1. Name at least five tissues found in a bone.

1. Marrow cavity
2. Spongy (cancellous) bone
3. Articular cartilage (hyaline)
4. Nutrient foramina
5. Compact (dense) bone

2. List three or more functions of the skeletal system other than supporting the body and protecting some of the internal
organs.
1. Movement. Limb movements, breathing,
2. Blood formation.
3. Electrolyte balance
4. Acid-base balance

3. Explain the difference between compact and spongy bone, and describe their spatial relationship to each other in a
long bone and a flat bone.
Compact bone is the hard, outer shell of the bone and spongy bone is found at the ends of the bone. Sa long bone, the
skeleton is about three-quarters compact bone and one-quarter spongy bone in dry weight. Spongy bone is always
enclosed by a shell of more durable compact bone. Sa spongy bone, it has a sandwich like construction with two
layers of compact bone enclosing a middle layer of spongy bone.

4. State the anatomical terms for the shaft, head, growth zone, and fibrous covering of a long bone.
1. shaft - diaphysis
2. head - epiphysis
3. growth zone - epiphyseal plate
4. fibrous covering – periosteum

5. Suppose you had unlabeled electron micrographs of the four kinds of bone cells and their neighboring tissues. Name
the four cells and explain how you could visually distinguish each one from the other three.
1.Osteogenic cells - stem cells found in endosteum, periosteum, and in central canals. They arise from embryonic
mesenchymal cells, multiply continuously to produce new osteoblasts.
2. Osteoblasts - bone forming cells. They line up as single layer of cells under endosteum and periosteum, nonmitotic,
synthesize soft organic matter of matrix which then hardens by mineral deposition.
3. Osteocytes - former osteoblasts that have become trapped in the matrix they have deposited. They have lacunae
and canaliculi.
4. Osteoclasts - bone-dissolving cells found on the bone surface. Unusually large cells formed from the fusion of
several stem cells, typically have 3 to 4 nuclei, may have up to 50.

6. Name three organic components of the bone matrix.

- Collagen, carbohydrate (protein complexes), and glycoproteins.
7. What are the mineral crystals of bone called, and what are they made of?
Hydroxyapatite, which is made off calcium phosphate salt.

8. Sketch a cross section of an osteon and label its major parts.

9. What are the two kinds of bone marrow? What does hemopoietic tissue mean? Which type of bone marrow fits this
description?
Red bone marrow and yellow bone marrow. Hemopoietic tissue means tissue that produces blood cells. Red bone
marrow because the marrow cavity of nearly every bone is filled with red bone marrow.

10. Describe the stages of intramembranous ossification. Name a bone that is formed in this way.
1. mesenchymal cells aggregate in areas with lots of blood vessels...cells line blood vessels and become osteoblasts
and secrete osteoid tissue
2. calcium salts crystalize on osteoid causing calcification and creating spicules; osteoblasts become osteocytes once
encased by matrix
3. mesenchyme differentiates creating periosteum; ossification centers meet and trabeculae form
4. osteoblasts in periosteum create outside layers of compact bone and then the dipole appears between two layers
of compact bone; continued remodeling of spongy bone by osteoblasts and osteocytes occurs
-happens in flat bones of skull and clavicle

11. Describe how a cartilage model is transformed into a long bone in endochondral ossification.
1. Mesenchyme is made into hyaline cartilage and covered by perichondrium
2. Bone growth begins in middle of future diaphysis (primary ossification center)
3. Periosteal bud invades shaft and creates a primary marrow cavity
4. Secondary ossification center(s) form
5. Secondary marrow cavities form in epiphyses
6. Growth due to increase in cartilage first (articular and epiphyseal plate) followed by ossification

12. Describe the five zones of a metaphysis and the major distinctions between them.
1. Zone of reserve cartilage: furthest from marrow cavity; consists of hyaline cartilage with resting chondrocytes
2. Zone of cell proliferation: a little closer to marrow cavity; chondrocytes multiply and arrange themselves into
longitudinal columns of flattened lacunae
3. Zone of cell hypertrophy: chondrocytes cease to multiply and begin to enlarge; walls of matrix between lacunae
become thin
4. Zone of calcification: minerals deposited in matrix and calcify cartilage
5. Zone of bone deposition: within each column, walls between lacunae break down and chondrocytes die; column is
converted into longitudinal channel invaded by blood vessels and marrow.

13. How does Wolff’s law explain some of the structural differences between the bones of a young child and the bones
of a young adult?
-States that the architecture of a bone is determined by the mechanical stresses placed upon it, and the bone thereby
adapts to withstand those stresses. Shows that the form of a bone is shaped by its functional experience.

14. Describe the role of collagen and seed crystals in bone mineralization.
- During bone mineralization, collagen is the structure on to which minerals are being deposited. Ions of calcium and
phosphate are being deposited on collagen fibers where they form crystals of hydroxyapatite. The first few crystals to
form act as “seed crystals” that attract more calcium and phosphate from solution.

15. Why is it important to regulate blood calcium concentration within such a narrow range?
- Because even slight changes in blood calcium concentration can cause hypocalcemia- it causes excessive excitability
of the nervous system and leads to muscle tremors or spasm. IF THE CALCIUM CONCENTRATION IN THE BLOOD IS
TOO ELEVATED OR TOO LOW IT CAN AFFECT BLOOD CLOTTING, MUSCLE CONTRACTION, EXOCYTOSIS, AND NEURON
COMMUNICATION.
16. What effect does calcitonin have on blood calcium concentration, and how does it produce this effect? Answer the
same questions for parathyroid hormone.
- Calcitonin is produced by C cells of the thyroid gland. It is secreted when the blood calcium concentration rises too
high, and it lowers the concentration by two principal mechanisms. Osteoclast inhibition. Within 15 minutes after it is
secreted, calcitonin reduces osteoclast activity by as much as 70%, so osteoclasts liberate less calcium from the
skeleton. Osteoblast stimulation. Within an hour, calcitonin increases the number and activity of osteoblasts, which
deposit calcium into the skeleton.
- Parathyroid hormone is secreted by the parathyroid glands, which adhere to the posterior surface of the thyroid
gland. These glands release PTH when blood calcium is low. A mere 1% drop in the blood calcium level doubles the
secretion of PTH. PTH raises the blood calcium level by four mechanisms.

17. How is vitamin D synthesized, and what effect does it have on blood calcium concentration?
- Ultraviolet rays act on the epidermal keratinocytes, which transform 7- dehydrocholesterol in the blood into vitamin
d3. The liver adds an -OH group, which converts it to calcidiol; the kidneys add another, converting it to calcitriol, the
most potent form of vitamin D. Calcitriol acts on the bones, kidneys, and small intestine to raise blood calcium and
phosphate levels and promote bone deposition.

18. Name and describe four types of bone fractures.

1. Nondisplaced fracture-small crack but still in his anatomical alignment
2. displaced fracture, -one bone piece shifted out to its alignment
3. Comminuted, - bone is broken into three or more pieces
4. Greenstick- only the other side is broken and slightly bent

19. Why would osteomyelitis be more likely to occur in an open fracture than in a closed fracture?
-Because the bone is opened in an open fracture making it susceptible to infections. Since osteomyelitis inflammation
of osseous tissue and bone marrow as a result of bacterial infection.

20. What is a callus? How does it contribute to fracture repair?

- Callus is hardened layers of skin that develop when your skin tries to protect itself against friction and pressure.
Layers are also made when fracture repair takes place to harden the bone and prevent future fracture.