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Module 1: INTRODUCTION

Science - a vast collection of knowledge and, like other fields has its own sub-branches.

Biology - the science of life, the study of life. The word comes from the Greek word bios meaning life
and logos which means the study of life. Biology is concerned with the unity in all forms of life.

SUB SPECIALIZATION

 Agriculture – science and practice of producing crops and livestock from the natural resources
of the earth.
 Anatomy – study of the animal form, particularly human body.
 Astrobiology – branch of biology concerned with the effects of outer space on living organisms
and the search for extra-terrestrial life.
 Biochemistry – the study of the structure and function of cellular components, such as proteins,
carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, and other bio molecules, and of their functions and
transformations during life.
 Botany – the scientific study of plants.
 Cell biology – the study of cells at the microscopic or at the molecular level. It includes studying
the cells’ physiological properties, structures, organelles, interactions with the environment, life
cycle, division, and apoptosis.
 Biophysics – an interdisciplinary science that applies the theories and methods of physical
sciences to questions of biology.
 Biotechnology – applied science that is concerned with biological systems, living organisms, or
derivatives thereof, to make or modify products or processes for specific use.
 Ecology – the scientific study of the relationships between plants, animals, and their
environment.
 Entomology – the scientific study of insects.
 Evolution – concerned with the origin and descent species, as well as their change over time.
 Genetics – a science that deals with heredity, especially the mechanisms of hereditary
transmission and inherited characteristics among similar or related organisms.
 Immunobiology – study of the structure and function of the immune system, innate and
acquired immunity, the bodily distinction of self from non-self, and laboratory techniques
involving the interaction of antigens with specific antibodies.
 Neurobiology – branch of biology that deals with the anatomy and physiology and pathology of
the nervous system.
 Paleobiology – study of the forms of life existing in prehistoric or geologic times, as represented
by the fossils of plants, animals, and other organisms.
 Parasitology – study of parasites and parasitism.
 Pathology – study of nature of disease and its causes, processes, development, and
consequences.
 Medicine – the science which relates to the prevention, cure, or alleviation of disease.
 Microbiology – the branch of biology that deals with microorganisms and their effects on other
living organisms.
 Molecular Biology – the branch of biology that deals with the formation, structure, and function
of macromolecules essential of life, such as nucleic acids and proteins, their role in the cell
replication and the transmission of genetic information.
 Mycology – study of fungi.
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 Pharmacology – the study of preparation and use of drugs and synthetic medicines.
 Physiology – the biological study of the functions of living organisms and their parts.
 Psychobiology – the study of mental functioning and behaviour in relation to other biological
processes.
 Ichthyology – study of fishes.
 Herpetology – study of reptiles and amphibians.
 Ornithology – study of birds.
 Mammalogy – study of mammals.
 Toxicology – study of how natural or man-made poisons cause undesirable effects in living
organisms.
 Virology – study of viruses.
 Zoology – branch of biology that deals with animal life, including the study of the structure,
physiology, development and classification of animals.

MICROSCOPE - It is the most useful tool in dealing with microscopic creatures. It is the fundamental
equipment in biology. It has different powers of lens to see organisms and samples more closely.

Structural Components of a Microscope

 Head/body – Houses the optical parts in the upper part of the microscope.
 Base – Supports the microscope and houses the illuminator.
 Arm – Connects to the base and supports the microscope head.

Optical Components of a Microscope; There are two optical systems in a compound microscope:

 Eyepiece Lenses – u look through

 Objective Lenses - grado

 Nosepiece - It houses the objectives.

 Coarse and Fine Focus knobs - They are used to focus the microscope.
 Stage - It is where the specimen to be viewed is placed.
 Stage Clips - They are used when there is no mechanical stage. The viewer is required to move
the slide manually to view different sections of the specimen.
 Aperture - It is the hole in the stage through which the base transmits light reaches the stage.
 Illuminator - It is the light source for a microscope, located in the base of the microscope.
located within the base.
 Condenser - It is used to collect and focus the light from the illuminator on to the specimen. It is
located under the stage often in conjunction with an iris diaphragm.
 Iris Diaphragm - It controls the amount of light reaching the specimen. It is located above the
condenser and below the stage.  Condenser Focus Knob moves the condenser up or down to
control the lighting focus.
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7 CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING THINGS

