Australian Bureau of Statistics
(2018):
• Our Indigenous Australians (Australian Aboriginals and Torres Strait Islanders) have
inhabited Australia for at least 60 000 years.
• By 1939 a population of about seven million included mainly Northern European inhabitants.
• Since the 1940s more than seven million immigrants have arrived in Australia from countries
all over the world including Greece, Italy, China and Vietnam.
• Immigration has been central to the strength of Australia through the economic contribution
of immigrants.
• The current population includes at least 26 per cent who were born overseas and also more
than a third having at least one parent born elsewhere.
• Although English is still the predominant language in Australia, at least 240 other languages
are spoken.
• Sydney and Melbourne are home to about two-thirds of those migrants who don’t speak
English as their first language.
1 Visit the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) website and find more information about the
population demographics of Australia.You may even look for specifics for your state and local
community. Did you make any interesting discoveries?
2 How culturally diverse were the students during your schooling and how did this influence the
school and your schooling?
3 What did you learn about different cultures through your schooling?
Since the end of the Second World War, there has been significant growth in the ethnic
and linguistic diversity of Australia’s population. Culture refers to the ways of living of
groups which are developed and transmitted through generations, and encompasses beliefs,
practices, languages and values. Ethnicity refers to the geographical location of our ancestors’
birthplaces and is recognition of the influence these geographical histories have on our lives.
Thus, a student born in Australia to parents who were born in Vietnam would be classified Cultural
competence refers
along with their parents as being Vietnamese or Vietnamese Australian. to ‘the ability
Australia is a multicultural country. It is vital that education settings like schools play a to understand,
role in bringing people together from a mix of backgrounds, and promote an understanding of communicate with,
and effectively
and respect for difference. In our multicultural society, schools are the places where explicit, interact with
positive messages can and should be relayed about the benefits of an ethnically diverse society. people across
cultures’ (DEEWR,
The Australian Curriculum has Intercultural Understanding as a general capability. This 2009, p. 19, ©
means students are expected to learn about and learn to value their own cultures, languages Commonwealth
and beliefs, and those of others (ACARA, 2018b). The Early Years Learning Framework of Australia
2009. Released
(DEEWR, 2009) makes valuing and being responsive to the cultural contexts of children and under CC BY 4.0
their families an important practice. To do this, educators need to develop cultural competence. Australia. Link to
license: https://
According to the EYLF, ‘Educators who are culturally competent respect multiple cultural creativecommons.
ways of knowing, seeing and living, celebrate the benefits of diversity and have an ability to org/licenses/
understand and honour differences’ (DEEWR, 2009, p. 18, © Commonwealth of Australia by/4.0/).
2009. Released under CC BY 4.0 Australia. Link to license: https://creativecommons.org/
licenses/by/4.0/). As most Australian educators have an
Shutterstock.com/SpeedKingz
Anglo-Australian or Anglo-Celtic ethnicity, they too
need to understand how their own ethnicity shapes their
view of the world and how they teach.
Children and young people who are newly arrived in
Australia, especially those from small ethnic minority
groups who don’t speak English, often experience
adjustment difficulties. This is particularly true for those
who are refugees. Australian-born children of immigrant
parents are also likely to have been raised in a culturally
different environment and this might affect their ability to
learn at school. Children and their families may arrive at
school with different ways of thinking and learning from those valued by the educator. While
it is important not to generalise, they may not have the knowledge (including traditional tales,
games or rhymes) that the educator expects them to have.
Can you recall a time when an assumption you held about a person or group was challenged?
In recent decades, ethnic and cultural differences and diversity have been the source of
conflict and polarisation. For example, the One Nation Party set the conditions for harsh
responses to asylum seekers and refugees by Australian governments. Aspects of current
immigration policy resonates with Australia’s racist White Australia Policy of the past.
These policies barred people from non-European descent from immigrating to Australia,
and gave preferential treatment to those of European backgrounds. Current conservative
representations of cultural diversity and immigration that look down on non-Anglo
Australians and immigrants ignore the important economic and cultural contribution that
the vast majority of immigrants make to the nation when the government is committed to
integration and support.
Those who hold a narrow historical notion of national identity, or what it means to be
‘Australian’, sometimes use this to exclude and deride not only those who do not conform
(that is, do not look and think ‘like us’), but also those people who dare to criticise Australia
with the intention of improving it (they are seen as unpatriotic, un-Australian). But,
Australian-ness is a cultural, constructed and dynamic thing. What we regard as Australian
today differs from the past. Everyone has a different view of it, and everyone has a part to
play in re/defining it.
The Early Years Learning Framework (DEEWR, 2009, p. 19, © Commonwealth of Australia 2009.
Released under CC BY 4.0 Australia. Link to license: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)
states that cultural competence encompasses the following:
•• being aware of one’s own world view
•• developing positive attitudes towards cultural differences
•• gaining knowledge of different cultural practices and world view
•• developing skills for communication and interaction across cultures.
1 What is your interpretation of each of these statements?
2 To what extent do you think you are culturally competent? In what ways might you improve
your cultural competence?
Thinking about cultural diversity

Of course, working towards cultural recognition and inclusion has its challenges. As with the
culture of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples, educators need to learn about the
cultures of the learners they teach and include these cultures in their curriculum and learning
experiences. However, culture should not be regarded as a ‘coherent and unified’ thing that
determines who we are. More often than not people navigate multiple norms, values, practices
and beliefs in their lives rather than subscribe to one set. Many learners, for instance, have
multiple identities. This is because the language, norms and activities of their family home are
different from the language, norms and activities at school. These learners learn to transition
between these different social spaces and the different ways of thinking, speaking and doing
this involves.
As a consequence, we should avoid thinking that there is a uniform set of shared
norms, activities and standardised rules of behaviour that can be associated with all people
of a particular ethnic or social group. People’s lives are more ambiguous, dynamic and
contradictory than that. Educators must avoid essentialism, or seeing an individual as having
a particular set of fixed attributes that define who they are simply because they belong to or
are associated with a particular group. Indeed, many people improvise their daily decisions in
ways that do not consciously adhere to defined cultural norms or values (Gonzalez, Mol &
Amanti, 2005). It is a problem to see people of a cultural group as ‘all the same’.
We therefore caution you to avoid cultural stereotyping in your thinking about cultural
diversity. This can reinforce prejudice, inhibit learners’ understanding of diversity and limit
opportunities for authentic and meaningful engagement with the complex lives of learners. In fact,
a critical multicultural education involves learning about personal, social, cultural and institutional
stereotyping, bias and discrimination in their learning about their and others’ cultures.
1 Have you got examples from your life or from popular culture (books, films, TV shows)
where people navigate having multiple identities because they are associated with multiple
cultural groups?
2 Can you give examples where your decisions and behaviours do not align with your
stated values and beliefs? Perhaps you have examples related to other people?
Sex, gender and sexuality

A seemingly harmless question that new parents are asked is, ‘Is it a boy or a girl?’ Why it
might be important to know the sex of a newborn is not always clear – it is not as if knowing
the baby’s sex should affect how it is treated or spoken to. A person’s sex is often treated as
a key that unlocks the truth of a person; that knowing their sex will help explain who that
person is, their behaviours, how they think, etc. This has been how scientists, psychologists
and many others have thought about human sexuality. Their attempts to establish truthful
knowledge about the differences between men and women have been used to justify how we
should organise society and treat people.
Understanding sex and gender

In the 1950s and 1960s, the sex role theory of Talcott Parsons was hailed as a scientific basis
for ascribing men and women different roles in the world based on their supposed natural
differences (Hare-Mustin & Marecek, 1988). According to this model, the different qualities
and strengths of men and women meant men were suited to public life and paid work, and
women were suited to family life. Of course, these ideas about sex differences reflect the
antiquated cultural beliefs and values of the time.
What is not always acknowledged today is how our beliefs and ideas about sex, like
Parsons’ research, are shaped by our culture’s expectations, ideas and norms about sex. The
assumption that men and women are fundamentally different (physically, psychologically
and socially) shaped the work of Talcott Parsons and continues to influence how scientists
and other experts study people and interpret the world (Fausto-Stirling, 2000). The problem
with this is there is often greater variability between males and between females than between
the sexes. Neuroscience research points to how, despite popular belief, the ‘male brain’ and
‘female brain’ distinction is incorrect because there is immense variation in brains within men
and within women (Fine, 2010). Brains are not hardwired as male or female but take many
forms which change with time and experience, including in response to how one is raised.
This corrects the supposed ‘truth’ that women are right-brained and males are left-brained.
The point is not that there are no differences between men and women, but that in a world
of immense complexity and so many unknowns, people rush to use sex as an explanation of
the differences between people, which often justifies their values and beliefs about how the
world should be organised.
Individuals’ perceptions of the world are profoundly influenced by their peer and social
groups rather than being inherently based on their sex (DeFrancisco & Palczewski, 2007). In
Australian society and popular culture, gender is often thought of in a binary way (Davies,
1989). People are expected to fit into only two sexes (female and male), and these sexes are
often believed to complement each other to make a whole. This complementary thinking is
reflected in the opposing qualities often attributed to the sexes: women are emotional, caring,
timid and passive, and men are rational, tough, risk takers and active. Binary thinking is so
prevalent we often don’t even question it, and consequently we become it (we become the
categories we think exist). Boys and men learn to define themselves against the feminine –
they perceive their male identity as distancing themselves from perceived female attributes.
They learn to reject the feminine, view the feminine as inferior and see any association with
the feminine as an insult, such as when boys are told they ‘throw like a girl’. Boys and men
learn to perform and cultivate a masculine (and sometimes macho) identity for social approval
and status (being a ‘real’ man).
Such a binary way of thinking is flawed. Although it sounds counter-intuitive, binary
thinking is also flawed because there are many exceptions to the notion that one’s sex
corresponds to one’s reproductive organs. There are many instances where men and women
do not have reproductive organs of their apparent sex, where individuals do not possess
functional reproductive organs, where individuals possess a mix of reproductive organs
(inter-sex) or where a person’s hormonal and chromosomal make up does not represent the
physical appearance of their sex (Fausto-Stirling, 2000). This variation of body types across
the population complicates our narrow binary view of sex and gender.
Sex and gender issues in education

In Australia, gender and education became a policy concern in the 1970s and 1980s. During
this period, the under-achievement of girls in matriculation exams, their under-enrolment
in high-status subjects like mathematics and science and their experience of bias and sexism
became issues for policymakers. A number of key reports put girls’ education on the agendas
of policymakers and educators who implemented policies and strategies to improve their
curriculum choices, their school experiences and their educational outcomes. By the mid-
1990s, after concerted efforts to address this situation, it became common to hear or read that
schooling now disadvantaged boys. Boys were perceived as the new disadvantaged (Martino
& Meyenn, 2001) and victims of feminism, wider social changes to gender roles and the
supposed ‘feminisation’ of schooling, which included a perceived lack of male role models in
early childhood and primary contexts.
A problem with the recent arguments about boys’ education is that they are often
structured by binary thinking that lumps all boys together and all girls together. This way
of thinking regards all boys as under-achieving and all girls as achieving, and all boys as
having the same needs and interests which are supposedly different to girls. However, which
‘boys’ and which ‘girls’ are we talking about? Hattie (2009) argues ‘the difference between
males and females should not be a concern to educators [because there] is more variance
within groups of boys and within groups of girls than there are difference between boys and
girls’ (2009, p. 56). The experiences and educational achievement of boys and girls in school
is shaped by other factors like social class, ethnicity, geographical location and the specific
community and school context. So, girls from lower SES and regional backgrounds under-
achieve in comparison to the educational achievement and outcomes of middle-class boys in
city metropolitan areas.
Increasingly, attention is directed to criticising the binary way we think about gender
and education, and how this thinking reinforces and produces narrow gender norms and
rules in education (Bryan, 2014). Many educators plan learning for and treat boys and
girls differently based on assumptions about their natural differences, interests, strengths
and weaknesses. Educators too readily assume all boys share a learning preference and all
girls share a learning strength that is different to boys. It can therefore be argued that the
stereotyping of feminine and masculine behaviour contributes to shaping the educational
experiences and outcomes for boys and girls (MacNaughton, 2009). For example, many
young boys enter school associating literacy with femininity – because typically it is viewed
as something mothers, women and girls ‘do’. Some educators allow latitude with boys’ anti-
academic, anti-authority and antisocial behaviour, applying the old adage ‘Boys will be boys’.
This normalisation of dominant notions of masculinity gives license to boys to construct a Normalisation the
narrow but socially powerful understanding of ‘being a boy’. This form of masculinity views social and cultural
processes that
traditional academic learning as feminine, valorises physical and sporting prowess, narrows humans use to
the ways in which they express themselves, promotes the bullying of boys who don’t fit the create and maintain
notions of what is
traditionally ‘masculine’ mould and in effect constrains their subject choices, career decisions 'normal'.
and the kinds of relationships they form with others.
Complete the following case study to explore how learning settings play an active role in
producing and also challenging dominant norms of gender.
Gender ide n t ity Case study

·4
In response to educators’ choices, children and young people may construct or seek to construct
their gender identity. For example:
• reading a traditional fairytale to children may become an opportunity for girls to construct
their female identities as pretty, vulnerable, nurturing and needing to be desirable to men primary secon dary
• creating a role play area with traditionally gendered costumes may be an opportunity for
boys to construct themselves as certain kinds of boys, such as ‘leaders’, ‘doctors’, ‘scientists’
or ‘firemen’
• treating boys and girls differently by distributing tasks according to sex, like asking girls e a r ly
childhood
to clean the whiteboard and tidy desks, and having boys move furniture, can reinforce
gender roles
• prescribing a school uniform that expects girls and boys to dress differently (i.e. dresses versus
shorts/pants) offers different opportunities for individuals to cultivate a gender identity
(e.g. dresses and skirts can limit participation in sports during recess and lunch breaks).
Add to the list above by brainstorming the ways educators (consciously and unconsciously)
promote gender stereotypes that can constrain how learners think about their sex. Provide
examples for each phase of formal education: early childhood education, primary schooling and
secondary schooling.
1 What expectation around gender/sex operated in your school/s? Were tasks and responsibilities
divided along gendered lines? Did learners need to conform to dominant gender norms and
expectations?
2 How would you react if a preschool-aged boy preferred to dress up as a princess while in your
care? What would the choices made by educators regarding this boy’s behaviour tell the child
and other children?
3 How can educators and schools enable access to different meanings about and experiences of
being boys and girls in schools? For learners who don’t fit ‘the norm’, how can schools broaden
the definition of being a boy or girl so they can include themselves in it?
Sexuality and education

The representations and experiences of gay, lesbian, bisexual, transgendered, queer and
inter-sexed people (LGBTQI) has more recently become a topic in education. In 2015, and
coinciding with the Wear It Purple Day that celebrates recognition and respect for sexual and
gender diversity, the filmmakers of the Australian-made documentary Gayby Baby (rated
PG) were invited to screen the film at Burwood Girls High School in New South Wales. The
film is about children raised by same-sex parents, and the film’s director is an ex-student of
the school. Parents were advised about the viewing and they could opt for their children not
to participate. Before the screening, the conservative tabloid newspaper The Daily Telegraph
whipped up a media and political storm by protesting against the viewing, claiming it was
inappropriate and against the wishes of parents. In response, the NSW Education Minister
made an extraordinary decree banning the viewing of the documentary, regardless of the
desires of the school community. Such censorship represents the continued active silencing
and exclusion of non-heterosexual people in education policy and curriculum (Ullman &
Ferfolja, 2015). This amounts to the perpetuation of the prejudice that non-heterosexual
people and their relationships are dangerous to young people and offensive to our moral
sensibilities.
Sensitivity around these issues also surfaced with the moral panic surrounding the Safe
Schools program (Law, 2017). The program makes available learning and teaching resources
for schools to teach about gender and sexuality, to create inclusive schools for LGBTQI
students and to counter the endemic homophobia that exists in Australian schools. For
many queer students, schools are not safe or supportive. A report for the Western Australian
Equal Opportunity Commissioner (Jones, 2012) found that 80 per cent of LGBTQI students
experienced abuse at school, with 61 per cent of queer students experiencing verbal abuse, 18
per cent experiencing physical abuse and 69 per cent experiencing other forms of bullying.
While sexuality education is largely provided to school students, 12 per cent reported they
were taught homophobia is wrong, 82 per cent of LGBTQI students did not regard their
schools as supportive and 44 per cent perceived their schools to be actively homophobic. A
study for Beyond Blue found young males are especially prone to homophobia, with 40 per
cent of boys feeling ‘anxious and uncomfortable’ around same-sex attracted people, more
than one-third would not like a gay person being in their social group and 20 per cent found
it hard to treat same-sex attracted people the same as others (Browne, 2015).
The Safe School’s program attempted to redress this epidemic level of hate, discrimination
and ignorance that pervades many Australian schools, as well as overcoming many educators’
feelings of being ill-equipped to broach and teach about such issues. In so doing, it was an
opportunity to address the discrimination, exclusion and abuse that contributes to the higher
rates of depression, anxiety and self-harm among the LGBTQI population compared to
the heterosexual population (Leonard, Lyons & Bariola, 2015). However, the Safe Schools
program was challenged by conservative politicians, media and other social commentators who
sought to stop its funding and the choice of school communities to access the resources (Law,
2017). According to their logic, exposure to representations and discussions about sexuality
and gender is unwarranted, corrupting and detrimental to young people. This assumes that
children are innocent and are dependent on adults to protect them from supposedly adult
knowledge and experiences. However, this is not a realistic portrayal of the life experiences
of children and young people.
Young people are independently accessing mis/information about sexuality through peers,
popular culture and social media. Moreover, many children and young people are exposed to non-
heterosexual people and relationships, with many knowing family members who are LGBTQI
or are themselves being raised in ‘rainbow families’. The paternalistic conservative response to the
Safe Schools program reflects the continued sidelining of learners from decision making about
what and how they learn. However, educators have a responsibility to learn about how gender and
sexual norms shape learners’ lives, their sense of selves and their treatment of others. They have
a responsibility to create inclusive and safe learning environments, and this often means talking
about sexism, homophobia and racism. They should meaningfully engage children and young
people in the creation of curriculum that relates to their experiences and interests, and prepares
them for living in a society that requires respect for diversity.
Learning difficulties and

disabilities
Learning can be affected by a range of learning difficulties and disabilities. These can include:
intellectual disability, physical disability, sensory disability, behavioural problems and learning
difficulty. Intellectual disability refers to difficulties with reasoning, thinking and problem solving
and is usually diagnosed with a test of cognitive ability, such as an intelligence test. Physical
disability refers to difficulty with movement of the body including speech, and is often present at
birth. Physical disability may or may not be related to an intellectual disability. Sensory disability
is an impairment in vision and hearing. Behavioural problems refer to learners whose behaviour
and interactions are construed as unproductive for the specific situation, often classroom learning.
The behaviour may be disruptive and antisocial or aggressive, and may be related to the social,
psychological and emotional issues of a learner. A learning difficulty refers to a persistent and often
unexpected difficulty a learner has in learning basic skills like literacy and numeracy. Dyslexia is an
example of a learning difficulty.
In Australia, learners with additional learning needs include those who have intellectual
or physical disabilities, language disorders, health-related conditions or learning difficulties.
Traditionally, once the learner’s ‘problem’ was diagnosed,

Alamy Stock Photo/Jim West
a specific remedy was prescribed, with a focus on

improving the deficit(s) identified. Such an approach,
which diagnoses and treats children as deficient and
abnormal according to a perceived normal standard, has
been termed ‘medicalisation’ and the ‘medical model’
(Millei & Bendix-Petersen, 2017). We need to be critical
of the medical model. Where remediation of students’ so-
called ‘weaknesses’ are solely focused upon, there can be
loss of self-esteem, motivation and a sense of isolation.
The problem is seen to exist with the learner, who is seen
as failing to meet the expected standard of the education
system. Such a model makes it difficult to recognise that such learners might be talented in
areas beyond what is officially taught.
More recently, inclusive schooling has been the preferred approach. ‘Inclusive schooling’
is a term that is based on the belief that all children can learn and, wherever possible, should
be part of regular classrooms. It focuses on students’ strengths rather than their shortcomings
and celebrates diversity. Education providers are required by law to make reasonable
adjustments to allow a student with disabilities to be educated on the same basis as other
students. See the Disability Discrimination Act Standards for Education for more detail
(http://www.ddaedustandards.info/).
Educational practices need to be responsive to the educational and social needs of all
students. This does not mean that all learners have to do the same thing. Providing equal
opportunities for all learners will not result in equal outcomes. To ensure equality of
opportunity and outcome, different provision is required for individuals and groups in any
class, regardless of whether they are one age level or multi-age. Learning tasks that cater for a
variety of learning styles and interests or individuals and groups need to be set. Collaborative
activities, peer and cross-age tutoring and flexibility in pacing lessons are all possible strategies
that can be considered and will be discussed further in Chapter 4. Similarly, a variety of
assessment and evaluative tools and strategies should be utilised (see Chapter 9).
In recent years there has been an increased awareness of and understanding about children
who manifest unusual behaviour patterns. It has been suggested, for example, that nearly
20 per cent of boys have been labelled as suffering from attention deficit disorder, which
can make concentration in the classroom very difficult. In a discussion with educators in a
suburban Sydney school, nearly every educator in a school of 450 students had been asked
to integrate a child with Asperger’s syndrome, one of the disorders on the autism spectrum.
Each educator spoke of the stress involved in helping these students relate appropriately to
other children and the need to develop individual programs to help these students learn. At
the same time there are many who would argue that children are often wrongly diagnosed
or labelled too quickly as having a particular disorder or syndrome. Raffaele’s (2009) study
illustrates how damaging it can be for children who are wrongly diagnosed as ADHD when
in fact they are mildly epileptic, and how much it can affect both their own and their parents’
lives and identities. Educators need assistance from counsellors and other professionals (such
as doctors and speech and occupational therapists) to plan adaptations of the curriculum and
sometimes the physical classroom space to meet learners’ needs.
Supporting gifted and talented

learners
Supporting learners identified as gifted and talented students is an area that has attracted some
controversy in education over the years. Many would argue that every child is talented in
some way and that education is not just a matter of tapping into that particular ability. Others
would regard these students as constituting a small group at the upper end of the ability
continuum, defining ‘gifted’ children as having high inherited potential while those who are
‘talented’ as displaying advanced skills in a specific area when compared to similar-age peers.
Some children displaying such abilities may need special social and emotional support.
Perhaps one of the most crucial issues is how to identify gifted and talented learners in
your classroom. Early identification is important to meeting their individual needs. Although
IQ tests are often used, they are not always helpful because they are bound by particular
cultural values and often focus on specific areas (e.g. verbal skills). Each Australian state has
an association for gifted and talented children that provides access to relevant resources for
both parents and teachers. When making an assessment for giftedness it is important to use
a range of strategies, including interviews with the learner and their parents or caregivers,
informal and formal observation of a range of tasks and the teacher’s professional judgement.
Poor identification strategies have resulted in an underrepresentation of ethnic, non-English
speaking background (NESB) children, children from low socioeconomic backgrounds and
Indigenous children in gifted and talented programs designed for extension. In addition, some
gifted children downplay their abilities in order to achieve acceptance from their peers. Even when
identified, the needs of gifted and talented students have not always been met in our schools.
Students can be gifted in many ways and often have jagged profiles; that is, strengths in one or two
areas with additional needs in others (Cohen, 1992; Gardner, 1995; Noble, 1999).
One solution for gifted learners has been the provision of extension programs or courses
in addition to everyday school activities. This approach has also been criticised given that
many of these programs include problem-solving activities that are valuable for every learner.
In addition, enrichment and extension programs often treat students categorised as gifted as a
homogeneous group, sometimes with little consideration of their individual needs. Withdrawing
children for special activities may work against community building in the classroom.
It is critical that teachers implement learning strategies designed to challenge all learners.
1 Reflect upon your definition of and approach to the concept of gifted and talented learners.
2 Research some of the tests and identification strategies used to identify those who are
gifted and talented. These might include heightened creativity, exceptional problem-solving
skills or or advanced interests in a particular area. Think about how these characteristics/
attributes relate to/describe learners you know.
3 What kinds of factors might help you in identify gifted or talented learners in your centre
or class?
Conclusion
This chapter highlights the need for educators to know and be responsive to learners. We
are living in a world which increasingly recognises, respects and celebrates the value and
contribution of difference and diversity. In this respect, educators must know and become
knowledgeable about the diverse family, community and cultural backgrounds of their
students. This means becoming an ‘intellectual worker’, or somebody who learns about and
can critically interpret the wider social, cultural and political forces that shape society, people’s
lives and education. In this chapter, we have examined family background, poverty and
economic inequality, cultural diversity, Australian Indigenous identity, gender and sexuality,
learning disabilities and difficulties, and gifted and talented learners. These shape the lives and
learning experiences of learners and the decision making of educators. Therefore educators
need to recognise and respond to these forces with sensitivity and sophistication. They must
listen to learners, identify their needs, interests and abilities, accepting and understanding ‘the
multiple identities of children and childhood and the complexity of the relationship between
the lifeworlds of children and the role of schools’ (Faulkner, 2011, p. 57). They must plan and
enact learning experiences that connect with learners’ lives so they can experience belonging
and success and be challenged.
How can educators provide for the needs of all learners? The following chapter explores
the nature of learning through looking at a number of learning theories. It also examines a
range of approaches and philosophies to teaching and learning that aim to provide for student
diversity, together with some examples of inclusive programs and approaches that have been
shown to be successful.
STUDY TOOLS
Go further
Following 1 Log on to the My School website (www.myschool.edu.au). Compare two schools, one from a high
through SES area and another from a low SES area (you can use each school’s Index of Community Socio-
Educational Advantage (ICSEA) score to identify schools catering to high, average and low SES
students). You can compare: test results, income and expenditure, and student demographics in terms
of SES distribution and cultural diversity. Share your findings.
2 Look for cultural biases in curriculum materials. For example, you could analyse a history text to see
whether, and if so how, it addresses the Stolen Generations. Or you could look at the new Australian
Curriculum: History to see whose history is included and whose history is excluded. The same task can
be attempted with any resources found in a learning setting, such as fiction books for children to read.
Share your findings.
3 Pinkstinks (pinkstinks.org.uk, n.d.) is a group started in the UK by two sisters that works to:
confront the damaging messages that bombard girls though toys, clothes, and media. Girls
products overwhelmingly focus on being pretty, passive and obsessed with shaping, fashion
and make up – this promotes dangerously narrow definitions of what it means to be a girl.
Do you agree that girls are bombarded and need to be more critical about the images of femininity
presented to them? Do you think boys struggle just as much as girls with these issues? Do you agree
that Australian girls need more female role models chosen because of their achievements, skills and
accomplishments?
http://www.abs.gov.au This is the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) and contains up-to-date statistical
Useful
information about aspects of Australian society.
online
teaching
http://www.abc.net.au/4corners/growing-up-poor/4279854 Growing Up Poor documentary provides an
insight into poverty experienced by young people in Australia.
resources
http://www.aboriginalliteracyfoundation.org/our-programs.html This site provides recent information
about Aboriginal education.
http://www.creativespirits.info This site enables you to explore Aboriginal culture and resources as well as
recent information about education.
http://www.pinkstinks.org.uk This is a campaign targeting products, media and marketing that stereotypes
and limits roles of young girls.
http://www.aaegt.net.au This site includes information about the Australian Association for Education of
the Gifted and Talented (AAEGT) and affliated state organisations.
https://growingupinaustralia.gov.au This website houses the information gathered by the Longitudinal
Study of Australian Children.
Australian Bureau of Statistics. 2018, Aboriginal and ____ 1990, ‘On pedagogic discourse’, in J. Richardson
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4
The nature of learning
U U LT J E N S
T I MOTH Y B
Children and young people

need to learn in ways that are
inclusive and meet their diverse
learning needs. Educators need
to draw on their repertoire
of teaching and learning
strategies to ensure they
meet the needs, interests and
abilities of all learners.
68
CHAPTER 4 The nature of learning 69
T he preceding chapter introduced the challenges, dilemmas and opportunities

educators face when thinking about the different cultural backgrounds, ethnicities,
abilities, dispositions and interest levels of the individual learners in their classrooms.
As a starting point, we suggest that investigating your own learning processes may
provide a useful prompt to understanding how you might design relevant and engaging
curriculum experiences for the diverse range of learners you will meet in your classroom
and educational learning settings. In doing this, it will be important for you to consider
how you define learning.
This chapter provides a brief snapshot of a number of classical learning theories that have
evolved over time and have been revised, refined, contested, adapted and extended over the
decades. You will need to investigate these theories in more detail so a number of relevant
references are provided at the end of the chapter to help you get started. Our reading of these
theories at this point in time should be balanced with your studies in educational psychology,
where there will be a number of different interpretations for you to examine. Ultimately, you
will arrive at your own reading of these theories and this interpretation will have an impact
on your own philosophy of teaching and learning.
Several approaches to quality teaching and learning over the last two decades are
then considered from the perspective of the need to plan, organise and implement
engaging learning processes and experiences for the diverse range of learners in different
learning contexts.
Defining learning
When you develop a new skill, acquire new knowledge, make sense of a complex concept
for the first time or finally understand another perspective that has long evaded you, you
are engaging in some kind of learning. Although difficult to define, learning is usually
conceived as a change in understanding or behaviour. Learning encompasses a plethora of
ideas and concepts, including learning to think, solve problems, read and write, become
numerate, act and speak appropriately in particular contexts, memorise ‘facts’ and know
how to do technical things, such as word processing or accessing the internet. Knowing
about ourselves and understanding how we learn is inextricably interwoven with being
motivated to learn. More recently, the concept of learning has become associated more with
knowledge construction and meaning making. We all seem – at least during our early years –
to be motivated to learn new things. Young children are constantly curious, delighted by
their explorations in the world and actively seeking to add to their growing understandings
about their place in it.
As a beginning educator, it is important to consider how best learners might be helped to
sustain joy in the learning process throughout their years in different educational contexts
and beyond.
Think back to the last time you learnt something – it can be anything from learning to ride a bike to
learning about a new artist or how a new app works, or learning something new about yourself or a
friend. Consider the following questions:
1 Was there a reason you set out to learn this?
2 How did you learn how to do this?
For example:
➜➜ Did you need to write or take notes while you were learning?
➜➜ Did you learn on your own or with a friend?
➜➜ Did you need to see someone demonstrate the process?
➜➜ Did you need to be actively involved in the process yourself as it was demonstrated?
➜➜ Did you enjoy the learning process?
How learning happens

From birth (and, indeed, many would argue from conception) children are constantly engaged
in learning. Parents talk to their babies the moment they enter the world, treating them as
meaning makers, asking them questions and engaging them in a ‘conversation’, singing them
songs, playing games and humming them music. Moments after birth, babies have been
recorded mirroring the meaning-making on the faces of those holding them; for an example,
watch Colwyn Trevarthen’s YouTube recording a newborn child’s expectation of connection
on the first day (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IYXAU2Bvfbw).
Making meaning is important because we are social beings who interact in a communicative
way. We interpret our experiences and organise them to help us make sense of the world. It
is interesting to note that, by the time most children reach the age of three, they have learnt
one of the most complex things they will be called upon to do during their entire life: they
have learnt to talk, to communicate effectively with others. Most often this achievement is
unmarked by formal ‘instruction’. In fact, without thinking consciously about how we do it,
we all learn many things successfully in everyday contexts without explicit teaching. It seems
that for most individuals learning needs to be experiential. It is therefore useful to examine
everyday learning contexts to enable us to understand more about student learning and how
it can be maximised in preschool and school situations.
This chapter explores various explanations of how learning occurs. There is no single
approach or theory that successfully explains the multiplicity of ways that we learn, and
new research and understandings constantly challenge current knowledge about effective
learning. We do argue in this book that sociocultural constructivist perspectives provide a
more inclusive framework with which to examine the processes of learning. Nevertheless,
it is essential for you to come to your own conclusions about the merits of various learning
theories. Your beliefs about the learning process will be reflected in the way you construct the
teaching and learning experiences in your particular learning context.
Major theoretical approaches to

learning
There are a number of major theoretical approaches to learning that are essential for you, as
a beginning teacher, to understand because of the impact they have made on how we think
about teaching. As mentioned earlier, it is beyond the scope of this text to explore these
theories in great detail. Your own reading in these areas will extend these snapshots and
enable you to think carefully about the relationship between particular approaches and a
specific learning task or context that you are designing.
Just as there have been changes in educators’ work, over time there have been changes
in theories of learning. The impact of these theories on classroom practices and educational
policies have also varied over time. Early philosophers, such as Plato and Aristotle, debated
the nature of learning and knowledge acquisition. In the seventeenth century John Locke
(Cleverley & Phillips, 1988) agreed with Aristotle that the child’s mind could be compared
to a blank slate waiting to be filled up with knowledge and coined the phrase tabula rasa.
Historically, the debate has been characterised by arguments that learning and gaining
knowledge come in discrete packages that can be passed on from a knower to a novice,
contrasting with the belief that they occur largely through experience that is being reworked
continuously or to attributing learning to the workings of the mind itself. And, of course,
others assert that learning happens through the interactions of all three. Behaviourist
Early in the twentieth century attempts to understand the nature of human learning were A behaviourist
adopts a
based on observations of how animals learnt behaviour. psychological
approach that
proposes that all
Behaviourist views of the learning process learning is triggered
by an external event.
Building on the notion of the human mind as a blank slate, B.F. Skinner (1957), the best- Classical
known behaviourist psychologist, hypothesised that all learning was conditioned by external conditioning is a
events, either consciously (classical conditioning) or unconsciously (operant conditioning). contrived learnt
response.
Close connections were formed by some kind of event or condition (a stimulus) triggering
Operant conditioning
an observable reaction (or response). Actions that were rewarded in some way were more refers to an
likely to be repeated. Skinner’s experiments with animals, along with earlier work by Watson, individual modifying
their behaviour
Pavlov and Thorndike, led to the notion that learning could be controlled by positively because of what the
reinforcing appropriate behaviour and punishing undesirable behaviour. consequence will be.
This conditioning approach to learning was adapted and further developed with the
Social learning development of social learning theory, which included the realisation that some learning
theory According happens vicariously by imitation and modelling (Bandura, 1969). Bandura explicitly
to social learning
theory we learn in acknowledged the contribution of cognitive (internal psychological) factors to the learning
social contexts often process. Some of his most well-known work examined the links between children watching
through observing
what others model
violent films or TV programs and later displaying aggressive behaviour. It is not clear why
for us. we choose to imitate some things we see others doing but ignore others. Cognitive behaviour
Cognitive means modification theories based on Luria’s (1963) work emphasised both behavioural and
knowing, perceiving cognitive factors in learning and demonstrated the role that self-talk could play in managing
or remembering.
and changing behaviour.
Reinforcement
In reinforcement The concepts of conditioning, reinforcement and behaviour modification have had an
a behaviour is enormous impact on classroom learning and the management of learner behaviour. If you
strengthened
when it becomes
believe that all learning arises from how you organise experiences, then you must be careful
associated with a to ensure these experiences are optimal. Information must be carefully sequenced from the
particular stimulus. most simple to the most complex. Learners are encouraged to demonstrate, and consequently
Behaviour be rewarded for, new learning through observable changes in their behaviour. Newly learnt
modification refers
to techniques used skills become embedded to create a more complex set of skills.
to change behaviour. While it is certainly possible to explain the learning of simple, often technical, tasks using
the notions of classical and operant conditioning, imitation and modelling, there are many
other tasks that can be learnt through a step-by-step progression from simple to complex
skills, such as learning table etiquette, managing a word-processing package, following
a recipe or making a model plane. It seems impossible, however, to maintain that all our
learning can be explained using behaviourist theories.
Think about how a child learns to talk. Do you think such complex learning can be explained purely
through a stimulus–response–reinforcement cycle? What other factors might be important?
Information
processing theory
Cognitive theories about learning
analyses the Other theories explored the developing nature of the child’s internal cognitive structures
sequence of events
that occurs when and their role in the process of learning. Information processing theory was largely
we learn something developed as a response to dissatisfaction with behaviourist theories. Interestingly,
new.
its evolution coincided with the development of computer technologies. Information
Schema is an
organised pattern of
processing theory suggests that as items of information are learnt, the learner organises
thought. them or stores them long term in larger units, often called ‘schema’, which may be an
overall idea or picture. This organisation allows the knowledge to be retrieved more readily
when needed (Ausubel, 1967) using cues that act as triggers or catalysts. When learning
a particular skill, the learner integrates the new knowledge with past knowledge and
the schema are expanded. Learning concepts or intellectual skills requires the learner to
develop hierarchies of learning in which more complex concepts are built on prior, simpler
rules. In fact, the learner’s previously stored knowledge affects how new information
is interpreted. For example, to be able to understand that a rectangle has four angles of
90°, a learner needs to have already understood what an angle is and that there are many
different kinds of angles.
Memory therefore plays a key role in information-processing theories about how we learn.
More recent explanations of how information is processed are termed ‘connectionist’ (for
example, McLelland & Rumelhart, 1986) because they emphasise the role of neural networks
or connections and characterise the brain as a highly complex network with information
stored in multiple locations (Krause, Bochner & Duchesne, 2003).
Information processing models thus attribute great importance to the learner’s active
involvement in the learning process: the learner must constantly represent information, and
organise and frame the knowledge. Neuroscience, or understanding how the brain works, is
a difficult and highly complex ever-evolving area: we are learning more about how the brain
works daily. While it is crucial that we do not oversimplify ongoing research in this area,
educators can help students understand metacognitive processes by making them explicit
and making suggestions about how students can organise their knowledge. Making notes or
drawing mind or concept maps, as shown in Figure 4.1, using pictures, colours and symbols Mind (or concept)
can really help some students remember more about a specific book’s plot or a certain maps are visual
diagrams with
geographical land form, for example. A timeline can be useful in retrieving information about the core idea in
a particular historical event. the middle and
lines and bubbles
Information processing theories have attempted to map the complexity of the brain’s radiating from it
functions, often using the way that computers store and retrieve information as an analogy. representing ideas
This reliance on the computer has been criticised for its over-simplification of the human and relationships
connecting them.
mind (Klahr & McWhinney, 1998). In addition, such models tend to ignore the important
role of affect, culture and context in learning.
➜➜ Do you think that information processing models that focus on a computer-like learning
metaphor oversimplify the complexity of the human brain?
➜➜ How important are affect, culture and context in the learning process?
➜➜ Can you think of examples?
FIGURE 4.1

Scout Kozakiewicz
AN EXAMPLE OF A MIND MAP
An example of a mind map about life on earth
Constructivist theories about learning

Another highly influential cognitive approach was initially developed by the Swiss
psychologist and philosopher Jean Piaget (1896–1980). Piaget had a background in biology
and spent a great deal of time listening and observing children. He asserted that children think
very differently to adults.
In 1959, Piaget proposed a sequential four-stage theory of intellectual or cognitive
development. He suggested that all children’s thinking evolved or matured from:
1 The sensorimotor period, essentially reflex behaviour at birth and the acquisition
of knowledge through sensory experiences, and manipulating objects until between
18 months and two years old
2 The preoperational stage (from 18 months to two years
Alamy Stock Photo/Granger Historical Picture Archive

until about seven) when there was dramatic development of
thought and language, and a focus on the self
3 The concrete operational phase (from around seven or eight
until about 12 years) characterised by the development
of logical thought and the ability to hold more than one
perspective simultaneously
4 The formal operations stage (generally achieved in mid-
adolescence) evidenced by the ability to reason
speculatively in an abstract manner without the aid of
concrete materials.
Piaget therefore theorised that the learning process could be
conceived of as largely a maturational process through which
the individual child moves. It is interesting to reflect on what
role the teacher might play if this is the case.
While these stages were not intended to be rigidly tied
to certain ages, Piaget demonstrated that each stage was
Jean Piaget
distinctive with thinking processes being quite different at
each stage. In addition, he maintained that it was important
Maturational
not to expect students to perform tasks before they were intellectually ready to do so if process refers
these tasks were beyond their stage of development. His famous conservation experiments, to biological
development.
although long debated, also illustrate that children see the world differently from adults.
Conservation
Piaget’s work has been hotly challenged and largely refined by other theorists (including, experiments A series
for example, Donaldson, 1983; Biggs & Collis, 1982). For example, some research suggests of experiments
that sophisticated organisational skills, judgements and understanding of consequences of conducted by Piaget
to demonstrate how
actions are not readily achievable until some adults reach their mid-twenties. a child gains the
Nevertheless, the ‘readiness’ and stages concepts have certainly influenced many understanding of what
remains the same
generations of educators. In addition, Piaget’s emphasis on listening to children, valuing when an object is
their stage of learning and thinking, and ensuring learning activities are developmentally changed aesthetically;
appropriate are very important legacies of his work. for example, the
understanding that
It is fair to suggest that Piaget’s theory of learning does not give sufficient attention to the there is the same
socially interactive nature of human beings. In addition, some would suggest that it does not amount of water if it
is poured from a tall
sufficiently consider the specific contexts in which learners are situated. Those, like Piaget, skinny glass into a
who hold that the processes related to knowledge construction take place at a personal or short squat one.
individual level are usually referred to as individual, personal or cognitive constructivists Cognitive
(Walker & Debus, 2002). constructivists
predict what
children can
and can’t do at a
particular age.
1 Do you think there is a universal pattern of human development?
2 Does development involve distinct and separate stages with different kinds of behaviour
occurring in each stage? Or many? Is there a predictable pathway?
3 Does this mean that educators play no role?
Situated practice
In a situated Learning as a social, collaborative process
practice, learning
is embedded in a Perhaps the theoretical approaches to learning described so far failed to give sufficient
specific context. attention to the role of the actual learning environment and cultural context in the learning
Community of process. As suggested in Chapter 3, an assumption that can follow is that all individuals will
learners A group learn in the same way, wherever they are or whoever they are involved with. It is highly
of people who are
learning together or problematic to assume that all learning occurs in the same way and at the same pace for
who share a common everyone and that all learners progress in exactly the same way through the same stages.
goal or set of values.
Another influential psychologist of the twentieth century is Jerome Bruner (1915–2016),
Social constructivist
approach In a social
who initially was a leading figure in the study of children’s cognitive development. In contrast
constructivist to Piaget, however, Bruner began to focus on the learning process and the importance of the
approach, groups social and cultural factors that impacted children’s learning and language development. In
construct knowledge
together – with/for 1960, his book The Process of Education described children as active problem solvers ready
each other. to engage with difficult subjects if sufficiently motivated. Bruner’s work also acknowledged
Sociocultural- the importance of intuition in the learning process.
historical approach
Over the last four decades, there has been a growing realisation that learning is largely
acknowledges the
historical as well as a social, collaborative process. Most children learn readily in some kind of family structure
the cultural context and alongside caregivers, siblings or peers. It seems problematic, then, that the tradition
in which learners
construct their of Western schooling has promoted an individualised and highly competitive approach to
knowledge. learning (Connell et al., 1982), which downplays or marginalises the centrality of cultural and
communicative factors in learning (Mercer, 1995).
Learning is now understood as a process embedded in social
relationships and cultural practices, a situated practice within a
Alamy Stock Photo/SPUTNIK
community of learners (Toohey, 2000) rather than a process of

individual acquisition transmitted by an expert. The cultural tools
of a particular culture and the artefacts that are part of this culture
will mediate our learning. In a literate society then, a child is
immersed in oral, written and now digital traditions from birth. In
our increasingly technological global society, television and other
mass media, computers and calculators are part of our world. As
discussed further in Chapter 6, all these mediate the learning process.
A social constructivist approach or, as it has been termed more
recently, a sociocultural-historical approach to learning emphasises
the importance of shared interaction, collaboration and negotiated
meanings. It also regards the development of language and literacies
as playing a crucial role in learning.
The most influential theorist advocating this approach to learning
has been Lev Vygotsky (1897–1934), although his work was not
commonly known beyond the Soviet Union until the 1970s.
Lev Vygotsky
Vygotsky (1978) theorised that learning has its origin in social processes, so all thinking is
initially manifested in social interactions between people. Thinking, according to Vygotsky, is
originally external to the individual and gradually internalised. He asserted that any function in
a child’s cultural development, therefore, appears first on the social plane (interpsychological)
and then later on the psychological plane (intrapsychological). As the individual acquires
language (again, through a social process), language becomes the tool for thinking and is used
to guide behaviour.
Also central to Vygotsky’s (2004) theories is the importance he places on play and
imagination in fostering children’s creativity. He asserts that it is through free play that a
child transitions to the imaginative and more abstract realm. This is so crucial because in
his words: ‘… imagination, as the basis of all creative activity, is an important component of
absolutely all aspects of cultural life, enabling artistic, scientific, and technical creation alike’
(p. 9). Play is not just important for young children: in play all learners have opportunities to
explore alternative possibilities in their worlds and bend the rules without being limited by
their current contexts. Yet, child initiated and developmental play is often being limited in
both early childhood and school contexts. The Alliance for Childhood in the United States
of America suggests that too often young children’s play opportunities are being reduced
in favour of more direct instruction (See: http://www.allianceforchildhood.org ). A recent
UK report documents the decline in children’s outdoor play – only an average of about four
hours a week compared with twice that in the previous generation.
In addition, the Vygotskian concept of the zone of proximal development (ZPD) has been Zone of proximal
particularly important for educators’ work. He defines ZPD as: development (ZPD)
is the difference
the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by individual problem between what a
learner can do with
solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under the help of a more
adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers. experienced peer
Vygotsky, 1978, p. 86 or adult and what
he or she can do
unassisted.
In one sense the ZPD can be seen as the reverse of Piaget’s theory that the child’s stage of
development leads the learning process – Vygotsky argues that it is the learning that enables
the child’s development to occur. Adults or more experienced siblings or peers interact with
a learner to play a crucial role in advancing that individual’s development from one stage
of development to the next. Through this interaction the child is able to operate at a higher
level than they would be if they were completing the task alone. Vygotsky suggests that
children are more likely to attempt something almost within their range if they have either a
reasonable chance of success or a more experienced peer or adult who can help them through.
Although there has been some criticism about the vagueness of the concept of ZPD, it has
certainly triggered much research. A number of other educational theorists, including Ninio
and Bruner (1978), Cazden (1979, 1988) and Hammond (2001) have further developed this
aspect of Vygotsky’s work for educators describing ZPD as a ‘scaffolding’ process. Bruner and
his colleagues initially used the term as a metaphor to describe the communication between
parents and their young children. He and others linked it to Vygotsky’s concept of ZPD
and suggested its use as a tool to explore how educators could more effectively structure the
teaching and learning process. The scaffolding metaphor is a helpful one in trying to understand
the teacher’s role within the learning process. Scaffolding supports those parts of a building
not yet ready to stand alone. It enables the construction to go forward. Once a section of the
building can stand alone, the scaffolding is removed in order to be erected in another part of
the building needing support. Using the scaffolding analogy suggests that the teacher, parent
or older child can be seen as a facilitator of the learning process rather than the transmitter
of important knowledge that is to be absorbed by/transmitted to the learner. As the learner
grasps a skill or concept, less support in that area is needed and they become more independent
in this area. More recently, Moll and Whitmore (1993) and Ewing (2015) have suggested that
the ZPD can be conceived as a collaborative process rather than an individual one.
Careful provision of appropriate resources and activities, together with carefully structured
questioning, allows the learner to explore concepts and ideas in a more sophisticated manner
and more quickly than if left alone. The teacher, caregiver or more experienced peer can
extend opportunities for learners in other areas of learning through the initial provision of
similar support structures.
Consider the scaffolding metaphor discussed above.
1 Do you find the analogy helpful?
2 Does it accurately represent the role of a more experienced learner/teacher?
3 Can you think of another analogy?
4 Can you think of an example where your learning has been ‘scaffolded’ by a teacher?
Another seminal theme in Vygotsky’s work is that one of the best ways to understand how
people learn is to explore the signs and symbols used to mediate our social and psychological
processes. Language is perhaps the most important symbolic tool of all.
The importance of language in

the learning process
For much of the twentieth century, the processes involved in language learning were
largely divorced from the study of learning itself. Yet, Vygotsky saw language as the most
important mental tool. As linguists Michael Halliday (1993, p. 93) and Ruqaiya Hasan
(1991) have demonstrated, when children engage in learning language they are learning the
foundation of learning and at the same time they are learning about a particular culture.
Language development should not be isolated from other learning because all learning
is about the individual finding out how to make meaning within a particular society or
cultural group. Margaret Meek (2006) has demonstrated how language play (which begins
with babbling and the repetition of noises and moves to rhymes, songs and stories) enables
children to discover how language works and how they can bend the rules. It is certainly
well documented that rich experience with stories and poetry is a strong indicator of a
child’s future linguistic success.
In Australia, Brian Cambourne (1984) proposed that children’s successful learning of

language usually by the age of three provides some important principles that should underpin
all learning situations. His ‘Conditions for Learning’ for successful language learning include:
• immersion, or involvement in the learning process
• the importance of modelling or demonstrating what is to be learnt by a more experienced
knower
• the need for joint construction or scaffolding of the process with the learner as an
apprentice
• perhaps most importantly, the expectation that the learner will succeed in learning to talk;
that is, children learn to talk by talking.
While these conditions for learning are important, too much emphasis on the naturalness
of language learning can also be problematic given that language learning is also about learning
a particular rather than a universal way of life or culture. In addition, many children living
in poverty or experiencing difficult family circumstances do not always experience these
conditions at home and will need to be provided with these opportunities in early childhood
centres, preschools and schools.
Consider Jake’s case below.
Captive in th e clas s roo m Case study

·1
Jake, 10 years old, has limited English on arriving in Australia with his family after seemingly
endless years of being on the run and then in a refugee camp. His family fled Sierra Leone
during the civil war. Both parents are not able to read and write in their mother tongue and have
difficulty with English. Jake has thus had limited experience with books. There are only a small primary
number of African children in his school and there is little understanding of the ordeal Jake’s
family has experienced. It is clear Jake seems to feel captive or constrained in the classroom,
especially when reading and writing tasks begin. He sits alone when he is in the classroom and
on the playground, and already appears isolated from the other students. He is gruff when his
teacher tries to encourage him to play with his peers. The teacher is worried about his progress
but finds it difficult to communicate her concerns to his parents.
1 What are some of the issues that need to be addressed for Jake and his family?
2 How should they be approached?
The way learners use language will depend upon how language is used at home and in their
local communities. Some ‘ways with words’ (Brice Heath, 1983) as discussed in Chapter 3 are
more highly regarded than others in the preschool and classroom context: it is clear that some
children begin without the ‘linguistic capital’ (Bourdieu, 1990) needed for success with language
and literacy. As educators we need to be sensitive to these cultural differences and provide
explicit learning experiences that will enable all learners to extend their use and understanding
of language in ways that will enhance their learning as well as their growth as individuals.
Learning will not happen unless the whole person is engaged in the making of meaning.
We cannot separate out a learner’s intellectual, affective, spiritual and physical dimensions.
All students need opportunities to develop the full range of their intelligences as well as
to discover their own particular learning strengths. Educators have a real responsibility to
help all students experience success in learning situations and expand their understanding of
learning processes.
A crucial area to consider when thinking about the learning process is the role that
motivation plays.
Motivation, engagement and the

learning process
Albert Maslow (1968), a psychotherapist, proposed a hierarchy of human needs organised as
a pyramid, as shown in Figure 4.2. Although the sequence of the hierarchy has been strongly
criticised, it is difficult to argue with Maslow that our most basic needs for survival are
Self-actualisation physiological – food, shelter, warmth – and if these are not met our lives will be threatened
is realising your full and learning frustrated.
potential.
Once these needs are provided, Maslow theorised that human beings need love and a
Active or reflective
listening involves sense of belonging. They will then seek respect, approval and recognition in order to develop
listening carefully a realistic sense of who they are. The final level, termed self-actualisation, represents the
to understand what individual’s achievement of their full potential. Maslow asserted that few of us reach this.
someone is trying
to convey and Another theorist who wrote about self-fulfilment was Carl Rogers (1969). He regarded
reflecting these freedom of choice as essential for student learning if they were to develop their talents.
feelings/thoughts
back in your own Rogers developed strategies that focused on active or reflective listening and his person-
words. centred approach is discussed further in Chapter 10.
FIGURE 4.2
MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
Shutterstock.com/Aliona Ursu
There is much agreement today that if a student’s basic physical and material needs are not
met, learning will be severely hampered. Children will find learning difficult if they are tired,
hungry and overly stressed. A number of programs operate to attempt to provide equity in
many schools. One Year 11 teacher we know takes three boxes of cereal, as well as fruit juice, to
her pastoral care class every morning. There are breakfast programs in many Australian schools
today given that a 2018 study by Foodbank Australia revealed that one in five children go to
school at least once a week with no breakfast and one in 10 go hungry for a whole day weekly.
In addition it is important to think about both the learners’ needs for acceptance and
approval as well as the teacher’s own self-efficacy in believing they have the capacity to meet Self-efficacy refers
these needs. Establishing an inclusive learning community can be very daunting when you are to your sense of
your ability to
working with learners who represent a large number of cultural and ethnic groups. achieve your goals/
Important in this field more recently has been Andrew Martin’s (2001, 2006) research complete tasks.
and subsequent development of a Student Motivation and Engagement Wheel (2001). Martin
conceptualises ‘motivation’ as learners’ cognitive orientations towards themselves, school and
schoolwork and distinguishes it from engagement or the behaviours that result. He names
self-efficacy, mastery and value of schooling as the cognitive motivators that lead to students’
persistence, planning and management of their study in order to achieve their personal bests.
In contrast, anxiety, avoidance of failure and uncertain self-control result in self-handicapping
and leads to disengagement from the learning process. A focus on the individual is, however,
problematic if we accept sociocultural theories about learning that emphasise the social nature
of all learning. More emphasis is now being placed on the collaborative interactions between
learners and the broad cultural contexts in which learning occurs (Rogoff, 1990).
Munns and Martin (2004) have also demonstrated the need to bring together individualistic
psychological approaches with the social through their analysis of the Fair Go project that
has researched disadvantaged students’ engagement over more than a decade. The Fair Go
project found that classroom pedagogy and discourse either carried engaging or disengaging
messages for vulnerable learners from diverse backgrounds (NSWDET, 2006). More recently,
the Western Australian Commissioner for Children and Young People released two reports
in early 2018 that documented children and young people’s views on the factors they see as
important in encouraging their engagement at school. Three primary factors were highlighted
by nearly two thousand participants in Years 3 to 12: the importance of social and emotional
wellbeing reflected by families that are interested and involved; positive friendships with
peers; and, educators who are genuinely interested in their wellbeing and future. Secondary
factors included fair and supportive classroom environments; interesting and relevant teaching
and learning experiences; feeling safe and well physically and mentally; agency and choice in
decision making; and help with personal issues.
Janelle, an experienced principal, teacher and a parent of three very different (now adult)
children, commented:
‘It’s motivation that is the key, not the emphasis on innate ability or personality ... it’s finding a
way to engage every child in meaningful activities and helping them to enjoy learning.’
If motivation and engagement are key factors in successful learning, what are the implications
for learning in early childhood and school contexts?
It is clear from this brief discussion that social constructivist approaches encourage
educators to ground learning experiences in real, everyday learning contexts rather than
in the abstract. Many children and young people also learn from implicit messages often
communicated unintentionally from the learning environment.
Learning what is intended and

what is not intended
Perhaps not surprisingly, the educator’s intentions in planning learning experiences and what
learners actually learn is also problematic. As Stenhouse (1977, p. 3) writes:
The central problem of curriculum study is the gap between our ideas and aspirations and our
attempts to institutionalise them.
‘Hidden’ curriculum Both the intended and what has been termed the ‘hidden’ (Seddon, 1983) or ‘invisible’
This refers to
the unintended (Bernstein, 1970) curriculum need to be investigated in any examination of the learning
learning/knowledge/ process. While the formal, given curriculum is explicitly stated, both in learning frameworks,
messages a learner
gains.
syllabus documents and in the teacher’s programming, the hidden curriculum is constructed
in less obvious ways. Learners learn much about what is appropriate through many of the
signs, symbols, routines and rituals that are the taken-for-granted aspects of formal and
informal places of learning. If, for example, all the signs at the local preschool or school
are written in a number of the most common languages spoken by the local community,
the parents, caregivers and visitors will receive a different message than if all the signs are
written only in English.
The following case study indicates the implicit messages learners receive about
dominant culture.
Case study Hid d en m es s a g es

·2
On the school presentation day, all the academic awards are given first. There are three for
every class and it takes most of the allocated time. Sports awards for each competitive sport
follow. Finally the sole citizenship awards for each grade are presented. By then many of the
primary secon dary parents have left and many learners are finding it hard to stay attentive. On arriving home that
day, seven-year-old Chloe tells her parents that she must be ‘dumb’ because she did not receive
an award.
1 What are the implicit messages in the everyday rituals such these?
2 Can you think of other rituals in preschools or schools that communicate unintentional
messages to children?
The second part of this chapter examines a range of recent programs and approaches that
aim to bring educators’ intentions and what children and young people learn closer together.
Investigating learning styles

Beginning to probe your own learning provides a useful starting point for thinking about an
area that has been quite controversial: different learning styles.
1 What sort of learner are you?
2 How do you learn best?
3 How do you remember what you have learnt?
4 How do you organise this learning so you can use if effectively?
5 Do you pay much attention to how you learn?
In addition to diverse cultural backgrounds, learners bring different ways of learning to

their studies. These have been engendered by both different cultural and social experiences
and personality traits. Consider the following vignettes. Let’s assume that these three children
have similar family backgrounds and are roughly the same age.
Learning by d o in g Case study

·3
Mazia is an active eight-year-old girl who needs to be physically engaged in what is happening
in any learning process and responds well to hands-on learning experiences such as cooking
or science experiments. She finds it hard to sit still for longer than a few minutes and is often
reprimanded by the educator for doodling or distracting others when she is supposed to be primary
listening to an explanation.
Learning th rou g h t h e A rts Case study

·4
Ofala is at his most motivated during creative arts lessons. He is always the first to get into a
role when the class is involved in drama, and his writing after such an activity is far superior to
what he typically produces. He’s also a good painter and frequently has his work displayed on
the classroom wall. During reading lessons, however, his educator often finds him daydreaming primary secon dary
and hard to engage when completing written comprehension questions.
Case study Talk in g h er way in t o le a rn i n g

·5
Imogen is always in trouble for talking. She cannot seem to complete any activity without
discussing it with the person next to her. She constantly loses house points for her table because
she cannot work quietly, something that is important to her teacher. Consequently, her table
primary secon dary neighbours are often irritated because they feel Imogen’s chatter affects them.
Consider these different learners.
1 Reflect on whether these different behaviours resonate with your experience.
2 Even though the evidence for different learning styles has often been hotly contested, do you
think there are implications for the educator about how to engage all her learners?
These very different learners need to be responded to in different ways by their

class teacher if they are to continue to be engaged in the learning process. Traditionally,
schooling has tended to overvalue a fairly passive, sit-and-listen response from learners.
Yet only some learners find it easy to learn through watching and listening. Others need
to learn through being actively involved. Still others need the process modelled several
times. Almost all students need to talk about their learning, for it is through talk that we
often make sense of what we are doing. As Apple (1990) notes, learner’ behaviour is often
considered to be ‘good’ when they have been sitting quietly with straight backs, like the
dolls in the home corner. Learning by doing becomes less and less the norm as children
climb the school ladder from early childhood to Foundation, to Year 7 classrooms and
beyond.
In addition, tests measuring literacy or numeracy competence or general ability or aptitude
tend to overemphasise the technical aspects of linguistic and logical–mathematical capacities.
These tests, often used to enable entry into selective schools or extension classes for specific
programs, tend to disadvantage those students with other strengths. The current controversy
over the use of NAPLAN diagnostic tests to rank student and school achievement on the
My School website is another such example.
Gardner (1993, 1995) has had a profound impact on this area and proposed that there
are multiple intelligences rather than one single intellectual capacity. Initially, Gardner
proposed seven intelligences (linguistic, logical–mathematical, spatial, bodily kinaesthetic,
musical, interpersonal and intrapersonal), but he has since defined an eighth (naturalistic).
A brief summary appears in Figure 4.3. While Gardner examined these intelligences
individually to identify them, he comments that they rarely exist in isolation and that most
people have a distinctive combination that reflects their relative intellectual strengths and
weaknesses.
FIGURE 4.3
SUMMARY OF GARDNER’S MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES
INTELLIGENCE DESCRIPTION
Linguistic The ability to think in words and/or use words to understand and express
complex meanings.
Logical–mathematical The ability to reason about propositions, make inferences and calculate.
Spatial The capacity to perceive visual or spatial information and to transform or
modify this information to re-create visual images.
Bodily kinaesthetic The ability to use one’s whole body or parts of the body to solve problems
or fashion products.
Musical The capacity to create, communicate and understand meanings made
through sound.
Interpersonal The capacity to empathise with other’s feelings, beliefs, needs or intentions.
Intrapersonal Sensitivity to and understanding of self.
Naturalistic Sensitivity to and ability to interact with the environment.
Adapted from Gardner, H.E. 1993, Multiple Intelligences: The theory in practice. Basic Books, New York.
Gardner argues that different cultures place different values on these intelligences. He
believes all students need the opportunity to develop the full range of intelligences as well
as to discover their own particular strengths. If, for example, your class is studying the
water cycle, some may grasp the concept after you have explained it verbally. Others may
understand it better by studying an annotated diagram. Still others may need to visualise
the process themselves, perhaps even move through it symbolically by representing what it
might be like to be a drop of water at different stages of the cycle (see Gibson & Ewing, 2011).
Next time you are with a group of learners, perhaps in a preschool, school classroom,
tutorial, lecture or staff development meeting, observe the variety of ways in which people
are listening/interacting and assume that they are also learning. Some will be staring into
space, others drawing. Still others may have their eyes closed, while others will be whispering
to their neighbour. Does this observable behaviour mean some are listening better
than others?
We all learn in a variety of ways. The learning strategies we employ are embedded in
our social and cultural relationships. Clearly, it is often much easier to learn in everyday
situations. It is important to note, however, that our learning can be enhanced by systematic
teaching and that effective teaching can make a real difference to children’s life outcomes.
Learning contexts need to be designed in ways that increase children’s ‘cognitive potential’
(De Corte, 1995, p. 37).
At the level of the classroom, teachers need to begin by investigating the backgrounds
of their students and by respecting differing family practices and values, and ways of being.
Building learners’ self-concepts is also crucial.
Providing for learning:

some principles and exemplars
How then does an educator organise the learning that will take place and ensure that it meets
the needs of 10 or 20 or 30 learners with diverse social, cultural and linguistic backgrounds?
How will she or he ensure that a range of different learning styles, abilities and interests are
encompassed when teaching new concepts? How will she or he engage each learner in the
learning process? How will she or he communicate her/his purposes to the children’s parents?
These questions were put to a group of experienced preschool and primary educators from
a very diverse Adelaide community with high numbers of multilingual children, many of
whose families were experiencing some degree of poverty. Their responses are included in the
following discussion.
Clear expectations
One of the first points raised by the educators was the need to have clear expectations and
to make these explicit to the learners. Educators need to have direction and purpose to their
teaching and ensure that they have clear aims, anticipated outcomes and realistic expectations
relating to what is learnt and how it is learnt. They then need to make these explicit to the
children or young people they are working with. It is important for children to be aware of
what they are doing and why. As one educator explained, ‘Having expectations that they
[the children] will learn and that they will take responsibility for their learning underpins
everything I do’. This in turn ensures that the learning is more relevant and meaningful. Some
learning outcomes are unintended by the educator and others can be learner generated.
Make a list of learning tasks that learners might generate through play.
Educator knowledge
An educator’s knowledge of the intended curriculum and ongoing professional learning to
further develop that knowledge was another area stressed by the group of educators consulted.
Syllabus documents and curriculum frameworks from state education departments, and
Catholic and independent sectors outline essential knowledge, skills, processes and expected
outcomes for each stage of learning. The Early Years Learning Framework (EYLF) published
in 2009 was the first national framework for early childhood workers and represents years of
consultation with early childhood educators and other educators. The Australian Curriculum
(see Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority, ACARA) is an online

document to ensure that it can be regularly updated and remain current. Each state has
determined how these will be implemented given state priorities. As well as planning for
individual subject areas, early childhood, and many primary and middle school educators use
a cross-curricular approach to integrate learning experiences and ensure that knowledge is not
fragmented.
Inclusivity
As discussed above and in Chapter 3, inclusivity is another important consideration when
designing curriculum experiences. Ideally, inclusive practices are those that enable all children
to participate equally in the learning process, regardless of gender, cultural, social, ethnic or
economic background. This is a huge challenge: providing equal opportunities for children
will not result in equal outcomes. Ensuring equality of opportunity and outcome requires
providing differently for individuals and small groups in any early childhood centre or class,
whether it is single- or multi-age. Conditions that might prevent children from participating
fully in the program need to be recognised and addressed as much as is possible. This will
often mean working with other professionals such as social workers, speech therapists and
school counsellors.
Grouping for different purposes

For many years, learners were mostly taught in large groups. Where grouping did occur, it
was usually based on age or ability. While there will still be times when it is productive to
design learning experiences for a whole group (for example, sharing a new picture book,
introducing a new theme or topic, explaining a new project, sharing findings after a science
experiment or conducting a class meeting about a specific problem or issue) or for ability
groups (for example, guided reading), it is also important to program time for learners to
work at their own level and pace and in small groups so they do not become restless or
frustrated. Grouping learners on the basis of need, ability, friendship or interest, depending
on the particular learning experience, can lead to greater dialogue, enhanced collaboration and
learning, the generation of more ideas and the recognition that each child’s experiences are
valuable. Equally, there will be times when learners need to play or work independently or
in pairs. Self-initiated projects, learning centres and contract work allow students to develop
independent learning and thinking skills.
Multi-age classes
Learners of the same chronological age are not necessarily all ready to learn the same things
just because they are in the same class. Nor do they require the same amount of time or
learn at the same rate. In many preschools and schools there has been a renewed focus on
multi-age or composite classes or heterogeneous groupings of children whose ages span at
least two full years in large flexible spaces. Rather than forming multi-age classes purely
for pragmatic reasons, such as numbers, current thinking (for example, Vygotsky’s notion
of ZPD) suggests that there are rich intellectual, affective and social benefits for grouping
children and young people in mixed-age rather than single-age cohorts. This is especially so
if the learning experiences are designed flexibly for the needs of the learners. Educators are
more likely to address the diversity of individual differences in a mixed-age group because the
pressure of needing to work at a particular age or stage level disappears.
Peer mentoring
A number of other flexible structures are valuable in maximising learning. Peer mentoring
or tutoring acknowledges that learners are sometimes the best educators of their peers.
They can work in pairs to learn or teach a particular task and the more capable students
mentor their less experienced peers. This can also occur across ages. In cross-age tutoring
or buddying, younger and older children are encouraged to work together to solve
problems.
Learning centres
Learning centres can be established in a centre or classroom with a range of open-ended,
multi-level, problem-solving activities. The resources and equipment are provided for each
activity so that children can undertake these tasks at their own pace. Learners can work on
puzzles, games, construction using junk materials, art and craft – individually, in pairs or
in small groups. They may follow the sequence of steps to undertake an experiment and
record the result or listen to a recording of a story and respond creatively to the themes.
In these ways the learner can engage at whatever point they are so their enjoyment and
learning outcomes can be maximised.
Educators need to phase in various approaches and strategies according to the needs of
the particular learners. Successful implementation is contingent upon the establishment of
a positive learning culture. The social skills and competencies needed to relate positively
to each other, work together in a small or cross-age group or genuinely collaborate on a
joint learning centre task often require staged development over time. Educators need to be
explicit about teaching and modelling these qualities. Chapter 5 discusses the development of
social skills in more detail.
Cross-stage tutoring can

be very valuable. Here, a
secondary student mentors
Year 2 students in reading
Shared decision making

A recurring theme of this text is that a teacher committed to meeting the needs of all learners
will continually involve learners in decision-making processes. Educators may negotiate
with learners and set open-ended tasks that have a series of criteria that students must meet.
Alternatively, learners may be given a series of tasks to complete over a set timeframe but
choose the strategies they will use or the order in which they will complete them. In planning
open-ended learning experiences, a range of centre or school and community resources need
to be available. These will help learners refine their investigative skills and decide which
information is relevant for a particular project, which is not and in what ways they can
effectively communicate their findings. Thus, learners are encouraged to continually reflect
on their own learning and monitor their own progress. Educators and learners need to share
the responsibility for learning and be accountable for their decisions.
Several successful approaches to providing for the diverse range of learners in any
educational setting are briefly considered below. Many of these draw on both a social
constructivist view of learning and a critical view of pedagogy, emphasising that it is important
for the children and young people to play an active role in their learning. It will be useful to
follow up this introductory exploration by wider reading about these effective and innovative
curriculum practices.
Reggio Emilia
Originating in Italy after the Second World War and named after the region in which it
was begun by Loris Malaguzzi and a group of parents, Reggio Emilia is an integrated
approach to preschool education now having an increasing influence across the primary
years and beyond through the concept of ‘one hundred languages’, which signifies the
endless ways children learn, wonder and imagine. Influenced by John Dewey’s positive
view of children as reproducing their own experiences imaginatively (Fraser & Gestwicke,
2001), Reggio Emilia places a great emphasis on respecting the child as a curious and
competent learner who wants to capture, understand and reflect on the world and their
own learning (Stalnacke, 2002). The teacher is conceptualised as a co-researcher, constantly
observing their learners, providing support, affirmation, encouraging new and challenging
questions and carefully documenting the child’s progress on their chosen projects. A
great deal of care and attention is placed on providing a rich, physically welcoming and
stimulating environment. Emphasis is on shared activity, communication, cooperation and
even managing conflict to enable children to co-construct their knowledge of the world. A
special feature is the involvement of an artist-in-residence who can inspire the children to
visually represent their learning.
The Reggio Emilia philosophy includes the following principles:
• respect for children as competent and capable
• the teacher as co-researcher and co-constructor in the learning process
• the central role of the child in constructing knowledge through exploration and relationships
• the importance of the design of the school environment educationally and as a source of
wellbeing
• the use of a wide range of media and materials to foster artful self-expression, learning and
communication (the ‘hundred languages’)
• the interrelationship and reciprocal influences of children, parents and educators

• collaboration among all participants
• the important relationship between learning context and the broader community.
Often, an educator and a group of children will choose a
topic or project to explore in detail (for example, shadows,
Lisa Kervin
colour and light, computers). Children’s discussions about the

topic may be recorded and they may be asked to demonstrate
their understanding through drawing. At all times children
are encouraged to explore the topic through hypothesising,
testing out their theories and making suggestions.
Although initially designed for younger children, a
number of primary and middle schools are beginning to base
their approach to curriculum on the tenets of the Reggio
Emilia approach. At several Sydney schools, for example,
A multi-age investigation (children aged
7, 5 and 2 years) Foundation to Year 6 learners are involved in mixed-age
groups undertaking multi-age investigations on scientific
and mathematical problems for two hours each week. Smith
and McCarthy (2002, p. 9), in writing about the success of these multi-age investigations at
one of these schools, commented that:
Multi-age investigations attempt to give children the opportunity to express themselves through
drawing, movement, making, designing and many other ‘languages’ using a wide range of
media … As students are in control of their own learning and free to explore their own interests,
they feel empowered by making their own decisions. It is ‘fun’. Motivation is high and learning
is constructive.
Learning by doing is the essence of Reggio Emilia.

