MICROBIOLOGY AND PARASITOLOGY (SCI 111)

INTRODUCTION TO GENERAL ANATOMY

UNIT 1 AND PHYSIOLOGY

Course Title: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Course Number: SCI 111
Name of Reporter: Gena Mae D. Arroyo
Hannah Janeth A. Bandilao
Kimverly Diaz
Julina D. Fresnido
Course Facilitator: Dr. Louie S. Denosta

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, the students must have to:

1. Define anatomy and physiology, and discuss their subdivisions;
2. Compare and contrast the different organ systems of the body;
3. Name and discuss the characteristics of life;
4. Relate homeostasis to its importance in health and diseases;
5. Compare positive and negative feedback system;
6. Illustrate the different anatomical terms used in the study;
7. Identify the regions of the body and their relations with other bodily structures; and
8. Appraise the overview of the human body in terms of anatomical position, regional
names, directional terms, body cavities & serous membrane.

Introduction

Human anatomy and physiology is the study of the structure and function of the human body. The
human body has many intricate parts with coordinated functions maintained by a complex system of
checks and balances. The coordinated function of all the parts of the human body allows us to detect
changes or stimuli, respond to stimuli, and perform many other actions. Knowing human anatomy
and physiology also provides the basis for understanding disease. The study of human anatomy and
physiology is important for students who plan a career in the health sciences because health
professionals n3Ded a sound knowledge of structure and function in order to perform their duties.

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 MICROBIOLOGY AND PARASITOLOGY (SCI 111)

In addition, understanding anatomy and physiology prepares all of us to evaluate recommended

treatments, critically review advertisements and reports in the popular literature, and rationally
discuss the human body with health professionals and nonprofessionals

Indicative Content

1. Definition and Scope of Anatomy and Physiology

2. Structural and Functional Organization of the Body
2.1 Introduction to 11 Organ Systems
3. Characteristics of Life
4. Homeostasis: Feedback System

DEFINITION AND SCOPE OF ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

What is anatomy?
Anatomy (ă -nat′ŏ -mē ) is the scientific discipline that investigates the structure of the
body. The word anatomy means to dissect, or cut apart and separate, the parts of the
body for study.
Anatomy covers a wide range of studies, including the structure of body parts, their
microscopic organization, and the processes by which they develop. In addition,
anatomy examines the relationship between the structure of a body part and its
function.
Anatomy can be considered at many different levels.
1. Developmental anatomy is the study of the structural changes that occur
between conception and adulthood.

Figure 2. (Source: https://free-

resources.anatomystuff.co.uk/wp-
content/uploads/2021/12/
Developmental-anatomy-foetus.jpg)

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a. Embryology (em-bre--olo--je-), a subspeciality of developmental

anatomy, considers changes from conception to the end of the eighth
week of development.
b. Cytology (sı¯-tolo-je-) examines the structural features of cells.
c. Histology (his-tolo- je-) examines tissues, which are cells and the
materials surrounding them.
2. Gross anatomy, the study of structures that can be examined without the aid of
a microscope, can be approached from either a systemic or a regional
perspective.
a. Systemic anatomy, the body is studied system by system, which is the
approach taken in this and most other introductory textbooks. A system is
a group of structures that have one or more common functions. Examples
are the circulatory, nervous, respira- tory, skeletal, and muscular systems.
b. Regional anatomy, the body is studied area by area, which is the
approach taken in most graduate programs at medical and dental schools.
Within each region, such as the head, abdomen, or arm, all systems are
studied simultaneously.

Figure 2. (Source:
https://anatomy.net/up
loads/099a0129-c967-
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7958a162bc26.png?
width=1200)

3. Surface anatomy is the study of the

Figure 2. (Source:
external form of the body and its https://en.wikipedia.
relation to deeper structures. For org/wiki/File:Surface
example, the sternum (breastbone) _projections_of_the_
and parts of the ribs can be seen and organs_of_the_trunk
.png)
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 MICROBIOLOGY AND PARASITOLOGY (SCI 111)

palpated (felt) on the front of the chest. These structures can be used as
anatomical landmarks to identify regions of the heart and points on the chest
where certain heart sounds can best be heard.
4. Anatomical imaging uses Figure 2. (Source:
radiographs (x-rays), ultrasound, https://upload.wikime
magnetic reso- nance imaging (MRI), dia.org/wikipedia/co
and other technologies to create mmons/b/b2/MRI_of
pictures of internal structures. _Human_Brain.jpg)

Key Note: Both surface anatomy and

anatomical imaging provide important information for diagnosing disease.

What is physiology?
Physiology (fiz-ē -ol′ō -jē ; the study of nature) is the scientific discipline that deals with the
processes or functions of living things. It is important in physiology to recognize structures as
dynamic rather than fixed and unchanging.
Two Major Goals of Physiology
1. To understand and predict the body’s responses to stimuli; and
2. To understand how the body maintains conditions within a narrow range of
values in the presence of continually changing internal and external environments.
Like anatomy, physiology can be considered at many differ- ent levels.
1. Cell physiology examines the processes occurring in cells and systemic
physiology considers the functions of organ systems.
2. Neurophysiology focuses on the nervous system.
3. Cardiovascular physiology deals with the heart and blood vessels.
4. Exercise physiology focuses on changes in function, and in structure, caused by
exercise.
Key Note: Physiology often examines systems rather than regions because portions
of a system in more than one region can be involved in a given function. The study
of the human body must encompass both anatomy and physiology because
structures, functions, and processes are interwoven.