1. Complex Organization - Living things have a level of complexity and organization not found in
lifeless objects. At its most fundamental level, a living thing is composed of one or more cells.
2. Metabolism - Living things exhibit a rapid turnover of chemical materials, involves exchanges of
chemical matter with the external environment and extensive transformations of organic matter
within the cells of a living organism.
3. Responsiveness - All living things are able to respond to stimuli in the externalenvironment. For
example, living things respond to changes inlight, heat, sound, and chemical and mechanical
contact. To detect stimuli, organisms have means for receiving information, such as eyes, ears,
and taste buds.
4. Growth - a living organism transforms material that is unlike itself into materials that are like it.
A person, for example, digests a meal of meat and vegetables and transforms the chemical
material into more of himself or herself. A non-living organism does not display this
characteristic.
5. Reproduction - A living thing has the ability to produce copies of itself.
6. Evolution - Living organisms have the ability to adapt to their environment.
7. Ecology - The environment influences the living things that it surrounds. The the study of
relationships between organisms and their relationships with their environment. Study of
relationships between organisms and their relationships with their environment.

MODULE 2 12 general CELL FUNCTION

Nutrition - The obtaining of food particles be cell in their environment to support all the cell processes.

Digestion - Synthesizing of cells of complex particles of food to be broken down into smaller particles
and making these food particles soluble for cell use.

Absorption - It is also the movement of fluids and its dissolved materials throughout the body of an
organism or within a single cell.

Synthesis - Cells synthesizes many organic substances for growth and regulations of all their chemical
activities. It involves those biochemical processes in cells by which small molecules are built into larger
ones.

Respiration - When certain organic molecules are degraded, chemical energy are being released, and
this energy is essential in maintaining life. Cellular respiration is a combination of processes that release
energy from glucose (sugar).

Excretion - Waste materials that are formed by byproducts of cell activities and are soluble substances
pass from the cell to its environment.

Egestion - Insoluble, non-digested particles are eliminated by a cell.

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Secretion - Certain cells synthesize molecules that are discharged from the cell. These secretions include
vitamins and hormones.

Movement - These movements involve flowing of cell content, locomotion of cells by meansof special
structures, cellular contractions and the like.

Response - Physical factors in the environment can make the organisms to respond such as heat, light
and physical contact with other living things and non-living things. This response is called irritability.

Growth - It is the increase in cell size that shows the product of cellular processes.

Reproduction - A cell has the capability to divide and reproduce sexually and asexually. The result of this
reproduction is the increase of the organism in number.

PARTS OF AN ANIMAL CELL

1. Cell membrane - is a semi-permeable membrane that forms the outer covering of the cell. It is made
up of phospholipids which has polar heads and non-polar tails.

2. Cytoplasm - is a gel-like composition where all the other organelles are suspended inside the cell. It
maintains the pressure of the cell which ensure the cell doesn’t shrink or burst.

3. Nucleus - contains the hereditary material DNA and directs the activities of the cell. It is surrounded
by a porous membrane called nuclear membrane.

4. Nucleolus - is a round body found inside the nucleus which helps in the synthesis of ribosomes. It is
not surrounded by a membrane but sits in the nucleus. The nucleolus makes ribosomal subunits from
proteins and ribosomal RNA, also known as rRNA.

5. Centrioles -organized the microtubules assembly during cell division.

6. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) - is a network of membranes composed of rough and smooth

endoplasmic reticulum. It transport molecules that needed certain changes and also molecules to their
destination.

7. Golgi complex (apparatus) or Golgi bodies - is responsible for storing, packaging of cellular products.

8. Lysosomes - are enzymes sacs that digest cellular wastes. It serves as the digestive system of the cell
and also help in detoxification of the cell.

9. Peroxisome - is a small organelle present in the cytoplasm of many cells, which contains the
reducing enzyme catalase and usually some oxidases.

10. Microtubules - are hollow rods that support and shape the cell.

11. Mitochondrion - is a spherical or rod-shaped organelle that serves as the power house of the cell as
it produces Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) for cellular consumption.
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12. Ribosomes - are made of Ribonucleic acid (RNA) and proteins which serves for protein synthesis. It is
suspended in the cytoplasm and also attached to the ER. The most abundant among the organelles.