Originating in Victoria, the Project for Enhancing Effective Learning (PEEL) resonates
with many of the Reggio Emilia principles.
Project for Enhancing Effective Learning (PEEL)

A group of Victorian educators and academics established the PEEL in 1985 to research
classroom approaches that would stimulate and support student learning that was more
informed, purposeful, intellectually active and independent. In 2018, some 33 years after the
original project, PEEL projects continue to develop new insights and understandings. There
are a number of change projects that have facilitated learning documented by educators on
the current website (http://www.peelweb.org/index.cfm?resource=about).
From an analysis of stories that educators wrote about their teaching, 12 overlapping
principles (Mitchell & Mitchell, 1997) are considered fundamental characteristics of
approaching teaching for quality learning. These principles resonate with our discussion
above and are shown in Figure 4.4.
PEEL’s overarching emphasis centres on identifying metacognitive approaches that
motivate and support learners in undertaking authentic learning.
In South Australia, a different but equally effective approach promoted constructivist
learning as key to learner and educator engagement for improved learning outcomes.
FIGURE 4.4
PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING
Create occasions
Share intellectual when students can
control with students work out part (or all)
of the content or
instruction
Assess for different Provide opportunites
aspects of quality learning, for choice and
not for rote learning independent
decision making
Regularly raise students’ Provide diverse ways

awareness of the nature of of experiencing
different aspects of quality success
learning
Principles
of learning
Develop students’ awareness
Promote talk that is
of the big picture − how the
exploratory, tentative
various activities fit together
and hypothetical
and link to the big ideas
Use teaching Encourage students

procedures to learn from other
that are designed to student’s questions
promote specific and comments
aspects of quality Use a wide range Build a classroom
learning of intellectually environment that
challenging teaching encourages risk
procedures taking
Teaching for Effective Learning framework

From 1999 to 2008, an initiative entitled Learning to Learn operated in South Australian
schools. It involved rethinking pedagogies, learning environments and relationships for
increased engagement and catered to children from birth to Year 12. The outcomes included:
• more socially inclusive and democratic classrooms through enhanced learner-centred
pedagogy
• the development of higher-order learning skills with learners taking considerably greater
responsibility for their learning
• marked improvement in behaviour and classroom relationships, including learner–
educator and learner–learner relationships
• a greater sense of learner engagement and willingness to attend (Department of Education
and Children’s Services, 2004).
As a result of Learning to Learn, a new framework was developed for all South Australian
schools called TfEL or Teaching for Effective Learning (https://www.education.sa.gov.au/
sites/g/files/net691/f/tfel_framework_brief_overview.pdf). This framework contains three
‘domains of action’ for educators:
• Create safe conditions for rigorous learning.
• Develop expert learners.
• Personalise and connect learning.
Each domain contains four pedagogical elements. For example, ‘develop expert learners’
includes teaching learners how to learn, fostering deep understanding and skilful action,
exploring the construction of knowledge and promoting dialogue as a means of learning.
Details on the other pedagogical elements can be seen on the aforementioned website. A
unique feature of this framework is that it also contains a domain of action for leaders of
schools, entitled Learning for Effective Teaching. The belief is that leaders need to provide
opportunities and conditions for educators (and themselves) to learn, in similar ways to those
that their educators are providing for students’ learning.
Quality teaching models

The Productive Pedagogies or ‘New Basics’ Project began in 1997 with a large longitudinal
study of a large number of primary and secondary Queensland schools, known as The
Queensland School Reform Longitudinal Study (QSRLS) (Education Queensland, 2001).
It involved large-scale surveys of educators and principals, case study analyses, coded
observation of more than 975 lessons and the evaluation and analysis of student work that
resulted from those lessons. Four interconnected dimensions (or productive pedagogies) of
classroom practice that led to improved social and academic outcomes for all students were
developed based on the work of Newmann and Associates (1996), and were adapted for the
Australian context. Each dimension includes a number of elements that have been identified
as contributing to the overall dimension.
Dimensions of productive pedagogy

• Intellectual quality demands that all learners are expected to engage in learning tasks that
are intellectually demanding. Learning tasks need to enable learners to transform their
understandings. Learners need to be able to communicate their understandings and ideas
meaningfully:
– higher-order thinking
– deep knowledge
– deep understanding
– substantive conversation
– knowledge as problematic
– metalanguage.
• Connectedness encapsulates the need for learning experiences to be integrated with other
discipline areas as well as being related to both the learners’ prior learning and the world
in which they live:
– knowledge integration
– background knowledge
– connectedness to the world

– problem-based curriculum.
• Supportive classroom environments enable learners to engage responsibly in learning tasks
because they have input into the nature of the experiences and an awareness of explicit
expectations:
– student direction
– academic engagement
– social support
– explicit quality performance criteria
– self-regulation.
• Recognition of difference ensures that learners know about and value a range of different
cultures so that positive human relationships can be created, individuals can be respected
and a sense of community can be developed:
– inclusivity
– narrative
– cultural knowledges
– citizenship
– group identity.
The study’s findings demonstrated that, for most at-risk learners, connectedness to the real
world and engagement with knowledge is crucial in terms of turning around their performance
at school. A major educational renewal project evolved from the original QSRLS study. Fifty-
nine Queensland public schools, using innovative pedagogical strategies and rich and authentic
assessment tasks, trialled a new framework for delivering curriculum. A number of independent
schools and schools in other states also began to use the productive pedagogies framework.
In 2003, an adaptation of Productive Pedagogies, called Quality Teaching, was developed
for the NSW Department of Education and Training by Jennifer Gore and James Ladwig, from
the University of Newcastle. The NSW model of quality teaching was published for NSW
government schools as a discussion paper in 2003 (https://education.nsw.gov.au/teaching-
and-learning/professional-learning/scan/past-issues/vol-36,-2017/quality-teaching-in-
our-schools#The1). This model has three dimensions: intellectual quality, quality learning
environment, and significance (see Figure 4.5). Many of the elements in each dimension
reflect those listed above. Between 2004 and 2010, a large number of projects funded by the
Australian Government Quality Teaching Program (AGQTP) encouraged NSW educators
to focus on their pedagogical practices using this framework.
Collaborative research was undertaken by University of Newcastle researchers Gore,
Ladwig, Amosa, Griffiths and Williams with the NSW DET. Systemic Implications of
Pedagogy and Achievement (SIPA) investigated the relationship between pedagogy, teacher
professional learning and student outcomes when measured in terms of the Quality Teaching
dimensions and observation of in-class student performance. Data was collected over four
years by tracking three groups of students in Years 3–6, 5–8 and 7–10 (approximately
2500 students in 36 schools). Findings suggested that educators using the Quality Teaching
model could improve student outcomes and narrow achievement gaps for disadvantaged
students. More recently, a professional development approach to quality teaching, Quality
Teaching Rounds, has been providing educators with opportunities to engage in rigorous
diagnostic professional conversations and observations with colleagues to further develop
their use of the quality teaching elements (Bowe & Gore, 2017; Gore et al., 2015).
FIGURE 4.5
QUALITY TEACHING FRAMEWORK
ELEMENTS
INTELLECTUAL QUALITY QUALITY LEARNING SIGNIFICANCE
ENVIRONMENT
Deep knowledge Explicit quality criteria Background knowledge
Deep understanding Engagement Cultural knowledge
Problematic knowledge High expectations Knowledge integration
Higher-order thinking Social support Inclusivity
Metalanguage Students� self-regulation Connectedness
Substantive communication Student direction Narrative
© State of New South Wales (Department of Education), 2019. Released under CC BY 4.0 International.
Link to license: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
Revitalising Indigenous languages

Earlier in this chapter we discussed the relationship between learning our mother tongue and
learning our cultural heritage. In Chapter 3 we also discussed the importance of identity texts
and the need to use learners’ first language in the classroom. Literacy programs to enhance the
literacy outcomes of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students have been a major focus
in all Australian states. One of the Australian Literacy and Numeracy Foundation’s programs
(ALNF) has been at the forefront of the revival, maintenance and revitalisation of Indigenous
First Languages. The program converts a number of Indigenous oral languages into teaching/
learning workshop strategies and literacy resources to help make the connections between
Indigenous Australian First Language and English. ALNF provides three interrelated First
Language programs that aim to, firstly, address instruction in First Language literacy and,
secondly, assist in developing connections and comparisons to English language and literacy.
Founded in 2003, the Aboriginal Literacy Foundation has become a strong advocate for
improving Aboriginal literacy through community-sensitive tutoring and the provision of
books and resources. It also highlights the low literacy levels among Indigenous young people
in remote communities and provides scholarships for those who wish to attend schools in
regional centres or cities.
There are many language revitalisation projects underway. For example, award-winning
Western Australian author and Professor of Creative Writing Kim Scott has been working
with Elders from the Noongar people on the Noongar Language and Stories Project (http://
wirlomin.com.au). Three of the project aims include to:
• reclaim Wirlomin stories and dialect … and to share them with Noongar families and
communities as part of a process to claim, control and enhance Wirlomin Noongar cultural
heritage
• return and consolidate Aboriginal culture in its rightful community, create an awareness of
its importance and the potential for an appropriate sharing of a Noongar cultural heritage
with the wider community
• provide an opportunity for people to participate in cross-cultural shared activities between
Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal people while learning about Aboriginal culture.
Big Picture Education Australia

Big Picture Education Australia (BPEA) is an organisation dedicated to redesigning the way
formal education is conceptualised given the rapidly accelerating change we all now live
with. There are now more than 45 Big Picture sites in urban, regional and remote contexts
in Australia. The focus is on personalising learning (‘one student at a time’) and project- and
inquiry-based learning. Learners’ creativity, curiosity and independence is fostered. See a
range of learners’ stories at https://www.bigpicture.org.au.
Middle school initiatives

Many attempts in each Australian state and federally have addressed the documented
alienation and disengagement experienced by many young people in the middle years of
school, frequently defined as between Years 6 and 8 or 9 and corresponding to puberty and
early adolescence (for example, the recent claim by the Grattan Institute that up to 40 per
cent of middle school learners were disengaged with school). Transition from primary to
secondary school is regarded as a particular issue given that achievement often declines at this
point when learners should be at a peak of their intellectual potential (Prendergast & Bahr,
2005). While it is not possible in this chapter to document all of these reports, initiatives,
projects and resources, all have aimed to examine how to challenge and motivate learners in
late primary and early secondary grades in ways that will engage them more effectively in the
learning process, and help build their levels of self-esteem and resilience as well as a strong
set of values.
Discussions around quality pedagogy, flexible organisational structures and relevant,
challenging curriculum content have therefore been central. Some projects have involved
structural changes and the creation of middle schools within a K–12 framework. Others have
focused on greater collaboration between preschools, primary schools and secondary schools
in close physical proximity: clusters of primary schools partner with secondary schools to
develop a collective vision based on detailed examination of learning outcome data, with the
principals meeting regularly to plan shared professional learning, identify common challenges
and initiate strategies for building relationships between staff, parents and learners. Regular
programs between upper primary and early secondary ensure smoother transitions and
understanding of student abilities, achievements and further learning needs (Smith, 2009). It
would be worthwhile to explore the Middle Years of Schooling Association website (http://
www.mysa.org.au). This organisation aims to inform the community, educators and parents
about relevant research and writing in the area along with the importance of responsive
education for young adolescents. Some state middle year associations have also developed
case studies and other resources. For an in-depth consideration of the middle years and the
associated issues, see Groundwater-Smith and Mockler (2015).
Much of the literature on the middle years emphasises that adolescents in Years 6 to 9
are physically changing and have unique needs. The needs listed usually include a need for
independence, acceptance and identity. Yet these needs are not the sole province of learners
in this age group. Similarly, many of the practices cited as appropriate for the middle years –
cooperative learning, collaborative teaching and integrated curriculum – are just as relevant
for students across the K–12 continuum.
Relational pedagogy
A growing body of literature is developing around the concept of relational pedagogy
(Aitken, Fraser & Price, 2007; Bergum, 2003; hooks, 2003). Relational pedagogy focuses
specifically on the relationship between teacher and learner, and the associated issues of
power, democracy and co-constructed learning in the classroom. Bergum, for example,
describes it as ‘watchfulness, trust of the student, letting the student learn, with the goal of
opening the space for the student to come into one’s own’ (2003, p. 122). While these ideas
are not new and relate directly to Boomer et al.’s (1992) negotiated curriculum and Apple
and Beane’s (1995) democratic classroom, relational pedagogy places a renewed emphasis
on the relational aspect of how learning occurs and how knowledge is constructed. Much
current policy, however, tends to focus on teacher accountability and compliance in meeting
standards which can tend to corrode rather than build relationships.
The Arts as critical quality pedagogy

Recent writing and research has also drawn attention to
John Nicholas Saunders of Sydney Theatre Company/Grant Sparkes-Carroll
the importance of embedding quality arts processes and

experiences in the learning process across the curriculum
at all levels of education (for example, McNaughton,
Biesta and Cole, 2018; Jefferson & Anderson, 2017;
Winner, Golstein & Vincent-Lancrin, 2013; Gibson &
Ewing, 2011; Baldwin, 2012; Ewing, 2010). In particular,
the use of educational drama processes as teaching and
learning strategies is one concrete way that traditional
teacher–learner relationships can be interrupted and
power relationships between educators and children
can be transformed. For an example, see The School
Drama Book (Ewing & Saunders, 2016). Certainly
the idea of enactment or walking in someone else’s
Drama and role play in the classroom can help shoes can foster the development of empathy, passion,
transform traditional teacher–learner relationships
trust and collaboration while cultivating children’s
imagination and creativity.
Visible Thinking
Harvard’s Visible Thinking is a systematic and overarching approach or conceptual framework
developed to helping students integrate how they think with deeper content learning across
the curriculum. Flexible classroom strategies based on years of research aim to create ‘cultures
of thinking’ in classrooms and across schools. Children are encouraged to make their thinking
visible. Arts processes are integrated with content areas and topics, such as understanding,
creativity, truth and evidence, fairness and moral reasoning, self management and decision
making, are explicitly addressed. An important research finding was that:
skills and abilities are not enough … alertness to situations that call for thinking and positive
attitudes toward thinking and learning are tremendously important as well. Often, we found,
children (and adults) think in shallow ways not for lack of ability to think more deeply but
because they simply do not notice the opportunity or do not care. To put it all together, we say
that really good thinking involves abilities, attitudes, and alertness, all three at once.
Visible Thinking has informed the development of other Project Zero Visible Thinking
initiatives, including Artful Thinking and Cultures of Thinking. For more detail, see Visible
Thinking on the Project Zero website (© 2016 President and Fellows of Harvard College.
Accessed from http://www.pz.harvard.edu/projects/visible-thinking).
How visible are your thinking processes? Recall the last problem you solved. Try to record
the different strategies you needed to solve it. What abilities, attitudes and state of mind did
you need?
Conclusion
No one approach to the teaching and learning process accounts for its complexity. Learners
of the twenty-first century will need to develop a clear understanding of how they learn best,
what thinking strategies they use and how they can access the knowledge they will need in
the future. The impact of rapid technological and sociological changes on our approaches to
teaching and learning is discussed further in Chapter 7. As educators we need to carefully
consider how we can structure a positive learning context, communicate our expectations
clearly, listen to the expectations of our learners and their parents and caregivers, and design
exciting learning experiences that will enable every learner to achieve some success, no matter
what their abilities and learning styles. How each learner will perceive the learning tasks and
how learners will construct the experience will also be crucial.
There are no right answers or magical recipes to ensure that learning happens in our
early childhood centres, preschools and classrooms, and no direct transfer from the teacher’s
intentions to what the learner takes away from the learning experience. The approaches
described above, although having different emphases and being developed for different
purposes, have a number of key features in common. These can be summarised as:
• respect for the individual as a competent, responsible learner who needs to be active in the
learning process
• flexibility
• a meaningful curriculum, relevant and connected to the real lives of learners
• a focus on the development of the individual’s strengths
• the provision of collaborative learning experiences.
As educators we cannot just consider the intellectual needs of our learners in isolation
from the child as a whole person with an idiosyncratic learning style. We need to find ways
to scaffold learners’ past experiences and understandings to learn something new or approach
something differently. Most important is the overriding need for the educator to develop
a relationship with their students in which students feel confident about taking risks and
making mistakes.
In the next chapter we will explore the nature of the learning environment in more detail,
while issues of planning, communication, management, and assessment and evaluation are all
developed in subsequent chapters.
STUDY TOOLS
Following
1 Return to the learning experience you examined at the beginning of this chapter. Consider what
through learning processes you have engaged with in reading this chapter:
a What learning strategies did you use? Did you learn something? How do you know?
b Did you learn anything you didn’t expect to learn?
c What got in the way of your learning? Why?
d Do you think others learnt in the same way?
e Were you excited by anything you learnt?
Share your reflections with two or three peers.
2 In 2013 the National Education Association (NEA) suggested that there are ‘Four Cs’ that are
mandatory for all 21st century learners along with strong discipline knowledge and understanding.
These are:
• communication
• collaboration
• creativity
• critical thinking.
Do you agree? Are there other core skills you would add?
3 Interview two pre-service educators who come from very different backgrounds. Ask them to give you
an account of what they remember experiencing during their first days at school. Were they excited?
Challenged? Afraid?
4 Review the evidence about multiple intelligences and different learning styles. Can you see reasons
why this area has been so controversial?
5 Research one of the following teaching and learning approaches, strategies or organisational features
of preschools, primary schools and secondary schools:
• Alliance for Childhood (http://www.allianceforchildhood.org)
• Big Picture Education
• multi-age classes
• learning centres
• Middle Schooling
• integrated curriculum
• Reggio Emilia
• relational pedagogy
• The School Drama™ program, https://www.sydneytheatre.com.au/schooldrama
• Visible Thinking.
Define the approach or strategy, its origins and current research. How has this been interpreted in
educational settings. Discuss its advantages or disadvantages and explain the processes you might use
in your preschool or classroom.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IYXAU2Bvfbw This shows Colwyn Trevarthen’s YouTube recording of

Useful
a newborn child’s expectation to connect on the first day.
online
teaching
http://www.acsa.edu.au/pages/index.asp Australian Curriculum Studies Association. This website contains
resources
many important resources including those relating to Middle Schooling.
https://www.bigpicture.org.au Big Picture Education Australia’s website.
http://www.highresolves.org High Resolves Initiative is an innovative educational program currently being
introduced in Victoria and NSW designed to motivate secondary students, particularly regarding social
responsibility and global action.
https://slideplayer.com/slide/3463381/ New Basics Project’s website.
https://education.gov.scot Education Scotland: this very helpful website links with a range of other
websites providing valuable resources and suggestions for educators.
https://education.nsw.gov.au/teaching-and-learning/professional-learning/scan/past-issues/vol-36,-2017/
quality-teaching-in-our-schools#The1 NSW Quality Teaching Framework. This website includes the
details for the quality teaching framework described above.
http://www.peelweb.org Project for Enhancing Effective Learning (PEEL). This website contains many
valuable resources and details of publications.
http://www.whatworks.edu.au What Works? improving outcomes for Indigenous students. This site is
no longer being maintained, but it details a range of excellent materials, programs and professional
learning opportunities that have been developed to improve Aboriginal learning outcomes.
https://www.sydneytheatre.com.au/schooldrama The School Drama™ program is a partnership between
Sydney Theatre Company and the University of Sydney.
http://www.visiblethinkingpz.org This is a research-based approach to integrate the development of
students’ thinking with content learning across subject matters.
https://reflectionsemployability.net This is a useful website for reflection: Becoming reflective: Exploring

the contribution of reflective practice on the employability of graduate teachers and social workers.
Symposium, University of Sydney, February.
http://www.pz.harvard.edu/ Project Zero, Harvard School of Graduate Education, has many valuable
resources and professional learning opportunities.
http://wirlomin.com.au The Wirlomin Noongar Language and Stories Project Incorporated’s website has
details on stories, illustrated books, workshops and activities.
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Groundwater-Smith, S. & Mockler, N. (eds) 2015, Big, det.nsw.edu.au/equity/documents/ PSP/PSPPage-
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5
The learning environment
Noah
A positive learning
environment is one that is
mutually constructed between
teachers and students.
103
L earning, as we know, occurs in many different contexts, classrooms, homes and workplaces.
This chapter focuses on the classroom as a learning environment; which operates within
a school context. Every classroom is unique as it responds to the educator/s and learners
within. Every learning context is unique as it responds to the community within which it is
situated.
Learning environments
Schools play a vital role in promoting the intellectual, physical, social, emotional, moral,
spiritual and aesthetic development and wellbeing of young Australians.
© 2008 Curriculum Corporation as the legal entity for the Ministerial Council on Education,
Employment, Training and Youth Affairs (MCEETYA). Melbourne Declaration on Educational
Goals for Young Australians December 2008. Accessed at: http://www.curriculum.edu.au/
verve/_resources/national_declaration_on_the_educational_goals_for_young_australians.pdf
If we asked you to describe a preschool or a school, of course you could. We have our own
experiences of these contexts, we see ‘school’ in television and in movies and read about
school in the news and other literature, making the task quite easy. However, while these
learning contexts are similar, they are also different. This may appear somewhat paradoxical
but it is useful to take a moment to think about the features that you would identify when
describing a preschool/school.
If you attended a small, rural school as a child your school would look very different from
that of the person who went to a large metropolitan school.
Consider a school you know. Perhaps it’s one you attended as a child or one you’ve visited recently.
1 What did it look like? What sorts of features can you recall? Can you picture the buildings, the
oval, playing areas, the arrangement of classrooms, the resource centre, the car park, book racks
and equipment? What else? Were there signs indicating the office, staffroom and other specific
areas? Was there a place where parents could go or rules about where they couldn’t go? Was
there much colour around? What did the front office look like?
2 What did it sound like? How were you greeted? Whose voices were present – children’s,
parents’, educators’? Whose voices were loudest? Were they happy, sad, excited, angry? Whose
voices were valued in the classroom? Was your voice heard? How do you know? What did the
playground sound like?
3 What did it feel like? Was it a good place to be? Why? Did you feel comfortable? Did you feel
safe? How do you think the children might have felt? What about the educators, parents, the
principal and other adults?
Learning
communities are
places that provide a Early childhood centres and schools are viewed as places for learning in different curriculum
positive and enabling areas. Today, however, they are regarded as places of learning or learning communities for all
context for learning
for all participants participants including educators, parents, school support/education officers and members of
involved in the school. the wider community. Educators engage in learning as they examine pedagogical practices,
CHAPTER 5 The learning environment 105
curriculum content and ways to support the diverse needs of learners. Learning communities
‘focus on the centrality of learning and the importance of educative dialogues as a basis for
building school-community relationships’ (Smyth, Down & McInerney, 2008, p. 50). Jenlick
and Kinnucan-Welsch (1999, p. 368) claim that schools as learning communities have ‘an ethic
of caring and a pedagogy of constructivism supported by an infrastructure of community
that creates new spaces for learning for all concerned’.
Such learning communities do not just happen. Much of the reform work in the past three
decades has focused on making changes to the ways schools are organised and structured.
Advocates of school restructuring argue that many of the structures in traditionally organised
schools impede effective teaching and learning (for example, Grossman & Wineburg, 2000;
Smyth, Down & McInerney, 2008). In secondary schools, for example, groups of educators are
often separated into faculty groups that rarely come together. Other inhibitive structures that
have been identified include ability grading arrangements, traditional timetabling arrangements
and hierarchical leadership structures where decision making is limited to only a few. Across
our profession we see division too from sector to sector – for example, early childhood,
primary and secondary contexts are often siloed. In this book we argue there is much to learn
for educators as they look across these sectors to understand ‘education’ as a whole.
The climate (or ‘feel’ or culture) of a learning community is important to support the
collaborative work of educators and learners so essential for successful outcomes. School
climate can be defined as the shared beliefs, customs, attitudes and expectations of educators
and learners in a school. A positive climate is necessary to sustain educational change. Smyth,
Down and McInerney (2008, p. 27) explain that learning environments:
are places that require substantial risk taking, innovation and experimentation if learning is to
occur and this means high levels of trust, care and respect.
In the traditional ‘individualistic’ learning institution, educators spent much of their

working lives isolated from one another. It has become accepted that a positive climate or
culture is one that is collaborative. In a positive climate, educator professional learning is Collaborative
facilitated, and feelings of isolation and powerlessness experienced by staff are reduced. A collaborative
learning
Positive interaction occurs between all participants involved with the school; parents and environment is one
members of the wider community are also made to feel that they belong. where there are
many opportunities
Aubusson, Ewing and Hoban (2009) acknowledge that in some contexts, educators are for people to
able to make more progress towards forming professional learning communities than in collaborate, learn
others. They cite important factors for this transition as having dedicated time to converse, from one another
and help one
an enquiry focus, a shared pedagogy and commitment to shared ownership and leadership. another achieve
Chapter 12 elaborates further on how groups of educators can be engaged in systematic shared goals.
inquiry as a means of improving learning. What we do know is that for reform to be successful
there is a reciprocal relationship between restructuring and cultural change. That is, equal
attention needs to be given to changing structures and the culture in ways that develop a
collaborative learning environment for learners and staff; for example, significant changes are
made to staff roles, use of time and space, groupings of staff and learners, and communication
and decision-making procedures, as well as to aspects of culture, such as greater collaboration
and commitment to shared goals about teaching and learning, more participatory decision-
making processes and more personalised learning environments.
All of these factors influence the creation of the learning environment. Many of these factors
are interrelated. For example, in changing the ways learners are grouped, staff relationships
are affected – staff may be working in new ways, with different people, in varied contexts.
Some of the initiatives through which early childhood centres and schools are restructuring
their learning environment include:
• Team teaching. This is when an educator works with at least one other and shares
responsibility for a group of learners and/or curriculum area. In this situation educators
can make the best use of each other’s strengths and provide each other with ongoing
support. This method gives learners two adults to relate to, giving greater scope for all to
be successful.
• Timetable changes. Some schools have rearranged the school day to cater to the various
needs of their learners. For example, some secondary schools have their senior learners
begin earlier than the junior learners and/or finish early to allow for involvement in sport,
vocational activities, study and skills programs and part-time work. Some primary schools
have changed the scheduling of their day to work around one-hour blocks, to allow for
more effective use of specialist educators. Early childhood contexts organise their day to
make use of indoor/outdoor spaces, intentional and interest-based teaching and learning
experiences.
• Committees and subcommittees. To facilitate more participatory decision making, tasks
are often undertaken by committees and subcommittees made up of a cross-section of
staff, who examine issues and bring recommendations to the staff as a whole. Sometimes
committee membership is extended to other stakeholders too – for example, experts in the
field may be incorporated or the perspective of parents sought.
• Learning teams. Educators meet with their colleagues in ‘learning teams’. These may be
like year level meetings organised for educators to reflect on their practices, or action
learning groups where they enquire into a particular issue or process.
It is clear that the decisions made in relation to how a centre or school is organised and
the structures that are set in place for learners and staff affect the nature of the learning
environment. The decisions are all important. However, they are not without problems: as
in teaching there are many dilemmas. Educational leaders often experience tension between
individual goals and group goals, and between unity and diversity. Such is the challenge of
collaboration.
Educators wishing to develop positive classroom learning environments also confront
similar challenges. Let us now turn to classroom learning environments.
The classroom as a learning

environment
Classrooms are complex learning environments where social, material and pedagogical
dimensions interact. The educator brings together materials, ideas, practices and pedagogies
in active and interrelated ways. How these aspects come together to facilitate learning helps
us understand and produce knowledge about pedagogy.
Positive classroom learning environments are ones that maximise learning for all learners
and foster their development as holistic human beings. Establishing learning environments
that facilitate positive learning outcomes for all learners is a very big challenge. Greater
recognition and understanding now exists of the complex interplay of learners’ needs –
intellectual, emotional, social, physical and spiritual – and the key role these play in learning.
An international Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) study
(2003) into student engagement, where engagement was defined as ‘a disposition towards Student
learning, working with others and functioning in a social institution’, showed: engagement
refers to learners
An important finding of this study is that students’ reports on their sense of belonging and participating
actively and fully in
absenteeism indicates that there is a high prevalence of students who are disaffected from school. their learning.
OECD, 2003, p. 53
Hence, as Wyn (2009) has noted, the notion of student wellbeing is becoming more visible Student wellbeing
in early childhood centres and schools in Australia. Many departments of education have refers to learners’
physical, social and
wellbeing units or divisions, and policies on student wellbeing (social and emotional) are emotional welfare
included in federal and state policy documents and frameworks (Vincent, 2005). and development.
Wellbeing is not something that can be designed once and for all, even in optimal learning
spaces; rather, it needs to be co-constructed as the educator and the learners work together
within the learning context. If learners become regularly associated with spaces of trouble,
extra surveillance or restricted access, their sense of belonging may be challenged. For
example, they may come to associate mathematics with either pleasure, fear or time with
friends, depending on the way the learning experience is constructed.
As noted in Chapter 4, we are advocating a particular way of being with learners, which
will require you, the educator, to provide opportunities that maximise learners’ participation
in their own learning and to utilise teaching and learning strategies that engage learners and
are learner-centred. Collinson and Killeavy (1999, p. 363) describe the challenge this way:
Caring teachers work hard to know students by using multiple sources of knowledge
and by structuring their classes to encourage oral and written dialogue that reveals
students’ thinking. They consciously work to create a classroom atmosphere conducive to
questioning, self-assessment and helpful critique. They also take great care to establish three
kinds of relationships: teacher–student relationships, student–student relationships, and
student–teacher relationships.
Thus, as well as planning for learning, there are aspects of the environment that will need
your attention. Three of these that will be focused on in this chapter are:
• the physical environment
• the social–emotional environment.
• interactions within the environment.
Before discussing these, it is useful to consider for a moment the question ‘Who is
responsible for creating, developing and organising the learning environment?’ You, as
the educator, are! However, this does not mean that you make all the decisions about it. A
positive learning environment is a shared learning space and therefore does not belong to
any one individual. It is our belief that positive learning environments are co-created or co-
constructed as a result of a collaborative creation between educators and learners. Just how
much collaboration will depend on many things, not the least being your values, beliefs and
assumptions about teaching and learning and the roles of educators and learners.
One of the first considerations for an educator in establishing a positive learning
environment is the physical environment.
Physical environment
Space organises individuals (Leander, 2004). How a classroom space is set up – the designated
areas within, the furniture choices, the ways learners and educators move within – guides
the experiences offered within the classroom. The ways that individuals interact with these
components within spaces enables them to produce demonstrations of their learning.
Classrooms are spaces where learning events unfold and ultimately shape the experience of
the learning (Warf & Arias, 2009).
Educators and learners work best in a comfortable, inviting environment. At the beginning
of a year the educator may organise the room to create such an environment, using colour,
displays, posters, plants, mobiles, etc. Then, as the year progresses, opportunities are provided
for children to offer suggestions for room changes. Alternatively, the educator might create
the classroom with the children from the outset, sharing decisions about how the room is
organised and set up, and specific resources that will be incorporated for learners.
In either scenario it is acknowledged that the classroom is a shared learning space and
that children need to be as involved as their teacher in creating the environment. The more
children contribute, the more they will take pride in the room and have an increased sense
of ownership of their learning environment. Children can be encouraged to bring things
from home to have in the classroom (for example, images or artefacts) and then be involved
in organising and setting up how they will be displayed. They can also be involved in class
projects to help establish a feeling of belonging, such as making a class mural or displays for
a welcome noticeboard.
Alamy Stock Photo/Sally and Richard Greenhill
The layout and

design of a
classroom guides
how the spaces are
used Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
The physical environment needs to be practical as well as interesting and stimulating.

One of the major decisions is how the tables or desks will be arranged. In making this
decision you need to consider the effect various structures have on the style and level
of communication in the classroom, and on the learning styles of the participants.
Learners bring different learning styles to the classroom. If, for example, in primary
and secondary contexts you set up a traditional classroom, with desks in rows and the
educator’s desk at the front, you are encouraging all formal communication to flow
through the educator and discouraging learner-to-learner communication, as most
learners cannot see the faces of others. There would be few opportunities for small-
group work; whole-group discussion would be difficult as well. Thus, the teaching style
most favoured using this structure is teacher-directed. In a classroom that consists of
small groups of desks, however, the teaching style is more likely to favour small-group
work as student-to-student communication within particular groups is being encouraged
by the furniture arrangement. A disadvantage with this structure is that student-to-
student communication outside each group is discouraged, as is teacher-to-whole-group
communication.
Arranging the desks and chairs in such a way as to facilitate small-group work,
individual work and whole-class discussions is a challenge. The ideal structure is one
that is flexible so that it caters for a range of learning and teaching styles. Throughout the
year, term, week or even day educators often change the structure of their room around
to better suit the needs of the learners or to connect with particular teaching and learning
strategies. One educator explained to us that she has desks in groups for most of the time
but for one or two lessons, such as formal handwriting lessons, the learners rearrange
the furniture to face the board. The issue of flexible versus assigned seating obviously
needs to be thought about too – do learners have a fixed seat or can they negotiate where
they will sit? Consideration must also be given to placement of the educator’s desk in
connection with how the educator proposes to use this space. It can make the educator
easily accessible and approachable or create an additional barrier between the educator
and the learners. In placing the educator’s desk, you need to consider practicality,
accessibility and safety.
Another consideration in the learning environment is the resources that are included
in the space. The selection and use of specific resources (material and semiotic) provides
insight into the educator’s classroom pedagogies. For example, the placement of
computers and smartboards and any other technologies sends a clear message about how
they will be used in the classroom and who will use them. Here again, much will depend
on your views and beliefs about the role of technologies in teaching and learning as well
as the number of computers that are available. Wheeler (2001, p. 9) noted that educators
would need to embrace the concepts of ‘shared resources, shared working spaces and
particularly the notion of collaborative learning’ and ‘relinquish control and let learners
drive their own learning’ in order to maximise the potential of technology-supported
learning.
In setting up the classroom, there also needs to be consideration for people’s needs and
comfort. At the most basic level you need to check the correct size of desks and chairs, ensure
that the lighting is adequate and that there are enough trays for the children’s belongings.
You also need to allow sufficient room

Lisa Kervin between desks for movement and take into
account any physical disabilities among class
members, such as sight, hearing or mobility.
Classroom resources, such as scissors, paper,
cleaning materials, books, other print material,
audiovisual equipment and technologies, need
to be accessible to learners when they are
needed. Spaces for quiet and noisy learning
experiences need to be identified within the
classroom. You also might introduce a few
cushions or bean bags or even an old lounge
suite to make a special corner. If other adults
are regularly involved in your classroom, try
to identify a space where they can also leave
their belongings.
Another consideration is what is to be
displayed on the walls of the classroom.
Learning and teaching in
a Tanzanian classroom
Often, charts and posters displaying such
things as class rules, group discussion skills or
procedures for specific routines are found in classrooms. It is also very important to display
children’s work associated with their learning experiences and interests. Displays need to
be creative and presented in a way that enhances the value and importance placed on the
work by the children and by the educator. The purpose of displays is not only for aesthetic
purposes; displays can also connect with learners and provide useful resources to support
their learning (for example, in early primary classrooms a ‘word wall’ may feature to support
learners with the spelling of words).
When displaying learner’s work products you need to:
• make sure all learners get their work displayed (not only the ‘best’)
• display work in all curriculum areas
• change displays regularly
• try to bring attention to work being displayed; for example, you might consider having a
parent information board outside the classroom that not only provides information about
upcoming events but also draws attention to the various classroom displays.
Paying attention to what is displayed (that is, high quality) and how it is displayed (that
is, attractively) conveys to learners the value you place on their work as well as the physical
environment. You also need to give consideration to where the work is to be displayed.
Classrooms are not the only venue. You might utilise other areas in the centre or school and
community such as the foyer, the resource centre, the community hall, the local shopping
centre and the community library.
When you are establishing the physical environment you need to continually stress
the feeling of ‘our learning space/classroom’ so that a whole group identity is developed.
The classroom is a social and negotiated space, therefore learners need to participate in the
dynamic nature of the space as this is where learning identities are constructed (Marsh, 2016).
For example, the child seated near the educator’s desk may come to realise that s/he is often
the subject of attention, sometimes to be helped or perhaps to be redirected. Alternatively, a
child who is continually placed away from the teacher may understand that they are capable
and therefore don’t require as much help as others. It’s important, however, that no one feels
they are forgotten within the space.
It helps to give every learner a job that is his or her responsibility. You then need to change
duties on a regular basis to give children the chance to do something different. You can also have
cards made that designate what the jobs involve. Build time into your day to pack up and clean
up and allow time for the successful completion of duties. Providing feedback on the successful
carrying out of duties also helps to acknowledge learners’ efforts. Avoid sex-role stereotyping
in job allocation; for example, ensure that both boys and girls are given cleaning-up duties,
and distribute tasks requiring technological understandings equally so that girls might keep
stopwatch records while boys might undertake audio recordings. You may at first meet some
resistance, so the allocation of duties should be undertaken with care and sensitivity.
Social–emotional environment
The social–emotional dimension of classroom experience has, for a long time, been
referred to as ‘classroom climate’. This is a concept we have already examined in this
chapter. Building from this, the chapter now moves to consider the term classroom Classroom culture
culture, which is increasingly used to include the social–emotional dimension of learning refers to the
shared beliefs,
and to acknowledge the shared beliefs, customs, attitudes and expectations of educators customs, attitudes
and learners in a classroom. This connects to the discussion of wellbeing presented earlier and expectations
of educators
in this text. and learners in a
Educational researchers have long since determined that positive learning climates classroom.
or cultures are more desirable than those that are negative. They have a direct influence
on learning outcomes (Pascal et al., 1998; Smyth, Down & McInerney, 2008). Positive
climates are those in which learners feel they belong, where they are happy, extended
and safe, and where verbal and physical harassment on gender, racial and other grounds
are prevented and addressed. In other words, where learners’ wellbeing is nurtured.
Given the current emphasis on learners’ involvement in their own learning, educators are
endeavouring to develop classroom cultures that will ensure that the myriad relationships
existing within that culture are ones that maximise participation for all learners. For, as
Wyn (2009, p. 128) noted:
In its various forms, participation is an essential element of wellbeing. Young people themselves
identify aspects of participation – being valued, feeling that they belong, that they can have a
say and be heard and have some control – as being important to them.
To maximise participation means to take account of ‘the multiplicity of positions that

operate within a classroom’ (Allard & Cooper, 2001) and understand how the inevitable
power relationships that exist in any classroom affect the level of participation. A positive
social–emotional environment evolves through the interactions of educator–learner,
educator–class (group), learner–class (group) and learner–learner interpersonal
relationships. It is the educator who is the key to developing a positive classroom culture
by determining what kinds of relationships are established and encouraged (Jones,
2011; Lyons, Ford & Arthur-Kelly, 2011). McNaughton (2001) asked a very important
question: How often do educator–learner relationships come between rather than assist
learning? Similarly, the question has been asked: How often do relationships among
learners come between rather than assist learning (Le Cornu & Collins, 2004)? These
questions are particularly relevant within a constructivist classroom where collaborative
learning is encouraged, and interactions between learners as well as between teacher and
learner(s) are valued. Learners of any age and attainment can be encouraged to work and
play in a collaborative and mutually supportive environment or directed to work in a
highly competitive and individualistic style. Educators who believe that it is important
to develop democratic relationships and build a community of learners will share
power with learners, recognising it as a fundamental condition for learning. They will
also recognise the ways in which particular learners are positioned within a classroom
culture on the basis of their gender, ethnicity and so on, and be prepared to challenge
and change the implicit classroom conditions that act as barriers to some learners’
participation.
Try to identify some of the implicit (i.e. hidden or unspoken) classroom conditions that act as
barriers to some learners’ participation. Which particular learners are affected by the constraints
you have identified?
While educators are responsible for initially establishing the tone of the classroom, it is
important to understand the reciprocal nature and ‘synergistic power’ of the relationships
between educators and learners (Marlowe, 2006). Gomez, Allen and Clinton (2004, p. 483)
explain:
The caring work of teaching is premised upon having a reciprocal relationship between students
and teachers. Reciprocity entails teachers and students continually developing, negotiating and
maintaining a social connection.
Such relational work brings its share of tensions that have to be negotiated constantly, such
as issues of conflict, balancing care and control and the reality of vacillating power between
learners and educators (Aultman, Williams-Johnson & Schultz, 2009). Aultman, Williams-
Johnson and Schultz (2009) argue that reciprocity means that not only do educators influence
learners but learners also influence educators. Hence, the establishment of a positive learning
environment that maximises learning opportunities for all learners is quite an undertaking. It
requires considerable emotional work and investment of self (Isenbarger & Zembylas, 2006).
Interactions
Interactions, the exchanges between and among the participants within a classroom, are
essential in classrooms. The interactions that occur, and those that don’t, provide insight
into the social control that exists within the classroom. Exchanges can include verbal and
non-verbal, individualised and generic, managerial and pedagogical (Stephen, 2010).
Understanding the interactions that occur within a classroom gives additional insights into
the ways time, resources and the space are used.
Interactions in classroom experiences are bound by time, which
Lisa Kervin
is organised according to the focus of the learning experience and
what it is that the teacher intends the learners to achieve during
this time. Time can be carefully controlled or it can be more
implicit. For example, extended time periods for young children
to engage in play-based learning centres in an early childhood
setting is quite different to the explicit sequencing of an experience
in a secondary mathematics class where quadratic equations are
the focus. In these examples, the early childhood classroom
enables focus on the child’s inner development (cognitive, moral
or emotional), whereas in the secondary example progression
through content is critical.
Interactions are often governed by rules within the space
which are constructed to suit the organisation of both the
space and learning experience. Larger spaces (such as the
playground) may have more flexible rules where there is
freedom of movement within established rules. More controlled
spaces (such as the floor area in front of a board in a primary Children
classroom or a high school desk) might be more controlled interacting
through play
by the educator where the delivery of predetermined and
specialised content is the focus.
The next section looks directly at a range of strategies
Lisa Kervin
designed to foster the development of positive relationships,
positive self-esteem and class cohesiveness. We ask you to
remember that these strategies are not solutions or ‘correct’
procedures. In many cases in classrooms you will find that
surface behaviours are underpinned by significant problems
that cannot be fixed by some kind of band-aid approach.
The reasons for negative relationships in classrooms, poor
self-esteem and classes in disarray are complex and manifest
in many ways. As we have indicated throughout this book,
problem management and resolution is a continuous process Children playing
in educators’ work. All the same, during your professional with natural
resources
experiences and when you begin to teach, it is important to
have some means for dealing with issues as they arise. Guidelines such as these should prove
to be helpful.
Try to identify some of the interactions you’ve observed in schools. What are the ‘rules’ in the
playground, in classrooms or in the staffroom? How are the interactions the same or different
across these different areas?
Developing positive learning

relationships
We start this section with a timely reminder that ‘whilst power sharing in learner/teacher
relationships is fundamental to the learning process, it is notoriously challenging to change’
(DECS, 2005). Hence you will need to make a strong commitment to developing ‘relational
trust’ (Bryk & Schneider, 2002) or what is also known as ‘relational power’ (Warren, 2005).
Smyth, Down and McInerney (2008) argue that an investment made in relational power
by educators can be seen in what Rodgers and Raider-Roth (2006, p. 266) call ‘presence’ in
teaching; it is:
a state of alert awareness, receptivity and connectedness to the mental, emotional and physical
workings of both the individual and the group in the context of their learning environments and
the ability to respond with a considered and compassionate next step.
Smyth, Down and McInerney (2008) interpret this as meaning ‘the capacity of teachers to
have the courage to trust and believe in “what they know” in the context of their teaching’
(p. 35). We would argue that it takes courage to ‘power share’ with learners but that this
courage is an essential first step in developing positive learning relationships.
Developing positive relationships with the learners in your class requires you to do the
following:
• know learners’ names
• get to know learners individually
• share yourself with your learners
• establish yourself as ‘the educator’.
Each of these will be addressed next.
Know learners’ names

To develop positive relationships with the learners in your class, the first obvious thing you
need to do is to learn and use their names. For most of us our identity is closely linked to
our names. It can be quite galling when someone looks at you and clearly cannot remember
your name. It is as if you are of little importance to them. Learning every name as quickly as
possible and using them as much as possible initially demonstrates that you are committed to
getting to know everyone personally. Reflect for a moment on the number of ways you could
quickly get to know learners’ names. Some of the ways you could do this are by playing
name games. For example, with younger learners, sitting in a circle, each person takes it in
turns to say their name and an animal or a fruit or vegetable with the same initial letter as
their name (Rachel, rhubarb; Greg, grape). Another example is where you set up a rhythm
– hands to knee twice, followed by clicking fingers twice and then you put in names to the
rhythm: ‘Susan, Susan, Jake, Jake’, then, Jake would say, ‘Jake, Jake, Peta, Peta’ and so on.
You could also draw a map of the seating arrangements in the classroom (if these are fixed)
and refer to it initially, by using learners’ names or asking them their names before speaking
with them, listening to the names being used in the room and associating them, practising
using learners’ names as much as possible, taking a class list home and studying the learners’
names, including correct pronunciations and setting yourself a goal, such as ‘I’ll learn six
names by recess, another six by lunch and six more by hometime’. The speed at which you
get to know every name will depend on how difficult you find learning names.
An effective strategy to check whether you can recall the names of all the learners in your
class is to write down all of the names of the learners in the class when you go home. Did you
miss anyone? Studies have demonstrated that in every classroom there are ‘invisible children’. Invisible children
Byrnes and Yamamoto (1983, p. 15) have defined invisible children in this way: are those who blend
into the classroom
Those who tend to be marginal in their interpersonal relationships within the classroom, are in such a way that
they are often
neither actively disliked and therefore rejected, nor actively liked and sought out by other neglected, isolated
children. Through their lack of conspicuous presence in the school environment, they are or ignored.
neglected, isolated and ignored.
You need to work very hard to reduce the occurrence of this phenomenon in your
classroom.
Get to know learners individually

Once you have learnt the learners’ names, you need to get to know each student individually.
This involves learning about the different interests they have (for example, any extracurricular
activities they do) and understanding the contexts they participate in (including their family
structure, cultural and community groups). It is important to accept and care for each student
as a unique individual. Learners, as we have already explained, are different in very many
ways. They bring a diverse range of abilities, talents, attitudes, values, beliefs, experiences,
backgrounds, interests, needs, physical skills, knowledge and capabilities to the classroom.
It is the educator’s responsibility to value each and every one of the learners in their class, so
that each one feels special and important. You can do this by working in the ways described
below.
• Take advantage of opportunities to speak to learners in a one-to-one relationship. Such
opportunities include individually greeting learners in the morning and saying goodbye at
the end of the lesson or in the afternoon, talking to learners informally during playground
duty, when changing classrooms, eating lunch, before and after the formal day and during
learning activities such as conferencing and small-group activities. When talking with
learners try to single out uniqueness and changes, ask questions about out-of-school life
and follow up on important events.
• Conduct an interest inventory. Learners can complete an inventory that includes questions
relating to their family, hobbies, likes and dislikes, favourite TV show, favourite thing to
eat and so on. Sitting in a circle, each person takes turns to share one thing from his or her
inventory. This device is often referred to as ‘circle share’. Alternatively, learners can write
a paragraph or make a recording about themselves. Each day one is read or played to the
class and the class tries to guess the person’s identity.
• Use getting-to-know-you activities that stress uniqueness and individuality. For example,
‘personality shields’ – on a shield or coat of arms that is divided into sections learners make
a drawing or write something expressing their thoughts regarding a number of questions,
such as ‘What do you want to be?’ or ‘What has been a significant event in your life?’
• Gain information about the different cultural backgrounds represented in your class.
Lisa Kervin
Lisa Kervin
Teachers need to Gathering of

know their students whole schools to
as individuals celebrate learning
• O
bserve the children. Take time during learning activities and at breaks to observe each
learner. Observe what they are doing, how they are doing it and with whom. In a book
jot down any observations regarding their physical, social, emotional and intellectual
development. These anecdotal notes will be invaluable as you assess their learning, a topic
that will be discussed further in Chapter 11.
• M
eet each learners’ parents or other caregivers. Talk to them about their child. Talk to
them about themselves. Talk to them about yourself. Ask them to share their goals for
their child and any information they would like you to be aware of.
• Share yourself evenly with the learners. While you may find that some learners appeal to
you more than others, you must make every effort to communicate with all the learners
in your class in an honest, open manner. If you give more attention to some, you are
conveying a message to the others that they are not as important.
• Test yourself by using a class list and writing down one special thing about each learner. Then,
let each learner know that you know this special thing next time you talk with him or her.
Select three strategies from the list that you will use to get to know learners individually, during
your next professional experience placement. Make a plan for how you are going to do this. Think
about why you chose the strategies you did.
Share yourself with your learners

While you are getting to know the learners, they need to get to know you. You are a person
first, an educator second. Lippitz and Levering (2002, p. 212) explain:
Self-disclosure If a teacher hides behind her professional role or function, then no relationship whatsoever
involves sharing will develop. Therefore, to make a pedagogical relationship possible, the teacher has to present
something about
yourself in order to herself as a person.
develop a positive
relationship with
Share yourself so that the learners can value your uniqueness. Self-disclosure is an important
your students. factor in building any relationship. Decide what and how much you feel comfortable sharing
and then do everything you can to build relationships based on trust and respect. Some
guidelines in this regard include the following:
• Convey a warm, positive, enthusiastic image. Smile, make direct eye contact and initiate a
greeting. Do not be overfriendly. You need to relate genuine care and understanding but
you also need to establish yourself in the educator role.
• Know yourself. The relationship you have with yourself – that is, your self-perceptions
and your self-efficacy – is paramount in influencing your relationships with others and
your perceptions of others.
• Deliberately share something personal when introducing yourself.
• Build on and make links with learners’ personal contributions.
• Join in all getting-to-know-you activities that you conduct with the class. An important
point is that some learners may find such activities threatening or invasive so never ask others
to do or answer what you would not do or answer yourself. By participating in such activities
you are building trust and group cohesion as well as developing individual relationships.
• Be respectful. You need to be accepting and non-judgemental in regard to learners’
opinions. Respect their right to have their own ideas.
• Share your feelings with the children. Share stories about your own experiences.
• Use opportunities for learners to see you in other situations and roles. For example, you could
do role plays in which you invite colleagues into the room and interact with them, invite parents
into the room or have a morning or afternoon tea. It is not only important how you treat
learners but how you behave in front of them. Avoid the Jekyll–Hyde syndrome in which you
become a different person depending on the size of the person with whom you are interacting.
If you want learners’ trust, you need to let them know that you are authentic and genuine.
• Apologise when you are wrong or make a mistake. It shows that you are human and helps
to develop a relationship based on acceptance. Learners come to see that they too can take
responsibility for their own mistakes and still be accepted.
Establish yourself as ‘the educator’

While you are getting to know the learners in the classroom and they are getting to know
you, you must also establish yourself as an educator. Learners don’t need you to be their
friend, they need you to be their educator. Managing this role often presents many challenges.
For example, what happens in a one-to-one interaction with a learner is often very different
to interacting with a whole class group. The challenges are reflected in the following journal
extract written by a graduate pre-service teacher after her first professional experience:
A vital statement for me, was ‘A good teacher cares about the
student as a whole person, not just intellectual, but emotional,
spiritual, physical.’ While I still wholeheartedly believe this
statement to be true, it has become apparent to me during the
course of the professional experience how difficult this is in
practice, when dealing with large classes. Where learners are
facing personal issues, it is hard to find the time to say two
words to them individually. Where the class demonstrates poor
behaviour choices, or certain individuals disrupt the class, it
is hard to work out how to show caring and how to find time to
get to the root of the problem.
The issue of invisible children is again extremely pertinent. Pye (cited in Groundwater-
Smith & White, 1995) found that educators often unconsciously form small ‘families’ of
acknowledged learners, that is, the ones they like, the vocal ones, the strugglers and the
loyal ones who express warmth, respect and pleasure for their schooling. You need to
interact equally with all learners in the class, not just those with whom you have positive
affiliations or who insist upon attention being paid to them. You need also to be aware
that there are often differences based on gender in the ways educators interact with the
learners in their class. Sadker, Sadker and Stulberg (1993) explain that many educators
strive for fairness but even those deeply concerned about gender equality tend to interact
differently with boys and girls, resulting in profound effects on each learner’s self-esteem,
academic interests and ability to become independent, assertive thinkers. They found that
the boys in their study not only received more attention but they also received better kinds
of attention, such as more specific and meaningful responses, including explicit feedback,
whereas girls were given more vague and neutral responses. Effective communication
skills are discussed in Chapter 6 and specific classroom management issues and strategies
are presented in Chapter 10. However, it is relevant here to stress the point that in
developing positive teacher–student relationships you will need to set behaviour limits and
confront unacceptable behaviour. Educators need to be firm and consistent. Collinson
and Killeavy (1999, p. 360), in reporting on how exemplary educators practised an ‘ethic
of care’ in the UK, Ireland and the USA, reinforced this point when they wrote:
Teachers make a clear distinction between professional relationships and friendships with
students. As several explained, they ‘don’t feel the need to, sort of, create friendship’ (UK example)
although they are friendly. However, they are aware that the professional teacher–student
relationship, which is inherently unequal, can set up barriers, blocking the approachability that
is so necessary for making students feel comfortable and secure in the classroom. They seem
to create, from the first day of classes, an atmosphere of mutual respect with reciprocal but
differing responsibilities and rights.
In your professional experiences the mentor educator you are with has the greater
responsibility for the learning environment. However, you need to establish yourself with
the class in your own right. What follows are some useful strategies for you to utilise as a
beginning teacher:
• Find out what the class rules are and what their basis is. Stick to them at all times.
• State that your expectations are the same as those of their educator or state clearly what
yours are. You will need to be explicit; for example, one person speaks at a time.
• Notice positive behaviours and let the learners know that you have noticed. Too often
educators take certain behaviours for granted without acknowledging them. Again, you
will need to be explicit and give the reason for the acknowledgement. For example, ‘I can
see that you’re really listening to Joel. Thank you for that’. Try also to focus on appropriate
behaviours rather than inappropriate behaviours in a large-group situation. If you want
eye contact when you are talking, thank those learners who are looking at you rather
than drawing attention to those who are not. Children will soon learn that they can get
attention more easily through displaying appropriate behaviour rather than inappropriate
behaviour. Mind you, this is not as easy as it might first appear, as Rachel, a final year pre-
service teacher describes:
I found that giving specific positive feedback was really hard at

first. My teacher told me that yes I did give positive feedback,
but it wasn’t specific. It usually consisted of myself saying
‘well done’, ‘fabulous’ and ‘great’. So I found myself really
having to concentrate on what I was saying and it felt completely
unnatural to be speaking like that. However, as I continued it
began to get a lot easier. I have learnt that positive feedback
really works in terms of engaging learners and making them feel
valued in the classroom.
• Confront inappropriate behaviour as soon as it occurs. The way you do this will
vary depending on the situation. You may remind the child of the rule or appropriate
behaviour. For example, if you have a wait-for-your-turn rule and then someone
interrupts, you would draw their attention immediately to it by saying, ‘Excuse me,
Sara, Nhygen was first, thank you’. Similarly, if a child bursts noisily into the room
you could ask them to return and re-enter the room in an appropriate way. Another
way to confront inappropriate behaviour is to simply ask or tell the child to stop.
Then you need to monitor the situation to ensure that the child’s behaviour has
changed. Or you may ask if the particular behaviour being displayed is appropriate in
the classroom and what is that student going to do about it. The aim here is to increase
the child’s awareness of the behaviour and accept responsibility for it. You need to
obtain a commitment from the child regarding this behaviour in the immediate future
and monitor it closely. Being assertive enough to confront inappropriate behaviour
also presents challenges as Jo, a second year pre-service teacher, notes:
The hardest thing for me was remembering to confront the
inappropriate behaviour in the first place. I was introducing my
lesson and all the children were sitting on the mat in front of
me and I had just finished saying that the children needed to put
their hand up when they wanted to say something and then what did
I do? I responded to the children who just called out. Before I
knew it, it was chaos, everyone just called out. I have learnt
that once I say something, I have to really make sure that I act
on it. So now, I don’t acknowledge the answer if a child calls
out. But what I do do is respond straightaway if that child then
puts his or her hand up.
• Have a plan of what to do if inappropriate behaviour continues. Find out what

consequences your teacher uses and follow these or develop your own in negotiation with
your teacher. Avoid taking the behaviour personally. It is not a personal attack on you.
You must distance yourself emotionally and ask, ‘Who owns the problem?’
• Follow the school’s procedures for dealing with aggressive behaviour and/or harassment.
These must not be tolerated. You must be vigilant and confront any examples of racist
and sexist behaviour. Every school has grievance procedures in place for dealing with
harassment and these must be followed.
To conclude this section on positive relationships here is an extract from an interview
with a teacher who has been teaching for 20 years. She highlighted the fact that it takes her
considerable time at the beginning of each new year to ensure that her classroom culture is
positive and democratic:
I really do try to spend a lot of time setting up systems,

protocols, codes of practice, expectations, all sorts of things
to develop a classroom atmosphere where relationships are good
relationships.
Building positive self-esteem

Every person has a concept of and feelings about her or himself, which are referred to as ‘self-
concept’ and ‘self-esteem’. Numerous studies have documented a significant relationship
between self-concept, self-esteem and academic achievement, school satisfaction, participation
in learning, behaviour and communication.
Self-esteem, however, is a deeper and more profound concept than is often realised. At
one time it was thought that if educators taught learners to feel good about themselves this
was sufficient. This is no longer the case. More and more educators are emphasising the
need to focus on the development of a ‘sense of self as learner’. Learners’ understandings
are developed, as are their understandings about their own abilities and learning styles. This
Learner identity move has brought with it the notion of ‘learner identity’. In a South Australian Education
refers to how Department school redesign initiative entitled Learning to Learn, which operated between
learners view
themselves as 1999 and 2008, one of the foci was on developing educators’ understandings about this very
learners. issue. Educators were supported to:
• Develop learners’ internal locus of control and a belief and knowledge of their abilities,
skills and capacities for learning;
• Develop learners’ dispositions for lifelong learning, where learners seek challenge and use
metacognitive skills for higher order learning;
• Establish supportive learning environments with shared relationships and decision
making. (DECS, 2005, p. 8)
An assessment of the Learning to Learn project found that when learners are enabled to
take responsibility for their learning, reflect on their learning, exercise choice responsibly and
when they are supported and challenged to achieve their personal best, their learner identity
is developed (DECS, 2005). They also develop a realistic self-concept as their internal source
of self-esteem is strengthened. This is because, according to some writers, it is related to
integrity, responsibility and achievement (Katz, 1994; Reasoner, 1992).
An in-depth study, involving regular classroom observations and interviews with a number
of educator participants in Learning to Learn, brought particular insights about how they
developed their children’s and young people’s identities as learners (see Le Cornu, Peters &
Collins, 2003). The educators talked to the learners openly about their perceptions of the roles
of educators and learners in the teaching–learning process. They then renegotiated roles and
responsibilities, based on the notion of shared control of the learning process. The educators
encouraged the learners to take an active role in their own learning and also contribute to the
learning of others. Consider the following case studies.
Convers ati on s ab ou t lea rn in g Case study

·1
Marie was a principal of a large ‘disadvantaged’ school in the southern suburbs of Adelaide. She
supported the educators at her school to be involved in ‘Learning to Learn’. She encouraged
her educators to develop a learning culture in their classrooms in similar ways to how she was
developing a learning culture in her school. This involved lots of ‘learning conversations’ and primary secon dary
the use of metacognitive language and processes to help learners and staff discuss their learning,
reflect on their learning and further their learning. She explained, ‘We need to support learners
to know themselves as learners and as metacognitive learners. They need to know what thinking
is, what learning is and the sorts of different processes of learning’. e a r ly
childhood
1 What do you think Marie’s aims were in promoting ‘Learning to Learn’?
2 What would you say her expectations were for the educators in her school? The learners? How
do you feel about these expectations?
Taking resp o n s ib ility Case study

·2
Two of the educators, Jason and Rebecca, team-taught two classes of Year 1 and 2 learners in a
‘disadvantaged’ school in the western suburbs of Sydney. They wanted to make the point that new
responsibilities came with the learners’ increased involvement in their learning, including time
management and personal management. They explained, ‘Kids take on a level of responsibility – primary
just getting their heads around being organised and committed to time. And thinking “What do
I need to do within that time to be successful?” ’
1 What do you think Jason and Rebecca believed learning to be?
2 How does their perspective fit with Marie’s aims that you previously identified?
3 How do you feel about their expectations for the learners?
A challenge exists for you to build positive and realistic learner identities with those you
teach. As you can see, this depends to a degree on the learning relationships you establish
with them, and establishing a community of learners where everyone inspires and encourages
each others’ learning. Some additional strategies include:
• with younger learners using self-esteem activities, such as making individual books or
mobiles with ‘I can …’, ‘I am good at …’ and using activities from self-esteem books
• taking each child’s needs and wishes seriously
• conveying acceptance of every learner, differentiating between a child and his or her
behaviour, and when learners display unacceptable behaviour, letting them know that
they are accepted but their behaviour is unacceptable – remember that learners must have
clearly defined and enforced limits of behaviour in order to develop high self-esteem
• focusing on each learner’s assets and strengths (including academic, physical, personal and
social) to help learners become aware of their own and others’ assets so that they can act
as a resource for each other
• helping learners be aware of and comfortable with the things they are not good at; use
examples to illustrate that practice can make you better (for example, Olympic athlete)
• writing special notes/comments to every learner over time, for example, ‘Thank you for
your help today. I really appreciated it when … ’; personal notes can also be written to
parents and caregivers about their learner’s efforts and/or achievements
• indicating to a learner when she or he is speaking that their contribution is worthwhile;
you can do this by your tone of voice, affirmative head nod, physical closeness and verbal
cues such as ‘Uh huh, tell me more about that’
• giving specific feedback to each learner by acknowledging that each learner’s individual
efforts, which assumes that you are familiar with each learner’s abilities; be conscious of
the effort and the process, not necessarily the end product
• providing a wide range of activities and tasks that enable each learner to achieve success
together with tasks that provide optimum challenge
• consciously looking for times when learners are independently successful and
acknowledging them
• where possible, involving parents and caregivers and valuing any contribution they might
make; an important part of a learner’s identity is that of parental and family influence,
thus, working with parents and caregivers further reinforces learners’ trust in their family
groups
• comparing earlier written work to present work; seeing concrete evidence of the
improvement boosts self-confidence
• providing learners with the opportunity to develop and apply criteria for evaluating their
own work
• cultivating a positive attitude, for which you need to be positive in talk and actions and be
consistent in this. You also need to be prepared to learn with the learners and be flexible
and adaptable.
You must remember though, as discussed in Chapter 3, that every learner will be different
and respond to you (themselves and others) in different ways. Class, culture and gender all
influence our sense of identity. For example, Katz (1993) notes that the self is construed in
various ways: Western cultures see the self as an independent entity while Asian and African
cultures see the self as interdependent within the social context.
As an educator you are what is known as a ‘significant other’ in your learners’ lives (and, sadly,
sometimes you are the most constant other). Significant others are people whose opinions we
especially value and who leave an imprint on how we view ourselves and the world. An example
of just how significant educators can be is illustrated in Pygmalion in the Classroom, the classic
work of Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968). In this study educators were told that a number of
children in their classrooms showed unusual potential for intellectual growth (the names of the
identified children were simply drawn out of a hat). Eight months later these ‘gifted’ children
showed significant gains in IQ when compared to the other children in the classes. This research
demonstrated that the change in the educators’ expectations regarding the intellectual performance
of these allegedly gifted children had led to an actual change in the intellectual performance of these
randomly selected children. This phenomenon is known as a self-fulfilling prophecy; that is, when
a person’s expectations make the outcome more likely to occur.
Your expectations of learners are very important. Expectations have been identified as key
to influencing our learning. In Hillock’s literacy research, cited in the Harvard Educational
Review (2004), it was stressed that what was crucial was the teacher’s expectations of learners:
whether she or he is optimistic or non-optimistic about learners’ orientation to learning
in school. Your expectations will affect your learners’ views of themselves as learners and
determine the quality of their learning outcomes. Nowhere is this more evident than in
educators’ expectations of children from low socioeconomic backgrounds. Some educators
believe that because these learners do not begin formal education with the same skills and
knowledge as those from middle-class backgrounds they will not be able to succeed. This is
a deficit view. Learners from disadvantaged backgrounds should be viewed as learners with
differing needs, not as learners who, because of their home backgrounds, cannot succeed.
Building class cohesiveness

As you need to build a physical environment that emphasises unity and a sense of belonging,
so too you need to take steps to develop cohesiveness. Classrooms gather people and ‘things’
together in complex and fluid ways that are relevant to the needs of learners and responsive to
the wider expectations of education. Hill and Hill (1990, p. 12) stress that in a cohesive class
‘everyone sees himself or herself belonging to one group that they value more highly than any
subgroup and a social hierarchy is not obvious or well-defined’. Smyth and McInerney (2007)
stress that connectedness and belonging are crucially important for learning. We concur with
this and argue that an authentic learning culture depends on them. Class cohesiveness
refers to a sense of
Developing cohesion is not easy. Many educators experience a dilemma between wanting belonging where
cohesiveness and wanting to value and recognise difference. You need to be careful that class everyone sees
themselves as a
cohesiveness does not dictate to the degree that lateral thinkers are subjugated by having to valued member of
conform to the norm. the group.
How do you develop a united class? Here are some suggestions:

• Establish clear expectations about the way in which people will interact with each other
in the classroom; for example, that everyone will listen to each other in class situations.
Monitor these interactions, provide feedback and confront inappropriate behaviour.
• Teach the skills of effective communication and provide opportunities to practise. Learners
need to accept responsibility for what they say and how they say it.
• Establish goals for the class. Goal setting, both class and personal, can be used effectively
with various targets (for example, ‘By the end of the week/term/year’). Give whole-class
feedback as well as feedback to individuals.
• Use flexible seating to ensure that learners sit with a number of different peers at various
times. This is a good way of encouraging the building of new relationships among learners.
• Encourage learners to say good things to each other, not just to you.
• Demonstrate respect to all learners through your words and actions, and have each learner
do the same (not interrupting, thanking people, no put-downs, active listening).
• Use class meetings to discuss problems and provide feedback. Class meetings provide
opportunities for learners to develop skills and participate in democratic decision-making
processes. You need to establish clear roles, set agenda items and establish a shared
approach to problem solving (for example, ask questions such as ‘What are we going to do
about it?’).
• Encourage risk taking by supporting learners voicing their opinions and making choices,
such as with whom they will sit, with whom they will work or choosing to work alone.
• Emphasise respect for learners’ individual property and the classroom. Practise borrowing
procedures. Follow up all lost property.
• Be prepared to confront social injustices in your classroom (for example, boys demanding
more air time than girls, children making racist remarks to each other). Discuss these with
your learners. Plan actions to redress the situation.
• Encourage the expression of feelings. Be prepared for honesty – accept all feelings.
Differentiate between the feeling and the behaviour. For example, ‘It’s okay to feel angry,
it’s not okay to hit’.
• Develop trust and risk-taking by playing class games and allowing learners to pass or
participate at their level of comfort. Quieter learners often need some structures to enable
them to participate in a non-threatening way.
• Advertise positive happenings to other learners, parents and visitors who come into your
room.
• Reflect on your interactions with learners and the quality of the interactions between
the learners. What messages are being conveyed by your behaviour? What messages are
being conveyed by the learners’ behaviour? Whose voices are being heard in whole-class
situations?
• Structure times into your program where learners give positive feedback to each other.
• Recognise and respond to realistic personality clashes.
• Use language that develops a sense of cohesion; for example, ‘our classroom’, ‘we’ and
‘us’.
Select three strategies from the list that you will use to build class cohesiveness during your next
professional experience placement. Make a plan for how you are going to do this.
Once again, think about why you chose the strategies you did. Does this tell you anything about
you as an educator/learner?
Developing class cohesion requires the educator to model democratic, inclusive practices
that teach learners how to be active participants in their own learning. Teacher modelling is
crucial, particularly in the way you listen to learners and in the way you respond to them. It
is important for educators to model the behaviours expected from learners – what you say,
how you say it and to whom is critical. Rebecca, a Year 1 and 2 teacher, explained:
‘My manner is important … the way I speak … keeping it calm … not raising our voices. Little
subtle things like that.’
And Linda, a Year 6 and 7 teacher, told us:

‘Actions speak louder than words. So they see me model that … they see that I take them
seriously and act upon the things they do and say.’
Teacher modelling is also a very challenging notion. It relates to Raider-Roth’s (2005)

notion of ‘presence’ in teaching, which was mentioned earlier in this chapter. It is more
than modelling certain behaviours, ‘it is the experience of bringing one’s whole self to full
attention’ (Raider-Roth, 2005, p. 267). Smyth, Down and McInerney (2008, p. 35) translate
what they think this means:
This means a complex amalgam of seeing, hearing, observing, taking notice, paying close
attention, while at the same time comprehending what action is required in the situation and
ensuring that it is authentic and compassionate.
In other words, it takes a lot of work, much of it ‘hidden’, to be a good model and have
‘presence’. It is no wonder that the emotional dimension of educators’ work is receiving
increasing recognition in the literature. This issue will be explored in Chapter 7.
Developing class cohesion and building a positive classroom culture requires a genuine ‘learning Learning
partnership’ (Fried, 2001). Such a partnership is enabled by negotiation of the curriculum and partnership A
learning partnership
attention to planning and programming, factors that are discussed in Chapter 8. However, much between learners
will depend on the educator’s skills in establishing the sorts of classroom interactions that enable and their educator
is where there exists
learning conversations between the educator and learners and among the learners themselves. Such a level of shared
conversations allow for meaningful dialogue, which helps learners make sense of their learning. responsiveness that
Classrooms also need to operate in cohesive ways with the more extended social goes against the
traditional hierarchy
configurations such as the school, the wider community and education more generally. of schools.
Conclusion
Creating a positive, success-oriented learning environment takes effort, professional
judgement and many skills. How you organise and structure the physical environment will
affect the learning experiences you are able to offer to your learners. Similarly, the quality
of the social–emotional environment will impact on learners’ learning. Learners learn best
in environments where they feel they belong, where they are happy, extended and safe and
where verbal and physical harassment on gender, racial and other grounds are prevented and
addressed. In order to create such an environment, you will need to establish positive learning
relationships with and between your learners’ and make an explicit commitment to building
their self-esteem and class cohesiveness.
If you reflect on the first chapter, which considered the changing nature of educators’
work, it is very clear that teaching today involves a high degree of professional decision
making. In critiquing your classroom learning environment you need to be constantly
asking yourself questions such as: Is the learning environment modelled on participation?
Do all learners have a voice? Is negotiation part of the norm? Are everyone’s interests being
addressed? What implicit structures, assumptions and relations that operate in the classroom
are interfering with the learning process? How can these be changed to support successful
and meaningful learning for all? Chapter 7 addresses the importance of continually reflecting
on your teaching and your learning.
STUDY TOOLS
Following 1 Why is ‘respect’ so important in student learning? How does this contribute to wellbeing?
through
2 What nuances or ‘subtleties of practice’ will convey the message to learners that they are valued as
learners? What are the implications for you on your next placement?
3 Select one of the strategies listed in the section titled ‘Building positive self-esteem’ and make a plan
for how you will incorporate this into your teaching during your next professional experience.
4 Reflect on the ways in which classroom cultures can be mutually constructed to enable learners to
feel a sense of ownership and responsibility. Discuss these with your peers. Compile a list of strategies.
Compile a list of questions for further discussion.
http://www.holistic-education.net/visitors.htm This website discusses the purposes of holistic education,