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Pathology (pa-tholo¯-je¯) is the medical science dealing with all aspects of disease,
with an emphasis on the cause and development of abnormal conditions, as well as
the structural and functional changes resulting from disease.

STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL ORANIZATION OF THE BODY

The body can be studied at six structural levels: chemical, cell, tissue, organ, organ
system, and organism (figure 1.1).

Figure 5. Sources:
https://
img.brainkart.com/
imagebk22/
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1. Chemical Level. The structural and functional characteristics of all organisms are
determined by their chemical makeup. The chemical level of organization involves
how atoms, such as hydrogen and carbon, interact and combine into molecules. The
function of a molecule is intimately related to its structure. For example, collagen
mol- ecules are strong, ropelike fibers that give skin structural strength and
flexibility. With old age, the structure of collagen changes, and the skin becomes
fragile and more easily torn.
2. Cell Level. Cells are the basic structural and functional units of organisms, such as
plants and animals. Molecules can combine to form organelles (or′gănelz; little
organs), which are the small structures that make up some cells. For example, the
nucleus contains the cell’s hereditary information, and mitochondria manufacture
adenosine triphosphate (ATP), a molecule cells use for a source of energy. Although
cell types differ in their structure and function, they have many characteristics in
common. Knowledge of these characteristics and their variations is essential to a
basic understanding of anatomy and physiology.
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3. Tissue Level. A tissue (tish′ū ) is a group of similar cells and the materials
surround- ing them. The characteristics of the cells and surrounding materials
determine the functions of the tissue. The many tissues that make up the body are
classified into four primary types: epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous.
4. Organ Level. An organ (ō r′gă n; a tool) is composed of two or more tissue types
that together perform one or more common functions. The urinary bladder, skin,
stomach, and heart are examples of organs (figure 1.2).

Figure 1. (Source:
https://img.brainkart.
com/imagebk22/Kqw
yNnc.jpg)

5. Organ System Level. An organ system is a group of organs that have a common
function or set of functions and are therefore viewed as a unit. For example, the
urinary system consists of the kidneys, ureter, urinary bladder, and urethra. The
kidneys produce urine, which is transported by the ureters to the urinary bladder,
where it is stored until elimi- nated from the body by passing through the urethra.

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 11 ORGAN SYSTEMS OF THE HUMAN BODY
Organ Systems Structure Function
1. Lymphatic System Removes
MICROBIOLOGY ANDforeign substance from
PARASITOLOGY the
(SCI 111)
blood and lymph, combats disease,
maintains tissue fluid balance, and
absorbs dietary fats from the digestive
tract. Consist of the lymphatic vessels,
lymph nodes, and other lymphatic
organs.
2. Cardiovascular Transport nutrients, waste products,
System gases, and hormones throughout the
body; plays a role in the immune
response and the regulation of body
temperature. Consist of the heart, blood
vessels, and blood.

3. Digestive System Performs the mechanical and chemical

processes of digestion, absorption of
nutrients, and elimination of wastes.
Consists of the mouth, esophagus,
stomach, intestines, and accessory
organs.

4. Endocrine System A major regulatory system that

influences metabolism, growth,
reproduction, and many other functions.
Consists of glands, such as the
pituitary, that secrete hormones.

5. Muscular System Produces body movements, maintains

posture, and produces body heat.
Consist of muscles attached to the
skeleton by tendons

6. Nervous System A major regulatory system that detects

sensations and controls movements,
physiological processes, and
intellectual functions. Consists of the
brain, spinal cord, nerves, and sensory
recptors.

7. Reproductive Female Reproductive Female Reproductive System

System System Produces oocytes and is the site of
fertilization and fetal development;
CAPIZ STATE UNIVERSITY produces milk
DUMARAO for the new
SATELLITE born;
COLLEGE 7
produces hormones that influence
sexual function and behaviors. Consists
of the ovaries, urine tubes, uterus,
vagina, mammary glands, associated
structures.
 MICROBIOLOGY AND PARASITOLOGY (SCI 111)

Key Note: The cardiovascular and lymphatic are both integral parts of the circulatory
system (LibreTexts, 2022).

Additional References:
https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Boundless)/
15%3A_Diseases/
15.23%3A_Microbial_Diseases_of_the_Cardiovascular_and_Lymphatic_Systems/
15.23D%3A_Cardiovascular_and_Lymphatic_System_Defenses#:~:text=The
%20cardiovascular%20and%20lymphatic%20are,of%20conduits%20called
%20lymphatic%20vessels.
Read the article for better understanding on the relationship between lymphatic system
and cardiovascular system.