THE CELLULAR TRANSPORT - is the movement of substance into and out of the cell. It can be either
active or passive.

PASSIVE TRANSPORT - It is the movement of molecules down a concentration gradient from a region of
higher to a lower concentration until equilibrium is reached. Higher to lower

1. Diffusion - occurs when organisms need to move molecules from an area where they are highly
concentrated to an area where the molecules are less concentrated. There are two types of diffusion:

 Simple diffusion - is the tendency of materials to move randomly from areas where they are
highly concentrated to areas of lower concentration, until they are evenly distributed in a state
of dynamic equilibrium.
 Facilitated diffusion -is a process by which molecules and ions are transported from one location
to another with the aid of some intermediary, such as a protein. This process is done by binding
of the molecules with a carrier protein in the plasma membrane to be transported from an area
of higher concentration to area of lower concentration.

2. Osmosis - water molecules diffusing across a membrane. It is the diffusion of water through a
selective (semi) permeable membrane from a region of greater concentration to a region of lesser
concentration. Water movement higher to lower

 Isotonic solutions- have concentrations of substances (solutes) and water (solvent) on both sides
of the membrane are equal.
 Hypotonic solutions- have a lower concentration of substance (and more water) in it when
associated to another solution.
 Hypertonic solutions- have a higher concentration of substance in it (and less water) when
compared to another solution.

3. Filtration is the last form of passive transport used most often in the capillaries. It is the movement of
water and solute molecules across the cell membrane due to hydrostatic pressure generated by the
cardiovascular system. Capillary membrane acts as filter paper, permitting fluid to surround the body’s
cells and keeping large molecules from getting into the tissue fluids.

ACTIVE TRANSPORT - It is the movement of particles from an area of low concentration to an area of
high concentration that uses energy provided by ATP or a difference in electrical charges across a cell
membrane. It often requires the use of pumps that use energy (ATP) to move molecules against their
concentration gradients. The following are the examples of active transport: Lower to higher

1. Sodium-potassium pump- is when specific membrane proteins use energy, usually in the form of ATP,
to do the work of active transport. It pumps sodium and potassium ions across a nerve cell membrane
to return the nurse to its resting state.
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2. Exocytosis - is the transport vesicles migrate to the plasma membrane, fuse with it and release their
contents. Examples are wherein nerve cells occurs as vesicles release neurotransmitters into a synapse.

3. Endocytosis -happens when molecules enter cells within vesicles that pinch inwards from the plasma
membrane. It is the process where the cell engulfs extracellular fluid (ECF) including materials dissolved
or suspended in it. A portion of a plasma membrane is invigilated and pinch off forming a membrane-
bounded vesicle called endosome.

There are 3 types of endocytosis:

Phagocytosis- the taking in large molecules by the cell or cell eating.

Pinocytosis- otherwise known as cell drinking, is a process where small droplets of extracellular fluids is
being taken up by the cell.

Receptor-mediated endocytosis enables the cell to take up large quantities of very specific substance.
Receptor in the plasma membrane are being recognized by the extracellular molecules and binds with it
in order for them to penetrate the cell.

MODULE 3

Cell Division- Necessary in reproduction, growth, and repair. Process of splitting a single cell into new
cells. Crucial role for organisms to reproduce and continue life. Involves the distribution of genetic
information from parent cell to daughter cell.

Chromosomes - Structures that contain genetic information. Made up of DNA and proteins that carry
genetic information. Long DNA molecules with part or all of the genetic material of an organism. 23 pairs
(22 pairs – Somatic cells , 1 pair – Gametes cells)

Cell cycle - The preliminary activity prior to the Cell Division. It culminates in cell growth and division into
2 daughter cells.

INTERPHASE - Cell grows into its mature size, makes a copy of its DNA, and prepares for division.

G1 - Cell doubles in size. Cell produces all of the structures it needs to carry out its functions

S Phase - Cell makes a copy of its DNA (replication)

G2 – Preparation - Cell prepares to divide. Cell produces structures needed for cell division

MITOSIS - One copy of the DNA is distributed into each of its daughter cells. 2 daughter cells

Prophase - Chromosomes condense and are more visible. The nuclear membrane (envelope) disappears.
Centrioles have separated and taken positions on the opposite poles of the cell. Spindle fibers form and
radiate toward the center of the cell.
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Metaphase - Chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell. Spindle fibers connect the centromere of
each sister chromatid to the poles of the cell.