Useful
and how children learn healthy pro-social relationships, develop emotionally and demonstrate
online
resilience. teaching
http://www.responseability.org/education-students.html This website provides useful information about
resources
how educators can promote wellbeing and help those children and young people who need support. It
also provides a wealth of ideas and activities to use with learners.
Allard, A. & Cooper, M. 2001, ‘Learning to cooperate: A Hill, S. & Hill, T. 1990, The Collaborative Classroom: A
References
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Aubusson, P., Ewing, R. & Hoban, G. 2009, Action labour of caring in teaching’, Teaching and Teacher
Learning in Schools, Routledge, London. Education, 22, pp. 120–34.
Aultman, L. P., Williams-Johnson, M. R. & Schutz, Jenlick, P. & Kinnucan-Welsch, K. 1999, ‘Learning
P. A. 2009, ‘Boundary dilemmas in teacher–student ways of caring, learning ways of knowing through
relationships: Struggling with ‘‘the line’’’, Teaching communities of professional development’, Journal
and Teacher Education, 25, pp. 636–46. for a Just and Caring Education, 5 (4), pp. 367–86.
Bryk, A. & Schneider, B. 2002, Trust in Schools: A Core Jones, V. 2011, ‘Creating supportive personal relationships
Resource for Improvement, Russell Sage Foundation, in the classroom’, Practical Classroom Management,
NY. Pearson: Boston, MA, pp. 17–60.
Byrnes, D. & Yamamoto, K. 1983, ‘Invisible children’, Katz, L. 1993, Self-esteem and Narcissism: Implications for
Journal of Research and Development in Education, Practice, ERIC Clearing House on Elementary and
16 (4), pp. 15–25. Early Childhood Education, University of Illinois,
Collinson, V. & Killeavy, M. 1999, ‘Exemplary teachers: Chicago.
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Education, 5 (4), pp. 349–67. literacy research and practice. New York, NY:
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Grossman, P. & Wineburg, S. 2000, What Makes the characteristics of constructivist learning cultures?’,
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of Teachers?, Center for the Study of Teaching and Association conference, 11–13 September, Exeter.
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Gomez, M. L., Allen, A. & Clinton, K. 2004, ‘Cultural getting a teacher with such a long name …’, Teaching
modes of care in teaching: A case study of one pre- and Teacher Education, 18, pp. 205–13.
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Education, 20, pp. 473–88. ‘Relationships and communication’, in Classroom
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Primary Schools: Evaluation and Assessment through environments, Cengage, South Melbourne, Vic.
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Harvard Educational Review, 74 (1), Spring, Teaching, 32 (1), pp. 93–103.
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Marsh, J., Plowman, L., Yamada-Rice, D., Bishop, Rodgers, C. & Raider-Roth, M. 2006, ‘Presence in
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classification’, Early Years, 36 (3), pp. 242–253, 12 (3), pp. 265–87.
doi: 10.1080/09575146.2016.1167675. Rosenthal, R. & Jacobson, L. 1968, Pygmalion in the
McDonald, T. (2010). ‘Connecting with students’, Classroom, Holt, Rinehart & Winston, New York.
in Classroom Management: Engaging Students Sadker, M., Sadker, D. & Stulberg, L. 1993, ‘Fair and
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to learn critically’, keynote address at the Learning to Reclaiming the Wasteland of the Adolescent Years of
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au/verve/_resources/national_declaration_on_the_
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educational_goals_for_young_australians.pdf).
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interdisciplinary perspectives (pp. 1–10). London and
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Truth or trickery?’, School Administrator, 49 (4), Politics of Education and Wellbeing, Oxford
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Some resources for the teaching of social skills:

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Self-Concept, Prentice Hall, New Jersey. Guide to Co-operative Learning, Eleanor Curtain,
South Yarra.
Chase, L. 1975, The Other Side of the Report Card,
Goodyear, California. Palmer, P. 1982, The Mouse, the Monster and Me, Impact,
California.
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Play, Goodyear, California.
Hendricks, G. 1981, The Centered Teacher, Prentice Hall,
New Jersey.
6
Communication in the
educational environment
HE N
TY C
BET
Any successful human

effort is built on strong
relationships!
129
C ommunication is the basis of human interaction. We communicate with our voices,

whether on the phone or online, talking with friends, family members, learners in
our classrooms, our colleagues, to ourselves and to those in the broader community.
We communicate with our bodies, with gestures and with silences, as well as with sound.
We use the written word online in emails and texts, to present an assignment, occasionally
on paper when we must fill out a form, to post on a variety of online social networks and
to communicate our feelings and thoughts. It is at the core of who we are as people and at
the very heart of our work as educators. This chapter focuses on a range of interpersonal
communication skills that educators need in order to establish positive and effective working
relationships in the classroom, the school and the broader education community. It is worth
reiterating that teaching is first and foremost about relationships, and relationships are
developed with clear communication.
Byrne and Munns (2012, pp. 307–311) acknowledged that to develop relationships the
following are useful starting points for educators:
• Show genuine care for children and young people as human beings and learners.
• Try to understand before reacting.
• Value learner experiences, background and culture.
• Acknowledge mistakes and encourage risk taking.
• Do a lot of listening and learning.
• Ask questions and be prepared to listen and to act.
• You don’t know it all.
• Try to understand cultural responses in early childhood contexts and classrooms.
Although the focus of this chapter is your relationship with your learners, your
relationships with the learning context, families and the broader education community are
also important. For you to develop positive relationships with your learners, whether they
are four or 17 years old, requires you to reflect on what these relationships might mean for
you when communicating with them and the broader education community.
In this chapter we begin with a brief summary of what you already know about
communication and then look at the implications for educational environments. Effective
communication is defined, followed by a consideration of the essential skills necessary for the
development of productive relationships.
What you already know about

communication
You have been communicating since birth, so you already know much about communication.
You know, for example, that communication is a process. In any interpersonal communication
there is a message that is conveyed between a sender and a receiver, as shown in Figure 6.1.
The sender is the initiator of the message and, as such, is responsible for formulating the
message and sending it in a way that can be transmitted to the receiver. The receiver is the
person who accepts and interprets the message and then usually transmits a message back to
CHAPTER 6 Communication in the educational environment 131
FIGURE 6.1
INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION
Shutterstock.com/Vanatchanan
the sender. Communication, then, is both interactional and transactional. It should be noted
that the traditional sender–receiver model of communication, while useful for explaining the
process of communication, has been criticised for representing the process as ‘linear’ and
implying that it is a passive process (Lowrie & Higgs, 2010). However, as you would well
appreciate, communication is not static – it is a dynamic process!
You also know that the message received is not always the message sent. This can be
particularly so in emails and text messages. Without the face and body of the individual to
provide further cues to the message, it can lead to misunderstandings about the intent of the
words. It is important to read all messages carefully before sending to make sure the message
you wish to send is the one received. This becomes particularly important when you wish to
communicate with parents and caregivers. As you are aware, interpersonal communication
never occurs in a vacuum. We all make judgements and assumptions based on our own
experiences, values and attitudes.
1 Have you ever sent a text or email that the receiver did not understand or perhaps
misunderstood?
2 Have you ever received a text or email where the intended meaning was unclear for you?
What was the outcome of this experience?
3 When have you communicated clearly with someone? What do your reflections tell you about
communication?
Read the list of variables shown in Figure 6.2 that have been suggested as influencing the
way we send and receive messages. You will note this list appeared in 1981. How relevant is
this today? What would you add and what would you remove?
FIGURE 6.2
VARIABLES THAT INFLUENCE HOW WE SEND AND
RECEIVE MESSAGES
The self-concept and self-esteem of sender and receiver
The personality of sender and receiver
The attitudes, beliefs, values and biases of sender and receiver
The perception each has of the other
The assumptions each makes about the other
The expectations each has of the other
The feelings each has for the other
The expectations each has about the communication
The background and experience of each (including cultural differences and socioeconomic differences)
The power and status of each
The personal presentation of each (how they look and how they choose to present themselves)
The preoccupations each person has at the time
The number of people being communicated with
The degree of familiarity between sender and receiver
The distance or space existing between sender and receiver
How important the sender and the receiver consider the message to be
The symbol system used
The social environment
The physical environment
The self-awareness of the sender and the receiver and how open each is willing to be with the other
New South Wales Education Department, 1981, pp. 7–8
Even if you have removed some from the list (but maybe added others), it is no wonder
that misunderstandings occur when people communicate with one another and that we
experience many problems resulting from these misunderstandings. Effective communication
is a real challenge. You also know that you cannot not communicate. When two people come
together it is inevitable that they will communicate, even if no words are spoken. Messages
will be conveyed by their posture, facial expressions, the distance they keep from each other,
even silence itself. Communication, then, can be intentional or unintentional.
Considering large broadcast communication started with a radio as large as a television in
the corner of a lounge room, but can now be conducted more thoroughly and comprehensively
from a smart phone that fits in your back pocket, communication has changed and evolved
and now ‘takes place in a global, digital-rich, information burgeoning and constantly
changing society’ (Lowrie & Higgs, 2010, p. 14). They make the point that technology, such
as the internet and email, allows people to communicate across traditional barriers and social
structures. They also explain that because communication now occurs with unprecedented
speed, multitasking is a way of life.
Communication in the twenty-first century, then, is a very complex phenomenon.
Often, because we engage in it all of the time and because we have been doing it for a
long time, we wrongly assume that we know all there is to know about it. This is not
the case: although we know a lot about communication, there is also a lot to be known.
Assumptions in communication can be problematic. We make assumptions based on the
familiarity of the communication process when, in fact, as professionals, we need to be
much more perceptive and skilled than that. Learning about communication is a lifelong
process. The next section of this chapter will address particular communication issues as
they pertain to school settings.
Communication in educational
settings
To understand communication in educational settings is to appreciate fully the point that
has been made throughout this book: that educators’ work and the context within which
teaching and learning occur have changed and will continue to do so throughout your own
teaching career. The implications of these changes for the way today’s educators communicate
are many.
Similarly, because of the impact of the digital age, learners are involved in much more
interactive ways with each other (both within and beyond the classroom). They also
have multiple opportunities to be engaged with people they may have previously been
geographically isolated from as well as those from diverse backgrounds, cultures and
experiences in ways they have never been able to in the past (Anstey & Bull, 2006). Thus,
communication across all levels takes on a very different set of interactions (Lowrie & Higgs,
2010). Educators also interact with many more people than they once did as they participate
in virtual professional development, online forums and web exchanges with access to an
increasing range of contacts (including other educators and specialised professionals such
as speech therapists, learning consultants and many others). Changes to school cultures will
be described more fully in Chapter 7, where the idea of learning communities has resulted
in the breaking down of individualistic cultures, in which educators spent much of their
working lives separated from each other, to more collaborative situations, which involve
interdependency and teamwork.
Such changes to cultures necessitate changes to patterns of communication. The issue of
Democratic power underpins these changes. There needs to be a commitment to democratic relationships
relationships More and a rejection of the traditional hierarchical model of working. In preschools and schools
of a ‘power to’
(Pansardi, 2012) where staff and learners are valued and respected and where decision making is shared, there is
where power a sense of commitment to learning and to each other (Hope, 2012). Developing collaborative
is devolved to
participants to school cultures requires the director or principal, among other things, to share power. The
enable everyone to degree to which educational leaders are willing to devolve power to others and provide the
experience dignity support for staff to assume new leadership roles is central to the sort of learning environment
and respect.
that is established. Leaders also need to be able to deliberately enact ways to build collegiality
Traditional
hierarchical and trust among staff. Similarly, in collaborative preschool settings and classrooms, as noted
model of working in Chapter 5, the teacher is critical to the establishment of a fair and just environment where
A traditional
hierarchical model value is placed on the quality of the interactions that take place within it. The degree to
of working invokes which educators are willing to share or devolve power to learners is central to the learning
a ‘power over’ environment that is created. And herein lies the challenge.
approach where
the people involved While there is a trend towards new ways of working and communicating, it would be
operate from their unrealistic to expect that educational institutions are exempt from the influence of power
respective power
bases. and status. They are organisational systems; relationships and roles are embedded in that
context. Moreover, within any learning community there is an array of roles, personalities
and group dynamics that result in myriad different interactions and relationships. These are
not always positive. As noted in Chapter 7, for example, pre-service educators often experience
contradictory messages and expectations during their professional experiences. Furthermore,
as mentioned earlier, educators are under more pressure than ever before, and early childhood
and school communities are coping with greater societal pressures and changing economic
circumstances. It is to be expected then that the complexities of communication are exacerbated
in educational settings. It is only in romanticised readings
of early childhood centres and schools, as explained in
Newspix/Amos Aikman
Chapter 1, that we could see schools as unproblematised,

caring and nurturing environments. The reality is that
there will be differences, conflicts and disagreements.
What is important is how these are handled.
Communication in learning communities is rich and
varied. As well as being mindful of the different levels
of communication in which you will be involved, you
need to be aware of the variety of people with whom
you will come into contact. As an educator you will be
What communication is happening in this learning
communicating with a wide range of people, including
situation? Does the image show different ways of learners, colleagues, parents, carers and members of
communicating? the community.
Develop a list of all the people you think you will interact with in an early childhood centre/school.
When next on your professional experience, make a list of the people you see that are part of the
learning community and compare the two lists.
➜➜ Are there differences?
➜➜ What are the similarities and differences for your communication strategies across the two lists?
Significant relationships
Three sets of relationships have been found to be particularly significant to early career
educators: their relationships with learners, colleagues and their learners’ parents/carers
(McNally & Blake, 2009; Johnson et al., 2012; Le Cornu, 2013).
Of utmost significance are the relationships you develop with your learners. These are
central to your work as an educator. The importance of positive educator–learner relationships
has been stressed throughout the book and, for a long time, has been well recognised in
the literature. For example, Giles (2011, p. 80) stressed ‘relationships are essential to the
experience of education whether they are recognised or not’, and Wright (2017) in a study of
mathematics teaching made clear that, ‘trust needs to be established between educators and
learners to enable the adoption and development of alternative pedagogies’.
The underlying premise of such conclusions is that the teaching–learning process and the
relationships formed are essentially about communication.
Your relationships with your colleagues are also extremely important. The ways in
which educators relate to each other as they discuss the intricacies of the profession and the
quality of the relationships developed are of supreme importance in promoting change in
educational settings.
What do you think might be the benefits of positive relationships among staff members in an early
childhood centre or school?
Quality relationships among staff members are important in maintaining staff morale
and enhancing job satisfaction. As learning communities engage in more collaborative ways
of working, adult–adult interactions increase. As previously discussed, the affordance of
technologies has enabled the expansion of networks within which educators can collaborate.
Collaboration means that educators and other adults work more closely with one another
than ever before and this can place additional demands on individuals. For some educators,
collaboration requires an effort to reach out and share whereas previously they may have
gone it alone. For others, it means negotiation and compromise and dealing with conflicts
and challenges.
Similarly, your interactions with families are important. Parent/carer participation and
involvement are often encouraged in today’s schools and you have an important role to play
in facilitating this. Parents/carers often bring their own memories of school with them so you
need to help them feel comfortable and be sensitive to their feelings, expectations and needs.
As the first educators of their children, they may have firm ideas and beliefs about how their
child should be catered for in the learning environment you create. You will often need to
both initiate contact and respond to questions as you engage in conversations with them.
While you may also know older siblings in a particular family, it is important to consider each
child individually as a learner.
Having conversations with parents/carers may be particularly challenging if they come
from different backgrounds to your own. They may well have different expectations of
educators and therefore hold different views on teaching and learning to yours. You will need
to display sensitivity and respect for their views while at the same time working out ways to
share your views on education with them. Consider, for example, the educator who wants to
implement a critical approach to teaching and learning (as described in Chapter 4) in a school
community that has traditionally supported a more traditional approach. You might recall
that these approaches to teaching and learning are very different: a rational approach views
learning as a step-by-step hierarchical process in which a student progresses in a linear fashion
from simple to more complex tasks, whereas a critical approach is more holistic, incorporating
a variety of methods and strategies. As well as having the required knowledge base and skills
for successful implementation, this teacher will need to spend time talking with colleagues
and parents/carers if he or she is to gain understanding and support for their philosophy and
methods. The teacher will need to be able to articulate a rationale for the choice of pedagogies,
listen to any opposing views and then decide how to respond. It would not be effective if this
teacher railroaded his or her views and got everybody offside in the process.
1 As a secondary teacher, how would you encourage parents to take an active role in the school?
Adolescent students are often very reluctant to have their parents or caregivers involved,
so how would you work to overcome this?
2 As an early childhood or primary teacher, you will sometimes be faced with the parent or
caregiver who is reluctant to leave their child in the morning. What strategies might you employ
to help with this situation?
Traditionally, the focus in books on teaching has almost exclusively been on teacher–learner
relationships, but we want to emphasise that effective communication with both learners and
adults is crucial. We also want to stress that the interpersonal skills needed to develop positive
relationships with all learners and those for developing positive relationships with adults
(colleagues and parents/carers) are not different. We do not want to perpetuate the myth that
you communicate in one way with learners and in another with adults. Positive interpersonal
skills apply in all human encounters, regardless of the size and age of the person with whom
you are communicating. This represents a very big challenge as we bring to our interactions
a history of relating in certain ways.
Communicating effectively in educational settings will require highly developed

interpersonal skills. Given the many influences on communication, it is essential that you
communicate in ways that reduce the abuse of power and the likelihood of misunderstandings.
The way you speak, listen and respond to people is crucial.
Effective interpersonal
communication
Prior to describing specific skills let us start by defining ‘effective communication’. Effective
communication is that which produces the intended results; that is, the receiver receives the
message the way the sender intended. Given what we know about communication, this is no
easy task! Miscommunications can occur at both ends. Senders may not send the messages
they wish to send. Receivers may not decode the message correctly, which affects the way
they respond. This can be particularly so for learners who have English as an additional
language. Recently, a graduate student from a non-English speaking country was invited to a
postgraduate celebration and asked to bring a ‘plate or a bottle’. I am sure you can understand
her confusion as to what this meant.
Two of the most common causes of breakdown in communication are assuming that
everyone knows what we are talking about and assuming that we know what others are
talking about. A typical example of the former is not explaining clearly what you mean
because you think it is obvious. An example of the latter is interrupting people before they
have finished what they are trying to say. How many instances can you recall where problems
have resulted in your interactions due to these issues? To avoid such breakdowns, effective
communicators need to utilise skills that will maximise the clarity of the message they wish to
send and to listen carefully. Key listening and speaking skills are outlined in the next section
of this chapter.
Effective communicators also possess an attitude of respect and acceptance. This attitude
pertains to themselves and others. In other words, they need to respect and accept themselves
so that they can then respect and accept others. Self-acceptance requires self-awareness. The
more aware you are of your own attitudes, beliefs, values, needs and emotions, the more
you are able to understand the way you view the world and the impact this has on your
interactions with people. As in all things in teaching, knowing yourself and being able to
reflect on what that knowing means for you when communicating with others will ensure
your message is more likely to be understood in the way it is intended. That is why we have
emphasised this point so much throughout the book. Once you understand how and why
you communicate the way you do, you are able to be more in control of the communication
process by monitoring your communication habits and, if and when appropriate, making
changes that lead to greater self-respect and acceptance. Empathy is
the ability to
When you have an accepting attitude and can communicate this to others, you increase comprehend
the likelihood of facilitating growth in that person – an aspiration for any teacher. Having fully the feelings,
experiences and
the ability to fully comprehend the feelings, experiences and perceptions of another is called perceptions of
empathy. This ability is often described as ‘standing in the other’s shoes’, of viewing the world another.
through that person’s eyes. Consider the following journal entry where Laura, a first-year
pre-service teacher, talks about a teacher who had a significant influence on her:
Mr James was my Year 7 teacher. I really liked him. He was a
quiet teacher but he accepted and respected all of us. How did
we know? He listened, really listened. And he always asked how
we were feeling. It didn’t matter how we felt, he would always
respond in a way that made us feel OK. We didn’t have to pretend
to feel better if we didn’t or to feel bad about how we felt
in the first place. He used to say that ‘feelings just are,
you don’t have to apologise for them, they just are’.
Empathic communicators are oriented towards others and are likely to ask questions
about others’ thoughts and feelings. They accept the responses without judgement. The effect
of responding in this way enables the person to feel that they have been understood – not
evaluated, not judged, simply understood from their point of view, not anyone else’s.
Another advantage of having an accepting attitude can be seen particularly in adult–adult
interactions. When you have such an attitude, you are secure enough in yourself to respect
what others say, even if you do not agree with everything they say. This ability is vital, as we
Assertiveness is have seen, in educational settings. Pipas and Jaradat (2010, p. 650) suggest that ‘Assertiveness
communication is the ability to represent to the world who you really are, to express what you feel, when
which upholds the
rights of all the you feel it necessary’. It is the ability to express your feelings and your rights, respecting
people involved. the feelings and rights of others. Those who have mastered assertiveness are able to reduce
interpersonal conflicts in their lives, thus removing a major source of stress for many of us.
Such communication is often referred to as ‘win–win’ or, using the power terminology,
‘power-with’ (Downing, 1995), or more recently the devolution to ‘power to’ (Pansardi, 2012).
With aggressive communication the person stands up for their rights while ignoring the rights
of others and with passive communication the person constantly gives away their rights to
another person. In both aggressive and passive communication there is a win–lose dynamic
occurring in the interaction; these interactions are referred to as ‘power over’. Pansardi makes
the point that ‘power over’ and ‘power to’ are opposite ends of the same dynamic and that
the individual can choose when and where to utilise this. To communicate assertively, with
respect for the other – whether a learner, colleague, parent, caregiver or educational leader –
demonstrates a strong sense of self and of concern for the other.
By learning assertive communication strategies not only will we become more effective
communicators but we will also be able to disrupt societal habits that will have a powerful
effect in changing our culture.
Finally, effective communicators avoid what have been called ‘road-blocks’ to
communication (Gordon, 2003). These include blaming, judging, criticising, preaching,
ordering, labelling, moralising, threatening, being sarcastic, patronising, advising and
contradicting. Such responses are destructive to the development of positive relationships
and are particularly damaging in the classroom. For example, labelling a learner as ‘lazy’ is
easy. What is much harder (and much more professional) is asking ‘why?’ Why is that learner
behaving in a certain way? The negative effects of uncritical labelling should be very apparent.
The use of such ‘road blocks’ are ineffective because they convey unacceptance rather than
acceptance and hence tend to make learners and all with whom you interact feel judged or
guilty and become defensive, and the consequences are damaged relationships.
The next section outlines key interpersonal skills that are essential for effective
communication in educational settings. These skills are also effective in non-educational
settings. Some of these skills will not be new to you – they may confirm what you know
and do already. Others will challenge the way you have communicated up to this point, and
may appear strange and difficult at first. You may have to unlearn some of the ways you
have traditionally communicated. Do not be deterred. As explained earlier, these skills of
assertive communication are not the norm in our society. We have all acquired habits, many
of which fit more closely with the power-over model of communicating. To be an effective
communicator takes much effort and practice. One pre-service teacher, who was introduced
to some of the following communication skills in her on-campus workshops, confirmed this
point when she said, ‘I didn’t realise just how much I would need to practise some of these
interpersonal skills. They don’t come naturally to me at all’.
communication skills
Effective communicators have a large range of communication skills they can use. We have
choices in the way we respond to particular situations. We might respond to a joke made in
poor taste by ignoring it, expressing our concern, asking someone else to talk to the joke
teller, become angry, move away from the individual, use non-verbal responses (eye rolling,
shrugging shoulders, etc.), demanding they apologise and so on. There are many ways we as
individuals can choose to respond.
Consider what action you might take if a colleague tells you an inappropriate joke at the expense of
a learner, parent/caregiver or colleague? What is your likely response? Will it change if the joke teller
is a friend?
An effective communicator, with this choice of responses at their disposal, would be able
to select the one that would have the best chance of success, given the particular situation.
In contrast, poor communicators only have a limited range of responses and are therefore
constrained by the choices available to them.
There is no ideal way to communicate, as you know. The type of communication that
succeeds in one situation may be a failure in another. For example, the language you use with
your peers may be inappropriate with family members. Similarly, the way you communicate
with colleagues will not be the same as the language and style you will use with your director
or principal. This ability to choose the best approach is essential for effective communication.
Your attitudes, your skills and your willingness to practise will determine how effective you are.
Key assertive listening and speaking skills are presented next.
Listening skills
We can all talk. The challenge? Getting people to listen.
McGee, 2016
Listening is a skill that is often taken for granted but underpins the development of positive
relationships. It also underpins a teacher’s ability to effectively facilitate a learning process
that places increasing emphasis on learners’ interpretations and understandings. Effective
educators understand their learners’ families and colleagues. To achieve this understanding,
they listen.
Listening involves much more than just hearing. It involves giving meaning to the sounds
Assertive listening we hear. Effective listening is not automatic. It is a skill that requires effort and practice.
is that which lets the
speaker know not An effective listener can be called an assertive listener, one who lets the speaker know not
only that they have only that they have been heard, but also that they have been understood.
been heard, but also
that they have been Assertive listening, like assertive speaking, is not a well-developed skill in our society.
understood. In fact, many people have formed bad listening habits, such as only listening to part of the
conversation, letting their mind wander, being easily
distracted, making assumptions and preferring to talk
Shutterstock.com/Iakov Filimonov
rather than listen. They have also been conditioned to

participate in conversations in certain ways.
You can make choices about how you listen, just
as you can make choices in regard to how you speak.
Utilising the skills described in the next section will enable
you to challenge and change some of your habitual ways
of listening and, once again, be more in control of the
communication process.
Assertive listening has two components – ‘attending
Assertive listening is an essential communication skill skills’, which are non-verbal skills, and ‘active listening’
skills, which are verbal skills.
Attending skills
Non-verbal cues Key components of assertive listening are the non-verbal cues that indicate attention and
are sometimes interest. These are often called attending skills. They include an open and relaxed body
referred to as ‘body
language’. They posture. Facing the speaker not only with your face but also with your body helps to receive
refer to the body all of the speaker’s non-verbal messages. Looking relaxed rather than anxious helps let the
and tone-of-voice
messages that
speaker know that you have time to listen and that you are interested in what they are saying.
accompany the Friendly facial expressions, including smiling initially, are very powerful. Of course, as you
verbal message. listen to the speaker you need to display active listening skills – such as adjusting your facial
expressions to indicate that you have heard what they are saying and have understood the
implications (this will be discussed later in the chapter). In regard to posture, leaning forward
slightly also helps to convey these messages. It is important to be sensitive to the effects of
physical distance and height to respect people’s preferences for personal space and, most of
all, to make effective use of eye contact. This will vary depending on the circumstances and
cultural or social rules. You need to ascertain what is appropriate.
Having outlined what these skills are, it is important to be aware that they must be genuine
and natural to you as the listener. Rather than a list to follow, it is more effective to consider
this as a reminder to you and to reflect on just how you are perceived as a listener. Ask a
trusted friend or family member to give you honest feedback on your capacity to ‘listen’ and
to ‘hear’ what is said.
Think about times when you felt that the person you were speaking to was not listening.
What were the clues to this conclusion?
Active listening skills

Active listening skills are those that give observable feedback to the speaker. Giving feedback
shows the speaker that you care about what they are saying and helps you clarify your
understanding of a speaker’s message. Feedback can be given in a variety of ways, for example,
saying nothing. Silence, along with attentive non-verbal behaviours such as those mentioned
above, can be very effective in showing a speaker that you are listening and giving your
undivided attention. Similarly, the use of small verbal cues such as ‘uh-huh’ and ‘oh’ indicate
that you are paying attention to what is being said and that you are encouraging the speaker
to continue. Such behaviours are often termed ‘passive listening’ skills. The significance of
these skills cannot be underestimated. We could all think of a time when all we wanted was
someone to be quiet and listen.
Passive listening skills are limited in that there is often very little interaction, and
communication is predominantly one-way. Moreover, the speaker has no way of knowing
whether the listener really understands what has been said. ‘Active listening’ is a term used Active listening
to describe the process whereby the listener becomes involved in trying to understand the skills are those that
demonstrate to a
speaker’s message. Active listening requires more interaction and proof that you, the listener, speaker that you,
have not only heard but also understood accurately. An active listener shares the power in an as the listener, are
really trying to
interaction rather than allowing one person to dominate. understand their
Sims (2017) suggests that for active listening to occur: message.
there is the deliberate involvement through focused participation such that the speaker perceives
and recognises that the listener is being actively involved in listening to them. Second, the
listeners put themselves emotionally and conceptually in the speakers’ shoes. In other words,
they show empathy for the speaker while they are listening.
Sims, 2017, p. 165
The key active listening skills are clarifying, paraphrasing and reflecting.
Clarifying
Clarifying involves asking pertinent questions to establish that the message sent has been
received as intended. The emphasis is on questions that are aimed at understanding what the
sender has said. Walsh and Sattes (2015) see the purpose of questions to be about mastery
(checking on understanding, among other things) or to encourage critical and creative
thinking (extending thinking and personalising meaning). The questions we ask as educators
have a crucial role in developing the positive relationships we talked about earlier. Questions
to be avoided are those that carry hidden agendas, questions that seek ‘correct’ answers or
guess what’s in the teacher’s mind, and questions based on unchecked assumptions.
Consider the following case study.
Case study Th e art of lis ten in g

·1
Bob, a Year 4 educator, is in the middle of a maths lesson. He is explaining the tasks to the
children when he notices that Jack is looking out of the window while he is talking. He angrily
asks, ‘Why aren’t you listening to me?’ Jack replies, ‘Yes I am, you told us to complete the tasks
primary in our books and to ask our neighbour for help if we had any problems’.
What assumptions did Bob make? What suggestions would you make to Bob for responding
to Jack?
Paraphrasing
Another way of checking that the message sent has been received as intended is paraphrasing.
It involves restating in your own words the message you think the speaker has sent. Successful
paraphrasing depends on the listener restating the speakers’ ideas, not parroting them.
Parroting is when you repeat to the person almost exactly what was said to you. For example,
someone might say, ‘This doesn’t seem to be working the way we had planned. People aren’t
mixing’, and you paraphrase this as ‘You’re saying that it’s not working out the way we had
planned because people aren’t mixing’. Such a response can be quite annoying as the listener
has really just used a parrot-like copy of the sender’s words. A better response is a summary
of what you heard the person say. Using this same example, you might say, ‘You’re saying
it’s not working’. Effective paraphrases are usually shorter than the original message as they
convey the essence of what has been said rather than all of the detail.
Learning to paraphrase takes time and effort. It is worth it. As a teacher, you need to listen,
to let people know that you understand them. In the classroom, for example, particularly if
you want to genuinely engage learners in the learning process, you will need to listen to them
and let them know that you have understood their ideas, thoughts and impressions about the
issues or topics you are studying. Paraphrasing not only helps you check your interpretation,
but it also guides you towards sincerely trying to understand your students. Imagine the
positive effect on a learner who is trying to explain a point of view to you and you respond
with, ‘You’re saying that …’ or ‘You think that …’. This can be particularly beneficial for
those learners who are having difficulty expressing what they think and/or are taking a very
long time to make a point.
The same principle applies in your interactions with colleagues and parents. Parents,
who may have a history of being dismissed by educators and made to feel that they are not
important, may feel differently in their interaction with you if you paraphrase what they have
said before asking additional questions or adding your point of view.
There will be many times with learners, parents and colleagues who are having problems
that you will need to paraphrase in a slightly different way. You will need to show that you
have understood not only the sender’s thoughts but also their feelings. This skill is known
as ‘responding’.
Responding
When you paraphrase the feelings that you thought were implied in the person’s message you
are responding to the other’s feelings. Using the earlier example, you might respond with,
‘You’re worried because it’s not going the way we had planned’. It is an advanced skill and
requires practice.
A powerful formula for learning the skill of responding is:
You feel ...
because ...
The first step is to identify a feeling and then to link it to the content of the message.
This can sometimes be quite difficult if the speaker does not indicate emotion; however,
very often there is at least some indication (perhaps non-verbal) of how a person is feeling
and so it is important to tune into any cues to help you. Consider the following example:
A learner says, ‘I’m worried about my project. I don’t know where to start. Everyone is miles
ahead of me’.
The educator, responds by saying; ‘You feel anxious because you’re behind on your project’.
Consider another example:
An educator says, ‘Those kids drive me up the wall. I just don’t know how to deal with their
stupid behaviour’.
One colleague says, ‘You feel annoyed because those kids are driving you crazy’. Another
colleague says, ‘You feel concerned because of how you’re dealing with the kids’.
Both responses are appropriate. There is no one right response. You will know how well
you have responded by the reaction of the speaker. If the speaker feels as though you have
really understood what she or he was saying, they might say, ‘Yes, that’s exactly it. Yes, that’s
how I feel’. If you are not entirely accurate, the sender might say, ‘No, I don’t feel that way,
I feel …’ or ‘Well, it’s more like …’. Complete accuracy is not essential. The important thing
is that the opportunity has been provided for the sender to clarify her or his true feelings.
Responding may seem stilted at first. It requires quite a conscious effort to respond in ways
that pick up others’ feelings. It is worth the effort – it communicates acceptance, increases
interpersonal trust and facilitates problem solving. Once you have utilised the formula to
develop your skills, you will be able to incorporate responding into your conversations in
ways that feel most comfortable for you.
Patience and perseverance are needed in developing effective active listening because
it involves both sender and receiver skills. You are attending to the non-verbal and verbal
messages of the sender and, at the same time, needing to convey supportive and appropriate
non-verbal and verbal messages of your own.
The right attitude
A reminder here that the right attitude is essential for effective active listening.
The most vital ingredients are empathy and genuineness. Remember, you do not have to
agree with another person. As a professional educator, however, you must let people know
that you accept and respect them and wish to understand the thoughts and emotions they are
experiencing. Authenticity is crucial. This will be a particular challenge when we consider the
point raised in Chapter 3 about the diversity of children and adults with whom we work, and
that gender, race and class mediate the learning process.
There are some things to avoid when practising your active listening skills, things that are
similar to the roadblocks to communication mentioned earlier. You need to avoid judging and
evaluating, blaming, moralising, advising, not accepting another’s feelings, inappropriately
talking about yourself, overinterpreting, interrogating, labelling and faking attention. People
will get very defensive if they sense these things in your responses.
Consider the following example:
A learner says to his teacher, ‘Wow, I got it right today. I did it just the way I wanted to’, and
his teacher responds with, ‘You’re pleased because you finally did it correctly’.
What is wrong with this response?
Consider the following parent–educator interaction.
A parent says, ‘I’m hopeless. I feel that I can’t do anything right with Misha’.
The educator responds with, ‘You shouldn’t feel that way’.
What is wrong with this response?
The last example highlights the inappropriateness of advice-giving.
One educator says to another, ‘I’m down to chair the staff meeting next week but I can’t do it.
Anyone else would be better than me’.
The second educator replies, ‘You’re feeling worried about chairing the staff meeting.
Don’t worry, it’s easy. You just ... ‘.
The first teacher gets upset and walks off.
Why do you think the first educator was upset? What might the second educator
have said?
Of course, you will not always utilise the skills of clarifying, paraphrasing and responding.
There will be times when your passive listening skills are best put to use. There will also be
times when other verbal behaviours, such as answering questions and exchanging ideas, which
also demonstrate your attention as a listener, are more
appropriate. How you respond at any one time will be
Getty Images/Maskot
determined by many factors, including the context, your

goal and the other person. For instance, if you are in the
middle of a lesson and concentrating on the ideas being
expressed by the learners, you will respond differently to
a situation where you might be trying to help someone
solve a personal dilemma, where you would be more tuned
in to the feelings being expressed. As you become a more
skilled listener, you will know when and how to respond
most appropriately. Self-monitoring is crucial. You need
to pay close attention to your listening behaviour and
Active listening skills are invaluable for educators
use these observations to shape your future behaviours.
Assertive communicators ask, ‘How am I doing?’ and change their behaviour if the answer is
not as positive as they would like.
Taking time and making the effort to develop your listening skills will be invaluable to
you, not only as a professional educator but also in your personal relationships.
Speaking skills
We have stressed how important educators’ listening skills are. Clearly, so are their
speaking skills. What you say and how you say it are vital in conveying the messages that
you want to get across. Every time you send a message there are two aspects involved:
a verbal and a non-verbal component. Verbal communication refers to the words that
are spoken. Non-verbal communication, as noted in the previous section, is sometimes
called ‘body language’ and refers to the body and tone-of-voice messages that accompany
the words. In any communication there is a constant interplay between non-verbal and
verbal messages.
Non-verbal behaviours
Non-verbal messages are extremely important because they can complement or contradict
verbal messages. Consider the following example:
Person A says: ‘I’m very interested in what you’re saying’ and looks at you attentively.
Person B says: ‘I’m very interested in what you’re saying’ and constantly looks at their watch.
Clearly Person A’s non-verbal message complements the verbal message, whereas with
Person B, conflicting verbal and non-verbal messages are being sent.
As an educator, the non-verbal component of your communication should complement
and reinforce the verbal component. Only in this way can you send out helpful and positive
messages that complement rather than interfere with the verbal component. The non-
verbal component of communication is very powerful. If there is incongruity between
the non-verbal and verbal messages, the non-verbal message is much stronger than the
verbal message and it is the non- verbal message that is believed. For example, the writer
was observing a pre-service secondary teacher in an English classroom and the pre-service
teacher, responding to a question from a learner, made the comment ‘Of course you can
understand this’, while at the same time rolling her eyes, clearly indicating that she didn’t
actually believe this to be true. The learner became quite defensive and angry, and in
discussion after the lesson the pre-service teacher became aware that her body language
did not match her verbal response and that the possibility of a disruption to the class
could have occurred. The importance of non-verbal and verbal messages matching cannot
be overstated.
There are many forms of non-verbal messages. These can be grouped into the following
categories: kinesics (body movements), proxemics (personal space) and paralanguage (voice
volume, tone and pitch). The significance of these in relation to educational settings is discussed
next. An important point, which needs emphasising from the outset, is that non-verbal
behaviours vary from culture to culture. As educators, it is essential that we understand that
there are different cultural connotations and that we do not make the mistake of interpreting
a particular behaviour from one perspective only.
Kinesics includes Kinesics, or body movements, includes such things as posture, gestures and facial
such things as
posture, gestures expressions. Various messages may be conveyed by your body posture. Confident people
and facial often stand tall, less confident people often appear less erect and huddled over. When talking
expressions. to children, it is best to reduce the height differential by crouching down next to them or in
front of them (not over them). When wanting to talk closely with someone it is best to be
at the same head level. Your body posture may also communicate how relaxed or anxious
you are. For example, sitting with your arms and legs tightly crossed may indicate a level of
anxiety, whereas a more relaxed position is with arms uncrossed.
Facial expressions send very clear non-verbal messages. Think about the effect of smiling
compared to frowning, or direct eye contact compared to eyes averted. Eye contact is one
of the most expressive means of non-verbal communication a teacher has. Establishing and
maintaining eye contact with others is a significant speaking and listening skill. It is a way
of establishing personal contact with others and communicates personalised attention. In
the classroom, educator–learner eye contact can help in classroom management, individual
motivation and the prevention of disciplinary problems. The more familiar an educator
becomes with eye use and the subsequent implications, the more effective the educator is
likely to be in the classroom and beyond.
Gestures are another way that people communicate with one another. A problem with
analysing the meaning of gestures (and facial expressions) is the speed and subtlety with
which they are expressed and the fact that they often act unconsciously for everyone
concerned. Another problem that has been stressed in this section is that, like any non-verbal
behaviour, some particular movements are culture-specific. Thus, there is a tendency for
misunderstandings to occur in the absence of background information. If you are unsure as
to what is necessary when communicating with those from a different culture to your own,
check with your colleagues or centre/school leaders as to what is appropriate. However, being
respectful, aware and empathic will go a long way to assist you with your communication
dilemmas.
Finally, associated with kinesics is clothing and grooming. You send messages by the way
you dress and by your personal grooming. This is a more provocative area. You have no
doubt heard the argument, ‘How I dress shouldn’t matter’, but the reality is that people
gain impressions from clothes and grooming. Knowing this, you can make choices about the
impression you want to give. If there are dress codes for staff in your early learning centre
or school, you need to be aware of this. You also need to be aware that the way you dress
can create social distance from others – you need to satisfy the dress code but not alienate
learners and their families in the process. Finally, you need to understand that, while you are
able to make choices in regard to clothing and grooming, some children and their families do
not have this privilege. You must avoid making assumptions about them based on how they
are dressed.
Proxemics refers Another category of non-verbal behaviour is proxemics or personal space. The degree of
to the degree of personal space, or zone, varies according to the nature of the relationship.
physical distance
between ourselves There is an intimate zone, reserved for family and close friends; a personal zone, which is
and others with appropriate for social gatherings; a social zone, for people not known well; and a public zone,
which we feel
comfortable. for addressing public gatherings. Generally, approaching someone indicates liking them,
unless there are other cues that are intended to be menacing; maintaining a distance may
mean dislike, respect or fear.
What is your requirement for personal space? How do you know? What do you do if someone
invades your personal space?
The implications for the classroom are clear. For many young learners being physically
close to the teacher is very important, while for older primary and for secondary learners,
educators need to have an awareness of what is acceptable. Educators need to be sensitive to
the fact that we grow uneasy if another person steps into our personal space and we all differ
in the amount of space with which we feel comfortable. This sensitivity could be particularly
applied at parent acquaintance nights or interviews where you would be trying to do
everything you could to help parents feel at ease. Rapport would not be quickly established
if the first thing you did was to rush up to someone who was looking a little tentative and
invade their space.
In educational settings, the arrangement of tables and chairs is an important realisation
of the proxemic code. As noted in Chapter 5, seating arrangements have an impact on
interaction patterns in the classroom. This is also the case in staffrooms and offices. The way
staffrooms are set up gives clear messages about the nature of the communication that is
encouraged; similarly for the director or the principal’s office, reception areas, other offices
and meeting rooms. The position of the furniture says something about the personality and
communication style of the occupant(s) of the particular space.
Consider the following example.
Principal A has her office set up with the desk occupying a large part of the space and a chair
on each side of it.
Principal B has her office set up with the desk in a corner, and a coffee table and some chairs
in another part of the room.
Which office would you prefer when meeting with your principal? Why?
Another illustration can be seen in comparing reception areas: those that are welcoming
to parents and other visitors will convey this message in the way they are set up, in the signs
and other material on the walls, the furniture and in how visitors are greeted; those that are
unwelcoming will convey that message.
Paralanguage
Another important area that needs to be addressed in terms of non-verbal communication is
that of voice volume, tone and pitch, or more technically, paralanguage. Educators need to Paralangauge refers
be aware of the fact that often the true meaning of a message lies in the way it is said, rather to voice volume,
tone and pitch.
than what is said, and that people’s impressions of their credibility, warmth and competence
are influenced by their vocal cues. In the classroom, such cues contribute greatly to the social
environment. They can create an environment that is warm and supportive or one that is harsh
and threatening to learners. Vocal cues are important, particularly as your voice is your basic
teaching tool: it orders, coaxes, praises, whines or drones, regardless of the words that are spoken.
From this vocal information, learners can infer a great deal about their educator’s attitudes
towards them, the subject matter that is being taught and about themselves as individuals. If
educators are not conscious of these cues, they may communicate messages they do not intend.
Alamy Stock Photo/VIEW Pictures Ltd
Reception areas also

communicate non-verbal
messages
How conscious of your voice messages are you? Use the following list to do a quick check.
• Volume – Would you describe your voice as loud or soft?
• Articulation – How clearly do you enunciate your words?
• Pitch – Is your voice high or low in tone?
• Emphasis – Is your voice interesting? Do you emphasise certain phrases, words or syllables?
• Use of pauses and silences – How often do you allow a silence or pause in your speaking?
Nelson-Jones, 2006, p. 22
Were you able to answer these questions? What do you need to know about your voice?
What changes would you like to make?
It should not be taken from this list that educators should all speak in a certain way.
However, as an effective communicator, you need to vary the volume, pitch and inflection
of your voice. Interest is difficult to maintain when you speak in a monotone (think of
those boring lectures we have all sat through). Similarly, much effect can be achieved by
the use of pauses and silences.
All of the non-verbal messages combine to give people various impressions. What
impressions do you give by your non-verbal behaviour? Do you present yourself as friendly
and interested in the lives of others or are you distant and bored? One shows genuine regard
for another person by giving them close attention, smiling encouragement and considering
their physical comfort. You need to be aware of the non-verbal messages you are sending out.
You may be oblivious to particular mannerisms you have or there may be incongruencies
between your non-verbal and verbal messages. Gaining feedback from others on your non-
verbal behaviour is a useful way of learning more about your communication style and the
messages you send. If you continue with behaviours of which you are unaware, you may feel
frustrated because you are so often misinterpreted and misunderstood, which may result in a
difficulty to establish productive relationships. Consider the following case studies.
Walking th e talk Case study

·
Adele, a preschool educator, has taught for seven years and espouses the importance of positive
teacher–parent relationships. She talks about educators needing to make time for parents as
well as children and she has committed to looking at ways of maximising parent participation.
However, whenever she meets with the parents of the children, it is a different story. She displays e a r ly
childhood
a brusque manner, grim facial expressions and movements that indicate impatience.
Adele’s body language and facial expressions are communicating a different message to her espoused
beliefs. Which will be more persuasive to parents? What behaviours would indicate to the parents
that they are welcomed and appreciated?
Sport for a ll? Case study

·
Jamie is a secondary pre-service educator in the HPE learning area. He is constantly telling his
peers and learners that everyone can be involved in sport and that participation opportunities,
rather than ability, are of utmost importance. However, his focus in lessons and activities is
around those learners who stand out as capable learners and he tends to ignore those with other secon dary
skills and abilities.
1 What is Jamie communicating through his actions?
2 How do you think the learners perceive Jamie’s messages about sport?
3 How can he address this?
Thinking about speaking

There are a number of skills involved in being an effective communicator that will enhance
the interpersonal interactions you have with families and in the wider school community.
What skills and capacities do you think you will need to interact with learners, colleagues and
the broader education community? Make a list and then compare with a colleague or your peers.
What have you missed or included that others have not?
Did your list include such things as thinking about what you want to say, choosing how
and when to say it, speaking clearly and simply, making sure the verbal and non-verbal
messages match, asking appropriate questions and checking in to see that the message you
are trying to make clear is being understood? Of course, you may have included other skills
and capacities. Practice on your professional experiences will assist you in your capacity to
communicate with your learners and colleagues.
Think about the following case studies. What might Michael have done in both these
situations?
Case study Tim in g

·
Michael, a second-year pre-service teacher, took the last lesson of the day with his class of
26 Year 1 students. It was his favourite learning area, PE, and he had spent a lot of time preparing
for the lesson. He was pleased with how it went, particularly as it was his first lesson in an
primary outdoor setting. But he was anxious to hear what his mentor teacher thought of the lesson.
He knew that his mentor teacher was rushing off to a meeting after school and she looked quite
harried, but Michael still asked her to give him feedback straight away.
What advice would you give Michael? Why?
Case study Talk in g w it h p are n ts

·
On another day Michael has a parent who wants to talk to him when the bell goes at the
beginning of the day. He needs to take the class inside and attend to the morning routines
before he teaches the first lesson. He feels stressed because he has been told to talk to parents
primary secon dary while doing his placement but he knows too that he has a duty of care to the children.
e a r ly How should Michael handle this request from a parent?
childhood
Some of the speaking skills are particularly pertinent to instruction-type situations,

whether it be with the learners in your class, a curriculum information session with parents
or a training and development session with colleagues. In these instances you need to strive
for clarity in your spoken word. The following suggestions based on those made by Nelson-
Jones (2006, pp. 74–79) may be helpful.
• Be clear about your content and match it to the level of your listeners.
• Have an outcome or goals for what it is you want to achieve.
• Develop a clear outline of what it is you intend to do.
• Use straight forward language and avoid ‘edu speak’, meaning avoid jargon.
• Be brief and avoid long sessions. Don’t lecture to your learners or to their families.
• Use aids to support your work, such as charts, YouTube, whiteboard, pictures, sources
from the internet, guest speakers and any other aids, to make your point clearer and so
that your message is understood.
• Use your body and your voice to enhance the presentation or lesson. Be interesting and
show your passion.
• Allow your listeners opportunities to interact. You don’t know it all.
In addition to the previous list, part of the communication skills and capacities that you
will develop as a pre-service and in-service teacher will be the use of questioning in your
daily work.
Questioning
Questioning is a skill that engages people in verbal interactions. It too can be used most
effectively in early childhood and classroom contexts to facilitate learning; principles of
effective questioning can be found in most educational psychology texts. In this chapter we
are concerned with questioning as it relates to interpersonal communication.
You may already know the difference between open and closed questions. A closed
question is one that requires an answer of only one or two words, whereas an open question
is one that requires or allows for a much fuller response. Closed questions tend to inhibit
conversation, while open questions tend to encourage it. For example, asking a young person
‘Do you like reading?’ would usually lead to a yes or no answer. A fuller response would
usually be obtained by asking ‘What do you like about reading? What do you dislike about
reading?’ Similarly, you would increase your chances of a deeper conversation with a peer
during your professional experiences by asking ‘How are you getting on with your teacher?’
rather than ‘Are you getting on with your teacher?’
Another way of viewing open and closed questions is to see open questions as those that
allow the speaker to talk about whatever feelings or thoughts they choose to, and closed
questions as those that direct the speaker towards what the receiver wants to hear about.
Open questions allow listeners to focus on themselves and are used frequently to assist
the other person to solve his or her own problems. Examples of open questions include
‘How do you feel about that?’, ‘Tell me more’ and ‘What are you going to do?’ Using your
understanding of open and closed questions will be important in developing the kind of
relationships you want to establish with all school personnel.
Sometimes, of course, closed questions are appropriate, such as when you want access
to particular information: ‘What time does the recess bell go?’ Open questions are more
pertinent to situations where a more substantive interaction is appropriate, such as getting

to know people, initiating contact or developing relationships. Open questions are also more
effective in engaging people more genuinely in the learning process. Asking ‘What do you
think about that?’, ‘Tell me more’ and ‘How will you know?’ provides opportunities for
learners to explain what they are thinking or doing rather than trying to guess what’s in the
teacher’s head and following the teacher’s thinking about an issue.
A frequent problem encountered in the classroom by beginning educators is framing
particular statements as closed questions, for example, ‘Would you like to come and sit on
the carpet?’ or ‘Would you keep the noise down?’ Many new educators ask such questions
in an attempt to be polite or to appear less demanding. However, such questions should be
avoided as they are not really questions: they are disguised requests. You only need one child
to answer ‘no’ and you have a potential conflict situation on your hands. It is much better to
state exactly what you mean: ‘Come and sit on the carpet please’ and ‘I’d like you to keep the
noise down’. You need to be clear about what you want and be assertive about it.
Being assertive
As mentioned earlier in this chapter, being assertive in your dealings with others is a skill
to develop. We have talked about assertive listening and speaking and now we look at how
we deal with the behaviour of others in a way that makes clear to the listener that you are
speaking for yourself and not telling others how they should feel (Pipas and Jaradat, 2010).
Pipas and Jaradat suggest the following simple steps towards assertive behaviour:
1 When you approach a learner or adult about a behaviour change that you want to see in
that person, make sure you talk about the facts and do not label or use value judgements.
For example, if a learner is regularly late in the morning to class, rather than saying
something like ‘sleeping in again’, you might say ‘when you are late for class I’m worried
that you will miss important information’.
2 The same thing is true when describing the effects of the behaviour. Do not exaggerate and
do not judge, just describe! Do not say ‘You’ve wrecked the whole lesson’, but instead say
something like, ‘I will be unable to go over the material you’ve missed because we have
another task to complete’.
3 Use ‘I’, rather than focus on ‘you’. So rather than ‘You should arrive on time in the
morning’, you might try something like ‘I worry when you are late and feel disappointed
because I want everyone in the class to understand what we are doing’. (Based on Pipas
and Jaradat, 2010, p. 653)
These are known as ‘I’ messages and have a place in assertive communication.
‘I’ messages can be very effective for confronting other people’s behaviour. As an
educator, there will be many occasions when you will have to do this, whether when
pointing out patterns of behaviour of which people may be unaware, such as discrepancies
between their verbal and non-verbal messages, or letting them know that their behaviour is
unacceptable to you. The skill is to do it in such a way as to maintain the relationship without
causing a defensive reaction in the other person. To do this, you must focus on the behaviour
rather than the person. There is a very powerful formula for learning to do this which is:
I feel ... because ... when you ...
An ‘I’ message contains a description of how you are feeling, a non-evaluative description
of the behaviour that causes you to feel this way and the tangible effect of this continued
behaviour on you.
Consider the following example:
Educator A: ‘I feel annoyed when you come in late after recess because I want to start
the lesson’.
Educator B: ‘You make me angry when you’re late in after recess’.
What are the differences between the two messages? Put yourself in the place of the learner
and consider which message is more effective.
‘I’ messages can also be used most effectively when commenting positively on behaviours;
for example, ‘I feel pleased when you complete your work on time because I can see you’re
taking responsibility for your learning’. Giving feedback – whether it be positive or negative –
requires the sender to be specific so that the receiver is provided with information on which
they can choose to act. You need to avoid general comments such as ‘you were great’. This
does not give the receiver enough detail to be a useful source of learning. Saying ‘I liked
the way you encouraged Tracey with her batting’ is more useful and it increases the chance
of the behaviour being repeated.
Learning to send ‘I’ messages effectively will require a conscious effort on your part.
It may not be easy initially, for two reasons. First, using ‘I’ statements will probably involve
breaking some communication habits you have acquired, such as interpreting other people’s
behaviour and labelling it, avoiding confrontations and blaming others for how you feel,
think and behave. For example, saying ‘I feel … because …’ is much harder than ‘You make
me feel …’. We are much more used to hearing the latter as it is easier not to take responsibility
for how we feel and to blame others.
The second reason that learning to send ‘I’ messages may be quite challenging is that they
do not just roll off the tongue. They need to be composed and, as such, may feel stilted and
even a little false at first. However, you need to understand that it is the specific skills of
being able to articulate your feelings, describe behaviour non-judgementally and explain the
effects of the behaviour on you that are important. Once you have learnt the skills you will
rely less on the formula and send the message in ways you feel most comfortable with. It is
not intended that you utilise a set prescription forever, rather, that you incorporate assertive
speaking skills into your communication behaviour. Like learning any other skill, whether it
be a sport or a musical instrument, it requires practice.
How comfortable are you with ‘I’ messages? Think of a situation involving another person that
annoys or confronts you and compose an ‘I’ statement that you may (or may not) use. Now think of
an ‘I’ message you could give to someone close to you when you are wanting to comment positively
on something they have done.
Practise using ‘I’ messages and open questioning whenever you can.
Effective conflict-management
skills
A chapter on interpersonal communication in educational settings would not be complete
without addressing conflict-management strategies. As noted earlier, there will always be
interpersonal issues in schools, whether they are between students and students, educators
and students, educators and educators, parents and educators and so on. You need to know
how to deal with conflict in an assertive rather than an aggressive or passive way. Consider
the following case study.
Case study Re s p ec t f u l c o m m u n ica t ion

·
Jack, a third year pre-service teacher, spent a long time preparing a science lesson for his Year 8
class. He had just finished introducing the lesson and the students had started their explorations
when Jessie calls out, ‘This lesson is crap. It’s boring and I’ve done it before anyway. I’m not
primary secon dary doing it’. And over in the corner Mary and Teresa are arguing over something on their mobile
phones. Both are getting louder and louder, and beginning to push and shove each other.
What does Jack do in this situation?
Getty Images/DGLimages
Effective conflict
management involves
active listening skills
To cope with conflicts effectively, you will need to combine the speaking and listening
skills already covered in this chapter; that is, you will need to use active listening and, when
speaking, make direct statements that say what you mean and how you feel. You will need
to avoid an aggressive communication style, which uses ‘you’ statements that blame or label,
put-down words, accusations and loaded words. You need also to avoid a passive style, which
uses apologetic words, displays a loss for words, a failure to say what you really mean and an
inability to express your feelings. Only by using active listening will you be able to engage
in a meaningful interaction, in which all participants feel that they are valued and that their
needs are met.
To manage conflict effectively, you will need to use your interpersonal skills in the order of
listening first and then asserting your needs or position. This approach can best be illustrated
in a confrontation-type situation. Let us take an example of an angry parent as illustrated in
the following case study.
Res pondin g w it h c a re Case study

·
Ilsa teaches a class of 30 in Year 3 in a large metropolitan primary school. She has been at the
school for five years and is in her ninth year of teaching. The bell rings to indicate the end
of the day and once the children have gone, she starts to set things up for the next day. One of
her learner’s parents bursts into the classroom, angrily saying, ‘This school is doing nothing for primary
my child’.
What is the parent communicating in this instance? How should Ilsa respond?
First, Ilsa would probably want to ask the parent whether they want to talk to her or the
principal. Remember, an advantage of working in a school is that you are not alone – there
are always other people around to assist. Next, Ilsa would need to make some decisions
regarding the time and place. Does she have time at that point to deal with it? Is the parent
in a suitable frame of mind to talk now or would it be better to make another time? Is the
classroom the most appropriate place to continue the conversation?
If the conversation was to continue there and then, Ilsa would need to listen to the parent’s
point of view, using active listening, open questioning, paraphrasing and/or responding. In
this particular situation she might say to the parent, ‘Tell me more about what you think.
I’m listening’. In this way, she is drawing out the person and acquiring more information.
She could also use a paraphrase such as, ‘You’re feeling upset about this school’. She would
continue to listen to the parent, using open questioning and paraphrasing until she sensed
that they have said what they wanted to say and have calmed down somewhat. She will
need to read their non-verbal behaviour carefully to see if they have changed their tone of
voice or general demeanour or if there are other cues to let her know that they are feeling
understood.
The next step for Ilsa is to use an ‘I’ message to state her position clearly. The problem
may have been to do with Ilsa and her class in which case she might say, ‘I feel concerned
that this has occurred in my class and will look into it right away’ or, if the problem was to
do with the wider school, she might suggest that the parent makes an appointment to see
the principal.
There may be other solutions. Negotiating solutions, using collaborative problem-
solving strategies, is very effective. This approach requires everyone involved to generate
all the possible ways of solving the problem, examine the consequences of each solution,
determine the best solution and plan the steps necessary to carry out the solution. Once
the solution has been tried, it is important to evaluate whether it has been satisfactory to
all parties. Follow-up is vital to ongoing relationships. In this example, Ilsa might ring
the parent a week later to confirm that the problem has been rectified or is on the way to
being rectified.
Another conflict situation might be where you and a colleague have a difference of opinion.
As mentioned earlier, this is quite appropriate, as long as it is dealt with effectively. Here
again, you would utilise appropriate listening and speaking skills, in that order; for example,
you are in the staffroom espousing the benefits of using group work in your classroom and a
colleague openly disagrees.
What would you do in this circumstance? Go back and re-read the previous section and
then follow the suggestions. What kind of ‘I’ message would you use with your colleague?
Is it possible for both of you to leave the staff room without feeling ‘put down’?
We all know of situations where educators use the power of their position to ‘win’ in
classroom interactions between teachers and learners (power over). Effective classroom
management strategies, which do not rely on such a power base, are discussed in Chapter 10.
Here again though, underpinning successful classroom management will be the utilisation of
the skills discussed in this chapter. As Fried (2001, p. 136) highlighted:
The opposite of command and control is a genuine learning partnership, one that requires
of students and educators a level of shared responsiveness that goes against the traditional
hierarchy of school.
Conflict situations also occur between learners, as seen in Case study 6.6. Traditionally
in these conflicts, educators have often placed themselves in the position of judge where
they decide how such a conflict will be resolved, even though they may not have witnessed
the conflict or have all the information necessary to make a fair decision. A more effective
way to manage student–student conflicts is to teach your students conflict-management
skills so that they are able to deal with the conflicts they experience themselves (power to).
In Chapter 10 further information about managing the classroom and dealing with conflicts
will be outlined.
Restorative Justice
Restorative Justice An initiative in many Australian educational contexts is the application of Restorative Justice
is a practice which principles and practices (Hardy & Alexander, 2012; Priyanka, 2012; Shaw, 2007). These
brings together
the victims and principles and practices were first developed in the context of the criminal justice system and
perpetrators of have been adapted for schools to manage interpersonal conflict. Using a conference approach,
conflict in order
to find an agreed the Restorative Justice practices focus on enabling students to problem solve and repair
solution.
damaged relationships. It requires a shift from an authoritarian/punitive way of dealing with

inappropriate behaviour to the authoritative/relational. Teaching learners to manage their
differences is very powerful.
Hardy and Alexander (2012) developed a coaching tool for helping adults with conflict
resolution. They developed the ‘5 Cs’:
The 5 Cs are:
1 clarity – understanding the situation
2 comprehension – becoming aware of their own, and the other person’s needs and goals
3 confidence – being confident about managing conflict and achieving personal goals
4 choices – being able to identify and evaluate choices for moving forward
5 competence – being willing to develop the skills necessary to manage conflict.
2012, para 4.
Based on this model, Priyanka (2012) argued that learners of all ages are also capable
of learning the skills necessary to help resolve conflict. She suggests that this is not a rigid
list of requirements but rather guidelines to develop the necessary environment for effective
conflict resolution. Just like adults, children will require practice to develop new ways to
communicate. Given the power dynamics that often occur between students, they will also
often require support in the process. Some quieter learners might need help, particularly if
the learner of whom they are making a request is being aggressive. Being a coach and assisting
learners to solve their own problems, however, is very different to being a judge and solving
their problems for them.
1 How might you adapt Restorative Justice principles to work in your early childhood centres?
2 What will you do in your primary or secondary classrooms?
Having said that, we must always be mindful that communication is itself an exercise
in power and status relations. There are many subtle and not-so-subtle ways in which
power and status are expressed through verbal and non-verbal communication. The way
we stand or sit, the expression on our face, the tone and vocabulary we adopt, even how we
use pauses and silences all signify our relations with one another. If we want to interrupt
some of these expressions of power and status, it is first necessary to acknowledge that
they exist.
Conclusion
Effective interpersonal communication is vital in educational settings. Being able to speak
and listen in ways that demonstrate that you value yourself and others is crucial for successful
learning communities.
To listen well, you need to use positive attending skills and active listening skills. Positive
attending skills are non-verbal cues that indicate attention and interest. Active listening
skills are verbal skills that demonstrate to a speaker that you, as the listener, are really trying
to understand their message. Key active listening skills are clarifying, paraphrasing and
responding.
The way an educator interacts is critical. An educator’s speaking skills include non-verbal
cues such as posture, gestures and facial expressions and voice tone and volume, as well as the
physical distance we stand from others when we are talking to them. Effective verbal skills
include speaking clearly as well as asking appropriate questions, being assertive and using ‘I’
instead of ‘you’ when talking to learners about particular behaviours.
This chapter has focused on interpersonal communication; the quality of written
communication in educational environments is also important, including the use of email,
texting, the internet, Snapchat, Instagram, Facebook and the myriad other social media that
is now an integral part of our lives. Communication through written and spoken media
is part of our connection with others and the way we do this is part of our interpersonal
communication. In concluding, we re-emphasise the point made at the beginning of the
chapter: relationships matter.
STUDY TOOLS
Following
1 Educators have certain power in a classroom by virtue of their institutional position. You often hear the
through
terms ‘power over’ and ‘power with’ or ‘power to’ being used to describe differences in how educators
relate to students. What do you think are the differences? How might a ‘power over’ approach be
changed to a ‘power with’ or ‘power to’ approach?
2 Reflect on the following situation: as an early career educator, you receive unfavourable feedback from
a colleague about how you handled an incident while on playground duty. How would you respond?
What particular skills could you use to respond in a positive way? How might you receive feedback on
your listening and responding skills in your everyday communication? How will you incorporate this
feedback in your next professional experience?
3 As an early career educator, what will be your ruling on the use of mobile phones and accessing
Facebook in the classroom? (For learners and for you, the educator?)
4 When next on professional experience, ask a colleague or your mentor teacher to film a 10-minute
teaching episode in which you are actively engaged with a group of learners. When replaying the
footage, turn down the volume and, using the categories of kinesics and proxemics, analyse your
non-verbal behaviour. Then, watch the tape again with the volume turned up and analyse your
paralanguage. What did you learn about your non-verbal behaviour?
http://www.aussieeducator.org.au/teachers/teacherbeginning.html This site provides state by state

Useful
in-service opportunities for beginning educators plus links to other resources.
online
teaching
https://www.brite.edu.au The program contains five online interactive learning modules focused
resources
on Building resilience, Relationships, Wellbeing, Taking initiative and Emotions. Each module is
connected to Australian standards and frameworks for educators.
http://www.crnhq.org This is the Conflict Resolution Network website. It contains a wealth of resources
for effective conflict management, and information about bullying and cyberbullying.
Anstey, M. & Bull, G. 2006, Teaching and Learning Johnson, B., Down, B., Le Cornu, R., Peters, J., Sullian,
References
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7
Teaching, learning and
curriculum in a changing
world
LO P E Z
ISABELL A
While technology is an
important tool for learning
it’s unlikely we’d ever replace
warm-bodied educators with
robots!
161
I t has become a cliché to say that we are experiencing the most rapid change in the history
of the world. For example, did you know that:
• Australia’s population in 2018 (24 950 387) is almost double that of 1970
• 560 million text messages were sent every month on the planet in 2017
• 85 per cent of jobs in 2030 have yet to be invented
• the natural extinction rate is 1 to 5 species a year, but today it is 1000 to 10 000 times this
natural rate.
Brainstorm some of the significant changes that have occurred in the world over the past 50 years.
To what extent are schools keeping up with technological, social and cultural changes?
Consider the following reflections from an educator, who began her teaching career nearly
40 years ago.
I received my teaching appointment by telegram delivered by a
telegram boy on his bicycle because in 1977 it was the fastest
way of getting a message to someone. Now through the internet
someone on the other side of the world uses email to converse
with me or my students almost simultaneously. And faxes are
rapidly becoming a thing of the past.
Printers and photocopiers have revolutionised school
communication with parents and the community. Back then, all our
programming and funding submissions were completed longhand. I
wrote my stencils on carbon-based paper that was then printed
using methylated spirits on the Fordigraph. I even had a
recipe for a jelly pad in case the Fordigraph wasn’t working
and I needed purple jelly and a roller to produce worksheets!
Official notes to parents were first typed and then reproduced
on a Gestetner. Multiple copies necessitated energy in winding
the handle for ages. Now I find it hard to sit down and write
something longhand because I’ve become so used to composing on
the screen. We’ve even got a computer program for writing our
school reports and the principal wants us to use electronic
portfolios for the students next year.
I bought myself an iPad and a laptop computer because my
children are constantly using the computer at home and I was
tired of waiting for my turn. I can’t remember how I coped
without them.
We have an interactive whiteboard in every classroom at school
but the children are more skilled using it than I am. Some
parents email me at all hours and expect an immediate answer even
if it’s the weekend. My students are much better at accessing
things through the web than I am and my daughter says my emails
and text messages are ‘too much like letters Mum’. She recently
CHAPTER 7 Teaching, learning and curriculum in a changing world 163
showed me how to create a website. There’s a whole new language

too – I recently had to find out what ‘Twitter’ was. I’ve resisted
Facebook, though I’ve received invitations from some of my
students to become their ‘friends’. I often have a sense of not
keeping up with them.
Some children in my class already have mobile phones. I’m
surprised but we can use the cameras and recording apps in lots
of ways.
Cyber bullying has become a huge issue for some of our older
students. We’ve had to develop a new section of our anti-bullying
policy and are holding a parent meeting about it tonight.
At the same time though, there are lots of things about schools
that haven’t changed. Class sizes are more or less the same
although K–2 classes are now a little smaller. Staff meetings and
in-services haven’t changed much although there are an increasing
number of professional development courses online.
The school day is still ruled by the bell and structures are
similar except now we have before and after care on the site.
Our school is high-need so we have some additional specialist
teachers and support and although the principal has more control
over the day-to-day running of the school there is still a
centralised bureaucracy. There are never enough resources to do
the things we’d like to do.
So, even though the technology to support my role as a teacher
is more sophisticated than I could ever have imagined back then,
the basic institutional structure and organisation of school and
its routines remain very much the same.
Herein lies a challenge for today’s educators, preschools and schools of the future. We
need to take a long, careful look at the knowledge age in which we are living. The need for
change in educational contexts is critical but because some teaching and learning practices
are so deeply embedded in our experience, it can seem daunting to make the changes needed.
As we explored in Chapter 1, we are living in a world where the traditional stands side
by side with the innovative and revolutionary. Despite our need to move forward, fears
and confusion lead to tendencies to cling to the institutions and understandings that we are
familiar with. Andy Hargreaves (1997) quotes Handy’s claim in The Empty Raincoat that
‘every generation perceives itself as justifiably different from its predecessor but plans as if its
successor generation will be the same as them’.
With globalisation and the burgeoning of information and communication technologies
(ICT) creating significant social, cultural and economic change, this generation of parents
and educators must be imaginative and creative if education is to keep pace with that change
(Collins and Halverson, 2018). This chapter highlights some of the technological and
sociocultural and environmental disruptions caused by the digital revolution, which we must
come to terms with. It then explores the implications for educators and learners.
To begin, it is useful to reflect briefly on the kind of schooling many of us have experienced.
Schooling as we have known it was developed for the industrial age and many would argue
it has changed very little.
Schooling for an industrial age:

school as place
Up until the 1990s the curriculum and structures typically found in schools reflected the
needs of an industrial age (Collins & Halverson, 2018), a society in which it was deemed
desirable for all learners to receive similar instruction to prepare them for the workforce at
varying levels and entry points depending on their abilities and social position. It was seen
that teaching and learning needed to be standardised so that all learners could be guaranteed
to receive the same education. Thus, in the 1950s and 1960s, it was not unusual for all learners
in Grade 3 across one Australian state to be learning about the same explorer at the same
point of the school year. Like a factory, Middleton (1996, p. 1) writes of school as a ‘batching
process’ with the curriculum ‘delivered’ to empty and passive recipients.
Many traditional assumptions and beliefs about education, such as the transmissive nature
of the teaching and learning process, still continue today in some schooling and community
contexts. Indeed, this is encouraged in many ways by successive and recent government
policies such as the National Assessment Program of Literacy and Numeracy (NAPLAN).
NAPLAN is a standardised test that treats all learners the same, measures learners against
a standard (i.e. benchmarks or averages), and compares all learners against each other. The
publishing of the results on the My School website (myschool.edu.au) to compare schools, as
if the learning across contexts is readily comparable, suggests that many still hold simplistic
views of education. In addition, the media regularly leads with headlines about poor teacher
quality and falling literacy and/or numeracy standards in our schools. Together with these
discussions about standards, national and international literacy and numeracy comparisons
are common. There appears to be widespread concern that our children are not receiving
enough of what is often termed ‘the basic skills’ to equip them for life. Recent government
reports demand that entry levels for pre-service educators are lifted because of perceptions
that many are not able to spell or use English grammar adequately and that they should be
tested before they qualify to teach.
Since their inception, educational institutions have traditionally been regarded as physical
places where the learners assemble, are regulated and controlled, submit themselves to
the power and authority of educators, and learn the information and knowledge held by
educators.
One of the reasons learners gather together in a particular place has been because of the
manner in which knowledge has been institutionalised. The knowledge that learners have
been required to study at school has been guarded by the teaching profession who have
undertaken pre-service professional training to enable them to be the gatekeepers. Such a
model of institutionalised learning was reasonably effective while knowledge remained
constant and while the boundaries between different types of knowledge remained clear. But
these two notions have become obsolete.
We are no longer living in an industrial age with society organised around mass production.
Our economy, culture and personal lives are increasingly organised around the development
of the silicon microchip and the technologies this has spawned. For example, in the last
two decades we have seen huge changes in the way we communicate with others, entertain
ourselves, access news and information, work and do everyday activities like paying bills. The
distance of space can be overcome through social media, online messenger services, email and
the relatively low cost and accessibility of computers and wireless technologies. It’s difficult
to keep up with the amount of change in the tech industry: by the time you have made a
decision to purchase a new phone or computer, that piece of equipment is soon or has already
been superseded by another model that can do much more and quicker. Technology will
continue to affect our lives at a rapid rate. This will also bring change to how we spend our
time and conduct our relationships, and how we learn and work.
So, our learners need skills that are quite different if they are to survive in the twenty-
first century. In fact, the three Rs – reading, writing and ’rithmetic – while of fundamental
importance, are no longer adequate in a world that is changing so fast. For some, the ability
to use technology is considered a ‘new basic’ in the lives of children. Our learners will have a
number of different careers during their working years, many of which are still to be created.
It is increasingly acknowledged that learners need to acquire ‘twenty-first century skills’, or
the Four Cs, through their education: critical thinking, communication, collaboration and
creativity (NEA, 2013).
Drawing on p as t e x p e rien ce Case study