ANAPHASE - Centromeres that join the sister chromatids split. Sister chromatids separate becoming
individual chromosomes. Separated chromatids move to opposite poles of the cell.

Telophase - Chromosomes condense and are more visible. The nuclear membrane (envelope)
disappears. Centrioles have separated and taken positions on the opposite poles of the cell. Spindle
fibers form and radiate toward the center of the cell.

Cytokinesis - is the division of the cytoplasm and the other parts of the cell. Results in two separate
daughter cells with identical nuclei.

Meiosis - type of cell division that results in the formation of four daughter cells each with half the
number of chromosomes as the parent cell. Takes place only in areas where gametes (sex cells) are
produced. Cell undergoes 2 round of cell division: MEIOSIS I & MEIOSIS II

1882 - British cytologist Pierre-Joseph Van Beneden found different numbers of chromosomes in

different cells also proposed that an egg and a sperm fuse to produce a zygote.

Fertilization - is known as the fusion of gametes

Zygote – result of fusion of the gamete cells

Gametes (sperm and egg) are haploid (n) – contain half the number of chromosomes compared to
somatic cells (non-reproductive cells).

Somatic cells are diploid (2n)

Humans have 46 chromosomes in their somatic cells.

Meiosis 1 - Preceded by Interphase- chromosomes are replicated to form sister chromatids, Single
centrosome replicates, forming 2 centrosomes. Resulting 2 haploid cells

Meiosis 2 - Last phase in Meiosis and has the same process in the Meiosis I. Resulting to 4 daughter cells.

MODULE 4: Histology

Tissue - It is a group of similar cells that usually has a common embryonic origin and is specialized for a
particular function.

Histology - Study of tissues that provides valuable information on the functional morphology of man and
animals.
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Animal Tissue: EPITHELIAL, NERVOUS, CONNECTIVE, MUSCLE

Epithelial Tissue - It forms the covering or lining of body surfaces, both internal and external.

Functions of the Epithelial Tissues

1. Protection - The skin protects underlying tissue from mechanical injury, harmful chemicals,
invading bacteria and from excessive loss of water.
2. Sensation - Sensory stimuli penetrate specialized epithelial cells and sensory nerve endings are
found in the skin, eyes, ears, nose and tongue.
3. Secretion - Epithelial tissue is specialized to secrete specific chemical substances such as
enzymes, hormones, and lubricating fluids.
4. Absorption - Lining in the small intestine absorb nutrients from the digestion of food.
5. Excretion - It happens in the kidney where waste products from the body are excreted and
needed materials from the urine are reabsorbed.
6. Diffusion - Epithelial tissues promote the diffusion of gases, liquids, and nutrients.
7. Cleaning - Ciliated epithelium assists in removing dust particles and foreign bodies which have
entered the air passages.
8. Reduces friction - In the circulatory system, smooth, tightly – interlocking cells reduce friction
between the walls of the blood vessels and the blood.

Classification of Simple Epithelium Tissues

 Squamous tissues - Thin and Flat Plates. It tends to have horizontal flat ended, elliptical nuclei
because of the thin flattened form of the cell. The lining of cavities such as the mouth, blood
vessels, heart and lungs form part of these tissues.
 Simple cuboidal tissues - Roughly square or cuboidal in shape and each cell has a spherical
nucleus in the center. It is found in glands and in the lining of kidney tubules. Present in
reproductive organs.
 Simple columnar tissues - It contains fine hair-like outgrowths called cilia. Cilia have rapid,
rhythmic, wavelike beatings in a certain direction. It can be found in the air passages – nose,
uterus, fallopian tubes. The movement of the cilia drive the ovum to the uterus.
 Glandular epithelium - It is a columnar epithelium tissues with goblets. Columnar and cuboidal
epithelial cells often become specialized as gland cells which are capable of synthesizing and
secreting certain substance such as enzymes, hormones, milk, mucus, sweat, wax and saliva.

Connective tissue - It hold parts of the different parts of the body and primarily to support the body and
to bind or connect together all types of tissue. It has 5 types; loose, dense, cartilage, bone, and blood
and lymph.

Loose connective tissue

- Areolar; Connects and surrounds different organs of the human body.