·1
Consider the following comments made to educators by parents.
‘When I was at school we got a good grounding in the three Rs. Everyone could read and write.
Nowadays, there’s so much emphasis on other things, children don’t have time to learn to read and
write properly. And so many of them don’t know how to spell or punctuate a sentence correctly! primary
Legible handwriting is a thing of the past!’
‘When I went to the parent–teacher interview and asked to see Susie’s books, they were nearly
empty. I pay good money for those textbooks! The teacher said she didn’t do a lot of bookwork.
Preferred discussion. I don’t think there’s much learning going on in that classroom.’
‘I can’t understand why Jason doesn’t get much homework. Kids need it to develop good discipline
habits ready for high school.’
‘Calculators have created kids who can’t add up or subtract. I can do calculation in my head
faster than any machine can. Look at those kids on the supermarket checkout: they have to depend
on the machine to tell them how much change to give you.’
‘I don’t want to know that Caleb is ‘trying hard’. I want to know how well he is doing in
comparison to the other children in his class.’
‘Even though I know it’s ridiculous to try to compare one school with another, I was still relieved
to see that our school was ranked quite well on the My School website.’
1 To what extent do you agree with the concerns raised by these parents?
2 To what extent do these parents’ views reflect the current needs of learners and citizens?
Educational change and school reform is a complex process which, it can be argued,
anticipates change along three dimensions:
1 the use of materials and resources
2 approaches to teaching and learning
3 teacher beliefs and assumptions about teaching and learning.
There is no clear vision of what the future will be. Schools of the future are even less defined.
Rather, there are myriad possible future scenarios. (See, for example, those developed by the
OECD, 2000.) Nevertheless, it may be worthwhile to project a little about how technological
developments will influence the use of materials and resources, and how sociocultural changes
will impact on teaching and learning approaches and beliefs in the years ahead as well as what
‘basic’ skills our learners will need.
You will need to be able to articulate your views on the use of calculators, textbooks, NAPLAN and
other topical issues. Take one of these issues to research. Do the research findings shape your views
and change your initial thoughts on this issue? How? Why?
Technological changes
The developments in television and radio during the twentieth century altered the way societies
all over the world viewed themselves and others. We frequently talk about living in a global
village, with communication of messages around the world possible almost instantaneously.
The ubiquitous nature of broadcast media means that stark realities, such as wars and violent
conflicts around the world, are conveyed into our lives almost immediately and repeatedly,
enabling everyone to construct their own version of such events and desensitising us to
the event.
1 Why do we rarely hear about particular people or families in some countries?
2 How have television, film, radio and social media facilitated the continuance of mass instruction
and mass culture in very particular ways? Why?
The advent of the internet and the personal computer in the later decades of the twentieth
century led to the children of the Baby Boomers being labelled as the ‘Net Generation’ or
N-generation. This dawning of a completely new interactive medium of communication
has meant that children are ‘spending their formative years in a context and environment
fundamentally different from [that of] their teachers’ (Tapscott, 1998, p. 15). Access to
computers and the internet ensure that such technology is a constant part of their lives from
the moment they are born.
In the book Youth Online (Thomas, 2007), 13-year-old ‘Violetta’ describes what she and
her friend Sarah do after school. While talking on the phone they have three other browser
windows open on their computer as well as their homework; they also chat to their parents
and listen to music. Children and young people are connected not only to technology but
also to others around the world. They are producers as much as consumers of digital content,
including videos, podcasts, live journals, fan fiction, websites, webpages and video games
using online websites and software, such as Youtube, Instagram and Photoshop. Some young
people have earned millions of dollars, and gained celebrity status, by creating online content
that attracts a large fan base (followers). There are now questions being asked about the
amount of time being spent online, how they are spending their time on digital devices and
the effects this is having on children and childhood. The capture of ‘screen time’ data has
become a recent phenomenon and a reminder for establishing balance with screen time and
other activities.
For instance, there are often disquieting discussions about online games aimed at tweens.
For example, ‘My Minx’ is a virtual world where players dress their avatars in burlesque
underwear and submit them to plastic surgery to enhance breasts and puff up lips. ‘My Minx’
has links to other tween games, such as ‘Bratz’ and ‘Scooby Doo’, and has been said to ‘attract
the attention of children as young as seven’. While more mature children can engage in a
critique of the game, younger users can ‘normalise’ its ideals (sexualising women and endorsing
specific body images) as their own (Macdonald, 2010). Computer games can provide young
people with exciting and challenging worlds, developing their problem-solving capabilities,
but they can also take them into places for which they might not be prepared and unable to
protect themselves.
Digital technologies like computers, tablets, the internet and interactive whiteboards are
also making an increasing impact on how learning is happening for children and young people.
Their potential for enabling learners to acquire knowledge and to understand how learning
happens is massive. Just as Gutenberg’s invention of the printing press in the fifteenth century
revolutionised how writing could be circulated and eventually led to demands for mass
literacy, so the personal computer has increasingly influenced the acquisition and transfer of
knowledge.
Already, learners (and educators) with access to and knowledge of the internet can quickly
access new and up-to-date information about a particular subject area or log on to read a
blog about a colleague’s experience. Educators are no longer the sole ‘expert knower’ in their
classrooms. Given the adaptability of the young, many learners are often far more confident
than their educators in using new technologies. Finding the balance between educator expertise
with curriculum and learner confidence with technology is critical when incorporating new
technologies into learning contexts. Traditional pedagogies and curriculum still dominate
school contexts but this needs to change. New technologies enable learning through playful
explorations involving investigating, reflecting, knowledge building and communicating
ideas not possible in previous eras (Yelland & Gilbert, 2018). Many educators may need to
learn how to use technologies from or alongside learners if they are to develop an effective
digital pedagogy. This challenges the traditional concept of the teacher as the transmitter of
knowledge or important information. Educators need to partner with their learners and the
available resources.
At the same time, equal access to new technologies is by no means guaranteed. The provision
of computers for every student is already the norm in some schools, while other schools are
struggling to find the money to provide state-of-the-art resources in every classroom. The
resource implications of these new technologies has created a ‘digital divide’ in societies. This
is a divide between those with the resources and ability to acquire and proficiently use digital
technologies, and those without, which can be influenced by gender, poverty and geography
(Ragnedda & Muchert, 2013). The Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS, 2018) reports that, in
2016–2017, 86 per cent of Australian households were connected to the internet, with specific
social groups less likely to have access often because of cost. Digital inequality is particularly
marked for the unemployed, low income households, people over the age of 65 and people
living in regional and remote areas (Thomas et al., 2017). This also means many but not all
young people in this generation can be called ‘digital natives’ (Bennett, Maton & Kervin,
2008).
Access to and use of digital technologies is not consistent across Australia. What might be some
implications of this for teaching and learning in the early years, primary school and secondary school
contexts?
Social, cultural and environmental

changes
More sophisticated technologies and automated machines have made much semiskilled work
obsolete and many types of work have all but disappeared. Full-time employment of young
people has decreased although, at the same time, part-time or casual employment has risen.
As the sophistication of our technology burgeons, less and less of the population will be
involved in full-time employment for the whole of their adult lives, while others’ work will
intensify. Certainly, the distinction between working at an office and leisure at home has
already become very blurred as we are encouraged to view work as a means to our personal
satisfaction, fulfilment and achievement. Technological developments are making it possible
for many learners to undertake learning from their home, with increased opportunities for
e-learning and virtual schools becoming more popular.
The environment too is changing. The economic and technological developments have
made an impact on the world’s ecology. In the worst cases, environmental vandalism by large
profit-seeking corporations (and with government inaction) has resulted in environmental
catastrophes that have adversely affected plants, animals and humans (Philips, 2018). As well,
the vast majority of climate scientists point to the contribution carbon dioxide produced by
human activity is changing the climate of the planet, and the effects on our ecology. As the
earth warms, seas warm, weather becomes more extreme, the seas rise, disasters increase and
our sources of food and water become more precarious. The rates of extinction far outpace
the natural rate of extinction expected. As the environment becomes more unstable and our
natural resources become depleted, human conflict and migration is predicted to increase.
Associated with such changes are others that challenge the existing model of school as
place. Shifting demographics mean that some schools that have expanding enrolments are
often unable to increase their physical resources, while shrinking numbers in other areas lead
to unoccupied buildings. The creation of competitive schooling markets has led to increased
school populations in independent, specialist or selective schools at the expense of other less
affluent schools. Reduced funding for public education and the projected global shortage of
educators has meant that e-learning possibilities have become very attractive to governments e-learning refers to
and to multinational companies that have a strong commercial interest in schooling and internet-enabled
and technology-
education. distributed
In light of these developments and their current and future challenges, citizens require the education and
training.
capabilities to make a positive difference to the endangered world that they are a part of, perhaps
through creative and critical thinking, problem solving and the ability to argue and persuade.
Do you think online teaching and learning will replace real, live, warm-bodied educators? Why?
Why not?
The future of formal education

While early childhood centres and primary schools will probably always have a custodial
function, educators’ roles in any learning context are now much more about knowing how
rather than knowing about. Until now, schools have been knowledge institutions that have
been built around educators who are ‘experts’ in particular areas or disciplines and have well-
developed understandings of strategies for facilitating the acquisition of this knowledge. The
huge explosion in the development of knowledge has made it impossible and even undesirable
for educators to try to keep up with the rate of change, however well intentioned they are
(Ewing, 2013). It has been estimated, for example, that for educators of computer studies
it takes less than three weeks after graduation for their knowledge in this area to become
outdated.
If the provision of expert knowledge is not the main purpose of teaching, preschools and
schools may develop as centres to facilitate site- and community-based learning, operating
flexibly around the needs of learners. This is one vision of the future of formal education.
Other professionals and para-professionals may be seconded, where appropriate, to provide
their expertise. E-learning is one aspect of this vision of schooling as ‘networks of learning’
(OECD, 2003). One of the major advantages claimed by e-learning is flexibility. The
opportunity to undertake learning at any time is seen as very important. It also increases the
variety of subjects able to be offered to learners. Access to teacher support after school hours
is also seen as an asset. Once again, however, new forms of communication such as email,
social media and online messenger services continue to intensify educators’ work beyond
traditional school hours.
The rate of access to new knowledge and information has huge implications for how the
teaching and learning processes are conceived. It is no longer helpful for today’s children to
fill their heads memorising knowledge that is either useless or fast becoming redundant. Most
of the knowledge today’s five-year-old child will need in the twenty-first century hasn’t been
invented yet. It is really important for today’s learners to develop the ability to access accurate
information when they need it. It is also clear that the internet can be used successfully to
design, deliver, select, administer, support and extend knowledge.
In many respects, formal education is stuck in the past. The incessant standardised testing
of learners, the collection of narrow sets of data, the focus on teaching learners for university
entrance exams and the competition between learners and schools takes preschools and schools
away from genuine student-centred learning. This context encourages educators to treat learners
as passive recipients of information, to engage in transmission forms of learning, where educators
view themselves as merely ‘deliverers’ of the pre-defined curriculum and purveyors of data. In this
context, learners are ‘done to’ rather than involved in the process of their own learning.
Alternatively, the operations and purposes of schools are also changing. The equation
between education and schooling has been broken as learning is seen to occur before and
beyond our ‘schooling years’ and within and outside the formal institutions of learning (e.g.
outside preschools and schools) (Collins and Halverson, 2018). Online learning and needing
to attend to the diverse needs and interests of learners is becoming commonplace. Some
secondary schools are at the leading edge in terms of offering a range of flexible hours and
providing more individualised or customised learning experiences for their learners; see, for
example, Big Picture Education, discussed in Chapter 4. An ‘unschooling movement’ has re-
emerged as people look for alternative ways of understanding and doing learning (Petrovic
& Rolstad, 2017). Educators need to see themselves as much more akin to their learners as
co-learners in the learning process and their first teaching qualification as only one phase in a
lifelong learning process. How well do our preschools and schools currently prepare learners
for their futures in such a rapidly changing world? We have discussed the ongoing need for
learners to foster their imaginations, creativities and abilities to pose and solve problems,
to be respectful of difference and diversity, and to have fine-tuned social and interpersonal
communication skills. Interestingly, these have always been needed. Perhaps some of the
current issues, including the effects of environmental damage caused by human-made climate
change, and political and economic systems that prioritise profit over the sustainability of
geological and ecological systems, may have been avoided had we prioritised them earlier.
We are currently living in a moment where humans and
their technological innovations are contributors to irreversible
changes to our climate systems, the mass extinction of species
iStock.com/vichinterlang
and a great loss of biodiversity that threatens the viability of

many species and human life on the planet. It is also likely to
result in human conflicts around natural resources (e.g. water)
and forced human migration because of rising ocean waters
reclaiming land. Educators need to today, or will be forced to in
the future, address how humans can flourish with other species
on a damaged planet. This is what Donna Haraway (2016)
refers to as ‘staying with the trouble’, which humans will need
Environmental awareness is an important theme
for learners to learn. To what extent can today’s education prepare young
people for this future?
Implications for curriculum

decision making in early
childhood and school contexts
Who controls the learning process in the learning contexts of the twenty-first century? This
section attempts to address this question by exploring three approaches to learning. The three
approaches to curriculum design are:
1 a rational or ends-means approach
2 a process or procedural approach
3 a critical approach.
1 A rational or ends-means approach

A rational or ends-means approach to teaching and learning views learning as a step-by-
step, staged or bottom-up process in which the learner first acquires simple skills and then
progresses to more complex ones. You start by identifying the ends and this directs you to
the means you will use to get there.
An example of curriculum decision making influenced by these beliefs is provided by
a teacher of learners in their first year at school who is convinced that learning to read is a
carefully sequenced and hierarchical recoding process. Children must first learn the letter-
sound approximations before understanding develops.
A s kills -firs t a p p roa ch Case study

·
In Raymond’s classroom, a specific step-by-step commercial phonic program is used daily:
learners must first recognise single sounds and the approximation of these sounds to letters
in the alphabet. Having mastered single sounds and demonstrated the ability to match these
sounds to letters, learners are then introduced to double sounds, etc. Eventually, some whole primary
words can be sounded out using this phonic knowledge. Simple contrived texts containing the
learnt vocabulary enable the learners to practise the words they have acquired. Having achieved
these goals, learners move on to more complex blending. They also move on to books with less
contrived vocabulary. Comprehension is taught after these skills are mastered and in a linear
fashion, starting with simple literal recounting of the surface meanings in a text.
1 What advantages can you see to this kind of approach to helping children learn to read?
2 What problems arise with such a linear approach?
A hierarchical simple-to-complex approach has been described by Smith and Lovat (2003)
as ‘technical’ and an imposition from the outside. Teaching will begin with the planning
of objectives. The next stage will be the selection and organisation of relevant learning
experiences. Finally, the process will be evaluated to determine whether the objectives have
been achieved and the outcomes attained. This structure has been perceived as an ends-means
approach because of its emphasis on the formulation of pre-specified outcomes stated as
aims and objectives. Tyler (1949, p. 3) described objectives as ‘consciously willed goals’. It is
the recipe-like sequencing of planning decisions that has been seen to be the strength of this
approach by its advocates.
Providing a formula, a how-to recipe may actually result in conveying a false sense of
certainty about the learning process. Such approaches to pedagogy stress the importance of
learning content or acquiring information because the attainment of knowledge is seen as the
centrepiece of a person’s education. The transmission and acquisition of knowledge, deemed
appropriate or relevant for the learner’s age or stage of development, is paramount in this
approach. Linked to a rational ends-means approach is the separation of knowledge into
three domains – cognitive, affective and psychomotor – along with a hierarchy of knowledge,
beginning at simple and moving to the more complex (Bloom, 1956, revised by Anderson and
Krathwohl in 2001). According to this theory, children are, over time, inducted into the more
complex forms of intellectual activity.
While a rational ends-means approach to curriculum may be useful in planning certain
curriculum activities, using such a linear framework denies contextual factors and makes
very generic assumptions about the nature of knowledge and learning. Educators using this
approach to curriculum development have been characterised as being ‘depressingly anxious
to “protect” the young or limited (in ability) from access to challenging ideas’ (Stenhouse,
1977, p. 29). Grundy (1994) has argued that this approach actually conceptualises learners
as deficient and needing to be prepared for life through acquiring appropriate knowledge or
content.
In addition, educators do not always start with a set of aims and objectives (Borko &
Shavelson, 1990). Curriculum planning is not always the rational, sequential process
portrayed in these approaches, nor do educators separate content from learning processes.
Much planning occurs spontaneously, building on learner knowledge and experience, and
occurring during teaching as well as prior to its implementation. At the same time, it can
certainly be argued that sometimes teacher planning is too ad hoc. The next section discusses
a different approach to curriculum planning.
2 A process or procedural approach

Other theorists have highlighted the need to view the learning process itself as both significant
to and inseparable from, or integrated with, the attainment of knowledge and outcomes. The
procedural or process approach to curriculum decision making explores the notion of how
learning will take place. Consider the following case study.
A proces s ap p roa ch Case study

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Fenna believes that her learners will learn to read by reading. Her practice is to immerse
her learners in meaningful print and introduce a range of words, sounds and letters as the
learners encounter them in shared reading experiences. The classroom is rich with captions
and sentences representing the learners’ own language. Reading and writing activities are based primary
on all kinds of texts, including digital ones. Fenna tries to ensure they relate meaningfully
to the children’s lives and cultural backgrounds. She encourages her learners to have a go at
reading using the meaning and picture cues as well as the letter-sound and grammatical cues.
Discussion about the different meanings of the texts happens simultaneously with learning
about print conventions.
Think about the positive impact of this kind of approach to learning to read? What drawbacks do you
foresee?
Those who have adopted this view of curriculum have incorporated a more tentative
perspective about content, viewing knowledge as sensitive to change and development over
time rather than as a constant body of information.
This approach foregrounds the experiences of the learner and envisages the process of
education as being continuous and lifelong. Emphasis is also placed on particular aspects
of learning, such as problem solving, risk taking and discovery. These resonate with the
Melbourne Declaration (MYCEETA 2008) discussed earlier. The elements of Productive
Pedagogies (Education Queensland, 2001) and the New South Wales Quality Teaching
Framework (NSWDET, 2003) discussed in Chapter 4 assert that knowledge should be regarded
as provisional and the acquisition of knowledge motivated by the desire to understand the
world and give it meaning.
Discovery or inquiry-based learning also sees the educator as a co-learner involved in
the learning process alongside the learner rather than constantly as the expert ‘knower’
(Duckworth, 1987) – an idea also aligned with the Reggio Emilia philosophy (Giamminuti,
2017).
The procedural approach has been criticised as a weak, laissez-faire or directionless
approach to the learning process with insufficient attention paid to the required knowledge
necessary for the learner to acquire at a particular age or stage.
The rational ends-means and process approaches to curriculum design have shaped
the way teaching and learning experiences are constructed. For those taking a rational
or ends-means approach, the construction of teaching and learning experiences is often
conceived of as a transactional process with the expert knower, the educator, transmitting
appropriate knowledge to a more passive learner. The work of teaching is fractured into
separate moments. On the other hand, with the process or procedural approach, with its
emphasis on the learner’s agency and self-regulation of what they learn, the educator is but
one of the influences that affect a learner. They take on an interactive role and the content is
negotiated between educator and learner. It is misleading to polarise the two, as many centres
and classrooms incorporate a mixture of both, depending on the specific learning experience
and the learners being taught.
A third approach, a critical approach to teaching and learning, incorporates and transcends
the first two models, providing a more inclusive curriculum framework.
3 A critical approach
A critical approach seeks to locate and situate issues within teaching and schooling in a more
holistic curriculum framework that goes beyond simple cause–effect connections. Consider
the case study below.
Case study Tak in g a critic a l a p p roa ch

·
The third kindergarten/reception teacher, Paul, structures his literacy program in a manner that
combines the explicit teaching of phonic knowledge with the meaningful, authentic reading
processes described in the second case study classroom. He models his own expert practices and
e a r ly includes opportunities for learners to talk about the real texts they are reading and the reading
childhood
process itself with reading buddies, as well as individual reading tasks. Learners systematically
examine the letter-sound relationships of the English language in meaningful contexts along with
the way the language is structured. They explore the different meanings that can be suggested in
a text, predict what might happen next and discuss these different interpretations. Paul makes
sure they make explicit links with their own contexts and experiences, and ensures he shares his
approach and its rationale with parents and caregivers early in the school year.
Does bringing together the approaches discussed in case studies 7.2 and 7.3 make sense? What do
these approaches imply about the learning process?
In this view, the curriculum process is envisaged as encompassing all the experiences that
occur within an early childhood or school context (Pinar, 1975) or other learning context,
both what is intended and what actually occurs (Smith & Lovat, 2003). It is, therefore,
extremely important to examine the perceptions of educators and learners participating in
the educational activity rather than focus more exclusively on educator perspectives and
purposes. The perspective of other stakeholders, such as parents and the community, must
also be considered.
A critical view of the curriculum enables a more flexible construction of the teaching and
learning process, combining features of both the rational and procedural approaches, where
appropriate, because:
• the responsibility rests with both educator and learners, who play different roles in the
learning process, depending upon the particular learning task/activity
• educators and learners play alternating roles in working together to develop greater
autonomy in the learner
• where appropriate, the educator provides scaffolding, or framework, to support the

learner’s development and this is gradually withdrawn as the learner takes on these
understandings – an apprenticeship model
• learners work collaboratively as well as individually when appropriate
• the curriculum is negotiable because the official curriculum document or framework is
open to debate and contest, and the learners’ needs are put first
• the process of reflection is important at all times during the teaching and learning process
• the processes and effects of power, culture and society are studied with the goal of
transforming oppression and inequalities for a more equal and just world
• these promote socially active learners who meaningfully contribute to their communities
and the world
• knowledge is regarded as provisional, related to power and its exercise, needing to be
challenged, always being constructed and in an incomplete state rather than absolute and
fixed.
This view also underlines the importance of examining both what we intend to teach as
educators and what learning actually happens. Multiliteracies and education for sustainability
are two examples of the integrated teaching and learning that is especially relevant for learners
globally. We now discuss these topics.
Multiliteracies
Being able to access information is only a beginning. It’s also important for learners to be
able to view, read, write and speak using a multiplicity of texts. There are multiple literacies
(discussed later) rather than only one. The traditional view of literacy, as it has often been
approached in early childhood, primary and secondary classrooms, is no longer sufficient.
Visual literacy, also takes on new dimensions as educators become more and more aware of Visual literacy
the power of both moving and still images (Callow, 2013). Reading hypertext adds different incorporates reading
and understanding
demands. Learners need access to a whole range of digital literacy codes and practices, and the visual images of
they need to be able to grasp information coming from a range of different media at the same texts from print to
screen (see Callow,
time. This should not be too difficult for today’s learners, given their ability to multitask and 2013).
their familiarity with the new technologies and multimedia experiences that they have grown
up with.
The term ‘multiliteracies’ was coined in 1994 when 10 academics from the UK, the USA Multiliteracies
refer to the various
and Australia, now known as the New London Group, met for a week in New Hampshire, ways that we make
USA, to formulate a new research agenda for literacy teaching and learning, given the effects meaning in different
of globalisation and the ever-increasing diversity of language, culture, multimedia and cultural and social
contexts.
information technologies. Key themes of the paper that was the outcome of this meeting
Multimodal refers
included the following. to the interface of
• There is no single skill that can be deemed ‘literacy’. Different kinds of literacies are at written linguistic
and other ways (for
work in different cultural, social or professional contexts. example, oral, visual,
• New communication technologies are making meaning in ways that are multimodal. audio, gestural,
tactile) of making
New types of texts are being created. Consider, for example, Twitter, blogs, multimedia meaning.
presentations, email, word processing, desktop publishing and text messages. Different
reading processes are demanded for different kinds of texts. Left-to-right, top-to-bottom
conventions do not always apply.
• Visual literacy is becoming increasingly important. Many texts carry their message
through a combination of print, sound and images. Most children begin school with a
familiarity with icons and screens, and this needs to be acknowledged and used in learning
and teaching activities in the classroom.
• Literacy is critical in improving an individual’s life chances.
Four elements of teaching practice are advocated to address these new challenges:
1 Situated practice. Value the various knowledges, interests and experiences that learners
bring to preschool/school and immerse them in real experiences that make sense. Learners
might examine, for example, excerpts from a popular movie or song.
2 Overt instruction. Teach explicitly to help learners understand the patterns in different
ways of communicating and making meaning. Through discussion, educators and learners
might discuss the themes, the kind of movie or song it is and so on.
3 Critical framing. Ensure that learners understand the purposes behind a particular piece
of communication – Who is this for? Why? Learners examine how the movie or song uses
the expected features of its genre or how it overturns them.
4 Transformed practice. Provide opportunities for learners to apply new understandings in
authentic contexts. Learners might make their own video clip with a particular purpose
and audience in mind (Kalantzis, Cope & Fehring, 2002, p. 2).
These principles resonate strongly with those discussed in previous chapters.
Learners must develop the ability to be resistant readers of all kinds of texts (such as print,
digital, film, art) so that they can challenge them, and understand and interpret the multiple
layers beneath the surface. This does not imply that traditional literacy skills are unnecessary.
In fact, they are at the heart of these new literacies. Traditional and new methods must be
integrated so that the emergence of new genres, new codes and new ways of making meaning
do not create undue anxieties for young literacy learners.
Education for sustainability

The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals aim to help all individuals understand
that economy occurs within the bounds set by ecology and not the other way around (UN
Sustainable Development Goals, https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/). Whether or
not you believe in human-induced climate change, there is no doubt that the Earth has been
negatively affected by large-scale environmental damage, a depletion of natural resources and
pollution, and that educating learners about sustainability should be a critically important
part of the curriculum both now and in the future.
Sustainability is a cross-curriculum priority of the Australian Curriculum. Sustainability
concerns goals for conservation, social justice, cultural diversity, appropriate development
and democracy. This is a much broader concept than earlier environmental education that
focused more on teaching about the natural world. Although there is some vigorous debate in
this area, the most accepted view today is that education for sustainability needs to emphasise
the interconnectedness and interrelationship of place with our cultural understandings, our
need for resources, and the political decisions that affect the future of these resources and
therefore the future of the world.
Despite much goodwill, it has been suggested that many educators lack awareness and
knowledge about conceptual issues such as global warming, ecology, poverty, sustainability
and recycling of resources, and have a lack of understanding about how to integrate education
for sustainability into an already crowded curriculum. Littledyke, Taylor and Eames (2009)
advocate principles of shared, constructive and reflective learning to help build understanding
about education for sustainability. Consider principal Helen Chatto’s description of
Girraween Primary School’s annual sustainability day:
Our kids did an amazing job of giving guided tours and explaining
their class sustainability projects. We had an environmental
art show from Pre and Transition classes. They had also
created different trees after a study on The Lorax. The area
looked amazing. We had mobile phone musters, litter free lunch
campaigns, solar ovens, recycled games, recycled craft in the
gardens (you should see the tea cups on posts with bird seed in
them), a vertical garden, sale of value-added produce and plants,
turkeys and chicks as well as the wonderful farm fully equipped
with large scale science experiments. The new addition of a baby
pig named Rosie was very popular.
Learning outside the classroom

Of course, a great deal of learning happens outside formal pedagogical spaces like classrooms
and schools. Children and young people are constantly learning: how to manage friendships,
sibling and parent relationships; how to engage with digital technologies; how to care for their
pets; how to play fairly on the sports field; how to swim between the flags and so on. This
section, however, is particularly focused on the learning that happens in education places and
spaces other than classrooms: museums, theatres, science centres, art galleries, environmental
centres, zoos and other cultural institutions.
Today, learning in these sites is typically experienced through interactive activities. Learners
might be encouraged to handle artefacts, question, reflect and speculate, make connections and
engage emotionally as well as intellectually to deepen understanding. Much of the learning
when visiting these sites, often unfamiliar, is related to the social experiences generated by
learning with others in a context that does not replicate the classroom and that generates their
curiosity. At the Immigration Museum in Melbourne, visitors actually simulate what it is to be
an immigrant and even receive a passport prepared for them by the Museum. In the Museum
and Art Gallery of the Northern Territory, in Darwin, you can experience what it sounded
like to have Cyclone Tracy overhead. Such visits will raise new and different questions for
learners and these will often be of a different order than those generated in the classroom.
Griffin (2012) maintains that the planning required to take advantage of what she calls
‘field trips’ makes educators exercise both care and forethought. ‘The better organised the
day[is], the more fun the kids have’ she notes (p. 121). In her teacher education course, she
prepared pre-service educators as apprentices to museum educators at various informal
learning sites to help them understand the need for clear purposes for the field trips but, at
the same time, the importance of enabling the learners to shape their own learning through
discovery and investigation.
For some years the Coalition of Knowledge Building Schools (Mockler & Groundwater-
Smith, 2011) engaged with educators at the Australian Museum, the State Library of NSW
and Taronga Zoo Education. Young people from the participating schools were enrolled as
consultants to these institutions, assisting them in evaluating exhibition plans before, during
and after particular events. They proved to be remarkably astute in their advice about how
such exhibitions can be made more appealing to children.
Clearly, taking learners out of the classroom for field trips requires a great deal of work
to ensure their safety. All states and territories have systems and routines in place that must
be adhered to. Thought must also be given to cost and ensuring that children whose families
are experiencing financial difficulties can access such opportunities. Professional experience
is a good time to investigate how these technical details are managed, as well as how such
experiences can be structured to ensure learning is maximised.
Think about a recent visit to one of the places mentioned above. How could such a visit enrich the
learning of learners across the three phases of formal education: early childhood education, primary
and secondary?
Implications for teaching and

learning
Much of what has been described in thinking about teaching and learning in a changing
world assumes a collaborative or participatory approach to education and the development
of curriculum that is relevant for learners. It also necessitates a shift in educators’ beliefs
about who they are and what their role is, and acknowledging that learners need to be actively
involved in designing their own learning journey. The skills they come to school with need
to be recognised, affirmed and extended while their imaginations and creativity must be
affirmed and further developed. The learner must be seen as the agent of his or her own
learning, freer to be his or her own person rather than to conform to the socialisation of a
particular institution.
A corollary of this, as we have already suggested, is that design must become a more
central focus of the curriculum. If educators deliberately share planning, teaching and
assessing processes with their learners, a joint responsibility for the development of learning
communities will be developed. Such learning communities aim to be cohesive and relevant,
and may be able to develop shared visions for creating a better world. Thus there needs to be
an increased emphasis on interpersonal skills and values.
There is also an increasing realisation that quality arts experiences and processes should
be a more central feature of the curriculum (for example, Barton & Ewing, 2017; Martin
et al, 2012; Ewing, 2010, 2013; Robinson, 2009). Today, governments are emphasising STEM
education; that is, the teaching of science, technology,
iStock/Highwaystarz-Photography
engineering and mathematics. Governments view the
thinking and innovations produced in these fields as crucial
to the future economic success of the country. They view
science, technology, engineering and mathematics not as
contributors to the ecological challenges the earth faces,
but as a way to upskill citizens to improve the economy, and
if need be, to fix the problems created by industrialisation
and commercialisation. This emphasis, a technocratic
grip on education, is squeezing out the creative arts from
schools. It is undermining the importance of the creative Learning opportunities in the creative arts
arts and imagination to creative thinking, problem posing, are equally as important as STEM subjects
problem solving and the creation of a better world.

Yet research in the neurosciences increasingly demonstrates how the creative arts are
central to supporting social and emotional wellbeing as well as academic achievement (see,
for example, Catterall, 2013; Winner et al, 2013; Ewing 2010), with research ‘developing
our understanding of how arts strategies support crucial brain development in learning’
(President’s Committee on the Arts & Humanities, 2011, p. vi).
As noted above, centres and classrooms of the future will need to explore strategies that
emphasise lateral creative thinking, problem solving and design (Jefferson & Anderson,
2017). There is general agreement among educators that preschool children have wonderful
imaginations. It is a sad reflection of current practices that becoming ‘school clever’ often
leads to the subversion of this creativity. School curricula must encourage learners to develop
their creative and problem-solving abilities so that they are sufficiently confident to take
risks in exploring new ideas, issues and concepts. The creative arts are central to this aspect
of learning.
Educators need to continue to become more flexible and open to change and innovation.
At the same time, it will be important not to accept change for change’s sake in an uncritical
manner. For example, there is no benefit to learners if faddish trends are followed uncritically,
like adopting new technologies but doing so in a way that simply reinforces outmoded ways
of teaching and learning. Most change of significance involves uncertainty, anxiety, conflict
and sometimes a sense of loss. A sense of excitement and anticipation can also be part of the
process.
Transitions
In thinking about transition and change, it is important to focus on the critical periods of
transition in schooling for children and young people. We can consider transition in multiple
ways: the transitions between different parts of the day, the week, the term; the transition
during key milestones of changing context, from preschool to primary, from primary to
secondary; and transitions in changing classrooms and educators each year. Each transition
poses significant considerations for the work of educators, but also for the children.
As educators, we believe it is useful to consider what these different transitions look like
from the perspective of the learners. Doing so, enables us as educators to further consider
how we might support them at these different time points.
Case study Un s et t lin g tra n s itio n s

·
Sacha and her parents have recently made the move from Adelaide to an outer suburb of Perth
because her father has a new position at work. So Sacha has already made one big move in
her life, leaving her former preschool friends and the families in her street. Now she is getting
primary ready to begin school. She has passed the building a number of times when she visits the local
supermarket. Her parents point it out and comment, ‘That’s the big school and that’s where
you will be going with Jancey and Mark’ (children who live nearby). It is all rather bewildering
and unsettling for Sacha. The family arrived too late for the orientation program that had taken
place the year before and, although she had visited with her mother when she was enrolled, the
size, the noise and the confusion made it all unsettling for her.
Think about a big transition you have made.
1 What could have made it easier?
2 How could Sacha’s transition to a new home and school be made more positive?
In what follows, we look to two transition points. The first is at the beginning of the school
years when children move from early childhood contexts into primary school; the second is
the time when they prepare to leave the primary years and move into secondary education.
Beginning school
Beginning school should be an exciting time for children and their families. While many will
have experienced some form of early childhood education in preschools and long day-care
centres, for others it is the first time that they have encountered a more regulated environment
or one with many age groups of learners.
School systems and early childhood organisations have developed a number of publications
to assist parents in preparing their children for beginning school. Connor and Linke (2012),
for example, address issues including: readiness, a secure beginning, emotional wellbeing
and social skills, early literacy and numeracy practices and ways in which parents can work
with their child’s school and keep in touch. In New South Wales, the Beginning School Well
Program is designed to support Aboriginal parents and families of migrant and refugee
children who have had little prior experience of playgroups or preschools.
It is a great privilege for pre-service educators to experience the early socialisation of
learners in kindergarten and reception classes. If this is not possible, you could prepare a
series of questions to ask educators of the early years how they assist these young children.
For example:
• How do they first greet the children?
• How do they accommodate to parents’ anxiety about leaving their little ones for this first
occasion?
• How do they introduce themselves to the children?
• What would a first day/week’s activities look like?
• How do they find out about the children’s abilities and capacities?
• How much information do they have about the children’s earlier experiences (for example,
some parents will have well-developed learning portfolios from their preschools)?
• How do they set out the routines of the classroom and the school?
An important concern for children beginning school is that of developing friendships
and the ways in which their friends are important to their wellbeing (Jackson & Cartmel,
2010). Social relations continue to be critical to the participation of children and young
people throughout their school years as we can see when we look at the middle years and the
transition to secondary schools.
The middle years transition

Most educators agree that the middle years of schooling embrace Years 5–8, or stages three and
four. Initially, there was some enthusiasm and funding for middle years reform in Australian
schooling (for example, Barratt, 1998; Cumming, 1996) with South Australia leading the
field. However, Bahr and Crosswell (2011) note that middle schooling has lost ground in the
Australian context, and mainstream education agendas are falling silent on the subject. More
recently in New South Wales, the government has re-invigorated work in this area based on
a 2008 inquiry conducted by the NSW Parliamentary Committee into the needs and issues
facing 9–14 year olds. The Committee published its report in 2009, Children and Young
People aged 9–14 in NSW: The Missing Middle. It stated that:
The middle years … is a critical transition period with children moving from primary to
secondary school … a time when peers assume greater significance in the lives of children and
young people.
These arguments are further embodied in the Melbourne Declaration on Educational

Goals for Young Australians (MCEETYA, 2008, p. 12) first discussed in Chapter 2. It notes
that these years are:
also a time when students are at the greatest risk of disengagement from learning. Student
motivation and engagement in these years is critical and can be influenced by tailoring
approaches to teaching, with learning activities and learning environments that specifically
consider the needs of middle years students …
The following key areas have received some attention: academic attainment, social
adjustment, linkages between schools, organisational issues, cultural factors, socioeconomic
factors and gender differences (McGee et al., 2004). While there is consensus regarding a
slight drop in achievement as young people move from primary school to secondary school
(Pendergast & Danby, 2011), there is less agreement about why this is so. Possibilities
considered include:
• the result of secondary schools having lower expectations of their incoming learners and
therefore failing to challenge the learners sufficiently, leaving them bored and frustrated
• changing homework demands resulting in learners finding themselves less able to keep up
with the work, so they are satisfied with only meeting minimum requirements
• learners being unprepared to invest the energy required for deep learning
• motivation and engagement decreasing as learners find themselves within larger and more
varied cohorts
• the onset of adolescence and the manner in which effort is constructed in the peer group,
where it may not be seen as ‘cool to do school well’.
In a study undertaken for the New South Wales Department of Education and Community
in relation to learning in the middle years (Groundwater-Smith, Mitchell & Mockler, 2007)
over 600 young people (Years 5–9) were interviewed in focus group discussions across the
state. One of the questions addressed how different the primary school learners thought
secondary school might be.
Their responses clustered around:
• the physical environment and sheer size of secondary school – a maze of buildings
• educators’ dispositions in relating to them and learning to deal with a number as well as
multiple discipline areas
• being organised within and after school – learners believed the workload would increase
and they would not have as much teacher help, especially if they were struggling
• making and losing friends
• dealing with older learners
• developing new identities – as final-year primary
learners, they had been ‘top of the food chain’ and as
Shutterstock.com/Monkey Business Images
one student put it, ‘no longer alpha males, we shall be

the small fish in the big pond’.
There was a perception that high school would be
challenging, stricter and less nurturing. The learners
perceived there would be more of everything, including
bullying, difficult work and homework.
Resilience, independence and sound learning habits
need to be developed and nurtured in the early years,
if young people can learn to feel positive about
Middle school learners face many challenges themselves as learners as they transition to different
learning contexts.
Conclusion
This chapter has established that there are numerous reasons why the concept of school
as process rather than place needs consideration. It has also briefly explored the important
learning that can happen outside the classroom and how other issues such as transitioning
from one learning context to another can affect the learning process.
There are, however, a number of important issues that need to be considered. Digital
technologies, robots, and online teaching and learning cannot replace real, live, warm,
embodied educators, because education is much more than simply transmitting information.
Today’s educators need to acknowledge online learning and computers as pedagogical tools,
and think carefully about how these tools can be used to enhance their teaching and to facilitate
learning. There is evidence to suggest that, although there has been large-scale investment in
information and communication technology (ICT) in some Western countries, the integration
of ICT as another pedagogical tool has been slow and many educators lack the ability to use
it innovatively in the classroom (Blackley & Walker, 2015). Information retrieval must never
be equated with learning and understanding. Online learning needs to be seen as an important
addition to face-to-face teaching. Online time may be useful in providing learners with
introductory information and ideas so that more stimulating discussion and problem solving
can happen during class time. For some learners it may help make learning more effective.
Some learners prefer cooperative ways of learning, and lots of talk and social interaction
while others favour more competitive or more individualised learning contexts. Those forms
of online learning that require individuals to work on their own in their own space may well
suit independent learners but disadvantage those who are social learners. It is important to
note, however, that e-learning does provide excellent opportunities for collaborative learning
which traditional forms of distance learning could not, such as self-paced thread discussion,
digital collaborative brainstorm applications (e.g. GroupMap), adaptive learning software
(e.g. Mathletics) and email.
There are also a number of ethical questions relating to cyber learning, particularly those
dealing with the nature of interactions and information exchanged over the internet. Such
information and opportunities are not necessarily always accurate, honest or appropriate.
Any online framework must be carefully monitored and evaluated. Moreover, cyber bullying
has become a reality for many learners.
The challenges and possibilities for educators and schools of the future are enormous.
Opportunities for e-learning will continue to multiply. Education for sustainability,
adaptability and innovation will become even more imperative. There are many serious
questions that need to be investigated, including successful transitioning from one context
to the next. The concept of school as process both opens up exciting possibilities and creates
dilemmas that may well shake some of the very premises and assumptions that have been
constructed in relation to schooling, teaching and learning. Are you ready to consider some
of these?
STUDY TOOLS
Go further
Following 1 Interview a person from a previous generation and ask them to describe their memories of preschool
through or school. Have preschools, primary or secondary schools, or all of them, changed dramatically in your
view? Or only minimally? How? Create a Plus, Minus & Interesting (PMI) chart and allocate each
change identified into the appropriate column. Discuss your chart with others.
2 What are the various roles of the educator identified in this chapter? How do some of these roles
conflict with each other? How well prepared are you for the roles of the educator?
3 With a colleague, list the differences between reading an image, an interactive media text and a printed
page. What are the implications for the way you teach when using these materials?
4 Investigate the increasing use of digital technologies in learning. Do digital technologies improve
learning? Is the learning effectiveness of digital technologies contextual (i.e. cannot be assumed to
be effective every time and everywhere it is used)? What are issues surrounding the use of digital
technologies for learning?
5 How equipped are you to help your learners understand the human-made environmental issues that
threaten our planet? How equipped are you for teaching learners about how to live on an increasingly
damaged planet? Discuss your thoughts with others.
6 Develop your knowledge of a local or global environmental issue. Consider approaches to teaching
about it. Then develop one or more learning experiences for a group of children or young people to
learn about this issue.
7 Investigate the ‘unschooling movement’. What are its antecedents, key philosophies and features? How does
it differ from ‘de-schooling’ and ‘home schooling’? Do you think there is merit in ‘unschooling’? Explain.
8 Plan an excursion or field trip even if not actually possible during your professional experience
placement. Start at the end. Visit a site that would be particularly relevant for the unit of work you are
implementing. Then construct a hypothetical visit. The following questions may be helpful:
• How would this visit extend the learners’ learning?
• What will they need to know before the visit?
• What should they investigate and why?
• What provocations could create curiosity and help their learning?
• Are there web resources that would assist?
• How will they capture their learning? (Try to be innovative here and think outside traditional
recording measures)
• How will you learn about how they learn?
• How will you follow up this visit?
9 Try to recall your own experience of beginning school – most people have enduring memories of what
it was like. See whether your own family remembers how you faced that first day. If you have children
of your own, share your memory of them beginning school. How was it for you? How was it for them?
What advice would you give other parents?
10 During your professional experience placement in an early childhood, primary or secondary context,
negotiate with an educator to conduct a focus group interview with a small number of learners.
Investigate with them their experiences, expectations, hopes and fears about learning and schooling.
Based on their responses, what are some implications for your teaching?
http://www.acara.edu.au Australian Curriculum and Assessment Reporting Authority (ACARA). ACARA

Useful
is responsible for overseeing the Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting strategies for
online
Australian schools. teaching
http://www.education4sustainability.org/2012/08/21/the-australian-sustainable-schools-initiative-aussi/
resources
AuSSI: Australian Sustainable Schools Initiative helps schools minimise their carbon footprint.
http://www.oecd.org Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). Includes six
scenarios, Schooling for Tomorrow, developed to help focus on possible school futures in 2020.
http://www.ted.com/talks/ken_robinson_says_schools_kill_creativity.html and http://www.ted.com/
talks/ken_robinson_how_to_escape_education_s_death_valley.html Here are two examples of
Sir Ken Robinson’s numerous inspirational talks on creativity and education.
Anderson, L. & Krathwohl, D. (eds) 2001, A Taxonomy Borko, H. & Shavelson, R. 1990, ‘Teacher decision
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Ragnedda, M. & Muschert, G. 2013, The Digital Divide: Thomas, A. 2007, Youth Online: Identity and Literacy in
The internet and social inequality in international the Digital Age, Peter Lang, New York.
perspective, Routledge, Oxon. Thomas, J., Barraket, J, Wilson, C., Ewing, S., MacDonald,
Robinson, K. 2009, The Element: How Finding Your T, Tucker, J. & Rennie, E. 2017, Measuring Australia’s
Passion Changes Everything, Viking Penguin, Digital Divide: The Australian Digital Inclusion Index
London. 2017. RMIT University, Melbourne.
Smith, D. & Lovat, T. 2003, Curriculum: Action on Tyler, R. 1949, Basic Principles of Curriculum and
Reflection Revisited, 4th edn, Social Science Press, Instruction, Chicago University Press, Chicago.
Wentworth Falls. Winner, E., Goldstein, T. & Vincent-Lancrain, S. 2013,
Stenhouse, L. 1977, An Introduction to Curriculum Arts for Arts’ Sake. OECD Publishing, Paris.
Research and Development (rev. edn), Heinemann, Yelland, N. & Gilbert, C. 2018, ‘Transformative
London. technologies and play in the early years: Using tablets
Tapscott, D. 1998, Growing up Digital, McGraw-Hill, for new learning’, Global Studies of Childhood, 8 (2),
New York. pp. 152–161.
PART 3
The effective teacher

8 Teacher as co-learner
9 Planning, preparing and assessment for teaching
 Managing a positive learning environment
 Building family–school–community partnerships
 Practitioner inquiry
 Drawing the challenges, dilemmas and opportunities together
Teaching is ultimately about the development of effective relationships.
189
8
Teacher as co-learner
Lo l a N els o n
Educators need to see

themselves as learners
alongside their students.
190
CHAPTER 8 Teacher as co-learner 191
Y our initial teacher education degree is the beginning of lifelong career learning about
education. From your reading of the previous chapters, you can see that there has been
and continues to be increasing recognition of professional learning in educators’ work.
In the past, some might have viewed graduation from a teacher education course as marking
the end of learning unless, of course, the individual educator continued studying for formal
qualifications. There is now a broad consensus within the education community that teacher
quality is the single most important in-school factor influencing student achievement (Hayes
et al., 2006; Gerritsen, Plug & Webbink, 2016; Churchill et al., 2013; Hattie, 2012). As Hayes
et al. (2006, p. 1) wrote: ‘apart from family background, it is good teachers who make the
greatest difference to student outcomes from schooling’. Hence, professional learning is seen
as crucial to improving student learning outcomes.
Ongoing professional learning is seen as crucial if an educator is to be an active participant in
schools and learning communities. In fact, since the endorsement of the Australian Professional
Standards for Teachers (APSTs) on 14 February 2011 by the Australian Government, ongoing
professional learning for educators has been mandated. Standard 6 states that educators will
‘engage in professional learning’. Alongside the Standards, an Australian Charter for the
Professional Learning of Teachers and School Leaders has been developed. The aim of this
charter is to ‘nurture a nation-wide, high-achieving and vibrant professional learning culture’
(AITSL, 2012).
The nature of teacher professional learning has also changed in that there is greater
recognition of the role that educators themselves play in their own professional development.
Peters (2001) argued that reflection, practitioner research and collaboration are key elements
in the way professional development has been reconceptualised. Aubusson, Ewing and Hoban
(2009) also highlighted these elements as playing a critical role in the creation of a learning
environment in schools. It is widely accepted that there is more likelihood of substantive
changes in educators’ practices and understandings when teacher learning opportunities are
sustained over time, are collaborative and take account of a teacher’s context (Aubusson et al.,
2009; Johnson et al., 2012).
In the more recent conceptualisation of professional learning, educators are given, and
take, responsibility for making decisions about the content or focus of their learning. The
focus on action learning (Dinham, Aubusson & Brady, 2008; Ewing, 2007) as a professional Action learning
learning tool for educators illustrates the growing awareness that educators must be in control emphasises the
learning a group may
of their own professional learning. It is suggested by Dinham, Aubusson and Brady (2008, experience when
p. 5) that learning communities enhance teacher professional learning and are formed through working through an
issue, dilemma or
action learning. Being in conversation and working together: problem they may
face.
involves the learning/research operating within the context in which the learning/research is
to occur. Rather than seeking a panacea, it seeks to investigate what is effective in a particular
classroom or school.
In other words, educators use their professional knowledge and experiences to solve
issues, dilemmas and learning problems in their own environment and in collaboration with
others.
Action learning is not just a focus in education; it a focus in other professions and in the
wider community. Collaborative relationships with schools of education within universities
are also a feature of more recent developments, where educators across the education
continuum work together on research projects.
192 PART 3 THE EFFECTIVE TEACHER
A significant change in professional learning over the years has been the increasing
emphasis on gaining accreditation and on educators (and directors and school leaders)
providing evidence of their learning.
For example, educators wanting to move from Graduate to Proficient, as described in the
Australian Standards (AITSL, 2012), must develop an evidence-based portfolio illustrating
the specific experience during which
learning occurred and providing
iStock.com/monkeybusinessimages
evidence of that learning. This move

is consistent with changes that
have occurred in documenting and
reporting student learning (discussed
in Chapter 9). State Registration
Boards require educators to provide
evidence of their professional
learning in relation to the APSTs.
For you, this means providing
evidence of your achievement of
the Graduate Standards so that you
may gain provisional registration
upon graduation. For those of you
Educators are also lifelong learners studying Early Childhood, you
will also need to be aware of the
Australian Children’s Education &
Care Quality Authority (ACECQA) National Quality Standard for early childhood
education and outside school hours–care services in Australia (ACECQA, 2018).
In this chapter the focus is on you as the learner as you develop your understandings and
capacities about yourself as an early career educator. This chapter looks at the workplace
learning in which you will be involved when you go into centres and schools for your
Professional professional experiences. It is well recognised that professional experiences, field experiences
experiences refers or the practicum – however it is described – is a crucial part of initial teacher education and
to workplace
learning which is regarded highly by pre-service educators and experienced educators alike. However, it is
is integrated also acknowledged that pre-service teacher learning in professional experiences is a complex
with academic
preparation and process. This chapter provides you with some understanding of why this is so. It addresses
educational studies. strategies that will enable you to become actively involved in your professional experiences
and gain as much as you can from them.
The changing context

As there have been changes in regard to educators’ work (as explained in Chapter 1), there
have also been, and continue to be, changes in how professional experiences are conceptualised
and structured. Many of the educators with whom you might work have a different story to
tell about their ‘pracs’ or ‘pre-service teacher days’. This is very important to understand as,
throughout your course, your professional experiences will require you to work closely with
a number of educators in a variety of settings. One significant change is the language that is
used to describe the experience and the roles of the various participants. It is more common
now to hear the term ‘professional experience’ being used instead of ‘prac’ or ‘practicum’
and similarly ‘pre-service teacher’ is replacing ‘student teacher’. ‘Professional learning’ and
‘teacher education’ rather than ‘teacher training’ are also more preferable today. These changes
have been initiated to emphasise the professional nature of teaching and to highlight the fact
that your learning and career begins in your pre-service teacher education and continues
throughout your career.
Traditionally, the view of professional experience was that ‘student teachers’ put into
practice the knowledge gained from their university studies and was referred to as ‘teaching
practice’ with the emphasis on the exclusive development of skills and techniques. ‘Student
teachers’ were often placed in classrooms to sink or swim. This has changed and the
importance of the supervising or mentor educator is acknowledged. While it is important
for pre-service educators to have opportunities to develop effective classroom teaching
skills and to consolidate their knowledge of curriculum, it is equally important that there
are opportunities to assimilate what they are learning from the experience. The professional
experience is a place for learning how to integrate theory with practice; an emphasis on the
development of learning communities is being encouraged. Pre-service educators need time
and space structured into their professional experiences to engage in learning relationships
with a range of colleagues (Le Cornu & Ewing, 2008; Le Cornu, 2012). This move is
consistent with the changes to schools discussed in Chapter 7 and to teacher professional
learning discussed earlier.
In many universities in Australia and overseas, professional experiences are changing to
accommodate the focus on pre-service educators’ learning. Traditionally, practical experiences
in teacher education have focused almost exclusively on ‘student educators’ teaching’ and
how much learning results for the learners they teach. More recently, the focus has been on
you adopting the role of a teacher instead of a student. Although an important transition,
you must remember that at the same time as you are teaching, you are also learning about
teaching. Thus, professional experiences involve you as both a teacher and a learner. While
the other chapters in this book tend to focus more on the former, this chapter highlights the
latter.
Opportunities and challenges

for pre-service educator learning
during professional experiences
We have known for a while now that pre-service educators’ learning in professional experience
is a complex process (Beattie, 2000; Beltman et al., 2015; Britzman, 2003). One of the reasons
for this complexity is that it is experienced differently by every pre-service teacher and
every teacher educator. Just as every child or young person experiences a school curriculum
differently, every pre-service educator experiences a professional experience curriculum
differently.
Reflect for a moment on your personal history. You bring a wealth of initial knowledge
about teaching. Consider your preschool and school experiences, how you were taught,
your life history, your family, culture and context, your dispositions, your sense of self, your
capacity to be resilient, your views of the world, the experiences you had growing up and the
experiences you are having now. These all affect how you learn to teach and the educator you
will become. How you view yourself as an educator is known as your professional identity.
Teacher professional The notion of ‘teacher professional identity’ is gaining increasing recognition in the literature
identity refers and it is now well recognised that educators’ identity experiences are central to their practice
to how you view
yourself as a and commitment as professionals (Burn, 2007; Day, Elliot & Kingston, 2005; Johnson et al.,
teacher. 2012; Morrison, 2012). It is also acknowledged that educators’ sense of personal identity
and professional identity are inextricably linked (Beltman et al., 2015; Gibbs, 2006; Pillen,
Beijaard & Brok, 2013). As Gibbs (2006, p. 77) writes:
Teachers who have deep knowing about themselves as people and as teachers show a sense of
security in their personal and professional identities.
It is important to explore our own biographies and relate them to our emerging identity
in relation to teaching. Many of our beliefs, for example, are shaped by our own successes
and failures. We can translate these into maxims for teaching without much problem.
Imagine that you had spent a large part of your school life in selective schools and
classrooms, and had enjoyed the accolades attached to ‘making it’. This experience could
well translate into a commitment to organising your class into ability groups and giving
disproportionate attention to the brightest and the best. Or, perhaps you experienced
difficulty in mathematics learning. You convince yourself that mathematics is difficult and
can best be managed only if you stick to routines and set procedures. It is not only a
matter of learning from our histories but also actually making our own histories cases for
critical discussion. Knowing yourself both in practice and from your biography will help
you to develop your identity as an educator and to recognise why you think and act in
particular ways.
All educators have been influenced at some stage or another by their personal histories.
Take the examples of Liza, a 20-year-old beginning primary teacher, Simon, a newly graduated
secondary science teacher, and Jane, a mature early childhood graduate.
Case study Tea ch in g a s t a u g h t

·
Liza had experienced some very traditional schooling and, although her views were
challenged in various university courses, she found that what she saw and heard during her
professional experiences reinforced her traditional views of the role of a teacher and what a
primary classroom should look like. She thus started her teaching career teaching as she herself had
been taught.
She regarded teaching as telling and showing, and considered that the classroom had to be
quiet and orderly at all times. She implemented very teacher-directed teaching and assessment
methods, which, she found, were not unlike those being used by the educator in the classroom
next to hers. During the third term, however, a replacement teacher, Cara, took over the class
next door. Cara had a totally different classroom. She rearranged the room so that children could
work in groups in some areas and on their own in others. She implemented less traditional and
more child-centred teaching and assessment methods. Liza talked about this different approach
with Cara and spent time observing in the classroom. She compared the approaches and found
herself beginning to question what she really believed about teaching and learning. Liza and
Cara chose to team-teach the following year. During this time, Liza changed her teaching style
and teaching and assessment methods considerably.
Learning f rom d if f e re n t p ed ag og ie s Case study

·2
Simon, a newly graduated science teacher, was appointed to a large outer suburban high school.
Simon had loved science as a student and both his parents had worked in the science field. He
was passionate about his subject and wanted to share that passion with learners. His professional
placements had been in traditional science departments and he had achieved success as a pre- secon dary
service teacher. However, in this high school he was confronted with a science faculty that did
not follow what Simon viewed as good teaching practices. The staff were engaged with students
in a practical and hands-on way. When Simon tried to implement his way of teaching, he met
with resistance from the learners and found himself becoming very frustrated and stressed.
Fortunately for Simon, the head of department, who was acting as his teaching mentor, worked
with him and offered him opportunities to observe other educators, while supporting him to
make the necessary changes to his teaching practice. At first, Simon was reluctant to make any
changes, but once he observed the different effect of the more practical approach on learners’
comprehension and his own satisfaction, he slowly began to implement some of the suggested
changes. Simon still views himself as a work in progress, but his willingness to look at himself
critically and to develop understandings about why he reacted in particular ways to the teaching
context mean he will continue to grow and develop, and be the kind of science educator he
dreamed of being.
Working wit h in b ou n d aries Case study

·3
Jane had a family of four children and worked as an education assistant in a kindergarten
before she completed her early childhood degree. This degree qualified Jane to work in early
childhood and early primary classrooms. She loved her university course and was strongly
committed to play-based learning as taught in her early childhood program. She was appointed e a r ly
childhood
to a large primary school in the outer suburbs and was one of three pre-primary educators in
the early learning centre. Jane was very excited and began planning her play-based program.
At the first meeting of the early childhood educators she was dismayed to find that the school’s
early childhood program was very firmly based on direct instruction principles and that there
was little or no room for individual educators to develop a different program or approach to
teaching. As a new graduate, Jane felt unable to do anything other than to teach in the way that
was expected in the school. After a somewhat frustrating first year, she approached the head
of early childhood with some ideas about how to incorporate some play-based learning in her
class and was able to implement some of the strategies she felt would assist the students and
their learning. She was aware that it would be a slow process but was willing to work within the
existing program and implement ideas of her own. Jane was positive about her future and felt
that she could work within an existing system while introducing learning strategies that she felt
enhanced the learning experiences of the children in her class.
1 What sort of teacher do you think Liza would have become if she had stayed in that same
classroom, with the first educator next door, for 10 years or more?
2 What might have happened if Simon had not been willing to listen to, reflect and act on advice
given to him, or if Jane had not been able to work in an existing system?
3 What might have happened if Liza and Simon had dismissed the views and methods of colleagues
without further consideration, or if Jane had become frustrated and unable to deal with the gap
between what she believed and what was happening in her classroom?
4 How would you suggest each of these educators might move forward with their careers in these
contexts?
These examples not only illustrate how personal histories influence what we do in
the classroom but also how we are influenced by our ongoing personal and professional
experiences. That is, our professional identity is not static. We continue to shape and develop
it throughout our teaching careers. Beltman et al. (2015, p. 226) emphasise this point when
they suggest that ‘personal and contextual factors interact in a reciprocal way to shape
identity’.
Pre-service teacher learning during professional experiences can be complex and
challenging because it is very different to other forms of learning in academic life (Beltman
et al., 2015). It requires different skills and a much more personal involvement from pre-
service educators. Who you are as a person is inextricably linked with who you are as a
teacher. It is difficult to separate the two.
1 How would you describe yourself as a person?
2 How do you envisage yourself as a teacher?
3 What similarities and differences exist? How might you explain these?
Preparing for your professional experience can often be a time of worry, and pre-service
educators have reported just how concerning they found it. However, in a study by Dobbins
in 1994, Kiandra, one of the pre-service educators involved in the research, makes the point
that although she was nervous, arriving early at the school and being welcomed by the staff
helped alleviate some of those concerns
This study by Dobbins (1994), although many years old, still is relevant today. In the
study, Dobbins investigated how a group of pre-service educators interpreted their major
professional experience. It is used throughout this chapter as a significant touchstone for
the discussion of the pre-service teacher as learner. This study highlighted the humanness,
including the emotions involved, of the learning process in professional experiences. Pre-
service educators’ feelings played a central role throughout their placements. In another
doctoral study, Kaelin (2013) also reported on teacher emotions while pre-service educators
were taking part in professional experiences, although his work focused on the relationship
between teacher identity and practice. It may be of interest to you as you navigate your own
professional experiences.
Kiandra reported, as did the other pre-service educators, that their feelings fluctuated
often and claimed that ‘highs and lows were a part of being a student teacher’. They
stressed that contrasting emotions were quite common, even in a very short period of time.
For example, Kiandra felt nervous when, on arrival in her classroom, she heard one child
whisper to another, ‘Who’s she and what is she doing in our classroom?’ But this changed
to a ‘mental high’ after she had been introduced to the children and they responded
positively to her. It is interesting to note that many of the emotional highs reported by the
pre-service educators were in relation to their interactions with children. Sam recounted
the following below:
You get to the stage where the kids come and ask you questions
instead of the teacher. They come and talk to you about things,
like they come running up when you’re walking down the path in
the morning, and say ‘Guess what’s happened last night?’ or
something. It feels great.
And Tracey explained, ‘The greatest feeling is when children are absolutely bursting to
tell you something because they really want you to know’.
Another factor that demonstrated the humanness of professional experiences was the
fatigue experienced by the pre-service educators. Comments included, ‘I don’t think I’ve
ever been so consistently tired in all my life’ and ‘I am amazed at how tiring teaching is’ and
‘There’s so much to remember and think about in teaching’. The effect of low energy on the
children is vividly portrayed in the following extract with one of the pre-service educators,
who was in a class with six- and seven-year-olds:
I just wasn’t in the mood for being there. I just wanted to go
home ... I got stuck into this groove of ‘Right this behaviour
is terrible, that is enough’ and they all looked at me as if to
say ‘Aren’t we grumpy today?’ And I know I was doing it but it
takes so much effort to say ‘Right, okay let’s do this’ and to be
bouncy and positive. I just was negative.
It is clear that pre-service educators’ feelings affect their teaching behaviour. This is
also true, of course, for experienced educators. Keltchermans (2009, p. 269) describes these
emotional aspects of teaching:
Emotions constitute a fundamental aspect of the job. Emotions have to be acknowledged as

part of educational practices, driven by moral commitment and care for others for whom one
feels responsible.
The emotional and personally demanding nature of educators’ work is receiving increasing
attention in the literature (Cohen, 2010; Isenbarger & Zembylas, 2006; Keltchermans, 2009;
McGregor & Mills, 2017; Stroud, 2018; Zembylas, 2003, 2007). Gibbs (2006, p. 24) wrote:
‘Emotions in teaching are important for they convey an essence of humanity that characterises
teaching’. He explains that how educators cope with their emotions is important for at least
two reasons. First, educators’ emotions influence how they will act with students, which in
turn affects how students learn. Second, ‘emotions may stimulate inspiration for passionate
teaching’ (p. 24).
You need to prepare yourself for the reality of the practical experiences you will encounter
throughout your course: they will be demanding, both in a cognitive (thinking) sense and
an affective (feeling) one. You will need to be able to ‘manage anger, frustration, excitement,
giddiness and disbelief on a daily basis’ (Shoffner, 2009, p. 788).
How to maximise your learning

in professional experiences
There are many participants involved in the professional experience process – pre-service
educators, mentor educators, school/placement coordinators and educators within the
setting, and university-based teacher educators. Each has a role to play in facilitating what
you, as a pre-service teacher, learn from the professional experience. The next section of
the chapter, though, focuses on your role: what you can do to get as much as you can from
professional experiences.
There are five strategies, shown in Figure 8.1,
that you can use to maximise your learning from
FIGURE 8.1
STRATEGIES THE MAXIMISE your professional experiences.
PROFESSIONAL LEARNING
1 Analyse your attitude
Analyse your attitude towards your learning
towards your learning
Ask yourself ‘Who is ultimately responsible for
what I learn during professional experiences?’
Build your capacity Reflect on your
Hopefully, your answer is ‘I am’. Only you can
Five
to be resilient strategies learning determine how much you will gain from the
to maximise experience so you need to accept responsibility
learning for your own learning and be prepared to
adopt an active role during your professional
Cultivate collaborative Understand the context experiences. In the study mentioned earlier,
work practices within which you are working one of the pre-service educators explained at
the conclusion of the study that she initially
perceived her own attitude as not particularly relevant. The extract below outlines her
thoughts:
I sort of went into it thinking ‘Well let’s get this five weeks
over with’. And it wasn’t until after the first week that I
thought ‘Hell, I could probably get something out of this’. I
went into it half-hearted. It’s a bit scary isn’t it?
Your attitude is crucial. How you view professional experiences and your role will make all
the difference to how much you learn during your placements. A positive and open mindset
during your professional experiences will enable you to get the most out of the opportunities
presented. Your attitude will also have an effect on your emerging professional identity, as
‘being a learner’ has been shown to be a key aspect of identity (Cohen, 2010; Johnson et al.,
2012). Many situations can be interpreted in a number of different ways.
Consider the following case studies.
Attitudes a re im p o rt a n t Case study

·4
Two pre-service educators were sent to the same school for their first professional experience.
They were placed in the same classroom with an enthusiastic educator who was very pleased to
have them. After the first few days, this educator became ill and was unable to return to school.
Another educator, who was obviously not happy about having two pre-service educators, was primary secon dary
placed in the class. One pre-service educator was very upset about the change in educators and
complained constantly to his pre-service teacher colleague and everyone at home. He did not
initiate conversations with the replacement educator and was irritable throughout the two-
week professional experience. When asked what he had learnt from the experience his reply, e a r ly
childhood
not surprisingly, was ‘Not much’. The other pre-service educator was naturally disappointed
by the change in educators, but spent time talking to the replacement educator and reflected
upon the differences in teaching styles between the first and the second educator. He enjoyed
his placement even though it was only by the end of it that he felt more comfortable with the
replacement. He was able to identify many areas of learning during the placement.
1 How could this situation have been handled differently by the replacement educator? How could it
have been handled differently by the complaining pre-service educator?
2 If you were in this situation, how would you respond?
Case study The s a m e co n tex t?

·5
Two young educators were talking one day about their time at university when the subject of
their practical experiences came up. Each described what they remembered about one of their
experiences. One said, ‘It was great, the school was terrific, the staff were friendly, the parents
primary secon dary were approachable and the children were really eager to learn’. The other said, ‘I had exactly
the opposite experience. The staff were not helpful and hard to get on with, the parents were
unfriendly and the children were very difficult’. To their surprise, when they compared where
they had been, it was the same school.
e a r ly
childhood
What factors do you think explain this contrast?
Different people perceive similar situations differently. Sometimes it involves quite a

conscious effort to think that there might be several ways of interpreting what is happening
and this can be challenging for some people.
Research has shown that many pre-service educators adopt a passive role in the traditional
practicum and view it as a test to be passed rather than a learning experience (Aspden, 2017).
The pre-service educators in the Dobbins study, for example, reported spending much of their
time trying to ‘guess what’s in their teacher’s head’, ‘being perfect’ and ‘pleasing everyone’.
They often devalued their own perceptions of their ‘performance’ and deferred to their
mentor educators as ‘the experts’. Moreover, they often perceived mistakes as failure rather
than as learning opportunities. It was only by the end of the experience that they realised that
these attitudes had hindered their learning rather than facilitated it. For example, Danielle,
one of the pre-service educators, explained the incongruity she discovered between how she
herself was interpreting mistakes and what she was telling the learners she was teaching.
She told them that mistakes were part of the learning process, but she initially could not
reconcile her own mistakes with her sense of perfection. She suffered from the perfectionist
syndrome and thought that for her to say that a lesson went well meant that everything
should be exactly right. She changed her view though during the placement, as can be seen in
the following extract:
We’re doing this natural dye thing this afternoon and everybody
sort of said ‘Oh great, that sounds really good’, I mean I’m
really terrified about doing it but I think ‘Well, if it doesn’t
work, it doesn’t matter, we’ll try something else tomorrow or
we’ll try a different way tomorrow’, whereas last week it would
have been ‘Oh, what if it goes wrong?’
Being realistic is a necessary prerequisite for feeling successful in your professional

experiences. Each placement is one experience in what may be a lifetime of learning and
teaching experiences. You will not learn all there is to learn about teaching through these
experiences or through your university studies. As Tremmel wrote in 1993, and which still
resonates today:
The practice of teaching is demanding, and the making of a teacher is not something that
can happen in a short time, bounded by the sorts of stages we use to mark out academic life.
Like all rigorous practice, the way of teaching demands a long journey that does not have any
easily identifiable destination. It does not end with ‘pre-service’, or graduation, or after one
year, or after all the criteria are met. It is beyond all criteria. It is a journey that I believe must
include a backward step into the self, and it is a journey that is its own destination (p. 456).
Reflect on the messages you received as you were growing up about ‘making mistakes’, ‘pleasing
others’ and ‘being perfect’.
➜➜ What were they?
➜➜ From whom did you receive them?
➜➜ What is your attitude now towards these notions for yourself and for others?
➜➜ How will these affect your learning in professional experiences?
2 Reflect on your learning

As noted in the introductory chapters significant changes have occurred in the conceptualising
of teaching and there is now a focus on ‘teacher as learner’, ‘teacher as researcher’, ‘teacher as
reflective practitioner’ and ‘teacher as inquirer’. These are all based on the belief that teaching
involves continual learning and that each person has the potential to take control of his or her
practice and learning. These beliefs also apply to pre-service educators.
Thus, a major reason given for developing the ability to reflect is associated with the notion
of pre-service educators maximising their learning from their professional experiences and
accepting responsibility for their own professional development. This viewpoint is supported
by many teacher educators (such as Beauchamp, 2014; Down, 2017; Korthagen, 2014).
Another significant reason for focusing on the development of reflective skills in professional
experience is because teaching and the climate (political, social, economic) within which
teaching takes place are different now from what they were. As was noted in Chapter 1,
educators’ work today is more physically, socially, emotionally and intellectually demanding
than it was in past years. As a result, educators need to have what Cochran-Smith and Lytle
(2009) refer to as a particular ‘stance’ or way of being, which they have called an ‘inquiry as
stance’, which is concerned more with coping with uncertainty than certainty, and concerned
more with posing problems than solving them. In other words, developing dispositions that
allow you to become less certain and more willing to look differently at your world. Reflective
skills will support such a stance. Still another reason for the development of reflectivity in
professional experience is the acknowledgement that teaching, as well as being a practical and
intellectual activity, is also a moral endeavour. The ethical dimension of educators’ work was
discussed in Chapter 2. This dimension of teaching has gained increased recognition in the
literature in the last few decades. For example, it has been stated that education is at heart
a moral practice (Biesta, 2015) which is deeply implicated in values and conflicts of values
(Carr, 2005).
As highlighted in Chapter 2, the importance of being a reflective practitioner to support
ethical practice cannot be overemphasised. From the time of Dewey (1933) to more recently,
educators (Brookfield, 2015; Down, 2017; Kelchtermans, 2009; Loughran, 2002; Lucas, 2012)
have been asked to reflect on their practice, attitudes, learning, their lives and all aspects
of their profession. Lucas (2012) described Dewey’s concept of reflection as ‘Knowledge
… constructed through active reflection on past and present experiences’ (p. 164). Dewey
Open-mindedness identified three attitudes as prerequisites for reflective teaching: ‘open mindedness’, ‘whole-
means being heartedness’ and ‘responsibility’. Brookfield (2012, p. 18) extends on these attitudes and
prepared to listen to
more sides than one. suggests that:
Responsibility Critical reflection is the process by which we research the assumptions informing our practice
means carefully
considering the
by viewing these through four complementary lenses – the lenses of students’ eyes, colleagues’
consequences to perceptions, literature, and our own autobiography.
which an action
leads. As educators, we need to understand the classroom from the learner’s perspective, actively
Wholeheartedness seek feedback from the colleagues with whom we work, read the appropriate educational
means being literature to become clear about our processes and understand that our experiences of the
prepared to take
risks and act. world inform who we are as teachers. And so, with the capacity to be wholehearted, open-
minded and responsible, and being aware of our assumptions through the ‘four lenses’, we
will become more informed, sensitive, caring and ethical educators.
1 How open-minded, responsible and wholehearted are you?
2 What will indicate to others in your professional experience placements that you have these
attitudes?
3 How do you understand Brookfield’s ‘four lenses’?
4 How will you incorporate these lens into your professional experience?
Reflection involves questioning taken-for-granted thoughts, feelings and actions. It is only

when we look beyond what we are doing in the classroom and question why we are doing it
and for whom that we can start to change our teaching to be more inclusive of more learners.
As noted in Chapter 3, the goal of inclusivity is important for every educator. Down, (2017,
p. 134) in his work on teacher education, suggests that critically reflective practice ‘is pivotal
to making schools better places – places where all children, not only the privileged few, can
flourish’. It is not easy work and can be uncomfortable and challenging but ‘if we are serious
about creating a fair and democratic education for all students, then it is vital that we develop
more thoughtful educators’ (Down, 2017).
This level of reflection, as suggested by Down (2017, p. 89), ‘opens up the spaces where
educators can reclaim some control over the policies and practices that are impacting on their
daily work and lives’.
Larivee (2000, cited in Bloomfield, 2010) distinguishes between two aspects of critical
reflection, these being the capacity for ethical enquiry and the capacity for self-reflection.
Thus, while:
Critical enquiry involves the conscious consideration of the moral and ethical implications and
consequences of classroom practice on students … Self reflection goes beyond critical enquiry
by adding to conscious consideration the dimension of deep examination of personal values and
beliefs, embodied in the assumptions teachers make and the expectations they have for students.
Bloomfield, 2010, p. 63
Therefore, critical reflection is not an end in itself. It is a means towards the development
of ethical judgements and strategic actions.
1 How should classroom interactions be managed in ways that are fair and just?
2 How should I best communicate with parents and colleagues whose values may differ?
3 What does it mean for me and my practice?
4 How might I view or do things differently?
These questions lead us to consider a range of alternative practices and then to make
decisions based on a commitment to all people involved in the educational process. The
reflection process culminates in action and the necessary changes to practice are made. Thus,
critically reflective practitioners are committed to ongoing professional learning. They are
professionals indeed.
There will be many opportunities for you in your professional experiences to reflect. You
will be required to reflect on your teaching (see Chapter 9), where you may be asked to
evaluate your lessons in regard to children’s learning outcomes or to evaluate your teaching
strategies and methods in regard to their effectiveness. Teacher education courses across
Australia are using the Professional Standards for Graduate Teachers to assist in this process,
so you might also reflect on the Graduate standards (AITSL, 2012) themselves and ask what
is not included in these lists of attributes required by you. Are these absences important?
What is included? What might be removed?
To maximise your learning from professional experiences you also need to reflect on
your learning. What do we mean by that? As explained in earlier chapters, different people
experience things differently, depending on their attitudes, previous experiences, expectations
and so on. What is important when you are reflecting is to analyse how your professional
experience is affecting you, personally. What are you learning from it?
Referring again to the professional experiences that you read about earlier in this chapter,
the pre-service educators involved were required to reflect on their learning for half an hour
a day throughout their placement. By focusing on their learning, the pre-service educators
came to an appreciation of what they were learning, how they were learning it and, in many
cases, why it was significant. Danielle described how she found the task:
It was beneficial to just focus on learning as it pulled us out
of that focus [teaching]. If you just focus on your teaching,
it’s easy to forget about your learning. Anybody can focus on
your teaching but focusing on your learning is very personal:
only you can do it. There’s always things I’m going to do better
in the classroom so I’ll always think about my teaching but
now I also think about my learning. If you can’t identify your
learning, how can you help children with theirs?
Ask yourself:
➜➜ What was significant in my learning today? Why? What did I learn about teaching? What did I
learn about being an educator? What did I learn about myself?
➜➜ During your professional experiences, what evidence might you collect to demonstrate your
learning?
One way to provide evidence is to keep a written record of your learning. Record your
thoughts and feelings and talk about them with your peers and/or your mentors. To ensure
quality reflections, try to:
• identify your personal response to situations
• actively think about what you saw, heard and did
• reflect on centre/schoolwide issues as well as your own teaching and incidents with
individual learners
• draw links with and build on previous experiences and knowledge
• use concrete examples to test out your understandings of various concepts
• critically analyse concepts in terms of their underlying principles
• ask questions (of yourselves and others)
• identify contradictions and incongruencies in practices
• synthesise your emerging understandings.
The following extracts are from a pre-service teacher who was coming to terms with what
is meant by ‘inclusive practice’.
Even little things like Mother’s Day cards and Paula told
the kids that they could make a card for someone else, not
necessarily their mother. I wouldn’t have thought about that, I
just would have leapt right in and said, ‘It’s Mother’s Day on
Sunday, let’s all make a card for our mums.’
and
What about making things culturally inclusive and gender
inclusive, they’re two conflicting arguments, aren’t they? If
you’re culturally inclusive in a strong Italian culture you’re
not necessarily gender inclusive.
This pre-service teacher used her journal to reflect on a racial harassment incident that had
occurred in her Year 2 classroom. One of the boys in her class made the comment to one of
the girls of Khmer background, ‘I don’t like you because you’re brown’. The little girl came
to Kiandra in tears and Kiandra had to deal with it. She described the incident in her journal:
Upon my questioning of the boy, he began to flatly deny he
had said anything. The girl concerned who was quite distressed
obviously had been hurt by something. After a while the boy
admitted that he had made the comment, but he did not know why
he had made it. I didn’t feel experienced enough to handle the
situation but I proceeded to do so. I talked to the boy for a

while about the seriousness of it but felt he didn’t know the
impact of such a statement. I made him follow through with a
written and a verbal apology, but upon reflecting on it, I am
still not sure whether I handled it well enough.
Kiandra then discussed this incident with her teacher, using her own reflections to clarify
her responses to the incident and the issues it raised.
What would you have done?
You may find that there are more questions than answers emerging from your reflections.
Some of these questions will have answers, while others will highlight the many dilemmas,
challenges and opportunities that every educator experiences and struggles with on an
ongoing basis.
It is clear that there are no easy answers. However, you need to engage with these issues
and be clear about the actions you take and the reasons you make the decisions you do in
your teaching. As explained in Chapter 1, teaching is essentially a critical and thoughtful
activity in which educators are engaged in questioning the social, educational, moral, ethical
and political implications of their work.
This can be a difficult and uncomfortable process and, as Conway and Clark (2003) stressed,
such ‘inward looking’ or ‘reflexive stance’ is very necessary for pre-service educators’ learning
about teaching. However, you are not alone: support is provided in professional experiences
from peers and mentors. The reflection process in which you engage will be enhanced by talking
with others. The benefits of collaboration will be discussed later in this chapter.
3 Understand the context within which you are working

We have said already that the learning
Lisa Kervin
process in professional experiences
is complex. The complexity of it is
captured in the following quote from
Britzman:
The tensions among what has
preceded, what is confronted, and what
one desires shape the contradictory
realities of learning to teach.
2003, p. 31
In other words, your life history and

experiences of preschool and school,
what you hope to achieve and how that
is enacted can present as contradictions
while on your professional experiences.
The differences between the theory
Your theoretical
in your university study and the knowledge of
practical side of the professional teaching might
experience can cause some tension as sometimes
contradict your
experience within
the practical
teaching context
you try to combine both of their requirements. However, to gain most from your professional
experiences, you need to understand the context within which you are working. The contexts
that we will focus on are the early childhood centre and school, although it is recognised that
some teacher education courses involve non-traditional sites, such as a range of community
and industry settings.
Early childhood centres and schools today are complex places. Berlak and Berlak (1981),
whose dilemmas of schooling were outlined in the first chapter, made the point that daily
problems are related to the social and political problems of the society at large. This is certainly
the case currently. Australia and many parts of the world are undergoing an unprecedented
era of significant economic and social change, with the result that people generally, including
educators, learners and their parents, are living much more harried and stressful lives. Add
to that the fact that educators’ work has become more complex and more difficult as a result
of an expansion of professional tasks, more responsibility for individual or broader social
problems, changes to the make-up of the student population, a rapid rate of change in the
community at large, economic rationalisation, public criticism of education, the growth of
technology, the requirement for increased accountability and as a result of living in a time of
greater uncertainty at all levels in society.
Educators are attempting to modify and, in some cases, change altogether, their pedagogy
to meet children’s needs. They are also expected to participate more in the wider life of a
school, including such activities as committee work, training and development activities,
involvement of parents and interagency work.
For some educators, new learning and new ways of working can be challenging. On her
final professional placement in a secondary English department, one pre-service teacher said
summarised, ‘I feel if I ask for help that the mentor teacher
is judging me as inadequate or not good enough’. This
iStock/DGLimages
feeling that seeking guidance or assistance is somehow

exhibiting a lack of capacity can be overwhelming and can
be exacerbated by the current economic crisis, in which
educators and schools are under ever-increasing scrutiny
and criticism. The result for many educators is low morale
and heightened stress levels. Consequently, when you as
a pre-service teacher go into centres and schools for your
professional experiences, you must acknowledge that the
educators with whom you work are themselves trying to
cope with their own lives – personally and professionally.
Asking questions is important for pre-service
educators to build confidence Hastings (2004) reminds us that professional experiences
are emotionally demanding for mentor educators as well
as pre-service educators.
Moreover, school cultures are unique. Within any learning community there is an array
of roles, personalities and group dynamics and as a pre-service teacher, entering such a world
can be somewhat daunting because it is not always obvious what the rules are.
Compare the following situations.
Case study
Feeling we lc o m e
·6
Fumi, a second-year pre-service teacher, was sent to a small metropolitan secondary school
for her professional experience. From the first day, she was made to feel welcome and was
introduced to different staff members at every opportunity, even though she was to spend most
of her time in the English faculty. She was shown around the school and was encouraged to ask secon dary
questions. Staff were enthusiastic and positive, to each other and to the students. In describing
the school to a friend, Fumi said that it had a ‘positive feeling’ and that she was made to feel
part of it.
On the other hand, Maya, another second-year student, who was also sent to a small
metropolitan secondary school for her professional experience, had a very different experience.
Although she too was made to feel welcome by the school coordinator when she arrived, was
given a tour of the school and was introduced to different staff, she noticed that they did not all
respond warmly. Indeed, one teacher was heard to respond to another, ‘Not students again! We
never seem to get a break!’ Maya described the experience to her friend as ‘quite intimidating’,
and said that she felt as though she were ‘invading their space’.
1 What are the factors that make a difference in creating a welcoming learning community?
2 How should the pre-service educator respond to both ‘welcomes’?
Diff ering e x p e rien ce s Case study

·7
In a post-professional experience meeting, Moira and Helen, who were sent to two early
childhood centres in schools in the same suburb, expressed similar views to Fumi and Maya.
Their experiences were quite different. Moira found the whole experience overwhelming and
was expected to have skills and knowledge that she felt she did not have. ‘I didn’t feel welcomed e a r ly
childhood
by the teacher and she didn’t even introduce me to the class on the first day. I felt inadequate
and hopeless.’
Helen, on the other hand, reported a positive learning environment in which she felt part of
the teaching team and was welcomed by the staff and learners alike.
How might a pre-service educator respond if not feeling welcomed as part of the learning
community?
Unfortunately, Maya’s and Moira’s experiences are not a rarity. As one of the pre-service
teachers involved in the Dobbins study said, ‘The usual situation is where you go into a
school and the hierarchy is implicitly understood. It doesn’t take long to know our place’.
While this was not the situation for the pre-service educators involved in the study (the school
had been selected for its commitment to pre-service educators), they still encountered a range
of confusing and often contradictory messages from different people about their position in
the school at various stages in their professional experience. They were well aware that some
people regarded them as ‘only student educators’ and that they were perceived as having low
status in schools. They commented on various messages, both overt and covert, that had been
received previously from educators and learners about their status. One of the pre-service
educators, for example, emphasised the covert message he felt that he had received from an
educator: ‘Don’t be too confident, you’re only a student teacher’, while another highlighted
the overt messages she had received from a couple of the children: ‘You can’t tell me what to
do, you’re only a student teacher’ and ‘Where’s our real teacher?’
Being a pre-service teacher, then, requires recognition of the institutional context in which
you are operating. In a post-professional experience feedback session at one university, pre-
service educators in early childhood settings, primary schools and secondary schools reported
that knowing the school is important. Getting to know the mentor educators, the students
and if possible the families and caregivers helped them to understand the reasons why ‘some
things in the classroom worked the way they did’ (feedback from pre-service teacher, 2016).
Another issue for these pre-service educators was the tension they felt between the university
requirements and what the school or mentor teacher expected. Studies in professional
experience have recognised this as a tension for pre-service educators as they negotiate
their place between the university and the centre or school. Le Cornu (2015, p. 3) describes
recent moves to a more ‘enabling environment’ while pre-service educators are in schools,
describing it as a ‘site of learning’. It is this ‘site of learning’ that enables all participants in the
professional experience to interact in a professional experience community of learners (Le
Cornu & Ewing, 2008). Mentor teachers can learn too from their early career counterparts.
The role of pre-service teacher is indeed complex and full of challenges. However, being
aware of the complexity and the possibilities for contradictory messages and expectations is
necessary in order to take more control of the opportunities throughout the learning process.
Understanding that you are not entering a neutral environment but, rather, one that is already
established with its own dynamics and ways of working allows you to be aware of the whole
learning culture and the relationships within. Your own attitude, and capacity to be resilient
as mentioned earlier, will again be crucial in how you interpret and how you handle various
situations. However, you are not alone in this endeavour. Peers and mentors are available
to support you in your professional experiences. The benefits of working with others is
discussed next.
4 Cultivate collaborative work practices

Professional experiences are an ideal opportunity to work collaboratively as you will be
working closely with at least one educator and having contact with a professional experience
coordinator. In many instances you will also have a university staff member with whom to
communicate. Moreover, in some cases, you may share a placement with a peer or a group
of peers. As mentioned in the beginning of this chapter, working together in action groups is
important for pre-service educators to cultivate collaborative work practices. For example,
when you are placed with other pre-service educators you should seek out opportunities
to meet with them and reflect together on your experiences, and perhaps also watch each
other teach and provide feedback. Sometimes structured opportunities will be provided for
you. For example, a recent initiative in some placements are ‘Learning Circles’, where pre-
service educators placed together at a particular school meet regularly after school to engage
in professional dialogue with each other (Le Cornu & Ewing, 2008). Such practices have been
described as peer mentoring, where pre-service educators engage in mentoring one another Peer mentoring
(Le Cornu, 2005). When you are placed with educators who themselves work collaboratively, involves pre-service
educators engaging
you should endeavour to work with them as closely as possible. As seen in the preceding in ongoing dialogue
chapter, the benefits of collaboration are becoming increasingly well known. to provide support
and challenge for
You should not underestimate the value of peer support in professional experiences. Being each other.
able to engage in professional dialogue is an essential skill for twenty-first century educators. Professional
Both during your pre-service teacher education and throughout your teaching career, you dialogue refers to
will need to be able to articulate your beliefs about teaching, learning and support, and engaging in rigorous
conversations
challenge colleagues to do the same. Getting along with one’s colleagues is also a prerequisite about teaching
for teaching in the current context, given the increasing emphasis on teamwork. As well and learning with
colleagues.
as developing the necessary interpersonal skills, collaborative practices allow for shared
involvement in planning and evaluating teaching and learning.
Sutton and Shouse (2016, p. 69) discuss the notion that ‘Teaching is complex’ and that to
make sense of this complexity ‘educators and school leaders crave meaningful, collaborative
experiences to make sense of that complexity’.
They go on to suggest that for collaboration to be
Getty Images/Caiaimage/Paul Bradbury

useful for educators (and by inference pre-service
educators) it must be seen as ‘an integral feature of
their work when the problems we ask them to solve
are specific to their practice, common to a majority of
educators in a particular school, and have a solution that
can only be reached via collaboration’.
Your learning in the field, as we have seen, will be
emotionally demanding as you engage in both teaching
and learning. When you work with others, you will
not always agree, nor will there always be ‘right Peer mentoring
answers’, but you will benefit from listening, clarifying
and confirming, modifying or changing your views
altogether on particular topics.
Contrasting points of view are evident in the following extracts from discussions held
with two pre-service educators (Dobbins, 1994). They were discussing the issue of children’s
learning and whether acquiring a body of knowledge or experiencing success was more
important. Sam said:
I don’t know if this is my school upbringing, I do believe that
if kids don’t experience success, of course they’re not going
to feel good about what they’re doing but at the same time you
can’t have kids going into Year 8 who haven’t got basic knowledge
of base 10 can you? Isn’t that the role of a teacher to get the
kids to a level that is going to see them through? ... If they
can’t get to that level you have to hold them back and give them
Special Ed.
Danielle held a different view:

My views are a result of working with children with special
needs. You come to realise that it doesn’t matter what their
chronological age is you can’t push them to know stuff. I mean
I used to get really angry with them, saying ‘You should know
this stuff, what are you doing?’ But then it suddenly hits you,
‘Are you going to let them fail constantly because you want
them to know fractions when they can’t tell the time, what’s the
point?’... And like non-Special Ed. kids, why should you expect
them to reach a particular line? Then you have the danger that
the bright kids reach that so they just stop. That’s silly. And
how long are you going to keep them down? ... I can see what
Sam’s talking about and I can understand his feelings entirely
but then at the same time I don’t think I want to jeopardise my
health and my entire class’s health just to try and get them to
the stage where some will go beyond and some will never reach.
By engaging in this debate, Sam and Danielle are enabled to listen to more sides than
one. This is an enactment of Dewey’s precept of open-mindedness. The important point
here is being prepared to be open-minded and being able to express your view. As noted
in Chapter 1, you need to be able to engage in critical debate in a context that recognises
that the discourses are manifold and vexatious. Although they are difficult, and consensus is
sometimes impossible to reach, debates such as these enable pre-service educators to further
understand the complexities, dilemmas and opportunities involved in educators’ work and
the implications of their beliefs for classroom practices. These discussions are not about
proving a point but are dialogues where different views are expressed in a supportive and
encouraging environment. We may not agree with one another but may well learn from
others if we remain open-minded and whole hearted.
How do you disagree agreeably? What do you say or do to indicate to someone else that you
respect their view, even though you may not agree with it?
Your feelings will play a significant role in your professional experiences. How you
deal with these feelings and how you interpret various incidents and events during your
Teacher resilience
The capacity to professional experiences will depend to a large degree on your self-esteem and self-confidence.
manage ongoing This last section focuses on these aspects.
and multiple
challenges over time
while continuing 5 Build your capacity to be resilient
to grow and thrive Just as the success of learners in the classroom is contingent upon them having a well-rounded
professionally
(Mansfield et al., sense of self, so too is the case for educators. Teacher resilience underpins a teacher’s ability to be
2016). a lifelong learner.
Using more recent terminology, your emerging professional teacher identity (which is
interconnected with your personal identity) will both influence and be influenced by your
actual teaching. Here again, we see the power of emotions, for as Zembylas (2003, p. 223)
explained, ‘Emotions inform and define identity in the process of becoming’. You need to be
able to identify the things that you do well, the qualities that you possess and those that you
will need to develop.
Pre-service teacher resilience is very important in professional experience. The American
Psychological Association (2014) suggests that resilience can be facilitated through the
development of resources such as ways of thinking and behaviours that act as protective
factors. Personal protective factors include skills such as positive thinking, communication
and problem solving, as well as social and emotional skills (BRiTe modules, 2014–17).
Given the complexity of being a pre-service teacher, it seems clear that a degree of self-
esteem is required. Self-esteem and self-concept are at the very core of the capacity to be
resilient.
Being resilient means that when you are in schools during your professional experiences,
you do not take every incident or event personally. You need to be able to interpret them with
a degree of self-confidence. A principal who worked in a school with significant challenges
described a challenge as ‘you have to learn to observe, not absorb’. Noordhoff (2009, p. 64)
suggests that learning to teach is challenging because of the paradox between the developing
teacher identity, integrity and the role of the teacher, and suggests that:
without a teacher’s deep sense of his or her own identity expressed authentically through
integrity, teaching skill is not sufficient to truly connect with learners and help them connect
with worthwhile subject matter and with themselves.
Every one of your interactions and relationships in the field will be affected by your
feelings about yourself. If you are anything like the pre-service educators referred to in this
chapter, these feelings will not be static – they will fluctuate throughout your placements.
Hence, you need some strategies to nurture your resilience throughout your placements.
The BRiTe program, developed by academics from three Australian universities, is based on
a study of early career and pre-service educators. It is a series of modules to help you as both
a pre-service and in-service teacher to develop your capacity to be resilient in the face of the
opportunities and challenges you will face on your professional placements.
The modules consist of B-Building Resilience, R-Relationships, i-Wellbeing, T-Taking
initiative and E-Emotions. Working through the modules will assist towards building your
resilience and sense of self.
We also suggest you:
• set realistic goals
• ask for feedback
• manage your time and be organised
• monitor and regulate energy and stress levels
• cultivate a support network
• celebrate successes.
Setting realistic goals

Setting realistic goals enables you to optimise your learning in your professional experiences.
In each placement, there will be clear guidelines about what you need to achieve in order to
satisfactorily meet the objectives of the professional experience. These are important. But so
are your own goals. You know yourself better than anyone. Be clear about what you want to
achieve. You may need to prioritise your goals to enable you to work initially on those that
are uppermost in your mind.
Asking for feedback

Feedback is a way of learning about ourselves and the effect our behaviour has on others.
In your professional experiences you will receive feedback from a range of people. This
will include your mentor teacher, teaching colleagues, parents and learners. It will come in
a variety of forms, such as verbal, written, formal, informal, private or public. Sometimes
receiving feedback can be quite daunting, such as when it is not as positive as we might have
liked or expected or when it raises issues with which we are not familiar.
There are various skills related to receiving feedback, including:
• listening carefully (rather than rejecting it or arguing with it)
• being clear about what is being said (rather than jumping to conclusions or becoming
defensive)
• thanking the person who gave the feedback
• checking it out with others (rather than relying on only one source).
It is your choice ultimately what you do with the feedback. You need to assess its value
and the consequences of ignoring it or using it and deciding what to do as a result of it. You
need to develop the self-confidence to ask for the feedback you want but do not get, such as
if the feedback you receive is only restricted to one aspect of your behaviour or if you want
some written feedback, but you are only receiving oral or spoken feedback. The better we
become at receiving feedback, the more we will encourage people to give us feedback.
Managing your time and being organised

Time management and organisation will also help you to maximise your learning from your
professional placements. There will be many demands on your time during professional
experiences, both in school and away from school. Time management will be important. Do
you manage your time well?
Ask yourself: Do I procrastinate? Do I get led astray by unexpected visitors or phone
calls? Do I attempt too much at once, with the result that I get overwhelmed and give up?
You need to develop strategies to combat these time-wasters! For example, identify the
most significant tasks and avoid getting sidetracked on less important jobs. Be more assertive
with interruptions – explain that you are busy right now, but you could talk with the person
later. Set very specific goals, including personal goals, such as a book you want to read or a
movie you want to see. Be organised. Written lists often help. If you tick items as you complete
them, you often experience an inner sense of satisfaction. Analyse why you procrastinate. Is
it because you are worried about failing or succeeding? It is for many people. Remember
Danielle and her perfectionist syndrome? You need to recognise this about yourself, find out
what you can do about it and then begin. Is it that the task is too big? If this is the case, you
need to break it down into small manageable bits and begin.
Another important consideration for time management is reflecting on what it is that

you spend your time on and prioritising what is really important. For example, is it worth
spending hours creating resources that take learners moments to complete? Is there a more
effective way to create the experience? How might the learners be involved with the creation
of resources?
Monitoring and regulating energy and stress levels

As we have shown, teaching is a challenging profession. There is a personal and emotional
toll of working with learners, parents and colleagues. You will therefore have to learn to
monitor your energy and stress levels so that you can keep yourself healthy throughout your
professional experiences. More and more attention is being given to the notion of ‘teacher
wellbeing’, as well as ‘student wellbeing’ (introduced in Chapter 5). There is increasing
recognition that a healthy work–life balance is necessary if educators are to sustain an
enjoyable and rewarding career. While it is recognised that professional experiences make big
demands on your time and energy, and therefore you might not achieve a ‘work–life’ balance
during your placements, it is essential that you start to learn ways of managing your energy
and stress levels. We are all human and have finite amounts of energy and emotional capacity.
We must all take responsibility (including workplace managers) for ensuring that we have the
personal resources to work with learners in positive and optimistic ways.
Cultivating a support network

Cultivating a support network will enable you to enjoy the benefits of collaboration, as Support network
A group of people
described earlier in this chapter. Teaching, as we have seen, is not an individualistic pursuit. who will sustain you
During your professional experiences you will need an extended personal support network, in your professional
which may be your friends, your peers or your family. You can also create professional support life through offering
emotional, practical
networks through maintaining relationships with supervising educators and university teacher and professional
educators throughout your candidature and connecting with professional associations who help.
are usually delighted to embrace pre-service and early career educators. Whoever they are,
they will play an important role. Take time to share with them your experiences and how you
are feeling. Spend time with them and build this time into your time-management and stress-
management plans.
Celebrating successes
Often, we tend to take for granted those things that we accomplish and give all of our energy
to those things that still need our attention. We need to have a balance. It is good to get into
the habit of celebrating successes. You can do this alone or with your support network.
Maximising the value of your

experiences
There is a very important strategy that you can use to maximise the ultimate value of your
professional experiences and other learning opportunities in your initial teacher education
program. This strategy is to collect evidence of your progress and achievements. In the current
context, this is a necessary skill to develop because, as suggested earlier, all educators need to
show evidence of meeting the Australian Professional Standards for Teachers at various stages
throughout their careers.
By the end of your program you will have to show evidence of how you meet the
Graduate-level standard for each of the seven national standards. This will be an ongoing
process for you throughout your program, involving different courses and learning
opportunities. Your professional experiences and other learning experiences (working in
the community as coaches, carers, etc.) provide you with wonderful opportunities to collect
quality evidence. It is best to start to collect this evidence from your very first placement.
Many teacher education institutions require their pre-service educators to use an e-portfolio
for this purpose.
Quality evidence might be regarded as that which can be substantiated or confirmed
from a detached source. Your professional experience report is a very good example of
quality evidence. Accrediting and employing authorities rely heavily on your final reports
when making decisions about who to employ. As we have moved into a national system
of teacher accreditation and registration (with mutual recognition of state registration
authorities), it is more important than ever that accrediting and employing authorities know
that the reports are:
• comparable
• accurate
• provide a basis for reasonable predictions of future independent performance and
development as a professional educator.
Teacher education institutions around Australia have their reports aligned with the
Professional Standards for Graduate Teachers. The standards outline what a Graduate teacher
must know and be able to do. As such, they provide useful guidelines for assessing the end
point of the initial learning journey.
As well as your report, it will be up to you to collect other evidence to support your
claims as a beginning educator. For example: written parent feedback, student comments,
written plans and evaluations, etc. Can you think of other sources?
The process of collecting quality evidence will not stop once you finish your teacher
education program. In order to obtain full registration, you will need to provide evidence
of how you have met the next level in the standards, that is, Proficient teacher. And so, the
process will continue as you progress through the ‘Highly Accomplished’ and ‘Lead’ stages.
The skills you acquire now in collecting quality evidence will thus hold you in good stead for
your future teaching career.
Early career teaching

While the emphasis in this chapter has been upon you as a learner in professional experiences,
it could equally be said to address the needs of the beginning or early career educator.
An increasing number of writers are recognising the profoundly emotional experience of
early career teaching (Aitken & Harford, 2011; Bullough & Draper, 2004; Intrator, 2006;
McNally & Blake, 2009; Johnson et al., 2012) and appreciating that which Intrator (2006)
acknowledged: ‘The inner journey novice educators experience is especially intense,

conflicting, dynamic and fragile’ (p. 234). It is precisely because of this that many writers
have stressed the importance of early career educators creating their own support networks
and have identified the value of peer support (Gu & Day, 2007; Papatraianou, 2012; Johnson
et al., 2012; Le Cornu, 2013). The friends you make at university very often remain friends
throughout your teaching career!
Most Australian states and territories are now recognising that new educators, taking
on the full responsibility of the professional in the learning centre and the classroom, need
support and assistance just as the pre-service teacher requires guidance. For example, in many
states, mentoring programs have emerged whereby an experienced educator is designated to
become a trusted professional friend to early career educators in the school. The role is not
seen as a supervisory one, but rather as one that emphasises critical reflection.
When beginning to teach, there are new roles and responsibilities that emerge and these
cannot be effectively modelled during professional experiences. For example, you will learn
to become a fully functioning member of teams and committees within the school and to be
involved in roles beyond the classroom. Do remember what we started this chapter with:
teaching is a learning profession – you won’t stop learning throughout your career! Many
studies on early career educators have proven that ‘being a learner’ is central to the success
of early career educators (Ewing & Manuel, 2005; Peters & Le Cornu, 2006; Johnson et al.,
2012).
Conclusion
Throughout this chapter, the emphasis has been upon you as the learner. We have highlighted
five strategies that you can use to maximise your learning from your professional experiences.
These are to:
1 analyse your attitude towards your learning
2 reflect on your learning
3 understand the context within which you are working
4 cultivate collaborative work practices
5 build your capacity to be resilient.
We have also stressed the importance of collecting evidence of your progress and
achievements. This evidence will support your claims as an early career educator as to how
you meet the Professional Standards for Graduate Teachers.
It is noteworthy that many of the strategies suggested are equally applicable to early
career educators, even experienced educators. Teaching, as we have seen, is about learning –
not only students’ learning but educators’ learning – and learning about teaching is a lifelong
process. Thus, you will be a learner of teaching throughout your career. It does not stop
the minute you graduate. You might find it useful to return to this chapter at various times
throughout your career, to appreciate the benefits of reflection, collaboration and building
resilience.
STUDY TOOLS
Following 1 Think about your personal biography – your family, culture, school experiences, work, your views of
through the world, etc. How might this influence your actions in the classroom?
2 Consider how your professional identity is developing. What attributes/qualities would you identify as
being central to your emerging teacher identity? Are these similar to or different from those that you
would identify as being central to your personal identity?
3 Reflect on the point made by Noordhoff (2012) that teaching skills alone are not sufficient to engage
the learner in meaningful interactions. What else is needed? Why?
4 Share with your fellow pre-service teachers the strategies that you use to manage your time and stress.
Make a combined list of effective strategies. Select one that is unfamiliar to you and practise it for a
week. Reflect on its effectiveness, and compare and contrast your findings with your peers.
5 How might you develop your sense of self and your capacity to be resilient? Check the BriTe website
and consider the suggestions made by the authors. Will these work for you? When might you access
the modules?
Useful
http://teacherevidence.net/about-the-project This resource was developed by a team of teacher educators
online
and mentor educators from several states as part of the Australian Government’s Office for Learning
teaching and Teaching grant. It provides information, activities and resources to inform experienced educators
resources and pre-service educators about the learning, the demonstration of that learning and the judgements
made about the achievement of that learning. It provides guidance as to what counts as evidence in
regard to the national standards for educators.
https://ro.ecu.edu.au/ecuworkspost2013/586/ This website links to a book entitled Early Career Educators,
Stories of Resilience. It contains stories about early career educators in South Australia and Western
Australia that really capture their challenges and dilemmas and the realities of being an early career
teacher. It provides lots of strategies as well as wisdom from early career educators themselves as well
as from school leaders and from the literature.
https://www.brite.edu.au This BRiTe website will take you to a series of modules for you to complete
(in as much time as you would like) to help develop the necessary attributes of a resilient person and
teacher.
Aitken, R. & Harford, J. 2011, ‘Induction needs of a group Burn, K. 2007, ‘Professional knowledge and identity in a
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9
Planning, preparing and
assessment for teaching
N e d B u r F I el
d
Educators need to account

for the varying capacities,
interests and learning styles
of their students when
planning learning experiences.
220
CHAPTER 9 Planning, preparing and assessment for teaching 221
P lanning for teaching and formative assessment are at the core of the work of all
educators, whether in an early childhood or care situation, primary or secondary
school, TAFE or university. It is through planning the learning experiences and the
program of work together with the assessments that will let you know how successful
your teaching has been and will enable successful learning outcomes. Godinho (2013)
describes this planning as connecting pedagogy, curriculum and assessment. It sounds
simple, but in fact causes pre-service and in-service educators many late nights as they
grapple with mandated curriculum documents, teaching strategies, assessment processes
and, not least, the needs of the learners. Planning and programming are complex and often
educators, including pre-service educators, are expected to work with other educators in
the same learning area or year level to integrate skill development with mandated content
knowledge. This requires taking into consideration the emotional and social needs,
interest and abilities of a specific group of learners and their families in the context of a
particular school community and its resources, while at the same time taking into account
the requirements of a particular education system. It also means working closely with
colleagues in collaborative planning teams.
The planning approaches educators develop reflect their underlying philosophies of
teaching and learning and their beliefs and biases, either implicitly or explicitly, about the type
of learning context that facilitates effective learning processes. Planning occurs at the single
lesson, the daily plan, the unit outline, the term and the year. As a pre-service educator you
are going to be focused at the beginning of your professional experiences on single lessons
and then move to a sequence of lessons before you begin to plan for extended periods of the
day. Once you are in your final professional experiences, you will be expected to program
for the period of your placement and teach the day in its entirety.
Planning at the early stages of your professional learning is either overseen by the mentor
educator, year or stage coordinator or shared with colleagues in a collaborative way. However
the process is achieved, the critical part is always the mental planning and decision making
that goes into the planning process. The written document is an attempt to reflect this, albeit
only partially, so that others can understand what is intended.
This chapter focuses on several important planning issues and considers different phases
of planning. The aim is to plan holistically and collaboratively, and to integrate learning
experiences and assessment in meaningful ways that relate to the students’ real lives. It briefly
discusses some relevant research about how educators plan and what affects their decision
making. A number of principles for planning in a range of contexts are then considered, as
well as a discussion on some of the fundamentals of assessment, including the principles, and
the need to consider assessment as part of the planning process. This then leads to some ideas
for reporting a learner’s progress to parents/caregivers. The final section comprises a range of
formats and examples of pre-service and in-service educators’ written plans to assist you in
thinking about your own careful planning.
Factors affecting educator planning

Research on educator planning consistently shows that educators invest a great deal of time
in thinking about their teaching and the diverse learners in their classes. Their planning is
Decision-making largely constrained by how much decision-making space (Smith & Lovat, 2003) they perceive
space is the room to that they have. Any educator will define, sometimes unconsciously, what planning decisions
make real choices
and decisions. have already been made externally by others (for example, the state and federal governments,
the centre’s governance, the school system, the syllabus committee, the school executive). In
addition, an educator’s decision-making space will also be affected by internal factors: their
beliefs about themselves as an educator, their beliefs about the particular group of learners
they are working with, how students at this age and stage learn most effectively and their
perceptions of the community, and school and classroom contexts in which they work. The
concept of decision-making space is a flexible one and the same educator’s decision-making
space will vary according to the particular group of students, the specific subject or curriculum
area, and even how the educator feels on a particular day. External and internal factors that
affect our perceived decision-making space are discussed in more detail below.
Shutterstock.com/Yeko Photo Studio
Educator planning and programming is critical
How might you develop or negotiate decision-making space as an early career educator?
External factors
There are many external factors affecting how an educator makes decisions in the classroom.
While it is difficult to attach any order of significance to these factors because every educator is
different, they will include, to some degree, the expectations of the community, the particular
school system in which the educator is employed, mandated policy, curriculum and syllabus
documents, the school itself, the grade or stage policies, the families and ultimately the needs
of the learners. Below is a list developed by a group of pre-service educators discussing what
external factors constrain an educator’s programming:
FIGURE 9.1
FACTORS THAT CONSTRAIN PROGRAMMING
Seasons and Level of community

the weather involvement in
the school
Current affairs –
Parental
global, national,
expectations and
local events
level of involvement
Students’ extracurricular
Social diversity and
activities
background of the students
Factors that
The Australian Curriculum constrain State and sector
and National Assessment Plan programming curriculum and syllabus
for Literacy and Numeracy documents, school policies
(NAPLAN) and programs
Time Funding and

resources
Class size Political

Community
climate
values
Is there anything missing from this list that you would add?
Educators are expected to provide learners with basic skills (however these may be
defined), but at the same time there is an expectation that they are to nurture and encourage
them as a whole person, and allow their creativity and problem-solving abilities to develop.
More and more often, the schools become the places where issues important in the community
are expected to be taught. Such things as sex education, specific health issues such as diet,
physical activity, managing money, being safe and so on have become the responsibility of
education systems. Along with mandated teaching and assessment requirements, the work
of educators can be seen to be complicated and busy.
We hear regularly from the media and from politicians that educators are not doing their
job properly because a ‘new study’ has allegedly demonstrated that students’ skills in a
particular area are inferior to results of years (sometimes decades!) ago. Policy documents
at national, state and territory levels regularly introduce new expectations about content,
anticipated outcomes at various stages of schooling and mandated frameworks for recording
what has been planned and implemented. The Australian Curriculum documents for English,
Mathematics, Science, The Arts, History and the Social Sciences, Health and Physical
Education, Languages and Technology are now mandated, but how the states address
implementation is another issue. In most states and territories, the local curriculum body
has incorporated the national curriculum into a state/territory-based set of documents
reflecting quite closely those elements of the national curriculum. In Australia at present, the
school curriculum is prescriptive, although there is room for individual educators to develop
appropriate learning experiences to suit the particular learners in their learning area or class.
Early childhood centres and preschools have more flexibility, but even they are constrained
by the context, culture and expectations of the community.
The culture of a particular school or centre and its executive will provide a decision-making
framework that will affect the nature of the individual educator’s planning. Collaborative
planning across grades or in learning areas may, for example, be a feature of some schools
and centres. Others may have a rigid set of expectations at each age, grade or stage level with
no scope for educators to introduce their own talents or perspectives, let alone negotiate
with students about their interests. A small rural school with multi-age classes from early
childhood to Year 10 will operate quite differently to a large metropolitan school where there
will be several classes at each year level. More recently, schools in the same local area have
been developing communities and jointly planning learning programs together. It can be seen
that contextual factors will significantly affect what and how each classroom educator plans
and prepares for their students.
The availability of resources is another factor that impacts on what educators are able to
plan. Resources are not just material, although these are important. Proximity to relevant
excursion sites, accessibility of relevant guest speakers on a particular topic and availability
of family and other community support for group work are all important in planning varied,
exciting learning experiences that have relevance to the real world. Some centres and schools
are more able to provide resources for learner use than those that depend almost solely on
government funding and subsidies. We need to be aware that all centres and schools are not
resourced equally. Even the size and shape of the learning spaces and classrooms can constrain
an educator’s decisions.
Many of the expectations that arise from these external factors will appear conflicting and
it is the educator who must meld these into a workable framework while integrating a range
of internal factors.
Thinking back on your experiences of school, whether preschool, primary or secondary, what
external factors may have influenced how you experienced the school environment? Does anything
stand out for you?
Internal factors
Your own beliefs as an educator will influence how you plan and implement learning
experiences. Beliefs about how children learn most effectively and what is expected from
different groups of learners will interact with your knowledge of content and teaching
strategies. Even more influential, however, are educators’ own beliefs about their ability
to teach effectively. This is often termed their ‘self-efficacy’ (Zakeri, Rahmany & Labone,
2016; Bandura, 1986). The match between an individual educator’s beliefs about best teaching
practice and whether they can personally meet these demands in the classroom is crucial.
Those educators who do not feel confident about their own ability as an educator (and
learner) will feel they have the least decision-making space. In fact, they may see themselves
as victims of the system and be more susceptible to burnout (Sproles, 2018).
In addition, educators will have different perceptions of themselves as educators in
different discipline areas. Research has suggested early career secondary educators are more
likely than more experienced educators to be asked to teach out of field, particularly in
schools that have high levels of students with English as an additional language or small rural
schools (Nixon, Luft & Ross, 2017). Some educators have found the challenge of teaching in
a different learning area a positive experience. One secondary art educator, John (personal
communication, 2016), who was asked to teach Year 8 science reported that he valued the
experience and felt he used his arts-based teaching strategies to good effect. Weldon (2016)
suggests that teaching out of field ‘is of considerable concern’ (p. 2) to some educators, and
not all educators feel so positive about teaching out of field. Feelings of inadequacy in a
particular area or lack of interest could affect planning in these learning areas and may lead
to overreliance on textbooks, with the result that learners may no longer enjoy the subject or
reach the desired learning outcomes.
Primary educators are educated to teach multiple disciplines. There is research that shows
that primary teachers can be less confident about themselves as educators of mathematics
(Baspinar & Peker, 2016), Science (Tytler, 2009) and/or some strands of the Creative Arts
(Lemon and Garvis, 2013). These learning areas are now an area of focus, particularly science
and mathematics, where there have been calls for specialist educators in both science and
mathematics (Dinham, 2015), while others Pezaro (2017) have argued for improved funding
for schools to assist educators in these learning areas. Perhaps these are areas for additional
professional learning you have identified. Reflecting on your own capabilities may reveal
others that are more in need for you. Alternatively, there may be areas that you feel really
comfortable with and have particular expertise in. It’s just as important to identify that end
of the continuum because these are skills that you will bring to an educational context that
you can promote. These debates occur around your work as an educator and, as important
as they are, for you as a graduate educator, it is engaging in the planning process that is of
paramount importance.
Planning
While we acknowledge that planning is absolutely imperative in teaching, there is no one
recipe for planning that will ensure success. As Walker (2017, p. 453) writes, ‘the educator is
positioned in a situation with a number of alternative responses from which they then make a
choice’. Planning becomes a dilemma because educators must balance the curriculum decisions
made by other people and groups – curriculum, syllabus, policy makers and mandated
perspectives – with their own belief systems and understandings to decide what best meets
the needs of their particular learner group. An educator’s own preferred ways of thinking,
acting and seeing the world, learners and learning will also be affected by the availability of
human and physical resources. In considering how these will affect an educator’s planning
process it might be useful at this point to review the different perceptions of the teaching and
learning process (Chapter 4) and the different implications for curriculum design (Chapter 7).
For example, the educator who sees their role as primarily to transmit knowledge is more
likely to think about planning in a linear manner by setting down a series of behavioural
objectives. An educator who is concerned with the learning process as well as the content
may be more concerned about the sequencing of the activities he or she has organised and
how the learners will be grouped to work collaboratively. An educator who genuinely wants
to involve learners in the planning process will start with a big idea or question to be discussed
initially as a whole class before further planning takes place.
Both the internal and external factors described above are being considered simultaneously
by educators as they plan what and how they will teach. The next section considers a number
of principles which may be helpful in any planning process.
Principles of planning
The following principles, while not exhaustive, need to be considered by the educator for
effective teaching to take place:
1 Careful preparation needs to be balanced with flexibility.
2 Planning must be based on knowledge about how learners approach the learning process.
3 Planning needs to consider the diversity of learners and their needs.
4 Planning backwards allows for analysis of achievements and future needs.
5 Planning must be negotiable.
6 Planning should consider meaningful integration possibilities.
7 Planning involves attention to detail and resources.
8 Planning includes planning for assessment.
Each principle is discussed in more detail in the following sections.
Careful preparation balanced with flexibility

There is a real tension in the need to plan carefully. You have to allow yourself to feel confident
and have a sense of control of where you and the learners need to go while, at the same time, be
flexible enough to move with the learners’ responses. Working simultaneously with a group
of individuals means that it is impossible to work completely spontaneously, regardless of
how positive your relationship with your learners is or how intuitive you are. As mentioned
earlier, it is your mental preparation and the physical recording of plans that are essential. An
important part of this mental planning is the visualisation of the way learning activities will
be implemented. It may include mental rehearsal of instructions, steps in a procedure and the
identification of key focus questions for discussion. It may include the collection of a range
of new resources or the planning of an initial excursion. You need to think through your
purposes and intentions so that you can anticipate alternative pathways should difficulties
arise.
In thinking about the importance of balanced planning in preparing for teaching, consider
the following scenarios.
The benefit s o f c a re f u l p rep arat ion Case study

·1
It’s Demi’s first day of a three week professional experience at a preschool in one of the newer
areas of Canberra. She’s been observing one day a week for the last four weeks so is getting
to know some of the children and their parents. She’s been asked to share a story after lunch
before the children have a short rest or quiet time. Demi knows some of the newest children e a r ly
childhood
will be tearful when parting from their parents. She takes three or four picture books on this
theme and allows the children to make a choice. She spends time reading through each one
using a mirror to practise her expression and inflection, and where she will pause to ask a
question.
Why did Demi’s lesson work so successfully? What has she done that may help you in future
classrooms?
Demi’s thoughtful preparation enables her to offer several alternatives for storytime. She
is confident that at least one of the stories will be of interest and is delighted when the time
invested in choosing a number of books enables her to be flexible about which book the
children prefer.
The perils o f n ot p lan n in g Case study

·2
Joe is a gregarious pre-service educator with well-developed social skills and a drama background.
He has had lots of experience with young children through youth groups and camps, and relates
to most children very well. He considers himself a natural educator and is somewhat sceptical
about the planning requirements set down in the professional experience handbook. His first primary
professional experience placement is with a challenging group of Year 3 learners. He is asked
to take a lesson on ball-handling skills in the playground in readiness for the team events in the
forthcoming sports carnival. He sketches out a rough lesson plan based on playing some well-
known ball games. His cooperating educator gives him the key to the sports storeroom and suggests
he check that he has all the equipment he needs well before the lesson because some children aren’t
diligent about returning it. She also offers some useful advice about using a signal to gain everyone’s
attention outside, mentioning that she usually uses a whistle.
Joe does not bother to check the equipment until the recess before his lesson is scheduled.
He is dismayed to find only a few balls and bats in the storeroom, and that some of the balls are
low in air. He quickly decides that the teams will just have to be larger in number. There are no
whistles and his cooperating educator rather reluctantly lends him her own but suggests that for
hygiene reasons he should really purchase his own.
The learners are excited about being outside for PE but quickly get tired of waiting so
long for a turn with each activity. Joe is surprised at the wide range of abilities among the
group and belatedly realises that many students would have benefited from some explicit
modelling before they began.
It’s a windy day and he has some trouble being heard. Halfway through the lesson, there is
an unexpected downpour and Joe is forced to retreat to the weather shed where his games are
not appropriate. He tries frantically to remember some alternative indoor games but the class
becomes restless as he ponders what to do next. At the conclusion of the lesson, Joe is both
exhausted and somewhat despondent.
What lessons can you learn from Joe’s experience with this Year 3 class?
Joe’s experience demonstrates the importance of planning with purposes clearly in mind.
Decisions need to be made not only about what will be taught but also about why and how.
The necessity of ascertaining the availability of appropriate resources, sometimes in creative
ways, is also underlined. Joe’s experience also suggests that organisation strategies need due
consideration, as do contingency plans.
At the same time, planning needs to be flexible. The next account illustrates the danger of
becoming so rigid or fixed in following a plan that the teachable moment is lost.
Case study Re s p on d in g t o th e tea ch ab l e mo me n t

·3
Joanna had planned her Year 9 mathematics lesson on calculating the area of composite shapes
to the last second. She had been having difficulties pacing her lessons, so had followed her
mentor educator’s suggestions and written down anticipated times for each stage of this lesson
secon dary in the margin of her lesson plan. She had planned her lesson so that the learners would begin
with a small group practical activity before moving to a pen-and-paper task. The learners were
deeply involved in her activity and she began to panic that they would not have time to complete
the written work she had planned. She asked the class to stop what they were doing, put away
their materials and begin the worksheet. Reluctantly, the learners did as they were asked, but
to her dismay, they seemed disinterested in completing the written work and started to exhibit
off-task behaviour. She became aware that by shutting down the activity, she had missed the
opportunity to focus on the learning that was occurring in the groups and that the learners were
no longer interested in her lesson.
Think about yourself in Joanna’s situation. How would you have responded? Would your response have
been different?
Joanna found that over-planning can be just as dangerous as a lack of planning. Planning
has sometimes been likened to a journey and it is important in any journey to make sure you
know where you are going, how you will travel and what you will need to take with you.
It is also important to deviate when something interesting comes up and not miss the
opportunity. You can always return to the journey at a later time.
Planning based on current knowledge about how

students learn
Regardless of whether you teach in an early childhood centre or primary or secondary
school and whether the class is streamed (grouped according to ability), composite (mixed-
year levels) or heterogeneous (mixed ability), all groups of learners will have a wide range
of abilities, needs and interests. There is no such thing as a class where all learners have the
same capacities or are learning at the same level. This is one of the challenges for you as a pre-
service educator: to plan lessons that cater for this diversity.
Classes are formed for many different reasons, some based on educational principles,
some pragmatic because of enrolment numbers and others for reasons less easy to articulate.
Every class will be unique. In addition, many learners will also be experiencing social and
emotional upheavals or events in their lives outside the classroom that are completely beyond
the control of the learner, the educator or the school. However, they will have an impact on
the learner’s concentration span, ability to take on new concepts, interest in topics and so on.
For the pre-service educator, these challenges are especially difficult given that you are placed in
a class for a relatively short timeframe and have to begin working with learners almost immediately,
although most educators face these issues at the beginning of every school year and casual or relief
educators face them constantly. The beginning, temporary or casual educator, has to look at short-
term planning, whereas the permanent classroom educator can be involved in long-term planning
over a term, semester or year. Generally, school communities plan over a significantly longer
timeframe, sometimes embracing several years, thus allowing for development, continuity and
coherence. As a pre-service educator or a short-term casual educator, it is not possible for you to
be involved in such planning. This means your focus is necessarily on the learners. Initially, then,
learning experiences for an unknown group or class will need to be planned to provide you with
as much information as possible about them so the learning experiences will be largely diagnostic
in nature. Some suggested activities are outlined later in the chapter in the example unit entitled
‘Getting to Know You’.
Whatever the constraints of a particular situation, it is essential to plan any lesson based on
your principles of learning as discussed earlier. These are briefly revisited below.
• We all need to be engaged in or actively involved in the learning process and to have some
sense of ownership of what we are doing. Refer back to the discussion in Chapter 4 about
quality teaching and learning, including the need for engagement for ‘deep learning’ and
‘understanding’ to occur and the importance of learner autonomy and investment in their
own learning.
• We need to understand the purpose or why we are involved in a particular activity or
process.
• A range of different strategies for learning needs to be included so that, for example,
a process might be modelled, jointly worked on with a peer and later consolidated
individually. Learners may be shown how to do something but may also need – or want –
to try it for themselves. Another student might need to talk extensively about what is
happening, yet another might prefer to try it out first and then discuss it.
Planning therefore needs to include a range of experiences or activities for learners to be
involved in. These may often include the opportunity for talking and listening, enacting,
experimenting or drawing as well as more formal pencil-and-paper tasks. As you become
more familiar with the group or class and they become more acquainted with you, you will
be able to refine your organisation to better cater for the diversity you will find.
Planning needs to consider diversity

Once you have identified the different needs, interests and abilities of your learners, planning
can become more focused on designing teaching and learning experiences that are appropriate
and inclusive. Masters’ (2013) Reforming Educational Assessment: Imperatives, principles and
challenges demonstrates how important it is to tailor learning to meet the needs of individual
learners and to provide them with feedback on their progress, regardless of where they are
in relation to others in the class. One of the most important expectations to communicate
in the centre or classroom and to the parents/carers of your students is that all learners can
make progress and need to experience some success if they are to feel good about themselves
and the learning process. At the same time, because we all learn at different rates and in
various ways, it is not always necessary for everyone to complete the same tasks in the same
manner or work simultaneously on a particular activity. We will not necessarily learn the
same things either, even if we experience something together. We must not assume that all
learners will learn the same things from the same lesson. It is not easy to dispel such taken-
for-granted aspects of classroom organisation and planning, especially if learners’ family
communities have not had any opportunity to develop their own beliefs about teaching,
learning, curriculum and assessment.
Many of the learning tasks that you plan can be layered to allow learners to work at their
own pace and ability level. While the set task is basically the same, learners can then bring
their own knowledge and experiences to what they need to do. Once you have identified
individual abilities, the expectations you have for the task outcomes will vary. Examples
of layered, rich tasks appear in the lesson planning section later in the chapter. Learning
contracts can be introduced where several tasks that need completion are explained but
learners take responsibility for when, in what order and in what manner they will complete
them. This allows you to work with an individual learner or a small group needing help or
extension in a particular skill area. Different groupings will be appropriate at different times
and for different purposes.
A problem, dilemma or issue can also be used to organise learning experiences across
different key learning areas. Learners can make their own choices about content and process,
provided they have built up the necessary knowledge and skills. Consider the following rich
task or problem designed several years ago for learners working in Year 5 at Rockdale Public
School. It was based on the then popular television program, Backyard Blitz. In this series,
garden experts redesign a garden in need of tender loving care.
Rich and in teg ra t e d t a s k s Case study

·4
Your group of three has $500 to design a garden for a small section of the schoolyard. You
will need to decide on plants that will suit the environment and cost the other items that will
be needed to develop the garden. You will present your design to the principal, a member of
the council and the education officer for the Botanical Gardens in Week 9 of this term. Your primary
proposal must include both a sketch, costing and an outline of the advantages of this garden for
the learners and educators in the school.
What kinds of skills and understandings will learners need to bring to this activity?
This kind of task constructs the learners in an active role, with the educator’s responsibilities
resting largely in creating or replicating an appropriate and engaging task or problem,
developing criteria for assessment, providing necessary resources (in this case, an intranet of
useful websites, and excursions to the Botanical Gardens and the local hardware shop were
arranged) and then facilitating the process (introduction of area and perimeter concepts in
mathematics). There was, of course, no one right design and learners approached this task
with a great deal of enthusiasm and from a number of different perspectives.
M ulti-age le a rn in g Case study

·5
In a Year 10 drama class, learners were asked to develop a short performance piece based on
the idea of a life history, leading to a performance during Senior’s Week for the local retirement
village and care facility. To do this, it was expected that they would visit the nearby aged care
facility and get to know the people, and one individual, in particular. This occurred over weekly secon dary
visits and informal interviews. From the information they gathered, the learners prepared their
performance.
What would each learner have to do to complete this task? How would they find out about ageing, or about
the period of history coinciding with the birth of the chosen individual? How would the learner organise
the visits and when would they occur? What would be some of the possible task outcomes? How might you
assess this task?
Planning backwards: analysis of achievements and

future needs
It’s important from the outset to conceptualise planning as more than a forward projection.
You and your learners need to stop and take stock of how you and they are progressing
in different key learning areas or using different competencies. Reviewing plans and noting
variations between what you anticipated and what actually eventuated in the classroom allows
you to refine your planning in the future. Providing opportunities for learners to review their
achievements, both self-evaluating their own work and peer reviewing the work of others,
will also give you valuable information for future planning. Providing opportunities for
discussion, reflective writing or drawing in learning journals as well as questionnaires will
assist learners to evaluate the learning tasks you have planned and implemented. It will also
enable you to plan future activities more effectively.
Planning must be negotiable

When planning, it is important that you find ways for your learners to take responsibility
for some of the decision making. Initially, this means a fairly straightforward choice between
one task and another. For example, it may be equally appropriate for the learners to represent
their understanding of the critical moments in a story by drawing a story map or representing
the critical events in the narrative as still images or freeze frames in small groups or mapping
them along a timeline (Ewing & Simons, 2016).
iStock.com/monkeybusinessimages
Planning together for learning
If you are working with a group of learners long term, however, it will be important
to negotiate more extensively, involving them actively in the planning process so that they
develop ownership of their own learning. Developing your ability to listen carefully to
learners’ responses and inviting them to have an open dialogue with you is very important
in helping them build the connections between their own lives and see the relevance of their
learning in the classroom. Chapter 6 provides more detail about active listening.
A useful starting point may be to involve learners in the planning of an excursion that is
appropriate for a particular unit of work you are undertaking. Jointly negotiating purposes
for the excursion, as well as the details of when, how and so on, can also take much of the
pressure off you. More details about learning beyond the classroom can be found in Chapter 7.
Similarly, engaging learners in setting their own goals for a unit along with developing criteria
for assessing whether these goals have been achieved can also encourage responsibility for
their own learning.
Planning should consider integration possibilities

In the real world, knowledge is not separated into key learning areas. When an integrated or
cross-curricular (ACARA, 2013) approach to curriculum is used, content and strategies are
drawn in a purposeful way from several different key learning areas to focus on a particular
issue, topic, theme or problem. This does not mean that the skills and understandings that are
specific to a particular discipline are lost. Rather, these skills and understandings are still valued
but the links between different knowledges are explicitly drawn (Gibson & Ewing, 2011). This
can be difficult in secondary schools where learning areas have become segregated; however,
there are examples where educators have collaborated and worked together, especially in
Years 7 to 10 or middle school years. One such example involved the English, Human and
Social Sciences (HASS) and Drama departments in a large urban secondary school working
on a program for Year 10 learners around the theme ‘Living History’ (Case study 9.5 was the
culmination of this unit of work).
Finding meaningful ways to integrate curriculum is important if learners are going to see
the relevance of their learning and the real world connections to what they are doing in the
classroom. Learners need to be encouraged to examine issues, relationships and questions
that transcend subject silos.
Planning involves attention to detail and resources

Planning ahead allows you to take into account all the resources and equipment you will need
to gather together. If you have a forthcoming unit on flotation, for example, it will mean that
you and your learners will need to collect a whole range of different objects and containers as
well as water troughs or trays. An introduction to the science laboratory will mean ensuring
all safety equipment is available and that the learners understand the need for appropriate
footwear, while the study of a particular text will require sufficient copies to be available for
all students.
Attention to detail, especially at the beginning of your teaching career, often includes
mentally walking through each stage or step of the lesson. If you are expecting the learners
to make a model of a prism, for example, you might need to prepare an example of the model
at different stages of completion. If you are embarking on screen printing T-shirts, you will
need both the finished product and a carefully sequenced chart for ready reference. You
might also need to give thought to how best to model the procedure so that all learners can
see the process before they attempt it for themselves.
However we prepare for planning, it is imperative that we consider assessment as part of
the process. Assessment is part of the pre-planning – that is, finding out what learners already
know about a topic through to understanding what has been learnt by our learners as we
progress through a unit of work (formative assessments) and to some kind of final assessment
(summative assessment).
Planning includes planning for assessment

Whether you are planning a lesson and working at the micro level or designing a program of
work for a term or year, assessment must be part of that planning. Investigating and assessing
student learning is a fundamental component of educators’ professional work. It is not only
a matter of finding and correcting errors and misunderstandings. Rather, it is the complex
task of sorting out with the learners themselves, as well as their families, how learning is
happening and how it may be assisted, improved and celebrated.
We emphasise that the primary purpose of assessing learning is to support its improvement,
Educative in other words what we refer to as ‘educative assessment’. As Walker and Gobby (2017,
assessment is where p. 333) describe it:
the purpose of
the assessment of Assessment takes place during learning to identify how learners are progressing, with the aim
learning is clearly
directed to assisting of improving their learning
the learners in
improving skills and
Thinking about how you know whether learning outcomes or objectives have been
aptitudes rather achieved means thinking about the kind of assessment suitable for the task. For instance, if
than in making you have been completing a series of lessons on volume and capacity using concrete materials,
judgements about
them and their then you would not assess student learning with a pencil-and-paper activity or test. The
capacities. following principles of assessment will help you understand what assessment is and why it
is educative.
The principles of assessment (adapted from Principles for Good Assessment, on the
Griffith University website) shown in Figure 9.2 indicate what assessment should be.
These principles of assessment provide a starting point for us to consider the reasons for
assessment.
Assessments many purposes

Assessing student learning involves educators, learners and, at times, external people in the
task of investigating, describing and judging learning outcomes. The process serves a variety
of purposes, some of which conflict with one another, as we ask ourselves the following
questions:
1 Are we assessing for learning improvement, or are we assessing as an accountability measure?
2 Are we assessing in order to better develop our teaching strategies by establishing what
is already known and understood, or are we assessing as a means of evaluating what has
already been enacted in the classroom?
3 Is assessment a matter of quality control, or is assessment an issue of quality enhancement?
FIGURE 9.2
WHAT ASSESSMENT SHOULD BE
Fair Appropriate
The assessment should be appropriate for what is being

All learners should be provided with an equal
assessed. The previous example about volume is an
opportunity to demonstrate their learning.
example of this.
Valid Reliable
Does the assessment measure what it claims to

measure? An example might be that you ask learners Is the assessment useful no matter who administers it
to write a poem based on their learning about the or who is assessed? In other words, is it reproducible?
First World War. If they haven’t been exposed to ASSESSMENT
poetry, it becomes an invalid assessment. SHOULD BE ...
Transparent Authentic
Is it clear to the learners what is expected Is it a ‘real’ task that can help the learner relate their
of them? learning to real life?
Manageable Engaging
It is important to be aware of the burden that too Does the assessment engage emotionally and
much assessment can bring to our learners’ lives. cognitively with the learners?
Adapted from Principles for Good Assessment, Griffith University, https://app.griffith.edu.au/assessment-matters/docs/design-assessment/principles
Because of these competing purposes we argue that assessing learning is an area of

educators’ professional work where they will face some of their most significant dilemmas.
Let us examine the first of these questions in some detail. The main assessment purpose
for us to consider is that of continual growth and improvement in learning. This is known as
‘formative assessment’, or what has become known as ‘assessment for learning’ (Hargreaves,
2005) because it is ongoing and developmental. We also argue that it is ‘educative assessment’
because it involves both improvement and feedback. But as well as the formative-assessment
function there is the purpose of describing learning in a way that is summative and depends
upon measurable outcomes. Hargreaves (2005) discusses this as assessment of learning. Such
assessment allows, in particular, for the competitive placement of students in programs and
institutions where there is limited access; this we call ‘high-stakes assessment’, or assessments
that are about accountability for learners, educators and schools and that can limit access for
learners to further education or opportunities depending on the results. NAPLAN, Year
12 examinations, and university entry and exit requirements are all examples of high stakes
assessment.
In addition, there is an accountability factor where governments have a need for student
learning outcomes information in order to demonstrate the effectiveness of their policies.
Inevitably, they satisfy this requirement by engaging in systems-wide testing programs, which
are relatively cheap to administer. Finally, employers also want information about learners’
school achievements (although this final purpose is of less concern to us in the context of
learners in kindergarten/reception to Year 8 classes).
While the first of these purposes of assessment is pedagogical in nature – that is, the process
of assessment makes a contribution to teaching and learning – the remainder are oriented to
management and selection decisions. As we shall see, the first often conflicts with the other
three.
The challenges of assessment

Originally, the basis of the conflict was said to be the need to make comparisons between
students in the cases of high-stakes assessment, systems-wide testing and access to employment.
Now, in the light of the legislation that brought into being the National Assessment Program,
Literacy and Numeracy (NAPLAN) for Years 3, 5, 7 and 9, comparisons are made at
the local level, right down to the individual classroom and learner in the reports that are
provided to parents, particularly through the My School website. An individual’s learning
is to be described in ways that rank and sort them in relation to their peers. Too often in
our schools, the assessment of student learning for normative or comparative purposes
results in an emphasis upon what it is that learners cannot do rather than an understanding
of what has been achieved to date, and what must be done to support and enhance
further learning. This can be damaging for individuals and for groups; especially for Indigenous
and impoverished learners, and those with English as an additional language.
Data reveals that Indigenous children in remote communities have the lowest test scores
Pre-testing for and when it comes to NAPLAN. Wigglesworth, Simpson and Loakes (2011) argue that this is
of learning refers
to the practice partly attributable to the inappropriateness of the test items because they are standardised on
of investigating groups of English-speaking children. Examples are complex and confusing for young people
what learners
already know and who can communicate perfectly well with their peers, often in more than one language or
understand. It does dialect, but do not use the conventional forms of English.
not necessarily As educators, we need to be mindful of the many variations between learners and
mean a pencil-
and-paper test and their contexts, and avoid a kind of ‘one size fits all’ solution. What holds true for so many
could be as simple Indigenous learners also holds for impoverished children or those who come from cultural
as discovering
whether they can backgrounds that are different from Anglo-Australian children’s backgrounds or those who
spell specific words, speak different languages at home. Further, it pertains to those learners, irrespective of social
or as complex as class, who are significantly ‘failing’ to meet norms and standards set without referral to an
finding out their
understanding individual’s aptitudes and abilities. Highly creative but divergent thinkers can become as
of a particular alienated from schooling as those who are struggling daily to learn. Issues associated with
concept or idea.
Educators can learner diversity and the consequences for their learning are discussed in Chapter 3.
gather information It is our assumption that assessment – that is, investigating, describing and judging student
from learners learning – should be fair, ethical and transparent. Our belief is that educators need to be
through discussion,
observation, analysis prepared to openly account for and justify their judgements, to negotiate them with learners
of work samples and and to be ready to amend them if these judgements are incorrect. It is not sufficient to award a
more formalised
‘testing’ type mark, determine a level or tick a box without ways of explaining methods or interactions with
mechanisms. the learners or their parents or carers. As we have said, analysing learning in the classroom is
one of the most difficult and demanding tasks that you as educators, particularly beginning
educators, face (Kaufmann et al., 2002). For this reason, it is essential that you are skilled in
identifying evidence-based learning and in interpret its meanings, and that you develop and
exercise these skills in the context of meaningful and relevant curriculum practices. This is
why we posed our second question regarding assessment that informs our teaching as we go
along. Too often, we place assessment strategies at the end of the learning process. However,
a well developed strategy for planning for learning requires that we firstly assess what young
people already know and understand. Why teach a process or content if it is already well
assimilated? Surely, it’s much better to build upon existing precepts and practices. Too rarely
do we see pre-testing as an entry strategy for curriculum planning.
What might evidence-based learning look like and what might it mean in relation to your decisions
in the centre or classroom?
Balancing efficiency and effectiveness in assessment

With respect to our third question, ‘Is assessment a matter of quality control or an issue of
quality enhancement?’, this is a matter of the tension between efficiency and effectiveness.
The concept of quality control has been borrowed from manufacturing where the dual
issues of efficiency (Is it happening quickly enough?) and effectiveness (Are the results
being obtained?) dominate the process. Unfortunately, the manufacturing metaphor has
moved to the centre of many education debates. Do we push learners through teaching and
learning sequences, along the conveyor belt of learning, at the expense of them acquiring a
given skill or aptitude?
Dreamstime.com/Artinspiring
Learning should involve more

than a conveyor belt approach
Case study A t w in d ilem m a

·6
Maxine is the single mother of twin boys who are preparing to go to high school. The family lives
in a large coastal community: one son, Jack, is competent in literacy and numeracy, enjoys school
and has good social relations with his peers; the other son, Zac, is struggling both academically
primary secon dary and socially. Maxine wants them both to go to the neighbourhood secondary school, but the boys’
educators in the primary school believe that Zac would benefit from another year in his smaller
school. It will be harder for her to take the boys to separate schools and she believes that they are
quite co-dependent and will be lost without one another, particularly Zac.
Ask yourself, is it more efficient for the boys to progress together, or would it be more effective if
they went to high school at times that suited their individual development? Who would you suggest
be involved in the decision making around this dilemma?
In this section, we are focusing on assessment and reporting being connected to the real work
of the classroom, where learners should also have a voice. These should not be developed as
a set of discrete and decontextualised tasks. We are proposing to you that assessment work is
curriculum work. In other words, curriculum is designed to answer the following questions:
1 What is it that we want our learners to know, make, do and perform? Why?
2 How will we as educators and the learners in our classes know that those outcomes have
been achieved?
3 What has enabled and impeded learning?
4 How can learning grow from analysing errors as well as from achievement?
5 What are our next steps?
These are overriding questions and may be ones that we will reflect upon as we design
learning that matters for our students. As educators, we need to be aware of the difference
between testing what has been taught rather than that which has been learnt.
Think about the difference between testing what is taught and what is actually learnt. Describe how
you understand this distinction.
Some mention of the merits of ‘pre-testing’, discussed earlier, should be outlined, that is,
assessing knowledge and learning dispositions before commencing teaching. Such a procedure
will ensure that learners are not asked to meet a goal that may be beyond their means, or one
that they have already mastered, or indeed one that is incomprehensible to them. Dufficy
(2005) writes about ‘handing over’ the learning to the learner once it has been established
what that child knows and understands (pp. 122–3). Engaging in learning in this way will
certainly raise further dilemmas for the educator in terms of differentiating the curriculum.
Consider the following scenario.
Building on lea rn er k n ow led g e Case study