- Adipose; Storage reservoirs that store fat globules. Insulator
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- Reticular; Reticular fibres that supports the bone marrow, liver, and lymphoid organs
(spleen,lymph nodes, tonsils)

Dense connective tissue

- Dense regular; To connect different organs and muscles. This connective tissuesare highly
resistant to the load however they do possess the required flexibility.
- Dense irregular; It provides strength, making the skin resistant to tearing by stretching forces
from different directions.

Cartilage

- Hyaline; Smooth movement of the joints.

- Fibrocartilage; provides the tough material of the intervertebral discs. Etc.
- Elastic; to allow tissues in your body to stretch out and shrink back.

Bone

- Compact dense; provide strength and protection to bones.

- Spongy; It provides balance to the dense and heavy compact bone by making bones lighter so
that muscles can move them more easily.

Blood and lymph (Vascular Tissue)

- Blood; transporting oxygen and nutrients to the lungs and tissues.

- Lymph; It maintains fluid levels in our body tissues by removing all fluids that leak out of our
blood vessels.

Muscle tissue

- It has an ability to relax and contrast that bring about movement and mechanical work in
various parts of the body.

Types of Muscle Tissues

Smooth muscle tissues - It is made up of thin-elongated muscle cells, fibers characterized by pointed
ends and each has a single, large, oval nucleus. It has involuntary tissues, and function; contraction and
regulation.

Skeletal muscle tissues - It is the most abundant tissue.

Epimysium – enclosed sheath of connective tissues in the biceps.

Fasciculi – large number of smaller bundles of fibers which are elongated and cylindrical muscle cells.

Syncytium – cells that have many nuclei which are oval and found at the periphery of the cell.
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Sarcolemma – thin, elastic membrane.

Cardiac muscle tissue - It is the tissue found only in the parts of the heart. The fibers have cross-
striations and contain numerous nuclei and it is involuntary. It plays an important role in the
contraction of the atria and ventricles of the heart.

Plant tissue

Permanent tissue – Plant tissues that is composed of mature, differentiated cells, and they do not have
the capability to divide.

SIMPLE TISSUE

Epidermis - outermost layer of plants in its cellular structure that covers the roots, stem, leaves, flowers,
and fruits.

Cutin - waxy, waterproof cuticle component of the outer walls.

Stomata - epidermal cell in the leaves of plants.

Parenchyma - It is the most common plant tissue. It’s most important function is to store food and
water, and allow gaseous exchange.

Colllenchyma - It is found under the epidermis in young stems in the large veins of leaves and composed
of living, elongated cells running analogous to the size of organs that it is found in. It is for supporting
and strengthening the tissue, and for photosynthesis.

Sclerenchyma - It is the tissue that is generally dead but below it is secondary walls thickened by
cellulose and sometimes impregnated with lignin, making it an elastic tissue.
Two Types:
❑ SCLEREIDS – Irregularly shaped
❑ FIBERS – needle-shaped tips and thick walls.

COMPLEX TISSUE

Xylem - It is a vascular tissue that transport water and dissolved substances upward all throughout the
plant body. It serves in the conduction of water and minerals.

Phloem - It serves in the conduction of sugars, to move materials both up and down in plants especially
organic materials such as amino acids and carbohydrates.

MODULE 5: ANATOMY

Anatomy - It is the study of structures or body parts and their relationship to one another.

Physiology - It is the study of the function of the body and its parts.

Directional Terms - It is used to describe the relative position of a body part.

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Anterior - At or near the front of the body (front view)

Posterior - At or near the back of the body (back view)

Midline - An imaginary vertical line that divides the body equally (right down the middle)

Superior - Toward the head/ upper part of a structure (bird’s eye view, looking down)

Inferior - Away from the head/ lower part of a structure (bottom view, looking up)

Superficial - Close to the surface of the body

Deep - Away from the surface of the body

Proximal - Nearer to the origination of a structure

Distal - Farther from the origination of a structure

Lateral - Toward the side; away from the mid sagittal plane

Medial - Toward the mid sagittal plane; away from the side.