·7
Alfredo teaches a Year 6 class in a Melbourne inner-city school. He has decided to introduce
the class to the book The Arrival by Shaun Tan. This is a wordless graphic novel that depicts
the struggles and joys of the immigrant experience and what it is like to be in a new place where
many things, such as food, transport and accommodation, are unfamiliar. He has settled on this primary
text because it does not make demands upon reading competence, given that his class includes
those who are very able readers as well as those who continue to struggle. He also understands
that it will be very demanding on their emotional responses. His class includes learners who
have recently arrived from Somalia, as well sons and daughters of academics working at the
nearby university.
1 How can Alfredo go about discerning the learners’ experiences and dispositions? What kind of
‘pre-test’ can he devise? For example, before commencing to study the book, he might initially
want to know about the learners’ encounters with travelling to unfamiliar places. Perhaps this
could be achieved by having them draw such a moment.
2 How do you feel about this very different notion of testing, which is not confined to deducing
actual skills and competencies?
Classroom assessment
In their consideration of classroom assessment, Torrance and Pryor (2001) identify two
conceptually distinctive approaches that they refer to as ‘convergent’ and ‘divergent’ processes.
They see the former as the educator determining ‘if the learner knows, understands or can do
a pre-determined thing’ and the latter as ‘discovering what the learner knows’ (pp. 616–17).
This can be described as open-ended and learner-centred. We would add that convergent
assessment tasks are those where the educator knows what the answer is, whereas divergent
assessment tasks take account of an array of possible responses; not all are imagined by the
educator. Forster (2007) has created a further descriptor to apply to assessment practices
when she writes of ‘informative assessment’; that is, creating a focus for how educators and
learners (and we would argue, parents and caregivers) use assessment information to both
understand and improve learning. We can relate divergent processes to the idea of formative
assessment: we find out what the learner knows so that we as educators improve our teaching,
and therefore learning.
Black and Wiliam’s (2003) work aligns with the understanding of divergent assessment
processes (in contrast to convergent) given their focus is on ascertaining what the learner
Formative understands. They also suggest that for formative assessment to be productive, learners
assessment is should develop skills in self-assessment so that they can understand the main purposes of
the gathering of
information that can their learning and what it is that they need to do to achieve it. We would add that the learners
be used as learning must also want to undertake the challenging work of self-assessment and that this will only
is progressing in
order to make happen if they are deeply engaged in their own learning.
the necessary This maxim is reflected through later work by Wiliam (2006), who argued that all activities
adjustments and under the ‘assessment for learning’ banner can be expressed as one of five key strategies and
modifications.
that anything not fitting into this set of strategies is, in fact, not assessment for learning, as
shown in Figure 9.3.
How would you provide for the fourth of these strategies, ‘activate learners as resources for each
other’ as a form of assessment for learning?
FIGURE 9.3
STRATEGIES TO PROMOTE ASSESSMENT FOR LEARNING
Clarify and understand learning

intentions and criteria for success
Activate students Engineer effective

as owners of their Five strategies classroom discussions,
own learning to promote questions and tasks that
assessment elicit evidence-based
for learning learning
Activate learners as Provide feedback that

resources for each other moves learners forward
Whatever form it takes, we believe that there is an absence in the overall discussions
regarding assessment and learning in relation to learners’ creativities. Internationally, this
has become increasingly concerning. In the final report of the Cambridge Primary Review
(Alexander, 2009) it was found that the absence of opportunities for creativity had resulted
in a narrowed and impoverished national curriculum in England and Wales. The University
of Warwick (Warwick Commission, 2015) also found that the Arts and creative approaches
were being ‘squeezed out of the curriculum’.
As a result, Lucas, Claxton and Spencer (2012), responding to the Creativity, Culture
and Education initiative (CCE) in the UK, and in partnership with the OECD Centre for
Educational Research and Innovation (CERI), developed a study to establish the ‘viability of
creating an assessment framework for tracking the development of young people’s creativity
in schools’ (p. 1). They acknowledged the many difficulties in defining and assessing creativity
and what they saw as the inevitable tensions between ‘rigour and useability’ (p. 3). In their
discussion paper, they quote Smith and Smith, (2010, p. 251):
Creativity and education sit and look at one another from a distance, much like the boys and
girls at the seventh-grade dance, each one knowing that a foray across the gym floor might bring
great rewards but is fraught with peril.
This does not necessarily mean educators should be testing creativity, but they should
treat it with the same concern for development as they do the traditional skills areas. Ewing
(2012, p. 3) draws our attention to the fact that ‘there are strong links between high quality,
arts-rich education and students’ academic and affective achievement’. If we truly want our
students to thrive in holistic ways, we need to ensure their creative growth and development
occurs. In the concluding chapter in Ewing (2012), a pre-service early childhood educator
demonstrates how keeping a creative arts portfolio can document the ongoing work of a
group of learners. She recorded lively conversations that she had with them and samples of
their work demonstrating their imaginative thought processes. She discussed the authentic
ways in which she could draw in other curriculum areas to the children’s work.
Keeping records through portfolios can facilitate meaningful reporting to parents and
caregivers over time. Conversations about each individual’s learning with family members as
well as discussions about their social and emotional wellbeing are important components of
your role as an educator.
Reporting to families
For some of you, learning stories and school reports are still very recent in your consciousness
about being at preschool and school. Those of you who are parents/caregivers may have
received reports of your children’s learning at school. How useful are these often spare
documents, with their columns and ticks and their computer-generated comments? As
windows into learning, many reports provide only a blurred and narrow vision. In some
cases, there may be some distortion due to the limitations of such documents.
Parents/caregivers are entitled to know about their children’s learning at preschool and
school. They have a need to know how well their children are progressing and the steps
that the centre or school is taking to support them. They want to know something of their
children’s social and physical progress as well as their cognitive growth. They want to have
balanced and accurate knowledge about how their children are handling their preschool/
school world. They want – and need – open and honest communication. Thus they want
to know whether they should be concerned about any issues, and how or whether they can
help. Educators often find it difficult to give tough messages and they do not want to send
information home that leads to a child being chastised or punished. However, it is equally
painful for parents to find that their child has a serious learning difficulty at a point where it
is hard to remedy. They need to know of problems and how they are being addressed or if
they are being addressed.
In 2006, as part of a Commonwealth initiative tied to funding arrangements with the

states and territories, it was determined that during the school years every learner should be
provided with an A–E academic grade based upon a common grading system (see Figure 9.4).
It was argued that learners transferring between schools would have a much more accurate
record of their attainment and parents a clearer indication of their child’s progress in
comparison to statewide standards rather than just within their own school. Typically,
an A grade demonstrates extensive knowledge and understanding, a B grade a thorough
knowledge and understanding, a C grade sound knowledge and understanding, a D grade a
basic knowledge and understanding and an E grade demonstrates elementary knowledge and
understanding. It has been expected that schools will utilise the full range of grades in spite
of the belief by some that younger students should be awarded predominantly A–C grades
as a means of providing positive encouragement. Certainly, this initiative has had its critics,
among them Moss and Godinho (2007) who have argued that the grading is a crude and
technical response to conservative pressures to return to past practices.
In the intervening years since A–E grading was introduced, every state and territory has
conceded to the Commonwealth and reintroduced letter grades into school reports (see the
Aussie Educator website in ‘Useful online teaching resources’ at the end of this chapter for
individual policies and practices adopted in all Australian states and territories).
FIGURE 9.4
RESPONDING TO PARENTS AND CAREGIVERS
iStock.com/Steve Debenport
It is also important for you to take account of issues surrounding social class and the
role that it may play when providing feedback to parents. Middle-class parents/caregivers
can draw from various cultural and economic resources in their interactions with educators.
However, as suggested by Sousa, Luze and Hughes-Belding (2014) in their research about
families from diverse backgrounds and who do not share the dominant cultures background:
A receiver’s failure to comprehend the sender’s message results in unequal access to information.
This may place parents from diverse cultures in an inequitable position as a stakeholder in
their child’s education, as recommended methods for communication may not be culturally
meaningful (p. 500).
Parents/caregivers, from whatever class or culture, already know a great deal about their
children’s learning in the world beyond the centre or school. Parents/caregivers are the first
educators of their children. Long before they attend preschool or school, children have learnt
a great deal. Within the family, children have first learnt to converse, to play, to enquire, to
build, to share and to solve problems. Parents/caregivers have a different relationship with
their children than educators do with their learners. Parents/caregivers are deeply concerned
about what and how their children are learning, and need opportunities to share and discuss
this knowledge with educators so that the education of their children results from a real and
interactive partnership. The education of young people is not the exclusive domain of the
schooling system. At its best, it is the result of a constructive partnership between home
and school. While not all parents feel confident about showing this regard to the centre or
school for all sorts of reasons (Groundwater-Smith 2011), they care very deeply about their
children’s wellbeing and progress.
It is up to you to provide the best possible learning opportunities you can, and to assess
your teaching and student learning so that you are able to report to families accurately and
fairly about the progress of each young person. Working with colleagues in collaborative
teams, meeting the requirements of mandated curriculum and large-scale testing (NAPLAN),
understanding your own biases and limitations, and being aware of the needs of those learners
you will teach and their families is complex work. Teaching is a profession in every sense of
the word and the way you do the work will make it clear that you are a professional.
The next and final section of this chapter provides information about what is included in a
lesson plan. There is no magic formula for written plans that, if followed, will ensure success.
These suggestions are a starting point that may trigger your own thoughts and ideas about the
most effective ways for you to document your planning and preparation, and record learners’
achievements and responses that are effective, efficient and useful for you.
Lesson planning
There are a number of questions that may be useful to consider when planning any lesson,
regardless of the format you eventually decide upon. There is no best order in which to
consider these. You may find yourself thinking of many of these areas simultaneously.
Some questions to consider are outlined below.
• Purposes. What do I really hope to achieve in introducing this lesson? Why?
• Assessment. How will I know that the purposes have been achieved and to what extent?
• Tasks and activities. What activities and experiences will best enable these purposes to be
achieved?
• Anticipated outcomes. What do I expect the learners to be able to do as a result of this
learning experience? How will they demonstrate this?
• Student orientation. What have the learners already completed in this area or on this
topic prior to this lesson? What kinds of attitudes are they bringing to this area? How
can I deal with these? How can I build on their prior knowledge in developing further
understandings? What questions will be important in providing a focus for this lesson?
• High expectations. How will I share my purposes/clarify my goals for this lesson? How
can I demonstrate how important this activity is and what I expect from the learners?
• Task engagement. How best can I engage or involve the learners in the planned experience?
(This has been called ‘mind capture’ and it certainly becomes more and more challenging
in working with twenty-first century learners who are exposed to so many varied and
exciting media forms every day.) What initial questions and activities are important
here? What questions might the learners ask? It is important to acknowledge that while
sometimes using a surprise might be part of the process, it must not replace the need to be
explicit about your expectations and intentions.
• Task sequencing and timing. Is there an optimal way of sequencing the learning tasks and
experiences? How much time is available for each aspect of the lesson? Are there any
potential difficulties in this organisation? Think about what you could do or how you
could respond. Use the framework ‘If this happens, I’ll …’
• Questioning. Are there important questions that I want the learners to focus on? At what
point will I introduce these?
• Closure. How can I effectively draw this lesson to a close so that the learners are clear,
surprised and challenged? Wanting to find out more? How can we sum up what we have
learnt today?
• Resources and organisation. What resources and/or materials are needed? How can I
make best use of the available space? Will the interactive whiteboard be useful? What
equipment will each learner need? It is important here to consult with other members of
staff including, for example, the librarian, the EAL/D educator or the support educator
who may be sharing the lesson with you.
• Extension activities. How will I provide in a meaningful way for those learners who
typically finish tasks quickly? What provisions can I make to support those who will need
extra time?
• Encouraging reflection and evaluation. What strategies will help me and my learners
reflect on the successes and difficulties of this lesson?
• Following up. If given the opportunity, how can I best build on these learning experiences?
There are other ways to develop a plan and your school of education will provide you
with information regarding the planning requirements expected.
Lesson plan proformas and templates are made available to pre-service teachers in all
schools of education across Australia. Universities in each state will have slightly different
approaches but, generally, all planning documents have similar requirements.
What is certain is that planning is essential and that, whether planning is for a lesson, a
unit of work, a term, a year or longer, your teaching practice will be limited without careful
preparation. Be prepared to plan and enjoy the outcomes of your teaching.
Writing a program
Writing a program is a much larger-scale planning process compared to writing individual
lesson plans or a unit and will take a great deal of time. Again, there is no one way to write
a program. The suggested steps that follow may provide you with a starting point. They are
not, however, to be followed in a linear fashion.
• Consider the learners in your class. What are their differing needs, abilities and sociocultural
backgrounds? You may have data about their abilities, physical and psychological
development, and emotional and social wellbeing. Building up profiles on your students
will take time. You may use informal observations, learners’ own assessment of their
educational needs and aspirations, samples of past work, formal assessment reports,
photographs and test results.
• Decide on your main priorities and goals for the unit’s duration. At this point it may be
helpful to outline the rationale for this particular unit or program based on the learners’
needs as you perceive them.
• Consult the national, state and school policies to ensure that you are planning in the spirit
of these documents. The Australian Curriculum mandates both general capabilities (for
example, critical and creative thinking) and cross-curricular capabilities (for example,
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander perspectives). These must be considered in all
programming.
• Decide on how you will structure your document. It may be useful to do some
brainstorming in which you jot down all ideas as they come to you for later sorting and
organising. Some educators draw a mind or concept map while undertaking this initial
planning.
• Think about the big picture – your transformational outcomes – and then make some
more specific goals within this. Think about your purposes and what you anticipate for
the individual students you are working with. At the same time, think through the best
way of evaluating or assessing how you will be able to determine whether these goals have
been achieved.
• At a class meeting, discuss your intentions with your students. Allow them time to
brainstorm and record their suggestions for later refining and integrating with your own.
• Decide on and record the relevant teaching and learning experiences. Leave room for
additions and deletions, depending on student responses to these plans.
Getting started
One of the most common questions asked by beginning educators is ‘What will I do on the
first day?’ It’s important to remember that every school will begin the year in a different way.
Some schools take several days, even weeks to finally allocate students to classes. Others will
have classes finalised at the end of the preceding year. You may begin the year with a group
of learners who may not be your final class. Nevertheless, Paul McGrath (2001), an educator
of many years experience, makes the following suggestions.
• Keep the messages you want your learners to take home on the first day in the back of
your mind: first impressions count and will be vital in the development of your emotional
bond with your students.
• Dress for respect, credibility and acceptance.
• Be organised and welcoming.
• Be interested in the concerns and expectations of learners and their parents/caregivers.
• Start slowly and simply.
• Prepare a short presentation about yourself.
• Discuss what preschool/school is all about with the learners – why do learners come to
school and what is the role of the educator? This is a wonderful opportunity to audit
beliefs and expectations and shape a collaborative vision.
• Jointly construct a table of learner and educator rights and responsibilities. Emphasise
cooperation.
• Ask the learners to complete a personal profile sheet. Younger learners may provide self
and family portraits, or drawings of things they like to do.
• Plan a small independent task for the learners to complete. While they are working,
observe the following: How did they interact while completing this task? Did they use
each other as resources? Did the organisation of the room work well (for example, was
access to resources such as pencils and scissors easy?) What did the learners do when they
got stuck? How did they manage time? What did they do when they finished the task?
• Ensure that learners have an artefact of the day’s activities to take home.
• As a secondary pre-service educator, what are there in the suggestions above that you
might utilise in your secondary classroom? Consider how you would work with the
young people in your class to develop a list of class responsibilities. Would you plan an
independent task and observe what is happening? How would you find out about the
individuals in the class? What would you want to know? Is it important to take home an
artefact that has been created in class?
Conclusion
This chapter provides an overview of the complexity and dilemmas associated with the
planning and assessment roles of an educator. Although we have discussed what might be
included in a lesson plan or program of work, we wish to stress that there is no one way or
recipe: it is your mental planning and reflection during and after implementing planning that
will be most important. Only you will be able to determine how you can best meet the needs
of a particular group of learners, having collected resources, talked with them and sought
advice from your colleagues. The documentation of your ideas will need to convey your
intentions as well as include some later analysis of what actually happened to these intentions.
Five helpful planning/reflecting questions to leave you with are:
1 What do you want the learners to learn?
2 Why does it matter?
3 How will they do it?
4 How well do you expect them to do it?
5 How will you know when they have achieved it?
STUDY TOOLS
Go further
1 Do you agree that planning for classroom learning is a complex task? If so, what factors do you think
Following
contribute to this complexity?
through
2 Consider the two educator sketches below:
a Educator A believes that mathematics is concerned with patterns and problem solving. She loves
maths herself and believes it should be fun.
b Educator B believes that maths is an ordered set of symbols. Students must learn facts by heart.
How would the belief systems of Educators A and B affect their decision-making space and hence
their mathematics planning in their classrooms?
3 Choose an activity you would like to introduce to a group of children, then write a number of specific
purposes and objectives. You might choose from the suggestions below:
• learning to present a poem
• teaching someone to play a forehand tennis shot
• understanding the difference between weather and climate
• learning one-to-one correspondence when counting to 10
• understanding themes in a class text.
What differences do you notice in formulating purposes depending on the task?
4 Galloway and Letts (2010, p. 81) encourage us to think about planning as part of our professional
practice rather than a precursor to it. How does that help us to conceptualise lesson planning
differently?
http://www.acara.edu.au The ACARA website contains many useful links to a range of resources
Useful online
and documents. teaching
http://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au The Australian Curriculum state syllabus documents.
resources
http://www.aussieeducator.org.au This Australian educator website includes articles and teacher resources.
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
Managing a positive learning
environment
WNIE
E M I LY D O
Learning environments that

encourage children to be
active learners are more
likely to be well managed.
250
CHAPTER 10 Managing a positive learning environment 251
M anaging the learning community is an aspect of teaching that many educators, whether
early career or experienced, cite as the area that most concerns them. Indeed, there
is much criticism that teacher educators do not adequately prepare early childhood,
primary and secondary educators early in their careers for the reality of ‘managing’ student
behaviour and establishing a positive learning environment. This is understandable given
that learning contexts are complex sites of differences of power, personal experiences and
expectations, cognitive abilities, socio–emotional needs, personalities and culture.
An unf ortu n a t e d e c is ion Case study

·1
To Ms Treloar, the class seemed very lively this morning. Ms Treloar sighed.
I shouldn’t have come in today. My head is splitting already.
‘The next person who speaks will need to spend time in another classroom for the morning.’
Someone at the edge of her vision made a quiet comment to his neighbour. primary secon dary
‘Right, Ben, that means you!’
‘But, Miss ...’ Ben began.
‘No arguments or you can go straight to the principal’s office instead. Now, get some things
to work on!’ e a r ly
childhood
Oh dear, why did I make such a foolish threat? Now I have no choice but to carry it through.
What will his mother say?
1 What is your opinion of Ms Treloar’s actions?
2 How could Ms Treloar have responded differently?
Evertson and Weinstein write in their introduction to the Handbook of Classroom

Management (2011) that management is not just about facilitating orderly learning
environments like classrooms so that learners engage in meaningful learning. They define
classroom management as ‘the actions teachers take to create an environment that supports
and facilitates both academic and social–emotional learning’ (p. 3). Managing learners is
about establishing an orderly environment to promote active and meaningful learning, and
facilitating learners’ growth, self-management and responsible behaviour. The effective
management of the learning community is intricately interwoven with the issues and
practices of planning, effective pedagogy, communication as well as wider social and cultural
forces discussed in this book. This concern for the wide scope of multiple interactions
of influence that make up learning settings means we take an ecological perspective to
‘managing’ learning environments.
While this chapter concentrates on cultivating a productive and positive learning
community, in which relationships and organising learning are important factors, it is also
acknowledged that educators need to manage relationships across a number of contexts at the
same time, such as family and community contexts (see Le Cornu, 2013). It is unlikely that
effective management of learning environments will come down to the educator alone. All
educational settings (early childhood, primary and secondary) should have management and
learner welfare policies in place that are aimed at a consistent approach for dealing with all the
kinds of relationships an educator has to maintain in the learning community. It is important

to work within these frameworks, as well as being reflective about them and identifying their
limitations, when designing and implementing management strategies in your classroom.
This chapter explores a number of issues related to the management of learning environments
and optimising learner behaviour. Through more reading about some management theories and
approaches introduced here, your richer understanding of them will assist you to develop your
own approach. To focus on management, then, is to look closely at the practices centred on shaping
the interaction in the learning setting. There are many times, however, when the unpredictable
dynamics created in classrooms, where 20–30 people are working alongside each other five days a
week, require discipline strategies, and these are discussed later in the chapter.
Consider the following case studies.
Case study Com m u n ica t in g a p p rop ria t e l y

·2
It was Sally’s first week at primary school. When politely asked to clean up a painting mess created
by her peers, she refused to do so because, as she pointed out, she hadn’t contributed to making
that mess in the first place. Being the youngest of three siblings, Sally had a very well-developed
primary sense of what was fair in her eyes. Being new to schooling, she was not aware that she should not
have spoken so forthrightly with the educator. She had not yet learnt enough about the language
of the school and the unwritten rules that determine what are acceptable ways of speaking to
those in authority. Fortunately, the educator did not see her comment as a threat to her authority
and, in fact, saw the humour in the situation. So a potentially tense situation was avoided.
1 What are the different ways the educator could have responded to Sally?
2 What could the outcomes be for these different responses?
Case study Re s p o n d in g t o f a s t- f in is h e r s
·3
Al-Hassan is a very capable Year 10 student who is achieving at a more advanced level in his
English class than many of his classroom peers. Al-Hassan finds the learning tasks usually set for
his group are very easy and he often finishes first. With nothing concrete to do, he then begins
secon dary to disrupt the others at the table where he sits by talking about off-task topics. When he is given
additional routine tasks he doesn’t always see the point of doing more of the same kind of work
and does it half-heartedly, while continuing his loud chatter. This irritates his teacher.
To what extent is Al-Hassan’s behaviour a result of the educator’s actions? How could he be more
productively engaged?
Is a nois y clas s roo m n ec e s s a rily a d i sr u p t i ve o n e ? Case study

·4
Jonathan has brought his mum and new baby brother for his news session. His preschool friends
become very excited and move in close to see and stroke the baby. The noise grows exponentially
and someone’s hand is inadvertently trodden on. Jonathan’s baby brother starts screaming.
The noise disrupts the early learning room next door and their flushed educator enters the room, e a r ly
childhood
asking in a rather loud tone whether everything is all right.
The learners in each of the cases above are not doing anything that is intrinsically wrong.
1 Discuss your thoughts about each of the case studies.
2 On a scale of 1 to 10 (with 1 being not very important and 10 being very important), how
important do you think the following points are in creating management issues?
•• The educators’ planning of the learning experience
•• Failure to anticipate issues that might arise during the learning
•• Unclear expectations and routines, and verbal and non-verbal cues
•• Cultural misunderstandings between the educator and learner or between learners
•• Miscommunication between learners, and between the educator and learners
•• Events outside the learning setting.
Managing classroom interaction

With a view to understanding what is meant by the management of classroom interaction and
behaviour, we will discuss these two aspects separately, despite the fact that they are often
inextricably linked in most classroom contexts.
Balancing the interactions in a classroom has many dimensions that build on the
communication concepts and principles explored previously. In the preschool setting, playful
interactions encourage talk. As children play, they use language in creative ways to actively
co-construct their understandings of different scenarios.
From the beginning of formal school, classroom interactions change. Educators often
dominate interactions in classroom contexts, with many educational researchers suggesting
that educators in secondary schools play a significant role in managing and steering when
and how talk happens (Mercer and Dawes, 2014). Those with a language-other-than-English
background often talk least, especially in whole-class situations. In addition, these learners
are often given little explicit support in learning to use oral language in more demanding ways
as they engage in more sophisticated academic tasks (Dufficy, 2002; 2005).
Reflect on your classroom experiences that were conducive to learning and those that were not
conducive to learning. What were the differences, in your view? What could have been done to
change your experience?
The most frequently used classroom discourse pattern begins with the educator initiating
the talk, often through a question. One or more learners then respond to this initiative or
question and the responses are then evaluated by the educator through an affirmation or
other kind of evaluative response or a follow-up request. While this interaction pattern,
often called the Initiation–Response–Evaluation or Feedback (I–R–E/F) framework, is
sometimes appropriate for the teaching and learning sequences being developed, it is also
often inappropriate. If the educator is hoping that learners will explore issues or raise their
own questions and concerns, or ask questions of each other, the I–R–E/F framework doesn’t
suffice because it encourages learners to play ‘guess-what’s-in-the-teacher’s-head’.
In considering the need to develop balanced interaction sequences in your classroom, it
will be helpful to revisit the sections in Chapter 6 on questioning and active listening, the
importance of pause in meaningful interaction and the need to establish a positive classroom
climate in which learners are encouraged to wonder, predict, think critically, explore their
ideas and those of their peers, and take risks when making a response because they feel secure
within the learning environment. For many of us, the need to talk our way into meaning
sometimes goes unfulfilled if the I–R–E/F pattern dominates the talk every day.
In his work on the language and culture of the classroom, Basil Bernstein (1996)
demonstrated that the language use of learners is not always aligned with the way language
is used in formal learning contexts. He showed that educators often assume that all learners
will understand the elaborated school codes or more formal ways of speaking. Bernstein is
careful to talk about language differences rather than any one pattern or way of speaking
being better than another. Yet many studies demonstrate that educators often unconsciously
value the language of learners with backgrounds that are most like their own, privileging the
use of some forms of language while marginalising others (for example, Gee, 1992).
Delpit and Kilgour Dowdy (2002) in The Skin that We Speak discuss how learners can
be treated differently when their styles of speech differ markedly from their educator’s. This
can be extremely demoralising or confusing for learners whose home backgrounds do not
align well with language forms used in traditional school contexts, and educators must take
care not to see these learners’ language as a problem and deficit. While valuing the languages
used by learners, the educator must also help all learners gain access to the valued forms of
language use in formal contexts, like classrooms.
In addition, many practices taken for granted in the classroom may not be allowing
learners to learn in a way that is most meaningful for them. Examples include admonishing
learners to sit up straight without anything in their hands or an insistence on working in total
silence when talk may provide the vehicle for learning.
Many textbooks on behaviour management talk about the educator ‘controlling’ the
classroom and expecting learners to respond immediately to their demands while also
facilitating the development of learner autonomy, problem solving and active participation.
Consider Apple’s (1990) illustration from the US kindergarten class he studied more than
two decades ago. One child brought two dolls to school for the day. At the end of the day
the teacher commended Raggedy Ann and Raggedy Andy for their excellent behaviour in
the classroom. The implicit message here is that appropriate school behaviour is mindless and
that students are at school to learn only by listening to the educator.
The work carried out jointly by the University of Western Sydney and the New South
Wales Department of Education and Training in the decade-long Fair Go (NSW DET,
2006) project in western Sydney schools demonstrates how the quality of learning in school
classrooms can be greatly improved when educators take the time to establish meaningful
partnerships with their learners and their local communities. Learners are much more likely
to engage in the learning process when they, their families and local community members
are actively involved in curriculum planning, in transforming traditional classroom power
and practices, in collecting relevant learning resources and even sometimes teaching. The
development of curriculum that makes sense to and has relevance for learners is an important
theme throughout this book.
It is important at this point to consider the concept of learner resilience alongside the
establishment of meaningful connections between home, community and school. A resilient
learner is one who succeeds at formal learning against the odds. Key factors that enable learners
to maintain a positive attitude to school, even when socioeconomic or other circumstances
are or become difficult, include: feeling a sense of belonging and respect at preschool and
school and in classrooms; active rather than passive learning which responds to learners’
strengths; well-supported learning where there are opportunities for autonomy and mastery
(i.e. to solve problems and meet goals); effective pastoral care programs; and support from
family, friends, school and community members.
When students are allowed to be active participants in classrooms and involved in interruptions
to the discourses of power, there are real chances that they will develop a consciousness that
‘school is for me’, rather than one of defeat, struggle and giving up.
Munns, McFadden and Koletti, 2002, p. 2
Lisa Kervin
A sense of belonging helps the resilient learner
It’s also imperative that educators maintain high academic expectations for ALL learners,
although these expectations need to be embedded in a thoughtful wellbeing or pastoral care
program.
The following section considers the management of classroom behaviour more specifically.
Resilience and a sense of wellbeing is also important for educators. (See, for example, Johnson
et al., 2015.) Is there a time when you consider that you demonstrated resilience during difficult
circumstances? Did the experience itself also threaten your sense of wellbeing? What strategies did
you employ to enable you to persevere ‘against the odds’?
Managing classroom behaviour

For pre-service and early career educators, the issue of maintaining order when working with
a large group of people can be daunting and may conflict with the desire to be liked by the
learners. Some might recognise this dilemma as wanting to be accepted by their learners and
to be seen as a nice person, but also having to be very firm. By facing this dilemma, a number
of well-worn maxims/recipes are often used as advice for beginner educators in their own
classrooms. These include:
• Show them who’s boss.
• Don’t smile until after Easter.
• If it works, use it.
• Start tough, then you can ease off.
• Call their bluff.
Like all maxims, however, each of these can be problematic. It is somewhat disturbing that
early career educators often start with the expectation that they need to be prepared for some
kind of confrontation, even battle, about power in the classroom. As is the case with other
roles and responsibilities that are part of educators’ work, there is no single management
recipe that will ensure that our classroom is always well managed and the common sense
suggestions quoted above may be counterproductive in the longer term.
A number of different approaches to managing the classroom have been developed based
on different philosophies of teaching and learning, and different notions of the teaching
and learning process. You will need to consider, given your own philosophy of teaching
and learning, which approach is most appropriate for you and aim to develop management
practices that allow you to build meaningful relationships and give consistent and authentic
messages to learners. Certainly, we need to look at many of the times we demand compliance
or obedience from learners for no apparent reason.
The following section introduces some approaches to classroom management, and briefly
explores their implications for both educator and learner.
Approaches to classroom management

Early perceptions about management in classrooms and schools tended to focus on a
reactive approach to dealing with problems as they arose. The educator would concentrate
on implementing stringent disciplinary measures while the majority of learners would
follow directions because they respected the position of the educator or were afraid of the
consequences of misbehaviour. Consider this comment from an educator reflecting on an
incident when she was a 16-year-old student:
I well remember the public humiliation of being sent out of an
assembly for talking. Of course I was not the only one talking
but the deputy chose me to make an example of. The memory of
absolute silence and all eyes upon me as I walked out of the hall
is still very clear and certainly the fear of this happening
again stopped me from ever opening my mouth in assembly again.
The tongue lashing and ensuing gardening detention in the summer
heat provided further deterrents. It certainly seemed that the
punishment far exceeded the crime.
Sometimes, the debate about corporal punishment re-emerges, not only in Australia, but in
other Western countries in response to reports of violence in some classrooms. The implication
behind this movement is that, because the cane has gone, educators no longer have enough to
threaten their students with and therefore cannot demand compliant behaviour. A focus on
discipline alone assumes that if there is a problem in the classroom there is something wrong
with a particular learner or group of learners and that this behaviour must be corrected. This
assumption is a very limited way of viewing managing the learning community.
More recent approaches to managing the classroom can be characterised as proactive
rather than reactive because they aim to prevent problems or difficulties arising. Management
approaches can be placed along a continuum, although it must be recognised that many
overlap (see Figure 10.1). Certainly, most educators integrate a range of strategies from
different approaches or theories. It is important to reiterate that your own approach will
be shaped by how you view childhood, the role of the educator in the learning process and
the needs of the learners in your care. The brief discussion of management theories below
demonstrates that this area has been heavily influenced by psychology and that many of these
theories have never been researched at depth in actual classrooms.
FIGURE 10.1
CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT APPROACHES CONTINUUM
Person-centred approach Interactive approach Interventionist approach
Person-centred approaches
At one end of the continuum are those approaches that are best described as person-centred.
Originally based on the work of Rogers (1969), theorists using a person-centred approach
regard each learner as an individual with a whole range of needs, abilities and interests, and
this is the centre of their approach. All are equal in the learning setting. Learners need to
determine what kind of behaviour is most appropriate and relevant for them, while at the
same time having regard for the needs and rights of others. Management is therefore not a
general issue but is idiosyncratic and based on the building of interpersonal relationships
and the development of mutual trust and respect between the educator and all learners.
Many school educators, while readily acknowledging the need to build a relationship with
every child as an individual, would find these person-centred approaches difficult to put
into practice in a classroom of 30 people from a range of cultural and ethnic backgrounds,
with different expectations about educator behaviours because on their own sociocultural-
historical backgrounds. Indeed, some have called this a laissez-faire approach. Others have
found it extremely successful.
From its establishment in the 1920s, A. S. Neill’s alternative progressive school Summerhill
in Britain probably best embodied this kind of approach at one extreme, with each student
attending classes of their choice. Student meetings were held regularly to discuss issues or
management problems as they arose, especially if individual learner needs encroached on
others. In Australia, a number of schools have also tried – with varying success – to create
contexts in which learners are regarded as sharing the power equally with their educators and
thus given more freedom to control their own learning.
Gordon’s Teacher Effectiveness Training System (1974) has elaborated the person-centred
approach, encouraging learners to own their problems and difficulties. With educator support,
a learner would talk through the alternatives for addressing or overcoming a difficulty and
put into practice the solution she or he thinks would be most appropriate. When a learner’s
difficulties (or problems with a group of learners) threaten the safety or wellbeing of others
the problem is learner- or group-owned and the learner must use I-messages to calmly
communicate this and encourage the learner(s) to find an alternative way of behaving. Active
listening is especially important here.
Educator-centred approaches
At the other end of the continuum, a number of theorists and writers have concentrated
on educators being interventionist in anticipating student misbehaviour. They advocate that
educators need to take a decisive approach to classroom management by putting rules and
procedures in place that must be followed. In theories advocated by Canter and Canter
(1976), Dobson (1970) and Kounin (1970) educators are placed at the centre of the classroom
interaction and encouraged to take an interventionist, assertive approach to management.
A series of class rules are provided by the educator to the class rather than negotiated with
the class. A number of sanctions are in place for when these rules are not obeyed. Learners
are encouraged to make good choices about these rules and to accept responsibility if they
do not keep them. All learners are treated similarly and there is often little opportunity for
flexibility. These approaches rest on the premise that the educator always knows best; they
provide little opportunity to consider learner diversity.
Interactive approaches
Interactive approaches (for example, Dreikurs & Cassel, 1972; Wolfgang & Glickman, 1980;
Glasser, 1986; Rogers, 1993, 2015) are positioned halfway along the continuum, and suggest
that educators and learners need to negotiate rules and norms, expectations and values together.
Both educators and learners have rights and responsibilities that must be mutually respected
in the classroom. All sanctions established are understood and respected by everyone, and
the educator is not solely responsible for developing and monitoring these. Class discussions
about learning and behaviour issues and concerns are a feature of these approaches.
In addition, Dreikurs suggests that inappropriate student behaviour is a reflection of a
learner’s attempt to gain attention, seek power or revenge or display their inadequacy. The
educator needs to identify why the learner is misbehaving and help them understand how to
work towards more appropriate behaviour. Dreikurs, Grunwald and Pepper (1982) maintain
that if learners develop a sense of belonging to the class group, they will work together to
establish a collaborative classroom context in which limits are imposed by respect for each
other. Approaches by Glasser and Bill Rogers emphasise that students need to understand
that they make choices about their behaviour.
Bill Rogers (1993, 2015) emphasises the importance of the educator’s non-verbal cues,
especially tone of voice, proximity and eye contact. He suggests that beginning educators use
audio and videotapes as well as peer observation and feedback to monitor their non-verbal
behaviour in the classroom to ensure that there is congruence between what they are trying to
communicate and how they are communicating. He writes, ‘It is essentially considering the
effect of our behaviour on theirs as we trust they would to us’ (1993, p. 33).
Because a collaborative context takes time to develop, interactive approaches are possibly
most difficult for pre-service and casual educators if they are placed for a short period of time
in a class that has not been used to this process. It will be important in such a situation to try
to establish meaningful relationships despite the short timeframe.
Think about your classroom experience as learners in primary and secondary schools in light of
the Classroom Management and Approaches continuum (Figure 10.1). Where were your educators
positioned on the continuum? Where there were differences, how did this affect the learning
environment and your learning?
All approaches to classroom management contain some very useful ideas. It will be
important for you to develop your own approach based on your philosophy of teaching and
learning, your personality and the particular group of children with whom you are working.
Consider the following case study, which demonstrates the importance of exploring the
context before applying any general rules or strategies.
Journal rec o lle c t ion Case study

·5
My first teaching appointment was to a small inner-city, highly disadvantaged primary school.
Initially placed as an additional staff member, six weeks into the year I became the Year 2 teacher,
following the resignation of Ms Baker. It was a challenging group of students: some had recently
arrived as refugees from war-torn nations; others, although born in Australia, had little English
because it wasn’t spoken at home; still others came from impoverished backgrounds and there [was]
a sprinkling of children whose parents were either students or academics at the university nearby.
Ms Baker, the teacher who had resigned, commented that she had never taught such a wide
range of abilities and had found a number of the students particularly difficult to engage. Several
boys were openly hostile to female educators at this stage of their lives because of the cultural
and gender expectations they learnt from their family.
Despite these challenges Ms Baker had managed to embed a number of routines and
procedures that she had found ‘worked’. She urged me to continue them. With all the enthusiasm
and ideals characteristic of a first year out teacher, I listened politely and diplomatically but
privately intended to do things my way.
The outgoing teacher’s management system was incentive-based. The students were divided
into table teams and were given points for sitting up straight, working quietly, packing up quickly
when it was time for another activity, etc. At the end of the week the winning team members
received sweets or chocolates. I was appalled because I did not think this kind of weekly ‘reward’
was appropriate. Of course many of the students were disappointed when I dismantled the
system. I was not popular initially but felt very strongly that such token reinforcement would
betray what I believed about students’ learning.
Within several weeks, however, I was encouraged that most of the children in the class were
involved and engaged in many of the learning activities I had introduced. I had two major issues,
however. The first was the enormous diversity in one class. Some students were working at
Year 5 or 6 level, others were not yet reading independently. The second issue was a management
one. There were two students who, once provoked by the slightest thing, could quickly reduce
the classroom to chaos. I well remember John jumping on the table one Monday morning, at
the same time seizing the box of scissors, and begin throwing them, points down, at the other
learners. Almost simultaneously William threw a tantrum and ran out of the classroom towards
the main road.
At university I had been taught [through ‘microskills’] that if I was well organised, well
prepared, presented motivating lessons and stayed ‘with-it’ or alert to monitoring student
behaviour, then management would not be an issue. While it was true that many of the class
were adjusting to my management practices and were engaging in the tasks I was planning
and presenting, it was also true that I had never expected to have to deal with such disruptive
critical incidents just a few months into my first year of teaching. That was, in my mind, a role
for the principal.
John and William proved to be my biggest challenge that year. It didn’t help to rant and
rave at either of them. It didn’t do their learning any good to send them to spend all day in
the Deputy Principal’s room. I needed to work out how to help them overcome the anger and
resentment that was obviously fuelling their inappropriate behaviour. It also underlined for
me that each student has a life outside the classroom that may be impacting on their ability to
behave in a rational and ordered way. Both boys had personal situations that they were finding
impossible to deal with. Both needed love, support and understanding.
At the same time, the rest of the class needed a safe environment in which to work. I finally
realised that allowing John and William space to sit quietly and reflect was important for both of
them before trying to sort out what had triggered a particular outburst. I also came to understand
that their behaviour was neither personally aimed at me, nor a challenge to my ability to manage
the class. I had to become more detached and less threatened myself and that allowed me to deal
calmly with each new challenge and go forward. Both students eventually learned to become
more accountable for their behaviour and to remove themselves from the other children if they
felt overwrought. (Robyn Cusworth, 1995)
1 To what extent do you think Robyn’s experiences are common?
2 What do you think will be a significant challenge around classroom management for you when you
enter the preschool or classroom?
3 What are some strategies you might use to facilitate John and William’s engagement in learning
activities?
4 What are some differences in the issues, challenges and approaches to classroom management
between primary and secondary school contexts?
The learners’ perspectives

Several years ago, Year 6 students in a suburban Sydney primary school were asked what
factors were important to them in creating an effective teaching and learning environment.
The students discussed the importance of providing motivating learning experiences. They
also mentioned how important it was for educators to be caring, to have a sense of humour
and to have a joke, and to maintain a safe learning environment. Being fair was also regarded
highly. It is interesting that these students obviously understand that educators need to
balance the purposes of care with those of group management and instructional effectiveness.
Other research has tried to explore management issues from the perspective of learners
who are disappointed by, disaffected with or have disappeared from school. In a European
study of disaffected and disengaged learners in nine countries, Kendall and Kinder (2006)
found that as well as lack of family support and poor peer relationships that led to isolation
or bullying, many of these learners found the curriculum irrelevant to their lives, particularly
its prescriptive academic orientation.
This indicates that classroom behaviour, and the demands of managing student conduct
and learning, is often linked to the influence on learners of how we organise schooling for
them (Payne, 2015). This includes taking for granted things such as:
• expecting learners to have a standard of cognitive, social, physical and emotional
development based on age
• subject-based curriculum that is often taught in the abstract rather than being grounded in
learners’ lives
• the grouping of learners by age
• the hierarchy of curriculum subjects that apportions value to certain learners for their
choices and academic abilities
• the rigid timetabling of learners’ school lives that diminishes their autonomy and ability
to take initiative.
Often learners will behave disruptively in an attempt to avoid learning tasks, either
because they do not have the confidence to attempt them or because they do not understand
the significance or relevance of the experiences proposed. Boredom can also play a role in
disruptive behaviour – underlining the importance of learners’ engagement in the learning
process. Consider the following case study.
Case study Le a rn in g co lla b orat ively

·6
A multi-age science project was designed by educators. It involved Years 5 and 6 primary school
learners from one south-western Sydney primary school working with Year 9 and 11 secondary
school learners from local secondary schools, plus a group of pre-service educators. The students
secon dary and early career educators engaged together in a series of learning activities as part of a national
Australian School Innovation in Science Technology and Mathematics (ASISTM) project
around water management. The local council and a water management firm helped in the
project. Their provision of appropriate data recording resources allowed measurement of stream
flow, etc. Both the primary and secondary school learners developed a deep understanding about
the concepts of water management (data recording, stream flow) and mentoring skills were also
refined. A curriculum unit and DVD documenting the outcomes were also produced. For the
program’s designers, the program demonstrates how relevant curriculum experiences can make
a real difference to learners across a number of ages/stages.
What aspects of this teaching and learning program might have made the experience meaningful and
engaging for the learners involved?
Guidelines for managing the learning environment

In the field of behaviour management, there has been a significant shift away from intervention
to prevention strategies. This shift underpins much of what has been discussed earlier in the
chapter. We provide the following guidelines for managing learning environments as a starting
point for beginning educators. They may also be helpful in casual teaching contexts. Several
guidelines have already been discussed, in part, in earlier chapters but are reviewed again in
the light of the management focus of this chapter. Guidelines are not solutions; they provide
a consistent basis for creating a supportive, safe and orderly environment and for examining
your own behaviour, including the kind of language choices you make when working with
learners. For example, labelling children as ‘naughty’, ‘lazy’ or ‘absent-minded’ can have
long-lasting negative consequences for those learners implicated.
Establish clear expectations

• Share your teaching philosophy and expectations as the leader of the learning community.
Be clear about what behaviours are appropriate, what behaviours are not and the consequences
for inappropriate behaviour. Make sure parents and learners understand your expectations – you
will have to repeat and reinforce your expectations. Ask learners and their parents to share their
expectations and any concerns they have with you. Compliance with rules is linked to whether
learners perceive them to be fair and their personal relationship with the educator (Way, 2011).
• Once expectations and procedures are jointly negotiated and in place, allow learners to
take responsibility for their own behaviour. Model appropriate strategies for managing
their learning (e.g. indicating politely if they need help), managing relationships (e.g.
active listening) and dealing with conflict, frustration and anger (e.g. removing themselves
from a conflict situation until they are calm).
What are some behaviours that you will not tolerate in your classroom? Which behaviours will you
affirm?
Promote positive relationships

• Foster a sense of belonging, safety and community. This means developing respectful
and supportive relationships. Relationships are crucial to facilitate productive learning
environments. Therefore, take the time to get to know your learners so that you can
see what motivates and interests them and how their life experiences have constructed
their world. Enable them to get to know and understand you. You should not be friends,
but friendly. In a similar vein, help the learners to get to know each other. This rapport-
building will, of course, be much more difficult if you are only working with a particular
group on a casual basis or if a student does not trust adults.
What are some strategies for building positive relationships with and between learners?
Design engaging learning experiences

• Implement an engaging curriculum that interests and motivates, and organise the learning
environment (space and time) in ways that foster engagement, positive interactions and
meaningful learning. You can attend to the physical layout of the learning setting. Think
carefully about the use of space and involve learners as much as possible in this process.
Discussion activities, for example, will be more effective if everyone can see each other,
so it is important to take the time to arrange a circle or semicircle for this purpose. In the
preschool and primary school contexts, art and craft will be easier if there is an orderly
procedure for setting out materials and packing up.
• Involve learners as appropriate in decision making about the organisation of the learning
environment and learning.
• Explain the reasons for the tasks and learning activities you introduce. This is part of
establishing the relevance of the learning for learners. Scaffold tasks so that learners know
what is expected of them, know how to proceed through the various stages of a task,
and are supported from the beginning to end. Provide ample and safe opportunities for
learners to ask questions and seek clarification about the tasks expected of them.
• Encourage learners to take responsibility for their learning by setting goals for themselves and
evaluating their progress at appropriate points. Provide opportunities for learners to regulate
the amount of time they have to complete tasks, etc. Provide learners with ongoing feedback.
• Be vigilant in keeping track of what is happening around you even when you are working
with a small group or an individual. This means that you need to continually scan the
learning setting to identify boredom, confusion and off-task behaviour. Kounin (1970)
terms this ‘splitting attention’, others call it ‘with-it-ness’. Affirm those who are making
progress. Identify and redirect inappropriate behaviours early. Be firm, not aggressive.
• Establish clear routines and procedures (e.g. how to start the day or lesson), although be
open to changing these when and if the need arises. Workable routines and procedures
ensure that recurring activities flow smoothly. Also, establish verbal and/or non-verbal cues
to guide and direct learner conduct (e.g. placing one’s hands on one’s head or beginning a
rhythmic hand clap to get attention or indicate a transition to the next part of a lesson).
Establishing routines and procedures makes expectations in the learning environment clear, and this
structure helps learners engage in their learning. For example, some educators ensure that on their
arrival in the morning learners are welcomed and asked how they are, others start the day with a
song, while other educators establish the routine of having primary and secondary school students
line up quietly outside the classroom to establish order. Create a list of routines and procedures
that you expect will be useful and important for:
•• beginning and ending the day
•• beginning and ending learning experiences
•• steering the learning experience.
Manage and monitor educator conduct

• Act confidently. In primary and secondary school contexts, students need to see you as
efficient, organised, prepared, consistent and authoritative (but not authoritarian). You
need to disguise any nerves because students are very good at reading body language (see
Hughes, 2010).
• Cultivate the ability to be flexible and use opportunities for learning that arise rather than
sticking rigidly to what you have planned for its own sake.
• Concentrate on positive aspects of learners’ behaviour. Take the time to focus on individual
effort and involvement, and provide constructive feedback on behavioural improvements
and the progress of their learning. We all need to be affirmed. Giving positive feedback needs
to be authentic and appropriate. Ensure that praise given publicly is understood by others
(for example, ‘I appreciated the way you waited patiently for your turn, Enrico’). In this
way, you are modelling the positive affirmation that learners can also give to each other.
• The educator should always work to de-escalate an issue or conflict to prevent it from
getting worse or from damaging the learning atmosphere in the room. If something that
happens makes you angry, try not to respond or discipline while you are still emotionally
involved as we sometimes say and do things in anger that we later regret.
• Follow through on consequences if these are expected or stated. They should always
be emotionally neutral, rational and depersonalised (Larivee, 2005), and conducted in
private if appropriate (e.g. to protect a student’s self-esteem). Take the time to ensure that
you are being fair and consistent.
• Monitor your use of sanctions as their effectiveness often varies – missing breaks and giving
detentions can be counterproductive to encouraging engaged learning (Payne, 2015). Severe
punishments can lead to defiance and further disruptive behaviour (Way, 2011). Also, ensure
punishments do not damage your relationship with the learner.
• Try to ensure that your management style is not intrusive, intimidating or confrontational,
and avoid arguments and power struggles. Be friendly and courteous even when things
have not gone well. This means avoiding the use of sarcastic and humiliating comments
that make learners the object of other learners’ ridicule.
• Use your words consciously to avoid stereotyping, assuming or attributing negative
connotations to learners. For example, labels like ‘lazy’ and ‘naughty’ are value-laden
and reflect the educator’s judgement of the individual and does not necessarily describe
the motivations or causes underlying a learner’s conduct. Educators should focus on
identifying the problematic behaviour of a learner rather than making judgements about
the individual.
• Reflect on your management and organisational procedures, and take time to assess their
coherence, consistency and fairness. Fairness and consistency are crucial to productive
relationships and the learning environment. Identify patterns in how rewards and
punishments are being distributed. Some form of action research by you and another
colleague may be helpful in doing this.
1 Do punishments work for all learners and in all contexts?

2 What strategies can help you de-escalate a conflict between you and a student?
You could refer to Chapter 6 for some ideas.
Case study examples

The case studies are drawn from beginning educators’ experiences during their first
professional experience. They are followed by some questions to consider as you begin to
think about your own management practices.
Supportive en g a g em en t Case study

·7
My lesson for Year 1 included various opportunities for involving students in discussing the
main characters in the book we were reading. Geoff was one student I had been trying to involve
in a meaningful way because he was often disruptive in my lessons, showing off and trying to
make others laugh. I asked him to draw his favourite character on the whiteboard. He drew primary
something clever but also rude and soon nearly everyone was laughing. Even those students who
were usually well behaved joined in. I couldn’t get them focused back on task. I then asked him,
‘Why did you draw that?’
1 What are your thoughts about the educator’s attempt at engaging Geoff in
learning?
2 Do you think it is useful or effective to ask Geoff why he drew what he did?
3 How could this pre-service educator quickly refocus the children’s attention to the task?
Case study Dif f ic u lt relat ion s h ip s w ith e d u c a t o r s

·8
It didn’t matter how hard I tried, I couldn’t find a way to gain Toula’s trust. She seemed to resent
me being in the classroom. She would arrive late, tap loudly on her desk while I was giving
instructions, walk around the room at will, roll her eyes when I spoke and spend time on her
primary secon dary mobile phone. She didn’t even want to try to do any of the English activities I prepared which I
tried to make interesting and relevant for the students. Perhaps we had a clash of personalities?
I learned later that she had had a difficult time right through primary school and in her early
secondary years. Perhaps she behaved how she thought everyone expected her to behave? I found
myself wishing she would be away every day.
If Toula has had a history of failure, is there anything that this educator can do to change this?
If so, what? If not, what should she do?
Case study Dis in t e re s tin g or b o rin g lea r n i n g

·9
In my preschool classroom I had set up a range of different learning centres. However, 10 minutes
into group time, a number of children became disinterested in these activities and began running
around the small indoor space, yelling across the room to each other. When I asked the children
to choose a learning centre to work at, children commented: ‘No!’, ‘They’re boring’, ‘I don’t want
to do them’. The frankness of their comments shocked me, and I didn’t know how to respond.
1 What could you do if you found that the learning centres you had planned were not interesting
for the learners you are working with?
2 How could you respond to their comments?
3 What could you do differently if you were to plan the learning centres again?
News time Case study

·
It’s newstime in Year 2. The class is assembled on the floor to listen to Cassandra share her news.
Cassandra is the eldest in a large family. She is excited and begins to talk about her birthday.
She is often quiet and withdrawn in the classroom. Before she gets very far into her news she
seems to freeze and forget the details she wanted to share. The rest of the class begin to snigger primary
and lose interest in Cassandra’s news. Cassandra begins to cry and runs outside.
1 What are the different ways newstime can be organised? How might these structures support or
inhibit a child like Cassandra?
2 How could you, as the educator, encourage the class to be more supportive? How might you
respond at this point?
3 What feedback would you offer to Cassandra?
M eeting in d iv id u al lea rn er n e e d s Case study

·
Jason finds it difficult to cope in the Year 11 classroom. He yells out constantly in his classes,
often thinks that he is special and doesn’t have to do a task that the rest of the class is doing and
constantly tells me that he can’t do the work set. His disruptive behaviour often spreads to other
learners in the class. If you get angry with him he gets really distressed. The educators in the secon dary
staffroom have talked about Jason’s behaviour as a problem and how difficult it is to control. His
maths educator commented at one of those discussions that Jason has lots of ability, especially
in maths, and when he does get interested in something he will work at it for ages, even refusing
to go out to lunch. He was recently diagnosed as having ADHD (attention deficit hyperactivity
disorder) and is now on medication three times a day, although some of his educators aren’t
convinced his behaviour is a result of the ADHD but rather poor self-discipline and his desire
to be ‘disruptive’.
Many learners find it difficult to cope in the traditional classroom setting.
1 What interpretations could be made of the reasons for Jason’s conduct?
2 How can the teachers get to know more about what the reasons are behind Jason’s conduct?
3 How can Jason’s needs be met in the classroom?
Case study Bu lly in g

·
A group of Year 6 boys in the class I was working with were constantly known for misbehaving
in the playground. At lunchtime one day they surrounded a Year 5 student, Jacob, who is deaf.
They harassed him by yelling loudly and then running away.
primary
1 What do these children need to learn about bullying? What does Jacob need to learn about
situations like this?
2 What procedures does the school need to have in place to support all learners?
Case study Ind iv id u a l lea rn in g p rob le ms o r d i sa b i l i t i e s

·
Amanda is visually impaired but tries to deny it all the time. She hates wearing her glasses
because they are so thick and make her eyes look huge in her face. She refuses to sit near the front
of the room because she doesn’t like to be singled out. She avoids doing anything constructive
and spends her day wasting time sharpening her pencil, looking for a rubber and making the
student next to her laugh.
1 How can Amanda be helped to feel confident in herself and become actively involved in learning?
2 How might her fellow learners support and assist her? It might be useful to look at the literature
on the development of a cooperative classroom in thinking through Amanda’s difficulties.
It would seem from these examples that managing today’s classroom needs to be a
participatory process. Many learners will no longer respect the educator solely because they
are the teacher. They will test the patience of the early career educator to see whether they are
worthy of respect and trust. It is often useful early on to enable learners to identify what they
consider their ideal learning conditions, what they see are the obstacles in their classroom and
then to formulate suggestions to overcome any difficulties or obstacles. Activities that enable
these expectations to be discussed provides a useful starting point for involving all learners in
the management of their learning environment.
Managing challenging classroom

behaviour
Challenging classroom behaviour is inappropriate or excessive behaviour that threatens the safe
and positive classroom learning environment or playground activities. Challenging behaviour can
be exhibited at all stages of schooling – from prior-to-school to primary to secondary contexts.
Challenging behaviours can include defiance, inappropriate verbal or physical behaviours towards
another learner or the educator and, in extreme cases, assault. The educator and other learners
are placed in a tense and sometimes dangerous situation. Such situations can be very stressful
and time-consuming, cause the educator a great deal of anxiety and impede the learning of other
learners. In situations such as these, the early career educator will need the support of their mentor,
an executive staff member, centre director or principal. In some instances, they will need additional
support from counsellors, psychologists and social workers.
Eves (2001) outlines a series of steps to follow when faced with challenging classroom
and/or playground behaviour. Her study also demonstrates the value of ensuring that
beginning educators in these situations have a mentor to help them work through the issues
systematically. Of course, it will be important to involve the parents in any development of a
behaviour management plan for the particular student(s). Other steps include:
• considering the classroom context to ensure that negotiated rules are in place and are
followed consistently
• clearly outlining expectations – of yours as the educator, and for the learning experience
• ensuring that rewards for positive behaviour are provided along with consequences for
inappropriate behaviour
• having a clear discipline hierarchy; that is, a series of negative consequences that become
more severe depending on the type and occurrence of misbehaviour (e.g. at the lowest
level a warning is given, followed by writing the student’s name on the board, etc.)
• developing an assessment summary of any learners who are exhibiting challenging behaviour
to enable the educator to focus on their needs, strengths and areas needing development
• designing a behaviour support plan for these learners with the help of other educators, the
school counsellor or social worker and involvement of the learners’ family.
Another experienced educator who has worked for many years with learners whose
behaviour can be challenging, Robert O’Dea (2001) also stresses the importance of taking
time to clarify consequences for challenging classroom behaviour. He writes:
Always discuss with students what will happen to those students who refuse to keep the class
rules. For example, there might be a ‘time out’ desk in the classroom where students sit for a
set time period or until they are ready to return and abide by the agreed rules. Students need to
know there are consequences for unacceptable behaviour. This issue needs to be discussed with
the students, other staff teaching in the classroom, executive staff and parents so that everyone
is aware of the consequences for unacceptable behaviour. There needs to be a set system that is
in place in the school that can be followed systematically.
One way to start developing a positive learning community, in which all children take
responsibility, has been provided in the following case study by Shanti Clements, a very
experienced educator and principal.
Case study Es tab lis h in g a le a rn in g co mmu n i t y – my p h i l o so p h y

·
Shanti Clements
My philosophy is to provide a happy, stimulating and safe classroom environment where all
learners enjoy learning and work to achieve their full potential.
primary secon dary
I specifically aim to develop in all students:
• achievement of all learning outcomes in the Key Learning Areas
• a love of learning
e a r ly • the ability to communicate successfully
childhood • confidence in their creative ability
• the ability to work independently
• the ability to work cooperatively in group situations
• respect for the rights of others
• the ability to accept and appreciate differences between themselves and others.
To achieve the above aims, I create a positive and safe learning environment within the classroom
by integrating the management programs: ‘Stop, Think & Do’, HIPP [Help Increase the Peace
Program] recommendations and Choice Theory (William Glasser). One of the positive aspects of this
form of management is that students can reward themselves for ‘responsible’ behaviour – thus helping
them to become intrinsically motivated in following the class rules we have written together.
What is HIPP?
HIPP stands for Help Increase the Peace Program. It is a social skills program that is used in the
USA and has been used here in Australian schools for the past 10 years as well.
HIPP teaches K–12 learners the social skills needed to follow classroom or school rules,
encourage communication, develop conflict management skills and increase self-esteem.
The five HIPP keys are:
1 Care for others (yellow)
2 Think before reacting (green)
3 Work together in a non-violent way (red)
4 Respect yourself (blue)
5 Expect the best (black).
Each key has a specific colour. The keys are designed to be placed in classrooms or areas in the
school where positive behaviours and attitudes are encouraged. Children are ‘triggered’ by the colour
of the key – which reminds them of the appropriate behaviour they should be using.
Learners are asked to pick a key for the ‘day’ or ‘lesson’. As they become more used to the
HIPP keys, the educator may up the ante by asking them to use all five keys together. Students
are told that using the five keys creates a ‘rainbow’ key that opens a treasure box of peace.
They are then rewarded for positive behaviour.
HIPP is not designed to replace school rules or to be the only method in dealing with conflict
resolution. HIPP encourages the appropriate behaviour before a negative situation occurs.
It also teaches children to be aware of their thoughts, actions and intentions at all times. HIPP
is a fantastic tool to use in K–6 and secondary schools.
1 Conduct an internet search of ‘Help Increase the Peace Program’ (HIPP) to learn more about the
approach. Would you consider using HIPP? Why or why not?
2 There are many programs and approaches to managing student behaviour, with many of these
being products purchased by schools. For a fee, consultants come to schools, train teachers and
sell resources. In this sense, managing student behaviour has become big business and, given the
pressures of teaching, educators are more than willing to sign up to what’s on offer. But educators
should not simply sign up to the next fad being sold. What factors should influence how teachers
judge the programs and approaches best suited for their classes and schools?
As mentioned at the beginning of this chapter, when developing your classroom management
strategies you will need to consider the school context in which you are working. All schools are
required to develop school behaviour management plans and student welfare policies based on
system policy documents. As an early career educator, you may well be a member of your school
committee responsible for formulating your school management policy.
Conclusion
Managing the learning environment is a necessary part of teaching. In the past, it could be
taken for granted that the teacher will be respected and their instructions obeyed, otherwise
physical punishment would be meted out to recalcitrant students. Today, however, building
respectful relationships between educators and learners is emphasised as a more effective means
to learning engagement and an approach more aligned with our culture’s values. Educators need
to be sensitive and not make assumptions about what learners will find interesting based on
our own needs or interests. We need to avoid assumptions that may cause learners to become
angry or resentful. We need to be aware of learners’ backgrounds and realise that sometimes
their behaviour is not intended to be offensive. It’s also extremely important not to personalise
management difficulties and see them as a failure on your part. Rather, they are opportunities to
learn more about our learners and the way we deal with conflict ourselves. In a nutshell, we must
aim to be warm, responsive, fair, consistent, caring, supportive and demand high expectations of
all learners, both in terms of their academic achievements and behaviour.
STUDY TOOLS
Go further
Following 1 Do you think the term ‘classroom management’ conveys negativity, power or control? Can you think
through of an alternative term that more aptly describes this concept?
2 Return to the early-career educator’s scenario described in this chapter (see page 268). What do
you infer about the management practices of this early-career educator? What was her underlying
philosophy in relation to children as learners and the learning processes? What other approaches could
she have taken? You might wish to refer to some of the theories introduced in this chapter. What
would be the consequences of the approaches you suggest?
3 Search the internet or library catalogue for two or more theories and models to managing behaviour
and learning environments (e.g. Glasser’s Model of Choice Theory; the Model of Assertive Discipline;
Albert’s Cooperative Discipline Theory). Create a chart that compares the key differences between
the theories and models. Based on your chart, evaluate the merits of each theory and model.
4 Can you recall a critical classroom incident that you believe was managed badly, leading to a crisis in
the classroom? What were the key triggers? Can you think of an alternative way the incident could
have been managed in hindsight?
5 How does your philosophy of teaching and learning inform your approach to managing the classroom
learning community?
6 Do you think educators need a ‘bag of tricks’ to ensure effective classroom management? Why or why not?
7 Interview a learner you consider most like yourself as a learner. Interview a learner you consider most
unlike yourself. How do their interests, likes and dislikes affect their classroom behaviour? How does
this knowledge about individual learners affect you as an early career educator?
Useful https://www.aitsl.edu.au/tools-resources/resource/positive-learning-environments-illustration-of-practice
online The Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership provides resources to assist teachers. This
teaching web page contains a video of practices related to creating positive learning environments that engage
resources students in learning.
http://emedia.rmit.edu.au/lathnervirtualschool This virtual school site, Lathner Primary School was
designed to assist both early career and experienced educators in planning for twenty-first century
learning. The site also contains many ideas for working directly with the 2nd edition of the text
Learning to Teach: New Times, New Practices and Working with the Virtual School Lathner Primary. There
are folders on background information about the school and background about the book and extended
critical incidents in Lathner classrooms under the heading ‘Snapshots’.
https://soundcloud.com/search?q=behaviour%20management Listen to this podcast series called
Behaviour Management by Teacher Magazine (ACER). Topics in the series include: ‘Starting the new
year’; ‘De-escalation techniques’; ‘Enacting respectful behaviour management policies’; and ‘Behaviour
approaches for children with disabilities’.
References
Apple, M. 1990, Ideology and Curriculum, 2nd edn, Kounin, J. 1970, Discipline and Group Management in
Routledge, New York. Classrooms, Holt, Rinehart & Winston, New York.
Bernstein, B. 1996, Pedagogy, Symbolic Control and Larivee, B. 2005, Authentic Classroom Management:
Identity: Theory, Research, Critique, Taylor & Creating a Learning Community and
Francis, London. Building Reflective Practice, Pearson Education,
Canter, L. & Canter, M. 1976, Assertive Discipline: A Take New York.
Charge Approach for Today’s Educator, Canter & Le Cornu, R. 2013, ‘Building early career teacher
Associates, California. resilience: The role of relationships’,
Cusworth, R. 1995, ‘The framing of educational Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 38 (4),
knowledge through newstime in junior primary pp. 1–16.
classrooms’, PhD thesis, University of Sydney. Mercer, N. & Dawes, L. 2014, ‘The study of talk
Delpit, L. & Kilgour Dowdy, J. 2002, The Skin that We between teachers and students, from the 1970s until
Speak, The New Press, New York. the 2010s’. Oxford Review of Education, 40 (4),
pp. 430–445.
Dobson, J. 1970, Dare to Discipline, Tyndale House,
Chicago. Munns, G., McFadden, M. & Koletti, J. 2002, ‘The
messy space: Research into student engagement and
Dreikers, R. & Cassel, P. 1972, Discipline without Tears,
the social relations of pedagogy’, paper presented
Hawthorne, New York.
at AARE conference, www.aare.edu.au/02pap/
Dreikers, R., Grunwald, P. & Pepper, K. 1982, Maintaining mun02359.htm, (accessed 23 March 2010).
Sanity in the Classroom, Harper & Row, New York.
____ 2001, ‘Alchemy and the aberrant behaviour of boys’,
Dufficy, P. 2002, ‘The pedagogy of talk in a multilingual PhD thesis, University of Sydney.
classroom’, PhD thesis, University of Sydney.
NSW Department of Education and Training and
____ 2005, Designing Learning for Diverse Classrooms, University of Western Sydney. 2006, ‘School is for
Primary English Teaching Association Australia me: Pathways to student engagement’, www.sydneyr.
(PETAA), Sydney. det.nsw.edu.au/equity/documents/ PSP/PSPPage-
Evertson, C. & Weinstein, C. 2011, Handbook of RESAERCH-SchoolIsForMe.pdf, accessed 19
Classroom Management. Research, Practice and December 2013.
Contemporary Issues, Routledge, New York. O’Dea, R. 2001, ‘Alchemy and the aberrant behaviour of
Eves, C. 2001, ‘Assisting beginning educators in boys’, PhD thesis, University of Sydney.
managing inappropriate classroom behaviour through Payne, R. 2015, ‘Using rewards and sanctions in the
mentoring’, Primary Educator, 1, pp. 3–15. classroom: Pupils’ perceptions of their own
Gee, J. 1992, The Social Mind, Bergin & Garvey, responses to current behavior management
New York. strategies’, Educational Review, 67 (4),
Glasser, W. 1986, Control Theory in the Classroom, pp. 483–504.
Harper & Row, New York. Rogers, C. 1969, Freedom to Learn, Charles E. Merrill,
Gordon, T. 1974, Teacher Effectiveness Training: T. E. T., Columbus.
P. H. Wyden, New York. Rogers, W. 1993, The Language of Discipline: A Practical
Hughes, J. 2010, ‘Communicating effectively in Approach to Classroom Management, Northcote
classrooms. Using voice and body language’, in House, Plymouth.
R. Ewing, T. Lowrie, T. & J. Higgs (eds), Teaching Rogers, B. 2015, Classroom Behavior: A Practical Guide
and Communicating: Rethinking Professional to Effective Teaching, Behaviour Management and
Experiences, Oxford University Press, Melbourne. Colleague Support (4th edn), Sage Publications,
Johnson, B., Down, B., Le Cornu, R., Peters, J., London.
Sullian, A., Pearce, J. & Hunter, J. 2015, Early Career Way, S. 2011, ‘School discipline and disruptive classroom
Educators: Stories of Resilience, Springer, Singapore. behavior: The moderating effect of student
Kendall, S. & Kinder, K. 2006, ‘Engaging the disengaged: perceptions’, The Sociological Quarterly, 52 (3),
Messages from across Europe’, NFER, www. pp. 346–375.
teachingexpertise.com/articles/engaging-disengaged- Wolfgang, C. & Glickman, C. 1980, Solving Discipline
messages-across-europe-404, accessed 9 June 2013. Problems, Allyn & Bacon, Sydney.

Building family–school–
community partnerships
O we n Va r dy
Building family–school–
community partnerships are
central to student learning.
274
CHAPTER 11 Building family–school–community partnerships 275
T his chapter focuses on partnership. Schooling is one part of a learner’s life; family and
community involvements are critical too. When educators think about themselves in
partnership, they are able to meet learners halfway. When we take time to look at the
different (and often multiple) ‘worlds’ our learners are involved with, we are able to make
these varied experiences visible and make meaningful connections to curricula.
We use the term ‘family’ to define the intergenerational opportunities that mothers,
fathers, siblings, grandparents, guardians, extended family and significant others bring to
the experiences of a learner. As educators cater for learners, the home can’t be viewed as
‘an isolated domain or container that we enter and exit’ (Rowsell, 2006 p. 10). Rather, the
relationship between home, school and community is fluid as the contexts impact upon each
other continually throughout a learner’s life.
Communicating or working with ‘family’ (most notably parents and caregivers) is
a challenging aspect of teaching for many early career educators. They know that parent
involvement is important to the learning and wellbeing of their students but it is, nevertheless,
an area in which they often feel anxious. From the other side of the school gate, it is also true
that many parents feel apprehensive about communicating with their child’s teacher. Others,
however, have little problem contacting the school through phone or email to ask questions,
share information or express concerns. As Epstein (1995, p. 1) suggests, however, ‘the way
schools care about children is reflected in the way schools care about the children’s families’.
If educators view both the family and community as partners with the school in the children’s
education, then they will strive to develop relationships that will enable better educational
opportunities for students.
Your attitude to parents is crucially important. The Plowden Report, while quite old now,
is as relevant today as it was when written:
What matters most are the attitudes of teachers to parents and parents to teachers – whether
there is genuine mutual respect, whether parents understand what the schools are doing for
their individual children and teachers realise how dependent they are on mutual support.
Plowden report, cited by Cave, 1970, p. 109
You need to have a genuine and sincere belief that you want to be in partnership with
parents. Parents will not trust you if they sense you are being insincere. We wish to emphasise
from the outset that working well with parents is relational; it all depends on the relationships
that you develop and these relationships will depend on your interpersonal skills. The
importance of effective interpersonal skills for educators was highlighted in Chapter 9 and
will be re-emphasised in this chapter. You need to have, and to use, positive interpersonal
skills such as active listening as well as always remembering to smile and be welcoming. You
will be remembered and judged on your interpersonal skills before anything else. Consider
the following real case study.
Walking th e talk ? Case study

·1
An early primary educator had told parents at a meeting at the local preschool that as their
children began their first year of formal school, she wanted to involve them and would invite
them to spend time in the room, working with her and the children for various activities.
primary
The parents were happy with these words and were looking forward to their child commencing
school. On the first day of the term, as the parents and their children entered the classroom, the
educator made no effort to smile and welcome the students or the parents. Some parents were
clearly upset and nervous at the thought of leaving their child to start school and the educator
made no effort to show empathy or to be reassuring to parents or the children. The morning
was not structured so parents could take their time and create a happy and relaxed start to their
child’s schooling. The educator stood at the front of the class, called the children to the mat, and
said firmly, ‘Now say goodbye to Mummy and Daddy’, giving a clear message that the parents
were to now leave.
1 How might the educator feel in this scenario? How about the parents? How about the learners?
2 How would you handle the first day of term for parents and learners?
What message did the parents

Lisa Kervin
Lisa Kervin
receive and remember: the

educator’s earlier words or her
actions on the day? According
to this educator’s principal, the
educator never regained the
parents’ trust and had ongoing
problems with parents not wanting
their children in her class. This was
Aidan begins primary school Aidan begins high school despite the fact that the educator
did some fabulous things with
that class and eventually offered a number of opportunities for parents to become involved.
What interpersonal skills could the educator have enacted in this situation that would have
facilitated a more positive start to the term for these learners and their parents?
This chapter begins with a discussion about why families’ engagement in their children’s
learning is so important. It explains some possible sources of tensions between parents
and educators and includes some considerations in building and sustaining meaningful
partnerships. We then provide examples and strategies to enable you to more effectively
welcome and work with parents as partners in their children’s education. The chapter
concludes with some vignettes and a brief exploration of the benefits of working with the
wider community, including external agencies.
Defining family–school–
community partnerships
In 2017 the Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations (2017)
prepared a departmental document endorsing a Family–School Partnerships Framework.
In this framework, family–school partnerships are
Lisa Kervin
described as ‘an effective way to support and empower
positive parent engagement, and bring together family
and community resources to enrich student learning
and wellbeing.’ (DEEWR, 2017). Originally endorsed
by Australia’s education ministers in 2008, the notion
of family–school partnership building became a national
priority for schools in the Melbourne Declaration on
Educational Goals for Young Australians (MCEETYA,
2008). The framework presents core principles including:
• parents and families are the first and continuing
educators of their children Friendship that crosses age and gender
• learning is lifelong and occurs in multiple settings
• partnerships, schools and school communities flourish when the diversity and strengths of Family–school
partnerships are
families are valued and leveraged collaborative
• community engagement expands responsibility and resources relationships and
activities involving
• partnerships grow from mutual trust, respect and responsibility school staff,
parents and other
• partnerships need committed, collaborative and creative leadership. family members of
The report reminds us that responsibility for partnerships is spread throughout a school students at a school.
community from educators to leadership. The document also outlines characteristics for
effective partnership, which we encourage you to access and read. However, critical in this
are the ‘verbs’, the characteristics educators are expected to enact, a few of which include
responsive, purposeful, commitment, valuing and sharing. These each provide important
guidance to the work of an educator.
Reasons to build family–

school partnerships
It is clear from the existence of the Family–School Partnership Framework that the Australian
Government is committed to the development of family–school partnerships. Moreover,
this commitment is reflected at the state level within the policies of the various education
systems. So, one of the first reasons to build family–school partnerships is that it is policy! It
is important to note (and re-emphasise) that this partnership is intended for positive parent
engagement, but you should also look for opportunities to embed family and community
resources to support all learners.
Family–school partnerships have benefits for the students themselves. There is much
research which indicates that if students are to maximise their learning, they need the full
support of their parents/caregivers (for example, Auerbach, 2011; Berthelsen & Walker, 2008;
Weiss, Lopez & Rosenberg, 2010; Epstein, 2011; Jeynes, 2012). Many writers in the area
confirm a positive correlation between school–family partnerships and increased retention
rates, reduced absenteeism, less substance abuse or abusive behaviour, better social skills
at both home and school, and enhanced wellbeing. Hence the foremost reason for parental
involvement is an educational one – to improve students’ learning outcomes.
Another reason, also related to the benefits for children, is captured in the following quote
from an experienced principal:
Kids, especially little kids, love to see their parents at
school. The look on a little child’s face when he or she sees
Mum, Dad, Nan or whoever at the door ready to hear reading or
help with a cooking group or to help with swimming, etc. is one
of pure joy. Even in the older grades, no matter what the kids
say, they enjoy seeing their parents at school or being part of
the school. A pretty good reason right there in my opinion!
This principal also believed that while the type of involvement varies across the first year
of schooling to Year 6 or 7, and despite the natural moving toward independence as children
move into upper primary, they are still strongly connected to their family, and this feeling of
connectedness is necessary for promoting a sense of wellbeing. She cited a learner wellbeing
project, recently conducted in ‘the Department’, which found a direct relationship between
the children’s wellbeing and learning; therefore strong school–family partnerships can and do
benefit students.
There are also benefits for parents themselves. Through partnership with the school,
they can develop a greater understanding and knowledge of their own children. They also
gain a greater understanding of the school’s programs and any issues. This means that
misunderstandings can be avoided, and parents can act as advocates for the school in the
wider community. A collaborative approach can result in a change of attitude, particularly
for those parents who may have regarded themselves as powerless regarding their children’s
education and may have had negative attitudes towards school and education because of their
own experiences. A recent series of parent seminars about how children learn to read gives us
an example. One of the parents in the group expressed despair at her son’s attitude to reading
aloud. While happily completing other aspects of his homework, the mandatory reading
seemed to engender tension. The educator gently suggested that she change the focus slightly
and read with her son, taking time to discuss anything that linked to their own experiences.
Several weeks later, the parent reported that their reading time had changed markedly and
they were both enjoying their time reading together.
There are also benefits for educators. These include the gathering of extra knowledge
about the child, which leads to a better understanding of the child and a more relevant
learning program. Through understanding the different experiences of learners, different
resources become available to help enrich learning opportunities. Acknowledging family and
community expertise has the potential to make learners feel more included and supported,
which in turn affects their sense of wellbeing in the classroom.
When you think about your own schooling and/or that of your own children, do you think the
school valued the development of a strong family–school partnership? What opportunities were
available for connection? What were the effects of these partnerships?
Epstein (2013) reminds us that when developing partnerships, it is crucial that educators
strive for equitable partnerships. Equitable partnerships ‘require teachers, administrators, and
partnership teams to reach out to all families, not just the easiest to reach’ (Epstein, 2013, p. 116).
To do this, you need to understand the diversity that occurs in families and family structures.
Understanding diversity in
families and family structures
As you cater for the diversity of learners in your classroom, as discussed in Chapter 3 (for
example, cultural, language, disability, and socioeconomic differences) so too will you need
to respond to diversity in ‘families’. Stereotypical views of ‘family’ – mum, dad and siblings
with mum at home and dad at work – aren’t helpful. Families are very diverse; both parents
may work (in quite different arrangements such as shifts, office hours, flexible arrangements),
learners may not live with their parents (they may live with grandparents, or be fostered), they
may have step-parents and live across more than one home, they may have a single parent or
parents of the same gender. This then poses important considerations for how we talk about
families with learners and how we communicate with families about learning. When sending
out information to ‘parents’, be inclusive and address it to ‘parents/caregivers’, as this covers
all the significant adults who are in the lives of the children you have in your class. Having
said this, for ease of our communication we will continue to use the term ‘parents’ for the
remainder of this chapter, on the understanding that it includes all the people, and different
family structures, who have the responsibility for the care of children attending school.
Getting to know your learners

Without being overly intrusive, it is very important to get to know your learners’ families and
their community. For example, it is crucial that you have an understanding of:
• family composition and living arrangements
• cultural practices – the tools, beliefs and rituals adopted within families
• family work patterns – for example, parents who do shift work, older siblings with part-
time jobs
• parents’ own levels of education and views about education
• life events that may impact on children and their families – for example, separation, death
in the family (including pets), relocation and illness.
All these aspects and situations will contribute to the ‘funds of knowledge’ learners
can access. Educators should acknowledge that families can be an important resource in
supporting and strengthening student learning, understanding and achievement. We can learn
about the funds of knowledge learners have and build these cultural resources into learning
experiences. Some strategies could include the following:
• Speak with learners about what they do at home.
• Invite learners to share and talk about family artefacts.
• Invite family members to share stories.

• Create tasks where learners interview family members about topics and experiences to
gather different perspectives.
• Create opportunities for families to talk with each other (open classrooms and parent–
teacher evenings may provide opportunity).
• Draw upon the resources within the parent community to support your planned classroom
experiences (for example, a parent who works somewhere that would be appropriate for
an excursion, or a family member who has a particular occupation that might provide
important input for a topic of study).
Understanding these different ‘cultural resources’ invites us into the worlds of our learners.
However, educators do need to be sensitive about how they respond to information offered
to them. There is a tendency for educators to overlook the ways in which families from
different cultural backgrounds provide for their children’s learning. Educators of students of
South-East Asian family backgrounds, for example, sometimes decry the persistent coaching
of children to obtain better results. But there is now a wealth of literature that suggests that
the motivation of students is seen in this culture to rest upon effort and not exclusively upon
ability (Koh & Galloway, 2006). Thus seeking coaching is seen as an appropriate response
to assisting students in their efforts to do well at school. Of course, this does not mean that
schools should not question the over-use of coaching for very young children, but should
engage with parents on their terms.
Understanding sociodemographic influences

Sociodemographic You also need to be very aware of how sociodemographic features affect families’ engagement
features include with schools. For example, variation in levels of parent involvement in children’s learning at
socioeconomic
status (SES), home and at school is strongly influenced by family socioeconomic status (SES) and differences
ethnic and cultural in ethnic and cultural backgrounds between parents and educators (Berthelsen & Walker, 2008).
backgrounds and
geographic location. For example, low SES parents for a variety of reasons – including lack of resources, fewer
years of education, negative experiences with schools and feeling unprepared – often find it
more difficult to become involved in schools. Moreover, Lott (2003) noted the existence of
many negative stereotypes among educators about low-income parents. She claims that there
has been little change in the last few decades with respect to educator and administrator beliefs
about low-income parents or children. She maintains that a deficit view prevails and asserts that
school–parent partnerships often seem to be directed toward middle- class parents. Fortunately,
more recently there are increasing examples being reported in the literature that demonstrate
more positive approaches. For example, Johnson (2007) reported three principals’ efforts ‘in
high poverty, challenging schools’ to create authentic school–community relationships. Johnson
described these leaders as ‘culturally responsive’; they supported academic achievement while
they worked to affirm students’ home cultures and to empower parents. These principals
worked extremely hard to create a trusting environment in their schools. Another example
is provided by Hands (2013), who described a range of strategies for reaching and supporting
parents who face challenges to engagement such as poverty and cultural diversity.
Berthelsen and Walker (2008, p. 35) remind us that:
The way in which parents feel about schools and the emotional connections that they had to
school may influence the kinds of attitudes to schools and learning that their children assume.
These feelings may be positive or negative, depending on the nature of those previous experiences.
You need to appreciate these feelings if you are to truly understand how, and why,
parents view and construct their school involvement in different ways. Also, be aware that
parent–educator relationships are sometimes fraught. There may also be tensions within the
parent community itself. Recently, one of us worked with a school to develop and enhance
school–community relationships in a context where there was much economic hardship. The
community itself was divided between struggling families, who nonetheless were reasonably
self-sufficient in their own modest homes, and other families in crisis in state-provided
housing. Each group had its own territory, even down to which school gate they used for
access and woe betide the parent who ran the gauntlet and used the wrong gate!
The next section looks at some perceived tensions between parents and educators.
Understanding some perceived

tensions between parents and
educators
In reflecting on your attitude to parents at the beginning of this chapter, were you feeling a
little apprehensive or perhaps a little defensive? If you were, then you are not alone. What
is the reason for this? It may be that you are feeling overwhelmed at the idea of building
relationships with all the parents as well as all of the children in your class. It may be that
you have negative memories of your own parents’ involvement in your schooling. These
apprehensions may be related to what we have called ‘perceived tensions between parents
and educators’. We focus on these next in the hope that by doing so, it will help you to feel
more comfortable in understanding and negotiating this very important aspect of your work.
In order to understand some of the perceived tensions between parents and educators,
we must start with a historical view of home–school relationships. At the outset of popular
education, schools took on the character of ‘fortresses’. Few people except officials were allowed
to enter the school between 9 a.m. and 4 p.m. and visitors were actively discouraged – after
the registers were called, the gates were locked. Notices could be seen: ‘No Parents Beyond
This Point!’ And sometimes a white line would be drawn on the playground as a symbol of
the gulf between home and school. According to Claydon (1974, p. 3), ‘the assumption was
that the only way to help the child is to forget his [sic] parents and concentrate on the child’.
Conditioned to believe that education was a matter for the educator and school, parents were
treated with apathy or hostility by educators and were made to believe that they had no part to
play in the education of their children. The prevailing view at the time was that parents needed
to be told how to help their children. While the official position has certainly changed, there are
still examples to be seen of this historic conflict between parents and educators in schools today.
Another reason for this historic conflict is reflected in the following quote: ‘Parents and
teachers are natural enemies, predestined each for the discomfiture of the other’ (Waller, 1968,
p. 68). Waller believed that conflict between parents and educators is natural and inevitable
because of their differences in the treatment of a child. The educator must see the child as part
of the school group and endeavour to meet the needs of all of the children, whereas the parent
only sees their child and his or her needs.
However, it is perfectly normal and reasonable that parents want the best for their child. It is
also perfectly reasonable that parents these days expect to be informed, involved and consulted
about their child’s education and any school policies. Parents are not the enemy! Unfortunately,
this view is sometimes pushed in the media. Current affairs programs and social media, for
example, are full of stories of unresolved conflicts between parents and educators. The teaching
profession is also more interfered with than any other. Some, but not all, parents feel a desire to
tell educators how they should teach and can exert enormous pressure. When these concerns
are not addressed, educators are made to feel that they haven’t done their job satisfactorily. Of
course, we should remember that parents want only what is best for their child and that most
parents genuinely want to support their child’s educator and their school.
Tension between parents and educators can also be due to something termed ‘role conflict’.
Various opinions exist about the perceived roles of schools, parents and educators. Too often
both parents and educators hold false and outmoded stereotypes of each other and preconceived
roles which the other party must play. For example, parents might remember their childhood
experiences with teachers and expect the educators of their own children to behave in the same
way and similarly, educators can have a general view of parents – their ‘clients’. Educators do
sometimes refer to parents as if they were an amorphous group! It should be noted that there
is danger in talk of ‘the parent’. Parents are people who happen to have children – they also
work, play, have friends, affiliations, political and religious beliefs. Just as ‘educators’ do. Talk
of ‘the parent’ is misleading – it too easily obscures the variety of characteristics which make up
a person. Stereotypes are extremely harmful to home–school relationships and must be resisted.
One pre-service educator we know (who is also a parent) recently said:
I often hear educators comment negatively on parents and carers.
There is a tendency to blame parents for kids’ behaviour or for
not controlling or teaching their children morals or values. I
don’t think this helps build relationships.
Finally, some of the tension between educators and parents can be attributed to the belief
that their aims and aspirations are diametrically opposed. However, many studies have shown
that this is not so. For example, Lott (2003) noted that low-income parents are often perceived
by educators as not being as committed to their children’s school achievement, but in fact this
is not the case. Shirley Brice Heath’s (1983) historic ethnographic study (as discussed more
fully in Chapter 3) of three different cultural groups living in the north Carolinas in the USA
demonstrated unequivocally that all parents were keen for their children to achieve success
at school. Many low-income parents do express concern for the academic achievement of
their children and seek involvement in their child’s schooling. However, Lott and other
researchers have also noted that in attempting to have an impact on the school experiences
of their children, low-income parents face an uphill battle. For example, they don’t have the
resources nor do they receive as warm a welcome as that experienced by middle-class parents
whose values are more likely to be similar to those of a majority of educators.
There is more agreement between parents and educators than either side thinks is the
case, but this is only discovered if a determined effort is made by educators and parents to
get to know each other. And, as some writers note (for example, Lott, 2003; Johnson, 2007),
a serious commitment must be made by those who run schools (who have the advantage
of status and resources) to ensure that all parents, including those parents with social and
cultural backgrounds different from the dominant social group, are included and feel valued.
1 How might schools ensure that all family members (particularly parents) are included and
feel valued?
2 How might schools find out if their parents feel included and valued?
Parent involvement and

participation
Parent involvement
Given the diversity of families, it is very important to understand that parents need to be able refers to the
to be involved in their child’s education in a variety of ways. Often you will hear the terms contribution that
parents make to the
‘involvement’ and ‘participation’ used to refer to the different levels of parental involvement life and business of
(Newport, 1992). Parent involvement has been described as ‘the contribution which parents make a school without
to the life and business of a school without necessarily being part of the decision-making process’ necessarily being
part of the decision-
(South Australian Department for Education and Children’s Services, 1996). Parent participation making process.
refers to ‘parents sharing in the making of decisions about school aims, policies and programs with Parent participation
staff and students’ (South Australian Department for Education and Children’s Services, 1996, refers to parents
sharing in decision-
2000). Parents might commence with involvement in the classroom, and as they become more making processes of
confident, may then become part of the school’s decision making by becoming a member of one the school.
of the decision-making groups such as the governing council,
Alamy Stock Photo/Paula Solloway

or one of its subcommittees, or a parents and friends group. In
these instances, it is a case of building meaningful relationships
based on sharing the power and the decision making in your
classroom and school.
As mentioned earlier, the term ‘partnership’ is being used
here to describe parents and schools working together to
educate learners. This must be an active partnership in which
each understands the role(s) of the other. Such a relationship
works best when it is characterised by trust, mutuality and
reciprocity. A wonderful example of an active partnership is
the Koora, the Kangaroo Violence Intervention Program, in
a primary school in Woorabinda in Central Queensland. This
program focused on young people’s participation in school
by recognising their relationships with their families and their
community. Wyn (2009, p. 137) described:
The Woorabinda community was established in around 1927 when
at least 17 different tribal groups were forcibly moved there. In the
lead up to the introduction of the program in 2004, community
workers had noted increased family violence and teachers recorded
the negative impact this had on children’s schooling. The program
draws on traditional methods such as storytelling by older people
and learning traditional art and dancing as a way to instill respect Family working together
for elders and others and to have pride in their cultural identities. An evaluation of the program
showed that levels of aggressive and violent behaviour in the school were reduced.
In a partnership approach, there is a genuine shift in the balance of power. With regard to
historic thinking about parents and schools, the school had all the power in the relationship.
Thankfully this has shifted to a more balanced perspective. There are two prerequisites for
developing good home–school relationships: the principal must be willing to cooperate in
bringing families closer to the school and the staff must take an active interest in developing
parent involvement and participation. Once staff members are determined to develop further
home–school relationships, they must realise that the school must take the initiative and make
the first step. The initial contact with parents is vital to the success of any future developments,
as we saw in the opening to this chapter.
In the remainder of this chapter, we will be concentrating on parental involvement in the
preschool or classroom. As a beginning educator this is where your emphasis is and should be.
Parent involvement – what it ‘looks like’

As noted earlier, clear and open communication are crucial aspects of parent involvement. As
well as developing a culture of open communication in your preschool or classroom, you need
to think of ways to enable parents to share information about their children, to keep parents
informed of their child’s progress and happenings in their classroom, and provide them with
opportunities to be involved at whatever level they can manage or want. For example, one of our
friends, a principal, explained how she handled the dilemma of work and parent involvement:
As a full-time working parent my way of being involved in my
son’s schooling was to read the newsletters, participate in
events which occurred on the weekends, drive like a maniac during
lunchtime so I could watch him run in the one event he was in on
sports day, and attend teacher–parent interviews!
The following lists are a starting point when considering what parent involvement in the
classroom may ‘look like’.
Getting started
• Conduct a parent induction or acquaintance session before the children start preschool
or school or very soon after they have started. This is an opportunity to develop shared
understandings about how you work. You can answer questions and clarify issues. At
this meeting, it is very important that you negotiate how you can access each other on
a day-to-day basis and come to an agreement on some protocols of behaviour. A quick
example is to mention how hard it is to discuss really important issues about their child
first thing in the morning, because your priority at that time is to welcome the children
and get prepared for the day. Emphasise that in such a situation it is preferable to make
a later time to discuss any issues properly. Also, always prepare written material to send
home to parents who were unable to attend such sessions. This is very important.
• Send a questionnaire asking parents to share their knowledge about their child, for
example, his or her interests, the child’s strengths, how do they think he or she learns best,
anything else that needs to be known and so on. If you then use that information when
structuring your program, this clearly demonstrates that you value what parents have to
offer.
• When you speak to parents make sure you know about their child’s health issues, any
learning difficulties, if the child is gifted or has any particular personal issues. This can
sometimes be found in previous records or from the learner’s preschool and/or previous
school. Talk to previous educators and/or senior staff to ensure you know about each child.
• Ask for advice from parents about how they would like to be involved and what kind of
information would support them as a parent.
Which of these ‘getting started’ strategies do you feel most comfortable with? Why do you think
this is so?
Sharing information with parents

• Set up a system of communication which can be used on a daily basis, for example, diaries,
communication books or an online communication system (such as Storypark or Seesaw).
Read contributions offered by parents and respond to any concerns or any information
given to you, for example, ‘Jenny will need to leave early on Friday as we have to travel
to see her grandparents interstate’ or ‘Jenny tells me that an older kid was bullying her on
the bus yesterday’. This type of information has to be followed up. Document what you
have done.
• Ensure that you inform parents about any issues which have happened during the day. For
example, the school should have procedures in place if a child visits the sick room. Always
check these procedures and be sure to follow them and inform parents. This applies no
matter what age the child is. Parents need to know and be reassured that you care about
their child, and in most cases parents can cope with most incidents provided they feel
informed. Also, do not ever think that it is someone else’s job to send home a note or
email: always check to see that it has happened.
• Phone a parent if you are concerned about an issue, and in general keep your senior staff
informed of issues so they are kept in the loop, and can support and advise you. Document
what you have done.
• Keep records of parent communications; for example, note down times of phone calls
and keep all the written communication you have received from parents (with your
annotations of what you have done in response).
• Have a weekly or fortnightly class newsletter or compose regular online postings. Older
learners may be able to help write these. Acknowledge positive contributions from parents
in the newsletter. If possible, send this home translated into the appropriate language.
Also, if a child has more than one set of parents, then try to ensure both sets receive the
class and school newsletters. In this case, it may be that you have to produce more than
one copy of the reports at the end of the term. Technology can help us out here with these
types of documents being placed on the school website or easily sent via email.
• Be organised and let parents know well in advance what you are planning for units of
work, significant events such as excursions and school camps, and any disruptions to the
regular routine (such as a uniform change or need to bring objects to class).
Extending invitations to be involved

As you consider opportunities to involve the parent community, also draw upon your
knowledge of the families and what they might be able to offer. Strategies suggested earlier in
this chapter will help with this. Some other ideas include:
• Ask parents about what they would like to know and then offer information sessions so
they feel informed about current pedagogy. Some examples are: how to choose books,
read with your child, how we teach children to read, and what is in the growth and
development course. The list is endless.
• Invite parents to informal events, such as assemblies, Mother’s Day/Father’s Day/
Grandparents Day special events, book week and literacy week events, end-of-term picnic
or any classroom-based performances where learners share what they’ve been working
on. Open classrooms can provide an important opportunity for parents to visit and see
what is happening. Try to give as much notice as possible.
• Regularly send home learners’ work (through their books or activities) so parents can
spend time looking at what their child has been doing in the classroom and ask their child
(or you) any questions of clarification.
• Be informed about your local community and make the most of the resources it offers.
For example, invite long-time residents who know the history of the area to give a talk
to the class, invite the parents in to discuss their occupations or visit any local industry as
an excursion. One teacher we know has a ‘mystery’ storyteller each week chosen from a
group of parents who are keen to be involved.
Alamy Stock Photo/Mark Boulton
Gathering of community members
• Provide opportunities for parents to assist in day-to-day activities when possible. This
could involve reading with a group of children or assisting with excursions. However,
these opportunities need to be clearly organised and parents may need some training (with
regard to confidentiality and routines) to ensure they know what is expected of them.
Always have any resources ready and never forget whose day it is to do what! Have
rosters organised and published.
An important point to make here is that at no time should you think that you have
to have parents in your room all the time. Yes, parents need to feel welcome, but you are
the pedagogical expert and it is up to you to organise these occasions so you can manage
the activities to best suit your learning environment If there are parents who always want to
be in your room, then ask the librarian if she or he needs help, or perhaps the canteen staff
need assistance? You can then sensitively redirect the parents to other sections of the school.
If this is not successful, you need to ask senior staff to support you and together work out a
plan of how to best manage this. Brennan Kemmis and Ahern (2010) stress the importance
of early career teachers needing to implement some communication boundaries in their role
with parents. They give an example of parents who wanted an interview every afternoon! You
need to be welcoming, but you are also coping with the pressures of an early career educator,
so be realistic in setting your limits.
As a pre-service educator,
what can I do?
You will be expected to show that you can work effectively with parents/caregivers in your
professional experiences. University reports for professional experience often have this as one of
their indicators for success and it is stated quite explicitly in the Australian Professional Standards
for Teachers. At the Graduate level, you are expected to ‘understand strategies for working
effectively, sensitively and confidentially with parents/carers’ (AITSL, 2012, standard 7.3).
So, here are some strategies for developing relationships with the parents in your class
while on a professional experience:
• Provide a letter of introduction or a photostory when you arrive
• If possible introduce yourself to a ‘new’ parent every day. Stray from the classroom door:
to the corridor, the space outside the room, the school yard
• Invite parents in at the culmination of a project/topic to share the students’ learning
• Run a small class assembly with the permission of your mentor teacher – sing songs, share
learning, have students show pieces of their learning – have the students write personal
invitations to their parents to come along
• Do parents assist in the school canteen? If so, go and introduce yourself. Perhaps you
could offer to assist one lunchtime (if your supervising educator agrees)
• Use class newsletters, websites, photos, notes, awards, notes in diaries, certificates, good
news notes, phone calls (but check with your mentor educator first which is the most
appropriate for your setting)
• Make an effort to arrive earlier in the morning so that you have enough time to prepare
for the day and also meet and greet families. Show an interest in the family, talk about the
day ahead and share something about yourself
• Attend parent meetings such as governing council, a fundraising committee or parents and
friends (check first with your mentor educator or principal).
Sometimes pre-service educators find it difficult to initiate conversations with parents.
Here are some sentence starters to help ‘break the ice’:
• Hello, I’m … and I’m a pre-service educator from … I’m really looking forward to being
here. (Hopefully the parents will then introduce themselves!)
• Tell me which one is your child? Have you any other children? What ages?
• How long has your child been attending this school?
If you see the parents in the afternoon, then you can focus on what happened during the
day. For example, ‘We had a great lesson on spiders today and Sam … (focus on a positive)’. If
you are asked a question that you don’t know the answer to, let the parent know that you will
find out and get back to them. Make sure you do follow up – this will build your credibility
with the parents. Finally, some words of wisdom from a parent liaison educator:
It’s a two-way street. It’s not about student educators always
providing information to parents. They need to listen and ask
parents about their child.
Always remember too that maintaining confidentiality is critical, as you will inevitably
learn lots about certain children and their families.
What happens if things come

unstuck?
Despite the best of intentions, sometimes conflict arises with a parent. Sometimes a parent’s
own school experiences were very negative, or they think that being aggressive is the only
way they can gain power and have their own way. There may also be a genuine complaint that
needs to be addressed. What do you do?
First, every early childhood centre, preschool and school should have a documented
policy for parents to follow when raising concerns. Clearly the process is dependent
on the nature of the issue and how complex it is. It is very important that you have
access to this policy during your induction, and that it is made available to parents during
acquaintance sessions or in information packs upon enrolment. If it is a classroom-based
or whole-school situation, a parent has concerns about, you need to follow the school
policy. This is generally a series of simple steps, which in the majority of cases, brings a
satisfactory outcome for all concerned.
The situation most pre-service/early career educators fear, however, is when a parent
expresses concerns about what is happening in the classroom. There are very good resources
available throughout the various states and territories’ education systems, and they outline in
detail what you can do in these situations. Search online and look at what is most currently
available through your state’s system. In summary the following processes are suggested:
• If confronted by an angry parent, do not stay in the room. Immediately start to walk to
the door and say ‘We need to talk about this away from the classroom’. The angry person
will follow you because they want you to listen to them. Walk towards the school office.
• Use ‘I-messages’ as you are walking towards the office. For example, ‘I am concerned
about what you are telling me and we need to sort it out now’ or ‘I don’t believe we are
going to solve this problem without some assistance. We need to speak with the principal/
director about this. We will need to make a time so we can have the principal/director
involved in our discussion’. Meanwhile, keep walking.
• Acknowledge their feelings. For example, ‘Yes I can see that it is upsetting you and I
would prefer that we discuss it so it can be sorted out’. Continue walking.
• Do not respond defensively, for example, ‘I would never say a thing like that!’ as this will
only inflame the person even more.
Be diligent in documenting your interactions with parents. It is a good practice to develop
and here are some pointers to remember:
• Describe the facts and do not draw conclusions. For example, ‘Mrs Smith shouted, “You
are always picking on Johnny”’ rather than ‘Mrs Smith was rude and intimidating’.
• Present opinions by stating, ‘In my view Mrs Smith was of the opinion that her son John
is often being unfairly singled out’.
• Always date your notes and sign them in full.
Finally, remember the importance of interpersonal communication skills, as discussed
in Chapter 6. They are as important with parents as they are with children and colleagues.
Melnick and Meister (2008), in a study of early career and experienced educators, found
that early career educators often perceived their own communication skills as lacking when
dealing with parents and other adults when conflict arose. How do you perceive your
communication skills with adults?
To conclude this section, just a reminder that you are not alone. There will be times when
you may feel challenged in your everyday interactions with parents. For example, you may
feel like parents can say what they like, and you have to always be so mindful of being in
control and to not take things personally. If you ever feel this way, discuss this with senior
staff and seek support. Don’t try and do this all on your own – if you need advice, then be
proactive and ask for it.
What would I do?

Here are eight case studies drawn from recent pre-service educators’ professional experiences.
They are followed by some questions for you to consider as you begin to think about how
you will communicate and build relationships with parents.
Case study Seize th e m o m en t

·2
The weather is fine and you see a couple of parents from your class sitting under the shade
of the gum tree in the courtyard chatting with each other. The learners have had a great day
and really enjoyed the pottery/clay work lesson you had organised earlier in the day. You were
impressed with the way the students used their imagination and the processes they used to
create their final piece. What is the first thing that comes to mind?
What could you do as you prepare to dismiss the learners?
Could you approach these parents? Invite them into the space? What would you say?
What would be your opening line? What aspects of their children’s learning might you discuss
with the parents? How could this help build relationships with these parents?
Case study
A d if f ere n ce of o p in io n
·3
Your professional experience is progressing well. You have had a really good day at school now
that you are assuming more and more responsibility for the class. At hometime, the students
eagerly leave the classroom to show their parents one of the class newsletters you have prepared
about healthy eating and the new Crunch and Sip program. You hear a hum of excitement from
the students and the parents but then overhear someone loudly say, ‘What’s the point of that?
I send you to school to learn. When it comes to eating, I’ll decide what to feed you’.
1 What steps would you take if you heard this comment?
2 How would you respond to the parent?
3 What measures could have been taken retrospectively?
Case study No ro o m f or n e g ot iat ion

·4
You remember your mentor educator informing you which learners in the class had divorced or
separated parents and any relevant custody orders. You are not sure of all the details, but get caught
short when a father appears at the classroom door at 2.30 p.m. saying that he has arrived to take the
child to a dental appointment. The child appears excited about seeing their Dad, and Dad is friendly
and outgoing, but you have a feeling this is one of the learners where custody orders apply.
1 What would you do in this situation?
2 Who would you discuss the matter with?
3 What would you say to the father?
4 Who would you refer the matter to?
5 How could you better remember important legal matters involving students and their families?
6 Do you think there is a need to report this matter to senior staff?
7 What documentation, if any, would you make?
Whoops ! You m ake a m is t a ke Case study

·5
At the culmination of your unit of learning on space and the solar system, you show the learners
you value their efforts by creating an attractive and creative display. The display covers one half
of the back pin-up board and several hanging mobiles. Together, you and the learners prepare
labels and display captions. One of the parents approaches you at home time in a quiet, assertive
manner to inform you that on one of the computer-generated signs you have made ‘gallexys’ is
written instead of ‘galaxies’. You feel embarrassed and awkward.
1 What is the first thing that comes to mind?
2 What would you say to the parent?
3 Do you think the parent is right or wrong in approaching you?
4 What can you do to rectify this? What can you say to the class?
It was res o lved Case study

·6
A five‑year-old child leaves the classroom to go to the toilet. Not knowing that the learner is
prone to wandering off, it is 10 minutes before you realise the student is missing. You quickly
organise for another staff member to look for the missing boy. He is found by the drink taps
and he’s quickly returned to the class. As the situation caused you some concern, you speak to e a r ly
childhood
the boy’s father when he picks up his son. Dad is understanding, knows the boy wanders off and
says he will reinforce the message to quickly return to the classroom if he leaves the classroom in
the future. You both decide the child will always leave the classroom with a responsible buddy
next time. You think all is resolved, but next morning Mum arrives at the classroom. Mum is
clearly agitated and makes it known that a five-year-old child missing for 10 minutes with no
one knowing his whereabouts is a very serious matter, and wants to know what you are going
to do about it.
1 How would you feel in this situation?
2 Remaining professional at all times, what could you say to appease the situation?
3 Would you refer the matter to someone else? If so, who would this be?
4 How would you respond to Mum? What measures could you put in place to reassure the family?
Case study We eken d d is p u t e

·7
Katelyn’s mother rings and asks to speak to you personally. She informs you that on the weekend
Katelyn’s friend Kelly slept over at their home and that she stole several items from Katelyn’s
wardrobe. Kelly’s family is not well off and she was captivated by Katelyn’s pretty things. The
secon dary girls are 13 years old and good friends who sit next to each other in the classes they share.
Katelyn’s mother shares how upset she is that the stealing occurred and says confidentially to
you that she was most displeased by Kelly’s lack of hygiene and scruffy appearance. She has told
Katelyn not to spend time with her any more and asks you to ensure the girls are separated in
class; they are not to have anything more to do with each other.
1 How do you respond to Katelyn’s mother?
2 Who will you refer the matter to? Who can you discuss the matter with?
3 What strategies can you use to have more time to explore the matter further and seek the best
advice?
4 Would you document this telephone conversation? If so, why? If not, why not?
Case study M ix e d m es s a g es
·8
Yesterday you took the class on an excursion to the beach to search for marine life along the shore.
Students found a variety of specimens and took many photographs and completed detailed
sketches. You made sure everyone wore their hats and applied sunscreen at regular intervals. The
primary secon dary excursion was a complete success with everyone having fun, building relationships and learning
was enhanced. The next day you are delighted to receive two notes from care providers in the
students’ diaries congratulating you on a great day. Their children have reported to them that
it was a terrific excursion. You are feeling great about the feedback, but then feel disappointed
when you get a note from another parent pointedly blaming you for her daughter’s sunburnt
nose. The child’s nose is red, but when you ask her how it is feeling she says, ‘It’s not too bad, but
Mum really told me off last night. She has told me that you were irresponsible and she’ll have to
come on all my excursions now’.
1 Sunburn can be an issue in all schools from time to time, so what can you do to try and protect
every student from overexposure to the sun?
2 What would be an appropriate response to the upset mother?
3 What response would you give the two care providers with the positive feedback?
4 What strategies could you try next time?
5 How will you respond to the mother’s request to accompany all future excursions?
Permis s ion re q u ired Case study

·9
To finish off the literacy topic, you would like students to view a PG (Parental Guidance) movie.
You believe that the movie will really revise some of the critical elements you have been teaching.
You also plan for small-group discussion and feedback time after the movie.
secon dary
1 How will you see consent from parents for their children to view the PG movie?
2 What would be your contingency plan if some parents denied consent?
Building productive partnerships with parents and families is all about relationships and
the above examples highlight the challenging nature of these relationships. One colleague of
ours, a principal, explained:
It is like having a bank account where you put in and take
out. Actively developing a positive, honest and respectful
relationship with your students’ parents and their community will
go toward building up your emotional bank account with parents
and then, if and or when a situation arises where there is a
problem or a conflict, some of that goodwill may be withdrawn.
The trick is to always work hard at building up that goodwill
bank account, so that parents will trust you and know that issues
can be sorted out.
This chapter so far has focused on building effective partnerships with parents. It would
be remiss if we did not also discuss the role of the wider community and how as an early
career educator you might work with various social agencies and service providers.
Working with the wider

community
Learners’ lives beyond the classroom and the educational setting are complex and diverse.
They may be an only child in a relatively well-off family, living in one of the many leafy
suburbs surrounding our cities. They may be one of many children in a rural family, coping
with drought and financial uncertainty. They may be part of an extended Indigenous family
in a remote community or urban area. Australian communities are now more varied and
volatile than ever before. There is a greater economic, ethnic and linguistic mix and varying
expectations of what it is that schools can and should achieve. For schools to make positive
links with families they need to know something of students’ lives outside the classroom.
When you are first placed at a school for a professional experience, you will find it beneficial
to take a walk around the neighbourhood. Other ways to find out about the local community
are to look at your school’s website and Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) and local
government data. By doing so, you will learn about the cultural, demographic, social,
economic and physical features of the local community. It has been noted that a significant
benefit to schools comes about when educators seek to better understand the communities
that their early childhood centre/school is serving (Freebody, Martin & Maton, 2008).
Some young people’s families struggle to support their learning for all sorts of reasons: they
may have had poor experiences of preschool or school themselves, they may have significant
difficulties in literacy and feel ‘shamed’ in visiting for a discussion, or they may find the
AAP Image/Paul Miller
Community work outside the classroom
context unwelcoming. It is up to the preschool or school to reach out to these families and
also to the community services and agencies who may also be working with them. There
is widespread agreement that children’s learning and wellbeing can be more effectively
promoted by collaboration between sectors, organisations and services (Muijs, 2007; Wyn,
2009). Wyn (2009, p. 140) identified two different dimensions of interagency collaboration,
as shown in Figure 11.1:
FIGURE 11.1
DIMENSIONS OF INTERAGENCY COLLABORATION
Horizontal Vertical
DIMENSIONS OF
Drawing collaboratively on organisational Creating capacity and communication links
INTERAGENCY between services to ensure that young people
resources to enable young people to develop
skills, have a voice and have influence in their COLLABORATION who need to be referred to a different level of
community or school health care, treatment or other professional
support are identified and supported
Adapted from Wyn, J. 2009, Youth Health and Welfare: The Cultural Politics of Education and Wellbeing,
Oxford University Press, Melbourne, p. 140.
Examples of ‘horizontal’ collaboration can be seen when early childhood centres and schools ‘Horizontal’
work closely with their community, including the local council, arts groups, community collaboration
is when schools
groups and so on. Such groups are a rich source of mentors and outings and enable real-world work closely with
connections to be made by learners. This is particularly the case for educators in rural settings their community,
including the local
where the school is often seen as the hub of the community. If you have the opportunity council, arts groups,
on your next professional experience placement, it would be worthwhile to investigate the community groups
services in the wider community so that you can fully appreciate the potential for meaningful and so on.
collaboration. Ideally such collaboration needs to be mutually beneficial. It has been noted in
the literature that in spite of attempts to integrate education and community services, a school-
centred model of school–community relationships generally prevails in Australia (Mills &
Gale, 2004). Mills and Gale write that community engagement is typically viewed through
a lens that is sharply focused on the agenda of the school rather than the local community.
Consider the following case study.
From little th in g s , b ig t h in g s g row Case study

·
Terry has been teaching for five years. In her first years of teaching, she saw a few examples of
community involvement, such as fellow educators taking their classes to the local library, having
guest speakers from groups such as Guide Dogs Australia and Mission Australia and visits to
local places of interest. However, Terry wanted more. She believes that ‘from little things, big secon dary
things grow’. So she made a plan that targeted the aged-care hostel next to the school. She first
visited the hostel and met the director to discuss the possibility of some mutual involvement.
By the end of the year, there were big things happening!
1 What might this involvement have looked like?
2 How is ‘mutual’ involvement different from a ‘school-centred’ involvement?
‘Vertical’ Examples of ‘vertical’ collaboration can be seen in the referral of children to a range of
collaboration is
when a range of service providers to ensure that their needs are being met. Most early childhood centres and
service providers are schools have a specific procedure for getting additional support for learners. Upon diagnosis
brought in to the or notification, there should be procedures to enable leadership to make appropriate
school, as a result of
referrals, to ensure notifications. From here, it may be that the learner is provided with additional support, such
that students’ needs as the involvement of health professionals, or assessment by a learning support team or the
are being met.
school counsellor, or by a visiting child psychologist or behaviour support officer. As an early
career educator, you will need to be familiar with your preschool/school’s procedures to
support learners who require additional support. You will also need to be prepared to attend
meetings with a variety of different professionals, such as health and social workers, to ensure
that the child who has been referred is fully supported.
An example of both horizontal and vertical collaboration can be seen in the notion of
a ‘community developing school’ (Smyth, Down & McInerney, 2008, p. 51). ‘Community
developing schools’ are:
able to draw on the intellectual, cultural, economic and social resources of government and non-
government agencies and community organizations in addressing such issues as poverty, racism,
homelessness, health initiatives, human rights and the environment.
By acknowledging the community as an educational resource in this way, students’ learning
is complemented and enhanced. However, the development of such schools is not without its
challenges. Funding is an ever-present issue. For example, while some schools have school–
community liaison officers, their roles are such that they have little time or opportunity to
make systematic contact. There is a surprisingly small number of programs that team the
various service agencies with schools in Australia, and yet there is a very real reason for
more cohesive and coherent policies (Westoby & Dowling, 2009). There are, however, a
number of community initiatives where applications can be made for additional funding.
For example, in New South Wales Eco Schools Grants (funded by then NSW Office of
Environment and Heritage) provide grants to assist schools with environmental learning
opportunities to support learners and communities. Many financial institutions around the
country (such as Bendigo Bank, Adelaide Bank and Illawarra Mutual Building Society) offer
grants to support educational initiatives.
Conclusion
In this chapter we have stressed the necessity of and the value of building strong family–
education partnerships to enable connection to a range of community resources. We have also
emphasised the importance of understanding that there are many diverse families and family
structures. In addition we have identified some of the perceived tensions between parents and
educators in the hope that by understanding these, you will feel more comfortable negotiating
this important aspect of your work.
We want to emphasise that your attitude is the key to developing positive and effective
relationships with families and the community. You need to have a genuine and sincere
belief that you want to be in partnership with those who infiltrate the different aspects of
your learners’ worlds. You then need to demonstrate this belief through your actions and
behaviour. This chapter has provided some suggestions for how you might initiate contact,
share information and include others within your role as an educator.
Remember, relationships take work. While it might take extra time and a lot of effort to
build trusting and respectful relationships with the parents of the children in your class, the
benefits for you as an educator will make it all worthwhile. Remember too that you are not
alone. Your colleagues and leaders are there to support you in your interactions with parents
and the community.
STUDY TOOLS
Go further
1 Draft a letter of introduction to the parents of your current class on a professional experience. In a
Following
group of your peers, share your letters and identify those features that you all agree are important to
through
include. Revise your letter as you respond to the feedback from your peers.
2 Select one of the suggested strategies for developing relationships with the parents and consider what
you could do on your next professional experience. Make a plan for how and when it will happen. Think
about who else it will involve and how you will communicate with them.
3 Have a conversation with some parents who play a key volunteer role in your school while on a
professional experience. (Your mentor educator might be able to suggest some names.) Possible
questions to guide the conversation are:
•• How long have you been involved in assisting at the school/preschool?
•• What is it about your involvement that you find rewarding?
•• How do you assist at the school/preschool?
•• How has your level of involvement changed since you first started?
•• Are there any down sides to being involved?
•• What advice would you give a new educator to help him or her build relationships with parents?
4 Select one of the case studies in this chapter and respond to the questions at the end. Discuss your
responses with a peer. Would your response change if you were in a different school context? Why?
Why not?
5 Look at a school’s website. What information does it give you? What messages do you take from it?
Useful http://www.partners4learning.edu.au Partners4learning is a website for educators with practical ideas for
online engaging with parents across the seven dimensions of family/school partnership. It was designed for the
teaching Catholic schooling context but many of the resources are relevant across all sectors.
resources
https://docs.education.gov.au/category/deewr-program/smarter-schools-low-ses-school-communities-
national-partnership This link on the Department of Education website captures the range of resources
developed as part of the Smarter Schools Parent Engagement in Low SES communities project. The
Strengthening family and Community Engagement in Student Learning resource (interactive PDF)
has case studies, research, a school assessment tool and many other resources.
https://www.sportingschools.gov.au/funding This link provides information on funding grants available to
schools from the Australian Sports Commission.
References Auerbach, S. 2011, ‘Introduction: Why leadership for Department of Education, Employment and Workplace
partnerships?’ in S. Auerbach (ed.), School Leadership Relations (DEEWR). 2017, Family-School
for Authentic Family and Community Partnerships, Partnerships Framework, © Commonwealth of
Routledge, New York, pp. 3–9. Australia. Released under CC BY 4.0 International.
Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership Link to license: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/
(AITSL), 2012, Australian Professional Standards for by/4.0/
Teachers, standard 7.3, www.teacherstandards.aitsl. Epstein, J. 1995, ‘School/family/community partnerships:
edu.au/Standards/Standards/AllStandards/7. Caring for the children we share’, Phi Delta Kappan,
Berthelsen, D. & Walker, S. 2008, ‘Parents’ involvement 76 (9), pp. 701–13.
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pp. 34–41. Partnerships: Preparing Educators and Improving
Brennan Kemmis, R. & Ahern, S. 2010, ‘Communicating Schools (2nd edn), Westview, Boulder, CO.
with parents, community groups and service agencies’, Epstein, J. 2013, ‘Ready or not? Preparing future
in R. Ewing, T. Lowrie & J. Higgs (eds), Teaching and educators for school, family and community
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Oxford University Press, Melbourne. Freebody, P., Martin, A. & Maton, K. 2008, ‘Talk, text
Brice Heath, S. 1983, Ways with Words: Language, and knowledge in cumulative, integrated learning’,
Life and Work in Communities and Classrooms, Australian Journal of Language and Literacy, 31,
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Cave, R. 1970, Partnership for Change: Parents and Hands, C. 2013, ‘Including all families in education:
Schools, Ward Lock Educational, London. School district-level efforts to promote parent
Claydon, L. F. 1974, Enabling the Parent: A Tactic in engagement in Ontario, Canada’, Teaching Education,
Combating Educational Disadvantage, La Trobe 24 (2), pp. 134–49.
University, Bundoora. Jeynes, W. 2012, ‘A meta-analysis of the efficacy of
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urban students’, Urban Education, 47, pp. 706–42.
Johnson, L. 2007, ‘Rethinking successful school leadership Rowsell, J. (2006). Family Literacy Experiences: Creating
in challenging U.S. schools: Culturally responsive reading and writing opportunities that support
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Koh, C. & Galloway, D. 2006, ‘Assessing motivational Children’s Services (SA DECS). 1996, Parents and
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Asia Pacific Education Review, 7 (2) pp. 184–94. Services, Adelaide.
Lott, B. 2003, ‘Recognising and welcoming the standpoint South Australian Department of Education, Training
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Melnick, S.A. & Meister, D. G. 2008, ‘A comparison from www.decs.sa.gov.au/docs/documents/1/
of beginning and experienced teachers’ concerns’, RespondingtoConcerns.pdf.
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disadvantaged schools: Moving beyond attributions University of Ballarat.
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pp. 268–81. Son, New York.
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and Youth Affairs (MCEETYA). 2008, Melbourne Beyond Random Acts: Family, School, and
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au/verve/_resources/national_declaration_on_the_ Cambridge, MA.
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Muijs, D. 2007, ‘Leadership in full-service extended Development with Depth, Solidarity and Hospitality,
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Perspectives, 12 (1).

Practitioner inquiry
C a i t l in B
et tridg
e
Educational institutions are

places where everybody is
learning: teachers, parents,
children, young people and
community members.
300
CHAPTER 12 Practitioner inquiry 301
P ractitioner inquiry has a long history. It is referred to in many different ways including
teacher research, educational action research, design-based research, teacher inquiry,
collaborative teacher research and more. Regardless of the term, the power of practitioner
inquiry is that it enables educators to identify problems or areas for investigation, do
something as they investigate further and try out new ideas, to eventually pose solutions or
further questions.
New policies, reflected in changes when designing and constructing new educational
Mixed methods
buildings, position learners as having significant agency in terms of their learning. Flexible in social research,
spaces for learning are being created with few interior walls and educators have been developing as in education
studies, mean using
strategies to work effectively in teams. Increasingly, we also need to think about the power both measurement
of physical activity and learning in outdoor settings as the Forest School philosophy and strategies – such
curriculum is suggested for young children (see, for example, The Novak Foundation https:// as surveys and
standardised tests –
novakdjokovicfoundation.org/forest-schools-child-led-learning). and more descriptive
These are not new orientations to learning, but ideas that had much currency in the 1970s procedures such
as observations,
and 1980s (see, for example, Silberman’s The Open Classroom Reader, 1973). Over the past photography,
several years, some groups of educators have formed action learning teams to document and interviewing.
their professional learning, and the responses of the learners and their parents to new and When they are
used together
challenging learning environments. The teams meet on a regular basis to discuss the mixed they complement
methods they have used to gather evidence, ranging from ‘most significant change stories’ of and enhance one
another.
both learners and teachers (a strategy that we shall discuss later in this chapter) to annotated
digital photographs, to using standardised measures (e.g. surveys) to focus groups conducted
with parents. All artefacts are assembled in a learning portfolio.
Over the years, we see cycles of progressive then conservative practices in education. Some would
even say it is a little like ‘groundhog day’ when things are repeated over and over again. Why do you
think this cycle in education continues?
Communities of professional
practice
Practitioner inquiry in this context moves beyond the individual teacher to the collective Practitioner inquiry
professional community and sees as its objective that the whole staff and key stakeholders refers to the ways in
which professionals,
including family and community can be engaged in systematic inquiry as a normal part of be they teachers,
professional practice and a means of contributing to improvement. The norms of individuality nurses, health
professionals and
and privacy so common in teaching are transcended by norms of collaboration and collective the like, consider
deliberation. and investigate their
Such a dynamic learning organisation is characterised by Hargreaves (1999, pp. 126–7) by own practice with
an intention to
the features shown in Figure 12.1. improve it.
FIGURE 12.1
FEATURES OF A DYNAMIC LEARNING ORGANISATION
1 a culture of, and an enthusiasm for, continual 5 recognition of expert knowledge held by
improvement teachers
6 professional knowledge creation as a

2 a strong awareness of the external environment
FEATURES OF whole-organisation process
A DYNAMIC
LEARNING
3 high sensitivity to the preferences of key ORGANISATION 7 a readiness to innovate, treating mistakes as
stakeholders opportunities for learning.
4 coherent but flexible planning
Adapted from Hargreaves, D. 1999, ‘The knowledge-creating school’, British Journal of Education Studies, 47, pp. 126–7.
It is the last three of these factors that we are most interested in. Too often educational research
is undertaken by academics one step removed from practice. Often we think about research in a
one-directional way (theory being tested in practice) instead of how to apply theory in different
ways and also acknowledging how practice might inform the development of theory. What we
are concerned with in this chapter is a recognition that educators can and should inquire into and
evaluate their work as experts in their own right. By regularly meeting to discuss evidence, to
Community of analyse that evidence, question it and interpret it as a community of practice, we believe that they
practice are indeed engaging in knowledge creation. Importantly, as the last point implies, the teachers
A community of
practice refers are willing to take risks in their professional practice, to have a go and learn from their mistakes.
to a collective of
practitioners with
a shared interest,
who are prepared
to work together to
better understand
Dynamic and intelligent learning
organisations
their professional
work and the ways
in which it can be
improved.
How then is knowledge created in an educational context, with its many participants, factions and
territories? Our first caveat is that the early childhood centre or school needs to understand itself as
an intelligent organisation in the full corporate sense of the word. MacGilchrist, Myers and Reed
(2004) have focused on educational institutions as dynamic and organic in their nature. Drawing
on notions of multiple intelligences and recent thinking about the nature of organisations, they
offer a way of looking at learning contexts as living systems continually improving their practices
through the use of at least nine intelligences, which together create a ‘collective intelligence’. In
this way the ‘whole becomes greater than the sum of the parts’ (p. 1). Educators connect to
knowledge for practice, knowledge in practice and knowledge of practice (Cochran-Smith &
Lytle, 1999). MacGilchrist, Myers and Reed have identified nine interdependent intelligences that
they believe to be critical to organisational growth and improvement (see Figure 12.2).
They believe that each can be developed in order to maximise effective learning – with an
emphasis upon learning and not just performance.
FIGURE 12.2
THE NINE INTELLIGENCES
Systemic intelligence Ethical intelligence

(SyQ) (EthQ)
Pedagogical Spiritual intelligence

intelligence (PQ) (SQ)
Nine
intelligences
Reflective intelligence
Contextual intelligence
(RQ)
(CQ)
Collegial intelligence
(CoQ) Operational intelligence
Emotional intelligence (OQ)
(EQ)
Do you find it helpful to think about learning institutions as having intelligences of this kind? Look
back on your most recent professional experience placement or internship. How would you rate
this context across these nine intelligences?
Intellectual and
We have to be alert to the fact that the great fund of knowledge held by practitioners social capital Just
can scarcely be drawn upon if it remains buried beneath the surface. Hargreaves (2003) has as we can have
capital in the form
since developed his argument, making the case for mobilising and developing the intellectual of material assets,
and social capital held by practitioners into a more coherent and integrated whole. Just as it is also possible to
have intellectual and
children bring their virtual backpacks to preschool and school, Thomson (2002) suggests that social capital that
educators carry their own virtual backpacks filled with their own histories, knowledges and can be drawn upon
understandings. Further, Hargreaves also argues for drawing upon organisational capital in the such as intellectual
ability and social
form of networks and external links in order to inform and improve at both local and regional competence.
levels. Importantly, he suggests that moving beyond incremental innovation (swimming with
the tide) to radical innovation (swimming against the tide) cannot be achieved by central
direction. It takes courage and leadership to swim against that tide.
Of course, these issues are hard to address when one is in initial teacher education. You,
as a pre-service teacher engaged in professional experience, are a guest of the preschool or
school. That does not mean that you cannot be engaged in small, evidence-collecting exercises
that can inform and enrich your practice.
Evidence-based Issues around evidence-based practice – for that is what we are concerned with here – are not
practice is without their difficulties. Many challenges, dilemmas and opportunities arise out of this kind of
something of a
slippery term. It work. So what counts as evidence? Will the evidence we collect give us only part of the picture?
is generally taken Whose point of view matters most? Is it just a matter of ‘what works’? It has been claimed that
to mean that it is
research informed the ‘what works’ version of ‘evidence-based’ policy and practice has often failed to recognise the
and that the ethical and social nature of educational practice (Biesta, 2010; Oancea & Furlong, 2007). Rather
research has ‘proven’ than making merely instrumental contributions to practice, inquiry is seen to fulfil a cultural as
that one approach
is the best solution. well as a technical role, and so it supports open and democratic debate about problem definitions,
But there is another aims and ends of education (Biesta, 2007). Too often, policy makers rely on technical kinds of
way of thinking
about evidence – as evidence and meta-analyses rather than giving attention to findings demonstrated by high-quality
a forensic scientist practitioner inquiry. Further, the ‘what works’ movement emphasises public accreditation,
might – that is, rather than intrinsic excellence in research. The definitions of good educational inquiry that
can we use the
available evidence characterised the ‘what works’ drive tended to exclude (or at least marginalise) the concern for
to understand what may be ‘educationally worthwhile’. Nowhere is this more evident than in the great literacy
how something is
working? debates, when governments make determinations about what works in teaching children to read,
irrespective of their contexts and conditions. It is a kind of ‘one size fits all’ solution.
Thus, the term ‘evidence’ deserves to be examined problematically: evidence is never
innocent. In using the term ‘evidence-based practice’ we assume that evidence is not being
treated in an adversarial way, where the attempt is to prove that a particular practice works
best. Rather, the goal is to deal with the notion in a forensic way, seeking to analyse and
understand an educational practice in order to improve it. We need to consider who creates/
sources the evidence and for what purposes? Does the evidence challenge or support the
status quo? When working on a crime scene, the forensic scientist does not seek to prove who
the culprits may be but to understand what has taken place.
For example, when considering how to deal with a bullying issue, educators should not seek
evidence that will prove that only certain groups of children are responsible for bullying. Instead,
they will be interested in understanding not only who is involved in the bullying but also the
reasons that lie behind the bullying behaviour and what the contexts are in which it occurs.
This brings us to the need to carefully consider the evidence we collect and use to inform
our understandings. It is important that we are reflective as we consider the nature of evidence.
Some questions we ask ourselves include: Who creates evidence? For what purposes is this
evidence used? In what ways does this evidence challenge and/or sustain the status quo to
advance the profession? Understanding each of these questions helps provide a more holistic
analysis of the evidence at hand (and may even encourage us to collect additional evidence).
A large government secondary girls’ school in Sydney undertook a number of studies
where the experiences of the learners were taken into consideration, including those related to
bullying. Indeed, the school engaged the students not only as informants but actual participants
in the research process itself, including its design (Needham, 2005). The evidence collected is
based upon the testimony of those who are most affected, that is, the learners themselves. You
will recall that a bullying story from a primary school was reported in Chapter 2; in that study
the stories were used for teacher professional learning regarding the values that they hold and
the ethical implications, with the students also providing messages for their teachers to consider.
Below is one of the stories that Lizzeth, a student, wrote, followed by her advice to her
teachers.
Lizzeth’s st o r y Case study

·1
While her early primary years were unremarkable, Lizzeth found herself marginalised by the
time she had reached Year 6. She described the pressures of being a ‘pre-teen’ where the clothes
you wore, the boys you mixed with and who did or did not like you were all essential for
acceptance. ‘I was really self-conscious, I couldn’t handle it, so I’d wear old trackpants and primary secon dary
T-shirts. I was bagged out by the boys because I was taller than most of them.’
Year 7 at high school started out well. Lizzeth made friends, but in no time social relations
deteriorated. ‘Nasty comments, teasing, having my bag filled with rubbish, I was soon being left
out.’ Lizzeth told of one incident that was a tale of one misunderstanding building on another
until things became intolerable. There was a crisis, with few of her peers understanding the
difficulties she was facing.
In Year 8 a further series of gossip and innuendo followed Lizzeth. Girls built upon and
elaborated small incidents, blowing them out of proportion. Now, however, in Year 9 she is
feeling more secure, ‘basically, everyone is settling down’. She feels part of the solution, for
her, has been the sympathetic treatment by the school counsellor and Head Teacher (Student
Welfare). She also sees some of the Personal Development, Health and Physical Education
teachers are more knowledgeable, but others need to develop positive strategies for handling
things in class, ‘just moving someone around doesn’t really do anything’.
Lizzeth had a very particular message for her teachers:
‘Teachers can be bullies too; it’s not just the students. Some teachers never say anything nice,
they just put you down. They are always pointing out the problems and sneer at you. If students
are doing the bullying, then drop everything and deal with it, otherwise it becomes a crescendo
of pain and suffering.’
She also had a message for fellow students:
‘Don’t be scared and run away from the problem. Find a teacher who can help – most do
want to help, choose one wisely, one you can trust.’
1 What are the strong themes in Lizzeth’s story? How do you feel about these?
2 What will you take from this experience into your own professional practice?
The voices of young people are becoming more widely sought and treated more seriously
(Groundwater-Smith & Mockler, 2012; Baroutis, McGregor & Mills, 2016). But it takes time
and trust. Kaye Johnson, former Principal of Woodville Primary School in South Australia,
worked with young students in her school for three years (Johnson, 2005). She argues that
it took three years of strategic action to introduce a culture that enabled authentic student
participation. This chapter will return to issues around student voice when discussing some
of the methods available to us to conduct school-based inquiries.
Most studies treat learners as informants, giving them little agency in contributing to the research.
1 How often have you read research studies where the learners themselves have been
participative in the process?
2 What are the different ways you could gather their perspectives?
Search a library catalogue for Australian research articles and chapters about ‘student voice(s)’
or ‘providing spaces for student voices’ and report on your findings.
The idea is that the learning institution can be a knowledge-building organisation within
which practitioner inquiry is a normal part of the creation of professional knowledge about
its many practices, its capacity to inform itself and its stakeholders of what it does, why
it does it in that way and where it intends to go. This concept is now well established in
a number of teacher education programs where those engaged in initial teacher education
undertake action research/action learning projects.
Consider the template in Figure 12.3 that students undertaking a small research project
within an internship had to employ:
FIGURE 12.3
A PROFESSIONAL RESEARCH PROPOSAL TEMPLATE
Professional practice
Context
need/student learning need
A brief overview of the context of your internship What identified professional practice need/need of
your learners will your research project address?
Syllabus and graduate

Identified pedagogical focus
teacher standards
PROFESSIONAL
What specific syllabus outcomes/professional RESEARCH What is already known about the pedagogical focus
teacher standards are relevant? PROPOSAL that you propose to employ? Can you support this
TEMPLATE with references?
Timeline Evidence
What is your week-by-week timeline for the What types of evidence will you gather? (Remember
proposed implementation? to limit yourself to evidence gathering that is realistic/
achievable given that during the internship you are
teaching up to two-thirds of a full load)
Inquiring into professional

practice through action research
Described by Kemmis & McTaggart as a ‘practice-changing practice’ (2009, p. 467),
participatory action research (Kemmis & McTaggart, 2005) is not only about generating new
knowledge, it is charged with transforming professional practices that can change practitioners’
understandings of those practices and the conditions in which those practices occur. One way
that both early career and experienced educators can inquire into their professional practice
and effect some change to their practice is through action research. (See examples quoted by
Bobis & Ewing, 2017.)
While there are many different definitions and kinds of action research, all involve:
• a desire to improve – or, more grandly, transform – professional practice for the benefit of
individuals and their communities
• an ongoing cyclic process of action and reflection (although sometimes these cycles or
phases can be blurred)
• an authentic partnership with the participants and practitioners, who both actively
participate in the research process.
Such reform is still valuable on a micro level: a small group of teachers’ or an
individual teacher’s change in beliefs and pedagogical approach can improve experiences and
student outcomes at a school in pre-service teacher education programs, unfunded school-
level teacher-driven projects, small-grant projects funded by a professional organisation and
large government funded research projects. The following is one example undertaken by an
early career teacher.
An action r e s ea rch p rojec t Case study

·2
Background
During the final semester of a Master of Teaching in Early Childhood (from birth to five years
old), all pre-service teachers undertake an action research project. Findings of all action research
e a r ly
projects were presented at a post-internship conference. This project was conducted with three- childhood
to five-year-old preschoolers from various cultural, linguistic and socioeconomic backgrounds in
one inner-city suburban preschool.
What issue did the investigation address?
The intern first listened to the children’s voices about their play. She aimed to increase children’s
dramatic play in the preschool cubby house and the intervention involved changing the physical
setting over two cycles: from an unstructured context to a post office to a library. The researcher
was both a facilitator and observer.
What aspects or dimensions of practice were focused on?

The research aimed to examine participation in cubby house play and also observe what kinds of
play behaviours the children engaged in. The researcher explored any differences in the dramatic
play when the settings were changed?
Findings
There was an overall increase in cubby house participation and duration over the 10 weeks of
the study. A larger group of children, including some who had not participated before, were
observed engaging in dramatic play (from 20.3 per cent in the baseline week compared with
79.7 per cent in the final week of data collection). Increasing child-initiated thematic play also
highlighted the power of listening to children’s voices and providing spaces for their imagination
and creativity. The findings impacted powerfully on the preschool teachers in the centre as well
as the parents.
1 What are the strengths of this action research project?
2 What strategies can the teacher researcher adapt for other play contexts?
Why practitioner inquiry?