Dorsal - Along (or toward) the vertebral surface of the body

Ventral - Along (toward) the belly surface of the body

Caudal - Toward the tail

Cephalad - Toward the head

Visceral - Toward an internal organ; away from the outer wall

Parietal - Toward the wall; away from the internal structures

Medullary - Refers to an inner region, or medulla

Cortical - Refers to an outer region, or cortex

MODULE 6: INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

The name stem from the Latin verb integer, which means “to cover”. The relevant Greek and Latin
rootsinclude dermato and cutis, both of which mean “skin”.

Skin - the largest organ of the body. This organ, in average person, is about 17 to 20 sq feet of surface
area and about 15% of the body’s weight.

Function
Protection - most important function of the skin, Protects the body by acting as barriers to
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microorganisms, water and excessive sunlight infection and injury. against dehydration and water
absorption.

Temperature - Regulates body temperature through heat loss from dilated vessels, evaporation from

perspiration, and retention from constricted vessels.

Metabolism - Performs metabolic functions as in the synthesis of melanin, keratin and vitamin D;
protects against ultraviolet radiation.

Excretion - Contains organs like the sweat glands responsible for the excretion of nitrogenous wastes;
and other waste products from the body.

Sensation - Serves the cutaneous sensation through its sensory receptors that respond to heat,
cold,pressure, touch, vibration and pain.

Layers of the skin: The skin consists of two primary parts: the epidermis and the dermis.

Epidermis: It is the outer layer of skin. It lacks blood vessels because it is composed entirely of stratified
squamous epitheliums. The thickness of the epidermis varies in different types of skin. It is the thinnest
on the eyelids at .05mm and thickest on the palms and soles at 1.5mm and between 30-50 cells layers
thick.

Four Cell Types in the Epidermis:

Keratinocytes - It produces keratin and has a waterproof material. Keratin is a toughfibrous protein and
is the basic structure of human hair and nails.

Melanocytes - It produces melanin pigmentation.

Langerhans Cells - It serves as macrophages-garbage patrol cells.

Merkel Cells - It serves as photo receptors.

Five Layers of the Epidermis:

Stratum Corneum - It is the outermost layer, composed of 20-30 layers keratinized dead and flattened
cells.

Stratum Lucidum - It lies below stratum corneum, composed of lucid and thin layer of cells found in
palms of the hand and soles of the feet.

Stratum Granulosum - It is found just below the stratum lucidum, composed of granular cells that
contain keratin and deformed nuclei.

Stratum Spinosum - It has several layers thick, with cells having dark and spiny projections.
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Stratum Basale - It is the deepest layer of the epidermis; consist of a layer of actively dividing cells and
the keratinocytes, melanocytes, and merkel cells which are present in this layer.

Dermis - It is also known as Corium. It is located beneath the epidermis. It is a thicker, fibrous structure.
A layer of tissue supporting the skin, and is made up of 80%water, elastic, and collagen fibers. It also
contains blood vessels, glands, nerves and hair follicles. Helps regulate body temperature,

Fibroblast - main cells in the dermis

The Glands of the Integumentary System

Sweat glands - These are gland that secretes liquid waste materials through pores in the skin
Eccrine glands are coiled ducts from the bottom of the skin that connect to the surface. Found
everywhere on the skin
Apocrine glands are found in the armpits, areolae of nipples and the genital region.

Ceruminous glands - These are modified apocrine glands in the external ear canal lining; it secretes
cerumen or earwax, a sticky substance that functions to repel foreign material.

Sebaceous glands - These are also known as Oil Glands and can be found all over the body except in the
palms and soles of the feet. It secretes sebum (mixture of waxes, fats, and hydrocarbons) via ducts in
the bases of the hair follicles.

Diseases related to Integumentary Organs

Burn - caused by fire or by contact of the skin with a hot surface or overexposure to uv lights.

Psoariasis - It is a chronic skin disease in which cells in the epidermis divides seven times more
frequently than normal. Through the accumulation of excess cells, it forms bright red patches covered
with silvery scales, which are keratinized cells.

Skin cancer - It is the result of excessive cell division by cells that have lost control of the process.

Warts - These are small skin tumours that have a normal skin color. They are caused by a virus infection
that stimulates excessive growth of epithelial cells.

Acne - It occurs most frequently during adolescence. This condition results from more than fivefold
increase in sebum secretion between ages of 10 to 19. The over secretion of sebum results in the
blockage of the sebaceous gland duct with sebum, skin cells, and bacteria.