Accountability is an important factor that needs to be considered. The education budget
for each state and territory is often the largest item of public expenditure. Educational
institutions have a responsibility to demonstrate that those public resources have been
used wisely. Additionally, many receive funding for special projects, such as those directed
to improvements in literacy and numeracy, or the varied uses of technology. Much of this
funding comes from Commonwealth Government programs and reflects national priorities.
When such program funds are allocated, there is an expectation that these local projects will
be evaluated. (Also, from time to time, the programs themselves will be evaluated.)
Inquiring into and evaluating the work of the centre or school is an essential practice based
upon careful planning, sound evidence, thorough analysis and well-grounded interpretation.
Action learning
There is a growing trend for early childhood centres and primary and secondary schools to
work together in small networks or action learning sets to look at a particular educational
problem (Aubusson, Ewing and Hoban, 2009). Those participating have ‘opted in’ because
they can see the power of working together, not because there is some kind of fiat that
they do so. Rather, they can see a genuine purpose in sharing ideas and practices as well as
engaging in debate and discussion with other professional learning communities to enable
ongoing improvement in learning and teaching (Groundwater-Smith & Mockler, 2012). The
action learning process is iterative as with action research. The practitioners come together to
discuss a specific problem or issue, trial some possible way to address it and then meet back
to discuss their experiences.
For example, primary and music teacher and PhD student Sarah Wells (2019) gathered
four colleagues together to form an action learning set to discuss how to define creativity
in primary classrooms. Over six meetings, the teachers examined the creative dispositions
proposed by Lucas, Claxton and Spencer in 2013. The teachers reported that defining and
assessing the creative process was challenging, but found the opportunity to engage in
dialogue about these challenges very professionally valuable.
Planning for evaluation through

centre/school-based inquiry
Evaluation is about forethought, being focused and strategic. For evaluation to be purposeful Evaluation is to do
it needs to be carefully planned. The success of those plans will rest upon the questions that with the systematic
collection of a range
are being addressed. The first concern, then, is to generate a series of macro questions. From of evidence that
these, more finely tuned questions will emerge. Initially the questions might be these: can determine the
worth and value
• What do we want to know? of a project. It can
be formative, that
• Who needs to know? is, following the
• Why do we want to know? project in action,
or summative,
• How shall we know? considering the
project at its
• Where do we go from here? conclusion.
As an example, Groundwater-Smith was invited by a Victorian state primary school to
work with them on a ‘negotiated review’ to investigate what lay behind their results in the
‘student attitude to school’ survey in terms of student perceptions of teacher effectiveness,
teacher empathy, stimulating learning and school connectedness. In comparison to their age
peers across the state, boys attending the school thought less favourably of their school and
of their teachers. Why was this so? Using a range of consultation strategies and working with
a small action research team, intensive focus group discussions were conducted. Through
these it was revealed that for a number of the boys the emphasis in classroom practices upon
neatness, quietness and conformity left them feeling that they were little valued and that their
opinions were of little consequence. Among other things the boys nominated that:
• their teachers were not seen to be listening
• the school work was often boring, repetitive and irrelevant
• most rejected or neglected homework as trivial and time wasting
• the school was too focused on preserving the status quo.
They wanted their teachers to ‘lighten up’. There was a view that time was always at
a premium, there never seemed enough time to finish things; ‘some people need more
time, but don’t get it’. Their teachers could help them more by: managing inappropriate
behaviour in a fairer manner; showing how to actually accomplish things rather than just
instructing; and, when instructing, making it clear and ‘tell[ing] it in more than one way’.
The students perceived that there were too many threats and not enough incentives: ‘it’s a
turn off’.
When consulted regarding potential solutions, the students proposed a more active
learning environment, in particular using outside spaces for learning rather than the confines
of the classroom. As a result, new policies were developed to take time-out breaks outside the
classroom, and new sustainability projects were started involving the creation of a vegetable
garden and opportunities for older males to be involved in school activities. Few fathers had
been able to attend the school as volunteers in the same way that mothers were available, so
fathers, grandfathers and male community members were asked to make one-off visits to
discuss their work and their achievements. No one can claim this to be rocket science – the
example is cited as being one where the school identified what it saw to be problematic, it
constituted a small inquiry team, it developed strategies for consulting the young people and
it instituted change. The school is now poised to review these changes and the impacts these
have had on boys’ engagement.
The evidence in this case was collected in a variety of ways ranging from qualitative
procedures such as conducting interviews and gathering photographs, to quantitative
methods drawing upon such things as test results and data such as student attendance and
staff absenteeism. Rather than attempt to interact with the entire school population and its
products, samples were taken. No single source of evidence was considered sufficient; each
needed to be corroborated or, to use the technical phrase, to be triangulated. Several methods
from different vantage points were used to ensure adequacy and accuracy. No one kind of
evidence can adequately describe the complex educational phenomena; a number of different
reference points are more likely to provide information of greater credibility or validity. Thus,
evidence was analysed and interpreted throughout the evaluations. What did it mean to the
key players? Was there potentially more than one interpretation? We can see these processes
not only as validity checks, but also as a means of being consultative and collaborative.
This account is quite substantial. However, the processes have been equally be applied to
a single account of practice, even down to determining the consequences of just one teaching
episode. As a beginning teacher interested in improving practice, you may want to identify
what it is that makes your lessons successful, discover why some strategies are effective while
others present problems and investigate the learning outcomes from different participants’
perspectives.
Alternatively, you may have taught a unit of work during your professional experience and
want to evaluate its effectiveness, you might be interested in a particular group of students:
were they engaged? If not, why not? What might you have to do to ensure that they are
motivated? You will still need to generate key questions and plan for ways in which you could
collect evidence. Importantly, this should be done from the outset, not as an afterthought, by
which time you may have lost much valuable data.
In Chapter 9, the distinction was made between formative and summative assessment.
Formative assessment was described as that which is ongoing and aimed at the improvement
of learning. Summative assessment, such as high-stakes assessment, is assessment upon which
the making of significant decisions was contingent. The same distinction holds for evaluation.
Evaluating your teaching episodes during professional experience is aimed at improvement;
it is ongoing and formative in nature. Summative evaluation is usually undertaken at the
program level. For example, it could be decided that a statewide program should be evaluated
and a decision taken regarding its continuation or otherwise. For our purposes the focus
is upon formative evaluation. Irrespective of the scope and level of the evaluation, it is still
essential that the evidence be salient and gathered in ethical and appropriate ways.
Gathering evidence
Just as gathering evidence for use in a court of law or for the conduct of forensic investigations
is governed by certain rules, so too must we have principles for the gathering of evidence for
the purposes of evaluation and school improvement. Here, we are going to discuss three
central issues:
• avoiding harm
• making the processes and purposes for collecting evidence explicit and systematic
• creating conditions so that alternative, just explanations and interpretations may be
developed by stakeholders.
Avoiding harm
Any investigation into the work of early childhood centres and schools is a sensitive matter.
Older learners may be answering questionnaires about the ways in which their learning has
been managed by their teachers, parents may be making judgements about an innovation in
the centre or school, educators may be interviewed about a director or principal’s leadership
style. There is great potential here for intrusion, even damage. The most significant question,
the one that must rule the gathering of evidence is, ‘What is the potential for harm?’
Consider this scenario. Parents were asked to complete a questionnaire regarding their
views on team teaching in a Gold Coast school. Some feel strongly that the arrangement as it
stands is not effective, that there seems to be too much noise and too little focus. They indicate
their concerns on the questionnaire, which purports to maintain the parents’ anonymity.
Children are asked to hand the questionnaires to their teachers, who are feeling vulnerable
and exposed. The teachers feel resentful of those families who do not seem to understand
what a struggle it is to change things. A handful of children are known to have parents who
are in opposition to the innovation. Their particular questionnaires, in their sealed envelopes,
are shuffled to the bottom of the pile when the returns are collected. Anonymity has been
breached. The potential for harm is quite serious. It would have been far better to have had
a sealed box, preferably outside the school’s central office, into which children could have
dropped the questionnaires and which would only have been opened after enough time had
elapsed to enable a maximum return rate.
Being explicit
The second ethical issue is transparency – the processes and purposes for collecting evidence
must be explicit. There have been times when covert and misleading research has been used
in early childhood centres and schools. Children have been observed through one-way
windows without their parents’ permission and teachers have been deliberately misled about
student potential in order to see whether their expectations will cloud their judgement. These
behaviours are unacceptable, not only because they are unwarranted intrusions, but also
because there was no informed consent sought from the participants. The whole inquiry is
thrown into doubt.
Participatory interpretation
The third ethical concern is the creation of conditions that permit alternative and just
explanations and interpretations by stakeholders. It is critical that all perspectives are gathered
to ensure a whole, complete picture is compiled. Let us for a moment consider a personal
experience from many years past.
I was trying in my classroom, with its fixed desks and limited
space, to introduce the students to working in groups. Any
space in the classroom and adjoining verandah was considered
as legitimate for the students to employ. Obviously I wanted
them to be interactive as they set about group problem solving
in mathematics. I believed that they could determine the noise
levels which were workable. So I had a small handbell on my desk.
Students could ring the bell, which would stop the class, then
the student who had called for silence would need to justify his
or her action. It seemed to work very well. I was being inspected1
by an elderly and conservative gentleman. He was aghast to find
students on their hands and knees on the verandah and asked me
for an explanation. No sooner had I commenced on an enthusiastic
outline of my ideas about learning in mathematics than a student
rang the bell. I can remember him still, he had a gap between
his front teeth, ‘Pleathe quieten down a bit, we can’t think
real well over here’. I was delighted to see demonstrated
the students’ capacities to control the noise levels. If the
inspector was aghast beforehand, he was now appalled. No further
explanations were permitted. He left. When my report arrived it
indicated that my classroom practices were ‘far too democratic’
and would be damaging to the learners.
➜➜ Groundwater-Smith, personal recollection
How often do we observe just a fraction of what is happening in a learning situation and
rush too quickly to conclusions?
How might the inspector, having talked to the learners and the teacher, arrived at a
different conclusion?
Is the notion of democracy in the classroom a damaging one? How could this have been
challenged?
Think back to an occasion when you were in a preschool or school, either your own experience, or
during professional experience.
1 Can you identify an incident when a teacher decided upon an action or policy based on limited
evidence?
2 How else might he or she have investigated the incident and arrived at a different conclusion?
1 Until quite recently, in most states and territories, teachers’ work was evaluated by school inspectors who visited
classrooms for short periods of time in order to determine the teacher’s effectiveness.
To illustrate the notion of multiple perspectives, Schratz and Walker (1995, p. 25) describe
an experiment:
From a group, three people are selected or asked to volunteer. They are asked to sit side-by-side
in a row facing the audience. Then they are blindfolded and told that they will each be asked to
touch an object, an everyday object that they would recognise instantly if they saw it. The group
leader then takes out a segment of an apple (a half or quarter) which has been cut with a knife
some time before – it is important that the cut surface has dried and that the smell of the fruit
is not too easily identifiable. It is important too that the segment retains the stalk.
The group leader then approaches the first blindfolded person, takes hold of their index
finger and guides it to touch (briefly and softly) part of the apple. The leader then repeats this
with each of the three, each time guiding them to touch a different part of the apple – the
smooth skin, the cut surface, the stalk and perhaps an edge. On the basis of one brief touch
of the object the group [is] then asked to discuss what they felt and what they think it was
that they touched. They can remove their blindfolds to do this, but the apple should be well
hidden.
We have undertaken this experiment many times and with different groups. Each time
there is great puzzlement. The audience makes it clear that each person did touch the same
object and yet there is such disagreement: ‘It felt like suede, or some kind of soft dried-out
animal skin’, or ‘I think it was a pencil tip, it was quite sharp and firm’, or ‘You’re both wrong;
it was smooth and curved’. Finally, someone will decide that each was touching a different
part of the same object and then things move along a little. It may take five or more minutes
before the object is identified. Here, we are talking of something as simple as a section of
apple. How much more complicated is the classroom? In their account, Schratz & Walker
(1995) discuss the experiment in the light of the poem The Blind Men and the Elephant in
which six blind but wise men encounter the various parts of the elephant and so experience
it quite differently. See also Latham and Ewing’s (2018) discussion of different perspectives
using The Blind Men and the Elephant.
Below, we have suggested some of the kinds of evidence that might be collected in centres
and school classrooms.
Observation
Observation is more than merely looking. It must be purposeful and, depending upon the
purpose, different strategies can be used. Again we shall outline an activity that we have used
in working with a group of new researchers.
First of all, we divided the researchers into four groups. One group would be our ‘class’.
The second group would observe and record interactions using a schedule that defined whether
learners or educators were talking and whether instructing, questioning or answering was
occurring. The third group was asked only to record questions and to determine their level
of cognitive demand. Each member of the fourth group was instructed to closely observe one
learner. Those in the ‘class’ were asked to be conscious of the fact they were being observed.
The following is an account of one such observation session.
We brought in some unusual and interesting pieces of Victorian
bric-à-brac and suggested that they all belonged to a woman
whose portrait we also had. Our task was to try to infer from
their appearance and purpose the lifestyle of the owner of
the pieces. One of us taught the class for a period of about
15 minutes. Then each group discussed with each other their

observations before we debriefed together.
Those using the interaction schedule realised quickly that
because they had data which could be quantified, they could
determine the proportion of interaction which was teacher or
student talk. They could also determine the proportion of that
talk which was initiated by the teacher or the student and so
on. But they could not say anything about the quality of the talk
because they were too busy checking their various columns on the
schedule. Indeed one observer indicated that she actually had
very little sense of the lesson itself.
Those discussing the questions found that they had some
interesting problems with respect to categorisation. For example
when the teacher held up some chaste silver glove stretchers
and asked ‘what is this?’ it seemed at first merely a simple
recall question. But since no-one actually knew what the item was
it could scarcely be put in that category. The group realised
that one had to know something about the history of the class’s
experience and its context before one could readily categorise
the questions.
Those observing one learner found themselves empathising with
that person. ‘I saw Kathy lean over; she looked as if she wanted
to answer, but you passed over her and went on to provide the
answer yourself.’ They also found themselves actually engaged
with the substance of the lesson. In fact, at one point, one
of the observers started to answer a question herself, and then
quickly drew back. Each member of this group suggested that they
needed to talk with the person they had been observing to check
whether their inferences about behaviour were reasonable. ‘I
needed to know whether, when Denis was looking out of the window,
he was switched off or reflecting.’
(Denis indicated in a subsequent interview with his observer
that one of the objects had reminded him of something in his
late grandparents’ house, a house he had not thought of for many
years.)
As to the learners themselves, they talked about their
consciousness of being observed during the first minutes, but
as they became engaged with the lesson they found themselves far
less concerned.
➜➜ Groundwater-Smith, personal observation
It is clear from this portrayal that different processes of observation will produce
different information. Participants were also surprised at how many variations occurred
in the accounts of what was the one event. Clearly, then, observation reveals powerful and
interesting evidence, but it must be treated cautiously with the observer being carefully
trained to go beyond simply looking. Careful observation lies at the heart of a number of
teaching/learning frameworks, as discussed earlier; for example, South Australia’s Teaching
for Effective Learning and the New South Wales Quality Teaching Framework (NSW
DET, 2003). The current Australian Professional Standards for Teachers also recognises the
powerful role of observation (AITSL, 2011). Teachers are encouraged to observe each other
at work and document their observations within a framework that reflects the categories of
sound pedagogy. As pre-service teachers in schools you will be accustomed to being observed
by your mentor teacher; but it may also be helpful to negotiate with a fellow student to have
him or her act as an observer in your classroom and provide you with feedback on what is
taking place (Le Cornu and Ewing, 2008).
In an interesting and courageous project in a NSW secondary school, learners themselves
have been trained in classroom observation and with the informed consent of teachers have
watched lessons in progress and provided carefully structured feedback. They have even been
able to visit other schools in the Coalition of Knowledge Building Schools (Groundwater-
Smith & Mockler, 2012) and modelled the process to teachers and learners.
1 How would you feel about learners observing your teaching and giving you feedback during your
professional experience placement or internship?
2 What kind of preparation might they need?
Interviewing
In the example discussed earlier it was clear that further evidence was derived when those
closely observing the learners subsequently interviewed them. This is a common strategy in
classroom inquiry; that is, to follow up an observation or an activity with an interview. Again,
there is much literature available on the investigative interview, especially in the context of
a case study (Simons, 2009). Depending on the matter being evaluated the interview might
follow a fixed or open format. Some interviews are very tightly managed so that responses
can be readily collated. In effect, they are oral questionnaires. Market researchers conducting
telephone interviews work in this way. Others have far less structure. For example, you might
be interviewing children about their attitudes and experiences in mathematics learning and
start off with the question, ‘What do you think mathematics is?’ and take the discussion as
a conversation from there. In this way the interviewee has far more control and may move
the discussion in a number of unanticipated directions. This, of course, makes it harder to
compare responses.
Focus groups
Interviews can also be conducted with groups in the manner of focus group inquiry. There
is some danger that you will end up with some kind of consensual view because a couple of
strong people may dominate the group. A strategy to prevent this outcome is to have each
member jot down their main ideas prior to the focus group discussion or even do a drawing,
if they are younger learners. Recently one of us conducted a focus group interview with
young people in a beachside primary school. They were asked about their teachers’ learning;
what skills they thought their teachers should have and how they believed their teachers
learnt their skills, including their attendance at professional development courses. One of the
most salutary lessons that came from the discussion was the view that the learners believed
their teachers learnt best when they watched the children at work and discussed the work
with them.
Learners can also interview each other. They can record the interviews and, where it is
appropriate, can even participate in their analysis. They can help plan the questions and the
ways in which the interviews will be conducted.
Recording
Interviews, whether of individuals or focus groups, have costs and benefits. Listening to and
transcribing recordings can be time-consuming. However, if it is important to capture the
exact words of participants, then transcribing may be essential. Digital recording technologies
make it possible to capture every person’s voice.
Paley (1992) had a discussion with first graders regarding a rule for play she had introduced
for her kindergarten: ‘You Can’t Say You Can’t Play’, that is, you can’t exclude other children
from play. She taped the discussion and then extracted the main points, which she took back
to her kindergarten as a kind of evidence of another point of view.
1 Maybe the rule will cause fighting.
2 Maybe too many people will want to play.
3 Maybe someone will be mean to you.
4 If you say no to one person, can you say yes to someone else?
5 If the owner says no, can another player say yes?
6 Girls should be allowed to say only girls can play and boys should be allowed to say only
boys can play. Unless they’re very curious about each other’s play.
Paley, 1992, p. 41
Paley’s investigation became of great interest to the whole school, its staff and students.
While she does not romanticise its outcome – there was still hostility and discrimination
in the playground – she did find that children were considering the effects of exclusion far
more so than they had in the past. Thus her inquiry served two functions: it allowed the
school to evaluate some aspects of playground interaction and it allowed Paley to introduce
an important new concept to her kindergarten class.
Interviewing busy teachers can be time-consuming. It may sound a little strange but it
is possible for people to interview themselves. In a school improvement project, teachers
were each given an opportunity to interview and record themselves regarding a series of
questions related to the teaching of literacy. They were asked to keep their recording to no
more than 10 minutes and to give themselves some time to reflect on the questions first. They
then recorded their answers to the questions. Teachers reported that they found this a very
engaging process. They were able to sort out their ideas first and then just talk. They could
select the time and the place – ‘After dinner and a good glass of wine was just right for me’,
said one.
Of course, audio recording is not just confined to the recording of interviews. Teachers can
digitally record their own teaching interactions with learners and listen to these later when
they are not in that furious decision-making mode described earlier in this chapter. Listening
to one’s own teaching can be a salutary experience. Similarly, learners can record the ways
in which they are working as a group. They may be engaged in writing collaboratively using
the computer. By having a recording of their discussions the teacher not only has access to
the final text but also to the processes by which the text was constructed. Recording such
conversations also immediately communicates that the learners’ talk is important work.
Visual records
As well as audio-recording being assisted by the new digital technologies, it is also now far
easier to make visual recordings for the purposes of evaluation. Indeed, placing the digital
camera or phone in the hands of learners is a great idea; they enjoy taking pictures and seeing
themselves. But the process also can have attendant costs and benefits. While learners may at
first be self-conscious this feeling usually wears off the more accustomed to the technology
they become. Teachers can share visual records with learners as the basis for renegotiating
such things as rules for group processes. Teaching effective group-management strategies
may be far more productive when the evidence of their own practices is presented to the
learners. Again, it may be seen that collecting evidence can serve more than one purpose. It
can be used to inform an evaluation of some aspect of the work but it can also be used along
the way to provide feedback to the participants in learning regarding one phenomenon or
another.
More commonplace in early childhood centres and schools than either audio or video
recordings are photographs. In foyers, along passageways, in staffrooms and classrooms we
see the photographic record of special achievements, special events, excursions and the like.
Photographs are used in schools as a form of celebration. More rare is to see photographs
used systematically as evidence in evaluation.
Who hasn’t had the experience of going through old photographs and stored digital
images and feeling that tug of remembrance? Photographs are more than a visual record for
they evoke sensory recollections that go beyond the particular moment of the time the event
was captured on film and can be used as a powerful aid to reflection. Their collection and use
can be planned and built into an evaluation design just as effectively as can questionnaires
and interviews.
In assembling the Hathaway Case Record (Walker & Lewis, 1998), a film was made that
had as its purpose the portrayal of the school through its learners’ eyes. Six Year 5 students
were given simple cameras that could be used indoors and outdoors and as much film as they
required. Of course, today this would be an even easier exercise using digital cameras. The
students were asked to take photographs of things that happened to them throughout the day
and the ways in which those events fitted into their schooling. The filmmakers followed the
students as they photographed:
• discussing their writing with their teacher
• planning a concert
• attending the senior school assembly
• taking part
• receiving awards
• watching a talented gymnast
• playing with their friends at recess and lunchtime
• problem solving in mathematics
• taking part in a quiz
• watching a film in relation to social studies.
The following day the photographs had been developed and the students were
interviewed in pairs regarding the photographs and their meanings. Again, today, this could
be instantaneous. Using pairs of students allowed conversations that encompassed different
perspectives rather than relying on a single point of view. Issues moved far beyond the
photographs and encompassed such matters as feelings towards teachers, humour in the
classroom, the recognition of merit, managing antisocial behaviour, sexism in the playground,
cheating, favourite curriculum areas, families and school. These conversations were also
filmed. After editing, the film was presented to the whole student body, who vigorously
debated the points of view that had been put forward. The simple exercise had enabled the
authors, the students and the teachers to see the school through the eyes of a small group of
students.
Photographs can also be used very effectively prior to and following an innovation or
intervention. They can then be used as a catalyst to assist reflection as the change moves
forward. Even simply taking photographs on the first day and last day of a school term can
act as a powerful impetus to discussion about the progression and development of that term
and its work. It is as important to investigate the everyday things about school as it is to
examine innovation and change.
In some ways photography can be seen as a form of visual anthropology. In her study of a
technology innovation in Denmark’s schools, Kanstrup (2002) used photography as a means
for data collection and analysis of a workplace reform. Over a period of three months, digital
photographs were taken to map the ways in which the workspace was used. Photographs
were loaded into a computer and used as a stimulus for interviewing teachers about their
changing practices. The increasing use of digital cameras in schools, linked to young people’s
facility with various information and communication devices, is making such innovations
relatively easy to undertake. It is important to remember that if photographs or video/movie
material containing images of children are to be used in any publications, written parental
permission must be sought.
Collecting stories
Earlier in this chapter we presented an example of the ways in which students’ narratives can
be a powerful means of gaining access to their perspectives (see Lizzeth’s story, Case study
12.1). A compelling innovation being used in evaluation is to document what have become
known as ‘most significant change stories’ (Dart & Davies, 2003). Learners and educators
can be provided with opportunities to write a narrative of the ways in which matters have
changed for them and why, in a particular context, this has influenced their capacity to engage
with the innovation.
While most significant change stories have been used as a tool to document teacher
Learning stories learning, Carr & Lee (2012) have written of learning stories that are accounts of critical learning
are about moments in the context of early childhood education. The stories particularly emphasise
documentation of
critical moments learning dispositions and learning power. They draw upon stores of knowledge as manifested
in student learning through experience and acknowledge that learner selves are multifaceted. They argue that
that can illuminate
powerful learning learning stories have the capacity to capture difficult-to-measure skills and aptitudes such as
moments and the exercise of kindness and responsibility, agency and communication. Such stories can trace
episodes. chains of learning that can be both continuous and disconnected at the same time. Creating
learning stories requires teachers to be acute observers and recorders of learning as it happens.
Those young people who are a little older can construct their own learning stories. Imagine
inviting young people you meet during your professional experience placement to write a
story about when they first think they were able to make a new friend, or help someone
who was unhappy. Such learning stories could be an invaluable source of knowledge and
understanding for teachers as researchers.
Illustrations and written artefacts

As we have indicated, whole books have been written on the collection of evidence in school-
based inquiry. Our examples do not extend to the whole range of evidence; nor do they cover
some of the finer technical points. All the same, it would be remiss not to mention classroom
artefacts as a source of evidence. Portfolios of student work, projects and performances are all
examples of evidence that can serve more than one purpose. While you would take samples
of students’ work for inclusion in their portfolios, you can also use those samples to reflect
upon the effectiveness of the teachers’ work.
At other times there may be occasions when you want students to undertake a task that
produces a tangible artefact that you can use to suggest student attitudes or beliefs about a
particular issue. Recently, Latham and Ewing (2018) asked primary aged children to draw
where they think their imaginations live and how they come up with creative ideas. They were
astonished at how many drawings they received and how much it demonstrated children’s
thinking about imagining. See some examples below.
FIGURE 12.4
CHILDREN’S DRAWINGS REPRESENTING WHERE THEIR IMAGINATIONS LIVE
Asher Buultjens
Timothy Buultjens
In another context, that of the built and natural environment, there have been a number
of studies that have asked children to provide drawings of spaces and places that they like
and dislike. Karen Malone (2011), for example, has worked extensively in Victoria and New
South Wales working with town planners to design neighbourhoods that are child-friendly.
Her principal inquiry tool has been the development of both individual and group drawings
by children.
Christensen and James (2008) reported on a study where students were presented with an
empty circle in which they could record their week at school. While some divided the circle
into a pie chart demonstrating symbolically what they were undertaking in a given week,
others produced minute illustrations of critical moments during the week.
Bishton and Lindsay (2011) make a compelling case for the adoption of processes of
this kind when eliciting perspectives of children and young people in special and inclusive
education settings as a means of building up a rich picture of their likes and dislikes when
they find more conventional procedures less inviting.
Concept map is Another useful illustrative device, while not strictly figurative, is the concept map, or
a graphical tool mind map as it is sometimes called (see Loughran, 2010). These can help us make comparisons
that shows the
relationship among between the ways a particular strategy, innovation, concept or procedure is seen over a period
concepts (ideas, of time. We can see how the key ideas are being constructed and changed as knowledge
images or words)
using such devices becomes deeper and better informed.
as arrows and linking Typically, the person constructing the map is asked to let her or his mind dwell on the
phrases. matter in hand, then determine the major concepts or big ideas. These are ranked from
the most abstract and inclusive to the most concrete and specific. The major overarching
concepts are clustered and judgements made about closeness of association. The remainder
are ordered hierarchically. Cross-links can also then be made. Modifying the map at a later
stage allows us to see how thinking is changing. Less formal than concept maps are perceptual
maps (Fitzclarence, 1991). Here one can draw one’s perceptions of places and the ways in
which people interact in them, so children might draw a perceptual map of the playground,
or teachers draw one of their workplace.
You might think of yourself in terms of your last professional experience placement. How would you
draw the relationships between yourself and the staff?
Reflective journal Another kind of written evidence that is widely used in evaluation is the reflective journal
We have identified in which people write in a more discursive way about their experiences and feelings. At times
reflection as an
important strategy learners can keep learning journals to reflect on critical moments for them in coming to
for teachers to use understand a concept or issue. Sometimes teachers, as a form of staff development, have been
regularly (Chapters
1 and 2). The asked to keep a journal on a regular basis that began with the stem, ‘What did my students
reflective journal is teach me today?’ Or indeed, it might be a strategy that you could use yourself during your
a systematic way professional experience placement. It is important to decide from the beginning the conditions
of developing such
reflections in an under which people would have access to one another’s journals. There is something very
ongoing manner to coercive in suggesting teachers engage in reflective journal writing and then later requesting
reveal how insights
and understandings access to those journals when the teachers may have seen them as extremely personal and
might evolve. private. This caution also holds true for learners.
All of these strategies have merit. But we cannot emphasise enough that the evidence must
be purposeful and systematically collected. Typically, when beginning an evaluation project,
teachers collect huge amounts of data and then feel that they are drowning in it. Evaluation
must be carefully planned, the evaluation questions should be linked to the evidence to be
collected and, wherever possible, the collection of information should be embedded in the
teacher’s daily work. These considerations will relate to the validity and trustworthiness fo
the evidence being collected and analysed.
Data analysis
Much of what we have written so far makes assumptions about the ways in which evidence
and information is analysed and interpreted. We have imagined that analysis will not rest with
just one individual but will arise from critical conversations about what has been observed,
collected, seen and heard. People will be looking for patterns, themes and categories, places
where there are conflicts, contradictions and tensions. All of these will need analysis and
interpretation.
Imagine yourself when undertaking professional experience in an early childhood centre
or school. You may be interested in the ways in which gender operates when you are teaching.
You collect systematic observations and analyse them with the result that you notice that you
interact disproportionately with the boys. This is what the data tell you; but you also need to
consider why this is the case. Might it be that you are using interaction as a form of control?
Do you have a stronger affiliation with the boys? Is the content of the lesson of greater
interest to the boys? These are all interpretative questions.
1 After giving the evidence due consideration, how might the children see and understand it? What
have they noticed?
2 What about your colleagues? Would they have a different interpretation?
Classroom inquiry can also be great fun, perplexing, and mind stretching. It also needs to be
treated seriously because it has consequences for children as learners in centres and classrooms.
Conclusion
This chapter makes the case for school-based evaluation within a knowledge-building
context. It is evaluation conducted by teachers as practitioner–inquirers that is planned, well
grounded in evidence and managed in ways that maximise the participation of the various
stakeholders. Indeed, a number of the examples outlined propose inquiry processes that
work with children and young people rather than gathering data about them. These maxims
hold true regardless of the scope of the work being evaluated: one lesson, a curriculum unit
taught over a matter of weeks, a grade-based innovation or a major change in school policy.
Currently, educational institutions across Australia are being asked to engage in serious
reform. Learning communities are constantly urged to think about change: change in work
practices, change in curriculum arrangements, change in pedagogy, change in management
and change in relations with the broader community. If change is to be genuine reform and
not merely rearranging the deckchairs, then that change must be informed by well-conducted,
formative evaluation of what currently exists and the change processes themselves. It is a task
that genuinely contributes to our ongoing teacher professional learning.
STUDY TOOLS
Following
1 Take a teaching episode from your most recent professional experience. How might you evaluate it?
through What evidence might you collect? Design an evaluation plan that would allow you to collect several
different kinds of evidence. Discuss and critique it with a reflective partner.
2 With your lecturer(s) plan ways in which you could evaluate an aspect of your teacher education.
Consider different ways you might collect evidence about its effectiveness. What particular kinds of
ethical dilemmas might arise?
3 Think about educating for the future in a world of changing and converging information and communication
technologies (ICTs). Using an appropriate digital application, draw a concept map of your ideas in this area.
Gather some evidence about the ways in which preschools and schools are using ICTs. Then revisit your
map. Make any changes you wish. Compare the two maps. How useful was this in assisting you in evaluating
your ideas about technological change and your competency in employing a specific application?
4 Arrange with your local school for some learners to take a series of time-lapse digital photographs of
one spot in the playground over a lunchtime. Remember, they should remain in the one spot and take
the photographs at regular intervals. When they are developed, share them with the photographers
and another small group of students. What did the photographs tell you all about the ways in which
that particular part of the playground is used? You might consider using iPads for this activity and
employing a range of apps that the iPad offers for both recording and reporting.
5 In your tutorial group arrange for a pair of early career teachers to undertake a focus group interview
regarding some aspect of your teacher education course. Conduct the interview with eight or nine
participants, with the remaining group acting as observers. Think about how you are going to orient the
focus group and document the outcomes. In the debriefing seek out the experiences of the observers
and of the participants in the focus group. What would you change and why?
6 Reflect upon the process of becoming a teacher through your teacher education program. Write
your most significant change story; ensure that you indicate in which ways it is significant. Check
with colleagues, are there common categories? How might you explain them? Could these stories be
viewed as data for those responsible for your teacher education program?
http://www.slideshare.net/egaleano/classroom-observation-techniques This slide show is not only

Useful
entertaining, it brings together some critical questions about the nature of observation in educational online
settings. It would make a great discussion starter. teaching
resources
Aubusson, P., Ewing, R. & Hoban, G. (2009). Action Fitzclarence, L. 1991, ‘Mattering maps: Internal project
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
Drawing the challenges,
dilemmas and
opportunities together
P H O TO : A L
AN NICHO
We should always remember

that young people are
powerful agents in their own
learning.
325
A coda, in music, is a piece positioned at the conclusion to a significant movement. It

draws together the threads of the composition and relays back to the listener its major
themes in the form of a series of echoes. In literature, the coda is a means of drawing the
narrative to its conclusion by revisiting the narrative’s underlying purposes and important
understandings or themes. This final section of this book draws together some of its most
important themes.
We have sought to engage you, the reader, with the dilemmas, complexities, challenges,
opportunities and joys of teaching children and young people. We have asked you to
think about how you read an early childhood centre or preschool, a primary or secondary
classroom context and education system as a series of nested texts, each related to the other.
We have emphasised how what happens in early childhood contexts and school classrooms
is governed by larger and ever-expanding discourses that are social, political, economic and
technological in nature (Rizvi & Lingard, 2010). This is increasingly the case given that the
federal government seeks to develop nationwide policies, especially in relation to curriculum,
assessment and teaching standards; areas that formerly were recognised as the responsibility
of the states and territories.
We have recognised that you as an early career educator bring a multiplicity of experiences
from your own background and experience of each educational context and that this has
influenced your reading and interpretation of our ideas and case studies. Each one of us,
author or reader, brings our own history to the artistry of becoming a teacher – our virtual
schoolbag (Thomson, 2002). We need to ask ourselves what our values and beliefs are, how
they have been formed and how they will influence our emerging philosophy of teaching and
learning and therefore our professional practice.
In this conclusion to the sixth edition of Teaching: Dilemmas, Challenges and Opportunities
we have chosen to identify the following enduring themes.
• The purposes of education are not just about preparing for the future.
• Children and young people should always be powerful agents in their own learning.
• All educational contexts need to recognise diversity both among their learners and among
their staff.
• The teacher is always a learner.
• Teaching is an ethical profession.
• Teaching is complex and multidimensional.
Purposes of education
It can no longer be claimed that, after the family and social peers, schooling is the single
greatest socialising influence on the young person. The media, including new electronic
information and communication technologies such as social media, also have an enormous
effect on what children and young people think and do. Those responsible for designing and
delivering educational experiences must ensure that they include, along with the important
acquisition of critical and information literacies and numeracies, an understanding of what
CHAPTER 13 Drawing the challenges, dilemmas and opportunities together 327
it is to be a responsible and compassionate citizen. Over half a century ago, the Adelaide
Advertiser (1936) in its editorial noted:
In a commercialised society there is always a danger of people thinking that the object of
education is simply to turn out efficient wage and salary earners which means that education
becomes dominated by utilitarian and mercenary consideration. This conception of education,
though widespread, is rejected by the great majority of teachers.
South Australian Department of Education, n.d., p. 39
The editorial then asserted that students, under the best of conditions, should develop
‘a consciousness of responsibility for the welfare of others, through the ideal of social service’
(South Australian Education Department, n.d., p. 39). Do you think such an editorial would
appear in today’s media? Perhaps we might speak of this as civics and citizenship education.
We might also talk about the importance of learning about the role that compassion
(empathy + action) should play in the community.
In every Australian state and territory and at the Commonwealth level the purposes of
schooling are constantly being debated. Education is a big-budget item and there is always
the temptation to think of it exclusively through investment costs and benefits. Each of you,
as a beginning teacher in either the government, Catholic or independent sector, will find
that the relevant employing authority will have its own statements regarding the purposes
of schooling. Read these with a critical and discerning eye to consider how those statements
position learners and whether they are seen as active agents in the processes of education.
The competent learner

For many decades learners have often been seen as blank slates awaiting the imprint of
influential teachers. Throughout this book we have questioned this representation, arguing
instead that children and young people must always be active agents in their learning and
will bring a rich variety of prior experiences. We have encouraged you to analyse the skills,
abilities and creativities of your learners as a prelude to teaching and learning events.
In Chapter 4, we drew your attention to the work of the Reggio Emilia early childhood
education program in Italy. Reggio Emilia philosophy promotes children as competent and
capable. UNESCO reminds us in the Convention of the Rights of the Child that every child
has rights including the right to outstanding care and education. As Tony Vinson (2009)
writes, how a society provides for ALL its children is central for its ultimate wellbeing.
Human diversity in schools

Throughout this book we have encouraged you to recognise the great diversity that exists,
not only among learners, but among teachers also. Today, in schools across Australia, we have
educators who vary not only in age and gender, but also in terms of ethnicity. Consider this
extract from the hard-hitting address given by Richard Flanagan at the 2018 Garma Festival:
The world is being undone before us. History is once more moving, and it is moving to fragmentation
on the basis of concocted differences, toward the destruction of democracy using not coups and
guns to entrench autocracies and dictators, but the ballot box and social media. We see gay and
transgender people being once more scapegoated, and we see race and religion used to divide.
We must honour our diverse population and strive for inclusion and more united
communities through developing genuine appreciation and understanding of and sensitivity
to our differences.
Teachers as learners
Diversity does not just refer to our language backgrounds, ethnicity, gender or age. It also
refers to the different ways in which we learn. There are many ways of knowing, doing
and becoming and we must celebrate the variety of ways we approach our own learning as
teaching and how we investigate what happens in our places of learning. We have encouraged
you as new and beginning teachers to think about how you learn, and about how you
interpret advice, feedback and questions that arise for you during the act of teaching. We
have suggested that teaching should be seen as artistry and that, as adult learners, you have the
capacity to be innovative and creative and prepared to take some risks in your work.
You have also been encouraged to be reflective learners, and to move beyond that reflection
in your learning, so that you not only consider what may have taken place during a particular
Lisa Kervin
Teachers as learners
teaching and learning event, but also try to take account of how and why those matters may
have arisen and why you think about them as you do. Hence we have introduced you to the
term ‘reflexivity’.
We have argued that in order to learn from teaching, the educator must be ready to
collect evidence about what is happening, how and why it is happening, and what alternative
solutions are available to solve the myriad problems that the teaching offers. Rodgers (2002,
p. 239) writes about the process as one in which educators must ‘slow down in the moment
and consider alternative ways of seeing and responding to the events that they are witnessing’.
Educators always need to see themselves as learners. Our knowledge of how learners learn is
constantly being extended and we keep ourselves well informed about our field of practice.
More and more, in our globalised society, it is important to know what is taking place, not only
in the local context, but in relation to the policies and practices that can be found elsewhere.
For example, in recent years many have turned their eyes to Finland to identify what it is that
has made their educational provision so successful and has been advocated so effectively.
If educators are to do their best by their learners, they need to engage as activist professionals
(Sachs, 2002). They need to recognise that their work is essentially moral and ethical in nature.
Teaching as an ethical profession

In this book we have been guided by the idea that ethics is a thoroughly human undertaking
that can be judged by its social and cultural impacts. We have explicitly encouraged you, as
early career teachers, to hold at the forefront of your practice a concern for human values that
respect all of those who inhabit the educational world – teachers, students, parents and others
who participate in the life of the early childhood centre, preschool and school.
Being ethical means behaving in explicitly morally defensible ways. This means that
educators have to make judgements that are carefully formed and informed by the available
evidence. This is not merely a matter of benevolence, but one in which the teacher works
through a maze of interests, some of which conflict with one another. We have suggested that a
significant navigation tool is to consider important decisions as ones that can be characterised
as dilemmas, and that resolutions may be found by systematically working through issues
and considering different perspectives.
The dilemmas of schooling

In their struggle to understand, through analysis, the complexities of schooling and the
alternative courses of action available to teachers, Ann and Harold Berlak (1981, p. 133)
turned to the language of dilemmas. They wrote:
Dilemmas do not represent static ideas waiting at bay in the mind, but an unceasing interaction
of internal and external forces, a world of continuous transformations.
The first chapter of this book briefly discussed the dilemmas framework that the Berlaks
developed from their observations of British primary schools in the 1970s. Although the
original research took place nearly four decades ago, we argue that the tool is still relevant
today. How does an educator deal with a learner’s challenging behaviours in the classroom?
Is it fair to adopt information and communication technologies that favour learners who
have access to sophisticated devices such as tablets in their own homes? How, during the
professional experience, is an early career teacher to act when his or her beliefs about learning
are not congruent with those of the mentor teacher? Should learners be grouped in terms of
their ability? These are just a few of the issues that may arise.
There are many opportunities, contradictions and controversies surrounding educators,
teaching and learning. We have not sought, in this book, to define ‘best practice’: rather,
we hope we have challenged you to think beyond the stereotypes and status quo to reflect
on ways in which to teach intelligently, insightfully and respectfully in response to local
contexts. Situated practices are based on getting to know and value the local.
We wish you well!
STUDY TOOLS
Following We are interested to know how this book has contributed to your understanding of learning to teach.
through If you would like to write to us, we would welcome your feedback. You might like to undertake this as a
group of early career teachers, putting your ideas together in a collaborative way that emphasises both
your agreements and disagreements with each other and with our perspectives. Please write to us at
anz.highered@cengage.com.
References Berlak, A. & Berlak, H. 1981, Dilemmas of Schooling, Dufficy, P. 2005, Designing Learning for Diverse
Methuen, New York. Classrooms, Primary English Teachers Association
Bredekamp, S. 1993, ‘Reflections on Reggio Emilia’, Australia (PETAA), Sydney.
Young Children, November, pp. 13–17. Flanagan, R. 2018, Garma Festival of Traditional
Dadds, M. & Hart, S. 2001, Doing Practitioner Research Cultures.
Differently, Routledge, London. Groundwater-Smith, S. 1999, ‘Work matters’,
Darling Hammond, L. 2010, The Flat World of Education, International Journal of Practical Experience in
Teachers College Press, Columbia NY. Professional Education (PEPE), 3 (1), pp. 27–54.
Rizvi, F. & Lingard, B. 2010, Globalizing Education in the History of South Australian Education, South
Policy, Routledge, London. Australian Department of Education, Murray Park,
Rodgers, C. 2002, ‘Voices inside schools’, Harvard South Australia.
Educational Review, 72 (2), pp. 230–53. Thomson, P. 2002, Schooling the Rustbelt Kids: Making
Sachs, J. 2002, The Activist Teaching Profession, Open the difference in changing times, Allen & Unwin,
University Press, Buckingham. Australia.
Sahlberg, P. 2012, Quality and equity in Finnish schools’, Vinson, T. 2009, Markedly Socially Disadvantaged
School Administrator, September, pp. 27–30. Localities in Australia: Their Nature and Possible
Remediation, DEEWR, Canberra.
South Australian Department of Education. n.d.,
‘Newspaper clippings book 1936–1938’, in Sources
332
Glossary
Action learning emphasises the Behaviour modification refers closed doors, but are members
learning a group may experience to techniques used to change of a community of practice
when working through an issue, behaviour. with shared responsibility for
dilemma or problem they may the learning of all within the
face. Best practice implies that there school.
is sufficient evidence to identify
Active or reflective listening a particular way of doing things Community of learners
involves listening carefully to as the very best. However, given A group of people who are
understand what someone is the variability in contexts and learning together or who share a
trying to convey and reflecting educator attributes that we common goal or set of values.
these feelings/thoughts back in have discussed thus far, it may
your own words. be more helpful to think in Community of practice
terms of ‘sound and defensible A community of practice refers
Active listening skills are those practice’ rather than the to a collective of practitioners
that demonstrate to a speaker superlative form. with a shared interest, who
that you, as the listener, are are prepared to work together
really trying to understand their Class cohesiveness refers to to better understand their
message. a sense of belonging where professional work and the ways
everyone sees themselves as a in which it can be improved.
Antidiscrimination laws valued member of the group.
are designed to ensure that Concept map is a graphical
individuals and groups are not Classical conditioning is a tool that shows the relationship
singled out in a negative fashion contrived learnt response. among concepts (ideas, images
in relation to such matters or words) using such devices as
as gender, religious or sexual Classroom culture refers to arrows and linking phrases.
preferences, race or ethnicity. the shared beliefs, customs,
attitudes and expectations of Conservation experiments
Assertiveness is communication educators and learners in a A series of experiments
which upholds the rights of all classroom. conducted by Piaget to
the people involved. demonstrate how a child gains
Cognitive means knowing, the understanding of what
Assertive listening is that perceiving or remembering. remains the same when an
which lets the speaker know not object is changed aesthetically;
only that they have been heard, Cognitive constructivists
predict what children can and for example, the understanding
but also that they have been that there is the same amount
understood. can’t do at a particular age.
of water if it is poured from a
Beginning competencies are Collaborative A collaborative tall, skinny glass into a short,
the essential capabilities that learning environment is squat one.
you need as an early career one where there are many
opportunities for people to Curriculum includes the
educator that will grow and intended knowledge and skills
develop as you gain experience. collaborate, learn from one
another and help one another described in formal syllabus
Behaviourist A behaviourist achieve shared goals. documents, a framework of
adopts a psychological principles and outcomes that
approach that proposes that Collective responsibility shape the decision making
all learning is triggered by an emphasises that educators are of educators and the experiences
external event. not operating alone behind of learners.
Glossary 333
Cultural competence refers Educative assessment is where Family–school partnerships

to ‘the ability to understand, the purpose of the assessment are collaborative relationships
communicate with, and of learning is clearly directed and activities involving school
effectively interact with people to assisting the learners in staff, parents and other family
across cultures’ (DEEWR, improving skills and aptitudes members of students at a school.
2009, p. 19). rather than in making
judgements about them and Formative assessment is
Cyberbullying involves the their capacities. the gathering of information
intentional use of electronic that can be used as learning is
forms of contact (such as social E-learning refers to internet- progressing in order to make
media) as a means of harming enabled and technology- the necessary adjustments and
and embarrassing others in a distributed education and modifications.
repeated manner. training.
Globalisation results from a
Decision-making space is the Elaborated (codes) refers relentless interchange of world
room to make real choices and to the use of more formal practices in such fields as
decisions. language so that the meaning is economics and impacts directly
less dependent on a particular on education.
Deconstruction involves taking context.
a text apart so that its messages ‘Hidden’ curriculum This
can be identified, analysed and Empathy is the ability to refers to the unintended
critiqued. comprehend fully the feelings, learning/knowledge/messages a
experiences and perceptions learner gains.
Democratic relationships of another.
More of a ‘power to’ (Pansardi, ‘Horizontal’ collaboration is
2012) where power is devolved Equity involves being mindful when schools work closely with
to participants to enable of fairness and impartiality in their community, including
everyone to experience dignity the treatment of others. the local council, arts groups,
and respect. community groups and so on.
Evaluation is to do with the
Dialect is a variety of a systematic collection of a range Inclusive (learning) refers
language that characterises a of evidence that can determine to every learner being able
particular group of speakers of the worth and value of a to participate in learning
that language. project. It can be formative, situations.
that is, following the project
Diversity Understanding in action, or summative, Information processing theory
the uniqueness of each considering the project at its analyses the sequence of events
individual and recognising and conclusion. that occurs when we learn
respecting our differences along something new.
dimensions of race, ethnicity, Evidence-based practice is
gender, sexual orientation, something of a slippery term. Intellectual and social capital
socioeconomic status, age, It is generally taken to mean Just as we can have capital in
physical abilities, religious that it is research informed the form of material assets, it is
beliefs, political beliefs. and that the research has also possible to have intellectual
‘proven’ that one approach is and social capital that can be
Duty of care requires all the best solution. But there is drawn upon such as intellectual
educators to take reasonable care another way of thinking about ability and social competence.
to protect those children and/or evidence – as a forensic scientist
young people in their care Invisible children are those
might – that is, can we use the who blend into the classroom in
and control from a reasonably available evidence to understand
foreseeable risk of harm. such a way that they are often
how something is working? neglected, isolated or ignored.
334 Glossary
Kinesics includes such things Multiliteracies refer to the Peer mentoring involves pre-
as posture, gestures and facial various ways that we make service educators engaging in
expressions. meaning in different cultural ongoing dialogue to provide
and social contexts. support and challenge for
Learner identity refers to how each other.
learners view themselves as Multimodal refers to the
learners. interface of written linguistic Power is everywhere within
and other ways (for example, relationships. It is not equally
Learning communities are oral, visual, audio, gestural, distributed and can readily
places that provide a positive tactile) of making meaning. be abused.
and enabling context for
learning for all participants Non-verbal cues are Practitioner inquiry refers to
involved in the school. sometimes referred to as the ways in which professionals,
‘body language’. They refer be they teachers, nurses, health
Learning partnership to the body and tone-of-voice professionals and the like,
A learning partnership between messages that accompany the consider and investigate their
learners and their educator is verbal message. own practice with an intention
where there exists a level of to improve it.
shared responsiveness that goes Normalisation the social and
against the traditional hierarchy cultural processes that humans Pre-testing for and of learning
of schools. use to create and maintain refers to the practice of
notions of what is ‘normal’. investigating what learners
Learning stories are about already know and understand.
documentation of critical Open-mindedness means being It does not necessarily mean a
moments in student learning prepared to listen to more sides pencil-and-paper test and could
that can illuminate powerful than one. be as simple as discovering
learning moments and whether they can spell specific
episodes. Operant conditioning refers to
an individual modifying their words, or as complex as finding
Maturational process refers to behaviour because of what the out their understanding of
biological development. consequence will be. a particular concept or idea.
Educators can gather information
Mind (or concept) maps Paralangauge refers to voice from learners through discussion,
are visual diagrams with the volume, tone and pitch. observation, analysis of work
core idea in the middle and samples and more formalised
lines and bubbles radiating Parent involvement refers to ‘testing’ type mechanisms.
from it representing ideas the contribution that parents
and relationships connecting make to the life and business Professional dialogue refers
them. of a school without necessarily to engaging in rigorous
being part of the decision- conversations about teaching
Mixed methods in social making process. and learning with colleagues.
research, as in education
studies, mean using both Parent participation refers to Professional ethics are
measurement strategies – such parents sharing in decision- concerned with what one ought
as surveys and standardised making processes of the school. to do in good conscience in
tests – and more descriptive professional practice.
Pedagogy refers to the interface
procedures (observations, between teaching and learning Professional experiences refers
photography, and interviewing). and curriculum. It is not only to workplace learning which
When they are combined, what is taught, but also how it is integrated with academic
they complement and enhance is taught, why it is taught and preparation and educational
one another. how it is received. studies.
Glossary 335
Proxemics refers to the degree Schema is an organised pattern Storying is a process of

of physical distance between of thought. constructing and relating ideas
ourselves and others with which through narrative rather than
we feel comfortable. Self-actualisation is realising simply ‘telling a story’.
your full potential.
Reflective journal We have Student engagement refers to
identified reflection as an Self-disclosure involves learners participating actively
important strategy for teachers sharing something about and fully in their learning.
to use regularly (Chapters 1 yourself in order to develop
and 2). The reflective journal is a positive relationship with Student wellbeing refers
a systematic way of developing your students. to learners’ physical, social
such reflections in an ongoing and emotional welfare and
Self-efficacy refers to your development.
manner to reveal how insights sense of your ability to achieve
and understandings might your goals/complete tasks. Support network A group of
evolve. people who will sustain you in
Situated practice In a situated your professional life through
Reflective practitioner practice, learning is embedded
Being a reflective practitioner offering emotional, practical
in a specific context. and professional help.
means both thinking deeply
and critically about one’s Social constructivist approach Teacher professional identity
practice and examining from In a social constructivist refers to how you view yourself
where one’s ideas and beliefs approach, groups construct as a teacher.
have come. knowledge together – with/for
each other. Teacher resilience The capacity
Reflexivity requires us to to manage ongoing and multiple
not only identify what our Social learning theory challenges over time while
values and beliefs are about a According to social learning continuing to grow and thrive
particular matter, but how we theory we learn in social professionally (Mansfield et al.,
came to have those values and contexts often through 2016).
beliefs – what influenced us observing what others model
over time. for us. Theorising When we engage
in theorising we are also doing
Register refers to language used Sociocultural-historical something that is practical for
for a particular purpose in a approach acknowledges the the consequences will affect
specific social setting/context. historical as well as the cultural what it is that we do and how
context in which learners and why we do it.
Reinforcement In construct their knowledge.
reinforcement a behaviour is Traditional hierarchical model
strengthened when it becomes Sociodemographic features of working A traditional
associated with a particular include socioeconomic status hierarchical model of working
stimulus. (SES), ethnic and cultural invokes a ‘power over’
backgrounds and geographic approach where the people
Responsibility means carefully location.
considering the consequences to involved operate from their
which an action leads. Socioeconomic refers to respective power bases.
one’s social and economic Transmission model of
Restorative Justice is a practice advantage/disadvantage. It is
which brings together the schooling is a model of education
usually calculated according that sees the educator as merely
victims and perpetrators of to household income, parent
conflict in order to find an transmitting knowledge and
occupation type and parental skills they have into the minds of
agreed solution. educational qualifications. their passive learners.
336 Glossary
‘Vertical’ collaboration Visual literacy incorporates Zone of proximal development

is when a range of service reading and understanding the (ZPD) is the difference between
providers are brought in to the visual images of texts from print what a learner can do with the
school, as a result of referrals, to screen (see Callow, 2013). help of a more experienced peer
to ensure that students’ needs or adult and what he or she can
are being met. Wholeheartedness means being do unassisted.
prepared to take risks and act.
337

Index
Aboriginal culture 51–2 Australia 55 Beginning school 180–1
Accountability 236, 308 Australian Aboriginal and Torres Beginning School Well Program
Strait Islander learners 51 180
Action learning 191, 308–9
Indigenous Australians and Behavioural problems 61
Action research project 307–8
education 52–4
Behaviourist 71–2
Active listening 80, 141
Australian Broadcasting
Behaviour modification 72
Active listening skills 141 Corporation (ABC) 46
Berlak dilemmas
clarifying 141–2 Australian Bureau of Statistics
(ABS) 168, 294 applying 15–18
paraphrasing 142–3
Australian Charter for the control set 16
responding 143
Professional Learning of curriculum set 16–17
right attitude 143–5 Teachers and School Leaders
191 sets 15–16
Adelaide Advertiser (1936) 327
Australian Children’s Education societal set 17–18
Ad hoc application of rules 17
& Care Quality Authority Best practice 15
Aggressive communication 138 (ACECQA) 192
Big Picture Education Australia
Antidiscrimination laws 36 Australian Curriculum 86–7 (BPEA) 95
Arts Australian Curriculum, Binaries 10
as critical quality pedagogy 96 Assessment and Reporting
Authority (ACARA) 87 binary thinking 58
processes 96
Australian Government Quality Blind Men and the Elephant,
Assertive behaviour 152–3 The (poem) 313
Teaching Program (AGQTP)
Assertive listener 140 93 Body language. See Non-verbal
Assertive listening 140 Australian Literacy and communication
Assertiveness 138 Numeracy Foundation Body movements. See Kinesics

(ALNF) 94
Assessment for learning 234–6. Boring learning. See
See also Educator planning; Australian Professional Disinteresting learning
Planning for learning Standards for Teachers
Bullying 33–4, 268
(APSTs) 191, 214, 287, 314–15
balancing efficiency and
effectiveness 237–9 Australian School Innovation
in Science Technology and Cambridge Primary Review
challenges 236–7 Mathematics project (ASISTM 240
classroom assessment 239–41 project) 262 Career educators 7–8
Attention deficit disorder 62 Australian Story, The 3 Caregivers 29, 241, 253, 279
Attention deficit hyperactivity responding to 242
disorder (ADHD) 267 B-Building Resilience 211 Centre for Educational
Attitude analysis towards Beginning competencies 5 Research and Innovation
learning 198–201 (CERI) 240
338 Index
Challenging classroom Climate of learning community interpersonal 130

behaviour management 269–71 105
significant relationships
Changing context 192–3 Coalition of Knowledge 135–7
Building Schools 178
Child Communities of practice 5
Coda 326
abuse 35 Communities of professional
Code 28 practice 301–2
bilingualism 47
Codes of ethics 28 Community 30
Childhood 17
for teaching 28–34 Community of learners 76
Children living in poverty and
growing inequality 48–51 Cognitive constructivists 75 Community of practice 302
‘Circle share’ 115 Cognitive factors 72 Competent learner 327
Clarity, comprehension, Cognitive theories about Complementary thinking 58
confidence, choices, learning 72–3
Complex educational
competence (5Cs) 157
Collaborative approach 278 phenomena 310
Class cohesiveness 123–5
Collaborative learning Concept maps. See Mind maps
Classes 229 environment 105
Conditioning 72
Classical conditioning 71 Collaborative planning 224
Connectedness 92–3
Classical learning theories 69 Collaborative problem-solving
Connectionist 73
strategies 156
Classroom 43
Conservation experiments 75
Collaborative relationships 191
assessment 239–41
Constructivist theories about
Collaborative work practices
climate 111 learning 74–5
208–10
interaction management 253–6 Control set 16
Collecting stories 318–19
learning outside 177–8 Courage to Teach, The (Palmer)
Collective responsibility 5
3
Classroom as learning
Common culture 17
environment 106 Creativity 241
Commonwealth Government
interactions 112–13 Creativity, Culture and
programs 308
Education initiative (CCE)
physical environment 108–11
Commonwealth initiative 242 240
positive classroom learning
Communication 130 Critical approach 136, 174–5
environments 106–7
assumptions in 133 Critical enquiry 202–3
social–emotional environment
111–12 impact of digital age 133–4 Critical framing 176
Classroom behaviour in educational settings 133 Critical multicultural education
management 256 56
effective conflict-management
approaches to classroom skills 154–7 Critical reflection 31, 202–3
management 257–62
effective interpersonal 137–9 Critical thinking, communication,
guidelines for managing collaboration and creativity
effective interpersonal
learning environment 262–5 (Four Cs) 165
communication skills
Classroom culture 111 139–53 Cultural change 168–9
Index 339
Cultural competence 55 Diversity 43–4, 328 stakeholders 10

Cultural diversity 54–6 diverse pre-service teacher for sustainability 176–7
identities 14
Culture 54 teachers as learners 328–9
planning needs to consider
Curriculum 43 teaching as ethical profession
230–1
329
Curriculum decision making
of teaching profession 11–12
Educational change and school
critical approach 174–5
Dual socialisation 46 reform 166
implications for 171
Duty of care 36–7 Educational drama processes
process approach 172–4 96
Dynamic learning organisations
rational or ends-means 302–6 Educational practices 62
approach 171–2
Dyslexia 61 Educational settings,
Curriculum set 16–17 communication in 133–7
Cyberbullying 33–4, 163 Educational theorising 15
Early career teaching 214–15
Early Childhood Association Educative assessment 234
Data analysis 321 (ECA) 34 Educator planning 221–2.
Decision-making space 222. Early childhood 11, 77, 87, See also Assessment for
See also Curriculum decision 105, 134 learning; Planning for learning
making affecting factors 222–3
action learning 308
Deconstructing texts 10 external factors 223–4
centres and schools 10, 12, 87,
Deconstruction 10 104, 106–7, 169, 206, 224 internal factors 225
Democratic relationships 134 classroom 113 Educators 4, 25–6, 28–9, 37,
Department of Prime Minister implications for curriculum 47, 79–80, 88–9, 105, 108, 133,
and Cabinet (DPMC) 53 decision making 171–5 206, 225, 279, 302, 329
Design engaging learning photographs in 317 conduct management and
experiences 263–4 monitoring 264–5
Early Years Learning
Dialect 46 Framework (EYLF) 55, 86 difficult relationships with
266
Differential allocation of Ecological perspective 251
resources 17 educator-centred approaches
Economics 19 258
Digital inequality 168
Education 8, 18, 53, 241 establishing yourself as
Digital pedagogy 167 117–20
competent learner 327
Dilemmas of schooling 14–18 knowledge 86–7
dilemmas of schooling
Directionless approach. See 329–30 professional learning 105
Laissez-faire approach
human diversity in schools E-Emotions 211
Disciplines 19 327–8
Effective classroom
Discovery-based learning. providers 62 management strategies 156
See Inquiry-based learning
purposes 326–7 Effective communication 130,
Disinteresting learning 266 132
sexuality and 60–61
Displays 110
340 Index
Effective conflict-management code of ethics for teaching parent involvement and

skills 154 28–34 participation 283–7
paraphrase 155 duty of care 36–7 perceived tensions between
parents and educators 281–2
Restorative Justice 156–7 ethical decision making
35–6 pre-service educator 287–8
communication 137–9 legal issues 35 working with wider
community 294–6
listening skills 140–5 professional conduct in
education settings 37 Family–school partnerships
questioning 151–3
277
professional practice 26
skills 139
reasons to build 277–9
Ethics 25, 35, 329
speaking skills 145–51
Feedback 141, 212
Ethnicity 54
Effective learning framework,
Feminine 58
teaching for 91–2 Evaluation 309–10
Feminisation 58
Effectiveness 237–9 Evidence 304
Formal education 169–70
Effective questioning 151 Evidence-based portfolio 192
Formative assessment 240, 310
Efficiency 237–9 Evidence-based practice 304
Fortresses 281
Elaborated codes 46 Expectations 123
Functionality 45
E-learning 169 Expert learners 92
Funding 296
Electronic information and Extrinsic motivation 17
communication technologies Funds of knowledge 47
Eye contact 146
326
Emotions 198 Gender 57–8
Facial expressions 146
Empathic communicators 138 identity 59–60
Fair Go project 81
Empathy 137–8 Gestures 146
Families 29, 47
Empowerment 26 Globalisation 12
Family life 44
Empty Raincoat, The 163 Grouping for different purposes
children for school 44–5
Engagement and learning 87
process 80–2 differences impact on child’s
experience 45–6
Environmental change 168–9 Handbook of Classroom
funds of knowledge 47
Equal allocation of resources Management 251
17 responding to learners’
Harassment 36
differences 47–8
Equal justice under law 17 Hathaway Case Record 317
Family–school–community
Equity 26 partnerships 276–7 Help Increase the Peace
Essentialism 56 Program (HIPP) 270–1
case studies 289–93
Ethical behaviour 25–6 ‘Hidden’ curriculum 82
conflicts 288–9
Ethical dilemmas 31–2 Hierarchical simple-to-complex
diversity in families and
approach 172
Ethical practice 25–8 family structures 279–81
Index 341
‘Horizontal’ collaboration 295 Inquiry-based learning 173 Learner diversity

Human and Social Sciences In-service educators 221 Australian Aboriginal and
(HASS) 233 Torres Strait Islander
Intellectual and social capital
learners 51–4
Human diversity in schools 303
327–8 children and young people
Intellectual character 20–1
living in poverty and
Humanities disciplines 18–20
Intellectual quality 92 growing inequality 48–51
Intellectual skills 73 cultural diversity 54–6
Iconic teachers 3
Intellectual worker 43 diversity 43–4
Imagination 77
Intelligences 84–5 family life and funds of
Imaginative storying 45 knowledge 44–7
Intelligent learning
Inclusive schooling 62 organisations 302–6 learning difficulties and
Inclusivity 87 Interactions 112–13 disabilities 61–2
Indigenous Australians and Interactive approaches 258–61 sex, gender and sexuality
education 52–4 57–61
Intercultural Understanding 55
Indigenous languages, supporting gifted and talented
Interpersonal skills 139 learners 63
revitalising 94
Interviewing 315–16 Learner identity 120
Individual acquisition 76
Intrinsic motivation 17 Learners 17, 28–9, 43, 47, 108
Individual constructivists 76
Invisible children 115, 118 behaviour 84
Individual learner needs 267
‘Invisible’ curriculum 82 knowing 114–15
Inequality
IQ tests 63 knowledge 239
children and young people
living in 48 i-Wellbeing 211 management 251
disadvantage and educational perspectives 261–2
opportunity 49 Journal recollection 259–60 share yourself with your
living on edge 49–50 116–17
reinforcing disadvantage 50–1 Kinesics 145–6 teachers as 328–9
SES 48–9 Knowledge Learning 13, 16–17, 20, 69–70,
Information age 163 82–3
poverty 50 as content 16 arts as critical quality
pedagogy 96
processing model 73 funds of 47
behaviourist views of learning
Information and communication learner 239 process 71–2
technologies (ICT) 163
as process 16 BPEA 95
Information processing theory
72 centres 88
Laissez-faire approach 173, 258 clear expectations 86
Initiation–Response–Evaluation
or Feedback framework Language in learning process cognitive theories about
(I–R–E/F framework) 254 78–80 72–73
342 Index
constructivist theories about Learning communities 104–5,

74–75 251–2, 270 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs 80
from different pedagogies 195 productive and positive Maturational process 75
difficulties and disabilities 251–2 Meaning-making 70

61–62 Learning environment 104–6 Medicalisation 62
educator knowledge 86–87 building class cohesiveness Medical model 62
grouping for different 123–5
Melbourne Declaration 173
purposes 87 building positive self-esteem
Melbourne Declaration on
implications for 178–9 120–3
Educational Goals for Young
inclusivity 87 classroom as 106–13 Australians (MCEETYA) 277
investigating learning styles developing positive learning Memory 73

83–6 relationships 114
Mentor educator 193
language in learning process establishing yourself as ’the Middle school initiatives 95
78–80 educator’ 117–20
Middle years transition 181–2
learning centres 88 guidelines for managing
262–5 Mind maps 73, 320
major theoretical approaches
share yourself with your Ministerial Council on
to 71
learners 116–17 Education, Employment,
middle school initiatives 95 Training and Youth Affairs
Learning partnership 125 (MCEETYA) 26
motivation, engagement and
learning process 80–2 Learning stories 318 Miscommunications 137
multi-age classes 87 Lesbian, bisexual, Mixed methods 301
transgendered, queer
outside classroom 177–8 and inter-sexed people Motivation 80–2
peer mentoring 88 (LGBTQI people) 60 Multi-age classes 87
principles and exemplars for Lesson planning 243–4 programming for 27–8
86
starting 245–6 Multi-age investigations 90
quality teaching models 92–4
Writing program 244–5 Multi-age learning 231
Reggio Emilia approach
Life At (television series) 46 Multiliteracies 175–6
89–90
Linguistic capital 79 Multimodal 175
relational pedagogy 96
Listening skills 140. See also Multiple intelligences 84
revitalising indigenous
Speaking skills
languages 94 My Kitchen Rules (television
active listening skills 141–5 program) 12
shared decision making 89
attending skills 140–1 ‘My Minx’ 167
as social, collaborative process
76–8 Literacy 176
teaching for effective learning Lizzeth’s story 305 National Assessment Program
framework 91–2 of Literacy and Numeracy
Longitudinal Study of (NAPLAN) 164, 235–6, 243
teams 106 Australian Children (LSAC)
46 diagnostic tests 84
visible thinking 96–7
Index 343
National Quality Standard Integration possibilities 233

192 Paralanguage 145, 147–9
lesson planning 243–6
Naturalness of language Paraphrasing 142–3
needs to consider diversity
learning 79 Parent–educator relationships 230–1
Net Generation (N-generation) 281
negotiation 232–3
166 Parent involvement 283–7
preparation balanced with
Networks of learning 169 Parent participation 283–7 flexibility 226–9
Neural networks 73 Parents 29, 241, 253, 279, 282 principles 226
Neuroscience 73 responding to 242
reporting to families 241–3
New South Wales Department Participation 111
of Education and Training Positive classroom learning
Participatory interpretation environments 106–7
254–5
312–12
New South Wales Eco Schools Positive learning environment
Passive listening skills 141, 144 107, 251–2
Grants 296
Pedagogy 12 case studies 252–3
New South Wales Quality
Teaching Framework Peer mentoring 88, 209 challenging classroom
(NSW DET) 314 behaviour management
Perceived tensions between
Non-English speaking parents and educators 281–2 269–71
background children classroom behaviour
Person-centred approaches
(NESB children) 63 management 256–68
257–8
Non-verbal behaviours 145 classroom interaction
Personal constructivists 75
kinesics 145–6 management 253–6
Personality shields 115
paralanguage 147–9 Positive relationships 263
Personal knowledge 16
Non-verbal communication Positive self-esteem, building
Personal protective factors 211 120–3
145
Physical disability 61 Postmodern places, schools as
Normalisation 59
Piaget, Jean 75 12
Novak Foundation 301
theory of learning 75 Poverty
Planning for evaluation 309–10 children and young people
Observation 313–15
living in 48
Planning for learning 226.
Online learning 170
See also Assessment for disadvantage and educational
Open Classroom Reader, learning; Educator planning opportunity 49
The (Silberman) 301
analysis of achievements and living on edge 49–50
Open mindedness 202 future needs 232
reinforcing disadvantage
Operant conditioning 71 for assessment 234 50–1
Organisation for Economic attention to detail and SES 48–9
Cooperation and resources 233–4
Development (OECD) 107 Power 26
based on current knowledge
Overt instruction 176 Practice-changing practice 307
229–30
344 Index
Practitioner inquiry 301, 306 Primary educators 225 Professional practice

action learning 308–9 Procedural approach. communities of 301–2
See Process approach
avoiding harm 311 inquiring through action
Process approach 172–4 research 307–8
being explicit 311
Process of Education, Programming 221
collecting stories 318–19
The (Bruner) 76
Project for Enhancing Effective
communities of professional
Productive Pedagogies 92–3, Learning (PEEL) 90
practice 301–2
173
Project Zero 20
data analysis 321
Professional conduct in
Proxemics 145, 146
dynamic learning education settings 37
organisations 302–6 Professional dialogue 209 Public knowledge 16
gathering evidence 311 Professional ethics 25
illustrations and written Quality evidence 214
Professional experiences 192
artefacts 319–21 Quality pedagogy 95
asking for feedback 212
importance 308 Quality teaching 93
attitude analysis towards
inquiring into professional learning 198–201 models 92–3
practice through action
research 307–8 celebrating successes 213 Quality Teaching Framework
173
Intelligent learning cultivating collaborative work
organisations 302–6 practices 208–10 Quality Teaching Rounds 93
interviewing 315–16 early career teaching 214–15 Queensland School Reform

maximising learning in 198 Longitudinal Study (QSRLS)
observation 313–15 92–3
participatory interpretation maximising value of
experiences 213–14 Questioning 151
312–21
monitoring and regulating assertive behaviour 152–3
planning for evaluation
through centre/school-based energy and stress levels 213 closed questions 151–2
inquiry 309–10 opportunities and challenges
recording 316–17 for pre-service educator Rational approach 136
learning 193–8
visual records 317–18 Rational or ends-means
reflection on learning 201–5 approach 171–2
Pre-service/early career
educators 288–9 setting realistic goals 212
Reading 13
support network 213
Pre-service educators 180, 200, Receiver 130–1
221, 223, 287–8 teacher resilience 210–12
Recording 316–17
feelings 197 time management and
Reflection on learning 201–5
organising 212–13
opportunities and challenges
Reflective journal 320
for learning 193–8 understand context 205–8
Reflective listening 80
Pre-service teacher learning 192 Professional learning 191, 193
Reflective practitioner 30
Pre-testing 236–8 Professional misconduct 37
Index 345
Reflexive process 31 School as place 164–6 Self-efficacy 81, 225

Reflexivity 30 School as text 9 Self-esteem 120
Reforming Educational becoming critical 10–11 Sender 130
Assessment: Imperatives,
deconstructing texts 10 Sensitivity 60
principles and challenges 230
diversity of teaching Sensory disability 61
Reggio Emilia approach 89–90
profession 11–12
Sex 57–8
Register 46
education stakeholders 10
role theory 57
Reinforcement 72
globalisation 12
reinforcing disadvantage 50–51 sex and gender issues in
schools as postmodern education 58–9
Relational pedagogy 96 places 12
Sexuality and education 60–61
Relational power 114 wellbeing and learning 13
Shared decision making 89
Relational trust 114 School–community
Situated practice 76, 176
Relationships in education relationships 281
135–7 Skills-first approach 171
Schooling
Repertoire of practices 47 Skin that We Speak, The (Delpit
applying Berlak dilemmas
and Dowdy) 254
Reporting to families 241–3 15–18
Social change 168–9
Residual schools 51 cultural change 168–9
Social constructivist approach
Responding 143 curriculum decision making
76
171–5
Responsibility 202 Social–emotional environment
dilemmas of 14–15, 329–30
Restorative Justice 156–7 111–12
education for sustainability
Restricted code 45 Socialisation 178
176–7
Rights of child 25 Social learning theory 72
environmental change 168–9
R-Relationships 211 Social media 20
formal education 169–70
Social sciences 18–20
implications for teaching and
Safe School’s program 61 learning 178–9 Societal set 17–18
Scaffolding for industrial age 164–6 Society 30
analogy 78 learning outside classroom Sociocultural-historical
metaphor 77 177–8 approach 76
Schema 72 multiliteracies 175–6 Sociocultural theories 81

School social change 168–9 Sociodemographic features 280
attendance 53 technological changes 166–8 Sociodemographic influences
280–1
choice policies 51 transitions 179–82
Socioeconomic status (SES)
climate 105 Self-actualisation 80
48–9, 280
human diversity in 327–8 Self-concept 120
South Australia’s Teaching for
play 104 Self-disclosure 116–17 Effective Learning 314
346 Index
Speaking skills 145. See also as reflective practitioner 201 Teaching for Effective Learning
Listening skills (TfEL) 91–2
as researcher 201
non-verbal behaviours 145–9 Teacher Effectiveness Training Team teaching 106
thinking about speaking System (Gordon) 258 Technological changes 166–8
150–1 Teacher–learner relationships Technology 20
Steering Committee for the 136
Text, school as 9–13
Review of Government Teacher professional identity
Service Provision (SCRGSP) 194 Theorising 15
52
Teacher resilience 210–12 Traditional banking model of
Storying 44 education 5
Teaching 3–7, 194–5, 213, 243
Student engagement 107 Traditional hierarchical model
bullying and cyberbullying of working 134
Student wellbeing 107 33–4
Traditional sender–receiver
Subgroup consciousness 17 career educators 7–8 model of communication
Summative assessment 310 code of ethics for 28 131
Summative evaluation 310 colleagues 29 Transformed practice 176
Supporting gifted and talented community and society 30 Transitions 179–80
learners 63
contributions of social beginning school 180–1
Supportive classroom sciences and humanities
environments 93 middle years 181–2
disciplines 18–20
Supportive engagement 265 Transmission model of
dilemmas of schooling 14–18
schooling 5
Support network 213 diverse pre-service teacher
T-Taking initiative 211
Sustainability, education for identities 14
176–7 Twenty-first century skills.
ethical dilemmas 31–2
See Critical thinking,
Systemic Implications of as ethical profession 329 communication, collaboration
Pedagogy and Achievement and creativity (Four Cs)
implications for 178–9
(SIPA) 93
learners and educators 28–9
Verbal communication 145
Teacher(s) 3–4, 11 learning to reflective
practitioner 30–1 ‘Vertical’ collaboration 296
diverse pre-service teacher
identities 14 new teaching for new times Visible thinking 96–7
20–1
education 20, 193 Visual literacy 175
parents, caregivers and
as inquirer 201 Visual records 317–18
families 29
as learner 201 Vocal cues 147
practice 193
as learners 328–9 Vygotsky, Lev 76
profession 282
modelling 125 school as text 9–13
professional learning 191 Wealth inequality 48
school buildings 8
as professionals 30 Wellbeing 13, 107
teachers as professionals 30
Index 347
Wholeheartedness 202 Working

Young people living in poverty
Win–lose dynamic within boundaries 195–6 and growing inequality 48–51
communication 138
with wider community 294–6 Youth Online (Thomas) 167
‘Win–win’ communication 138
Writing program 244–5
Woorabinda community 283
Written artefacts 319–21 Zone of proximal development
(ZPD) 77–8
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1 So, you want to be a teacher! Working in a changing context 2

PART 2 UNDERSTANDING LEARNING 41

3 Understanding learner diversity 42

PART 3 THE EFFECTIVE TEACHER 189

8 Teacher as co-learner 190

ABOUT THE AUTHORS xix

PART 1 CHALLENGES AND DILEMMAS OF TEACHING 1

Contributions of the social sciences and Legal issues 35

New teaching for new times 20 Professional conduct in education settings 37

PART 2 UNDERSTANDING LEARNING 41

CHAPTER 3 Using funds of knowledge 47

Australian Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Multi-age classes 87

PART 3 THE EFFECTIVE TEACHER 189

CHAPTER 8 4 Cultivate collaborative work practices 208

How to maximise your learning in professional Following through 216

CHAPTER 9 Guidelines for managing the learning

Lesson planning 243 As a pre-service educator, what can I do? 287

Inquiring into professional practice through CHAPTER 

References 323 INDEX 337

Guide to the text

PART OPENING FEATURES

Each learner brings a unique personality, together with a wealth of

BK-CLA-EWING_6E-190044-Chp03.indd 41 27/07/19 12:47 PM

FEATURES WITHIN CHAPTERS

See the teaching experience through the eyes

of a student with chapter opening student

When children imagine what

BK-CLA-EWING_6E-190044-Chp01.indd 2 20/05/19 2:14 PM

Capti ve i n t h e cl a s s ro o m Case study

FEATURES WITHIN CHAPTERS

END-OF-CHAPTER FEATURES capacities

BK-CLA-EWING_6E-190044-Chp02.indd 38 18/05/19 4:40 PM

http://www.qct.edu.au/standards-and-conduct/code-of-ethics Ethics code from the Queensland College

Guide to the online resources

Cengage is pleased to provide you with a selection of resources

ARTWORK FROM THE TEXT

FOR THE STUDENT

MINDTAP FOR TEACHING: DILEMMAS, CHALLENGES AND

HOW THIS BOOK IS ORGANISED

About the authors

DR LISA KERVIN, PROFESSOR IN LANGUAGE AND LITERACY, FACULTY OF SOCIAL

DR CHRIS GLASS, HONORARY RESEARCH FELLOW, SCHOOL OF EDUCATION,

DR BRAD GOBBY, SENIOR LECTURER, SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, CURTIN UNIVERSITY

DR SUSAN GROUNDWATER-SMITH AM, HONORARY PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION,

DR ROSIE LE CORNU, ADJUNCT ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR, SCHOOL OF EDUCATION,

Good teaching, done well, is challenging but rewarding intellectual,

When children imagine what

C ongratulations on your decision to teach! You are beginning an important journey,

Old and new:

The school as text

Alamy Stock Photo/Greatstock Photographic Library

What can you

Breaking apart the binaries

Considering education stakeholders

The diversity of the teaching profession

Wellbeing and learning

Case study Divers e p re - s e r v ice tea ch e r i d e n t i t i e s

Applying the Berlak dilemmas

Contributions of the social