Scabies - It is a contagious skin condition caused by the itch mite.

MODULE 7: Skeletal system

- provides support to the entire body and gives the body its shape.
- newborn baby has more than 300 bones, but as a person grows some bones will fuse, leaving
adults with about 206 bones.
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- There are two parts to the skeletal system: the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton.

Axial skeleton - has 80 bones, and is made up of the boneof the head, the ribs, and the vertebral
column.

Appendicular skeleton - has 126 bones and includes the bones of the upper and lower limbs, the pelvic
and the pectoral girdles.

Functions of the Skeletal System

- Provides framework that gives shapes and form to man and animals.
- Protects the soft body parts such as brain, internal organs (heart, lungs), and pelvic organ.
- Serves as storage area for minerals such as calcium and phosphorous.
- Performs hemopoeisis (red cell formation).
- Supports the body against the force of gravity.
- Provides movement since they serve as points of attachment to skeletal muscles.

Bones - rigid organs that constitute part of the endoskeleton of vertebrates. They support and protect
the various organs of the body and produce red and white blood cells and store minerals.

Bone Structure
Compact bone - It is the hard outer layer of the bones and is composed of compact bone tissue so-called
due to its minimal gaps and spaces.

Trabecular bone - It is the filling of the interior of the bone in the trabecular bone tissue. (an open cell
porous network also called spongy bone), which is composed of a network of rod- and plate-like
elements that make the overall organ lighter and allow room for blood vessels and marrow.

DIFFERENT BONES IN THE HUMAN BODY

Cranium - It is also known as the “braincase” or the “skull”. It serves as the framework for the head. It
protects the brain from injury.

Maxilla - It is pyramidal in the shape and has a large cavity called the maxillary sinus. Upper jaw

Mandible - Mandible is the largest and the strongest facial bone. Lower jaw

Cervical Vertebra - Cervical vertebrae are located at the back of the neck region. There are 7 cervical
vertebrae. Atlas is the first cervical vertebra.

Clavicle - It is also known as collar bone. It is a slender rod shaped bone located in the collar region.

Humerus - It is located in the upper arm. The head of the humerus fits into the glenoid cavity of the
pectoral girdle to form a ball and socket joint.

Sternum - It is located at the center of the thorax. It is a degree-shaped bone that along with the ribs
forms the rib cage.
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Rib - There are 12 pairs of ribs. The last pair of ribs is called as the floating ribs because they are not
attached to the sternum.

Radius - It is the bone located at the lateral side of the forearm. It extends from the elbow to the
wrist. It is along with Ulna which constitutes the forearm. a
Ulna - It is the bone in the forearm that is aligned with the little finger. Ulna along with the Radius
constitutes the forearm.

Pelvic girdle - Pelvic Girdle is a bony ring located at the base of the spine. It is composed of 2 hip bones
which support the lower limbs.

Coccyx - There are 2 caudal vertebrae at the end of the vertebral column. Caudal vertebrae are
separated at birth, but in the later years they fuse together to form one single bone called coccyx.

Femur - It is the longest and the heaviest bone. It supports the weight of the body.

Diseases of the Skeletal System

Osteoporosis - one of the most common and serious bone diseases. It is the weakening of bones due to
the removal of calcium salts.

Osteomyelitis - inflammation of bone and bone marrow caused by bacterial infection. It is treatable with
antibiotics but not easily cured.

Arthritis - general term for many different diseases of the joints that are characterized by inflammation,
swelling, and pain.

Rheumatoid arthristis - most painful and crippling type. The synovial membrane thickens, synovial fluid
accumulates causing swelling, and articular cartilages are destroyed. The joint is invaded by fibrous
connective tissue that ultimately ossifies, making the joint immovable.

Osteoarthritis - most common type; it is a degenerative disease that results from aging and wear. The
articular cartilages gradually disintegrate which causes pain and restricts movement.

Kyphosis - It is an excessive thoracic curvature of the vertebral column, which produces a humpback
condition.

Lordosis - It is an excessive lumbar curvature of the vertebral column, which produces a swayback
condition.

Scoliosis - It is an abnormal lateral curvature of the vertebral column. For some reason, it is more in
adolescent girls.

Sprains - result from tearing or excessive stretching of the ligaments and tendons at a joint without a

dislocation.