6. Organism Level. An organism is any living thing considered as a whole, whether

composed of one cell, such as a bacterium, or of trillions of cells, such as a human.
The human organism is a complex of organ systems that are mutually dependent on
one another (figure 1.3).

CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE
Humans are organisms sharing characteristics with other organisms. The most important
common feature of all organisms is life. This text recognizes six essential characteristics of
life:
1. Organization refers to the specific interrelationships among the parts of an organism
and how those parts interact to perform particular functions. Living things are highly
organized. All organisms are composed of one or more cells. Some cells, in turn, are
composed of highly specialized organelles, which depend on the precise functions of
large molecules. Disruption of this organized state can result in loss of function and
death.
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2. Metabolism (mĕ -tab′ō -lizm) is the ability to use energy to perform vital functions, such
as growth, movement, and reproduction. Plants capture energy from sunlight, and humans
obtain energy from food.
Figure 1. (Source:
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make the adjustments that help maintain its life. Responses include movement toward food or
water and away from danger or poor environmental conditions. Organisms can also make
adjustments that maintain their internal environment. For example, if body temperature
increases in a hot environment, sweat glands produce sweat, lowering body temperature to
the normal level.

Figure 1. (Source: Figure 1. (Source:

https://cdn.tutors.com/ https://
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5. Growth refers to an increase in the size of all or part of the organism. It can result from
an increase in cell number, cell size, or the amount of substance surrounding cells. For
example, bones become more significant as the number of bone cells increases and they
become surrounded by bone matrix.

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5. Development includes the changes an organism undergoes through time; it begins with
fertilization and ends at death. The greatest developmental changes occur before birth, but
many changes continue after birth, and some continue throughout life. Development usually
involves growth, but it also involves differentiation. Differentiation is a change in cell
structure and function from generalized to specialized. For example, following fertilization,
generalized cells specialize to become specific cell types, such as skin, bone, muscle, or nerve
cells. These differentiated cells form tissues and organs.
Figure 1. (Source:
https://sites.google.com/a/delvalle-isd.org/education-and-
CAPIZ STATE UNIVERSITY training-pathway/_/rsrc/1444663776394/human-growth-and-
DUMARAO SATELLITE COLLEGE 9
development/7e6981b34e184d8a96aed3212b0ec685.jpg?
height=201&width=320)
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Figure 1. (Source:
https://eos.com/wp-content/
uploads/2023/01/stages-of-crop-
development.jpg.webp)
6. Reproduction is the formation of new cells or new organisms. Without the reproduction of
cells, growth, and tissue repair are impossible. Without reproduction of the organism, the
species becomes extinct.
Figure 1. (Source:
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HOMEOSTASIS
Homeostasis (homeo-, the same) is the existence and maintenance of a relatively constant
environment within the body despite fluctuations in either the external environment or the
internal environment.
The idea that the body maintains a balance (homeostasis) can be traced back to ancient
Greece. Early physicians believed that the body supported four juices, or humors: the red
juice of blood, the yellow juice of bile, the white juice secreted from the nose and lungs, and
a black juice in the pancreas.
Tragically, in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, bloodletting went to extremes. During
this period, a physician might recommend bloodletting, but barbers conducted the actual
procedure. In fact, the traditional red-and-white-striped barber pole originated as a symbol for
bloodletting.
The modern term for bloodletting is Phlebotomy (fle-boto-me), but it is practiced in a
controlled setting and removes only small volumes of blood, usually for laboratory testing.
Figure 1. (Source:
Phlebotomy is, in layman’s terms, bloodletting.
Translated from Greek it means ‘to cut a vein’. A
phlebotomist, therefore, is someone trained in
bloodletting, or (more likely) taking blood
samples.
Phlebotomy has been in practice in some form or

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another for almost 2,000 years, although before

medical science advanced to show cause to draw
blood, bloodletting was thought as a cure-all for
various ailments simply by removing blood from
the body.

https://b2758579.smushcdn.com/
2758579/wp-content/uploads/
2012/12/phlebotomist.jpg?
lossy=0&strip=1&webp=1)

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There are some diseases in which bloodletting is still useful for example, Polycythemia (pole-
si-the'mē-ā), an overabundance of red blood cells.
Polycythemia, or erythrocytosis, refers
to an increase in the absolute red blood cell
(RBC) mass in the body. In practice, this is
reflected by an increase in hemoglobin
levels, or hematocrit, over what is
considered physiologic for the particular age
and gender (National Library of Medicine,
2023). Figure 1. (Source:
https://t4.ftcdn.net/jpg/
03/28/86/19/240_F_328861953_veQFF4n
KuhOb6a1TaECqq3vkH3cefTAQ.jpg)

Additional References:
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK526081/#:~:text=Polycythemia%2C%20or
%20erythrocytosis%2C%20refers%20to,the%20particular%20age%20and
%20gender.
Read the article for better understanding Polycythemia.

HOMEOSTASIS: FEEDBACK SYSTEMS

NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
Most systems of the body are regulated by negative feedback mechanisms, which maintain
homeostasis. Negative means that any deviation from the set point is made smaller or resisted.
Negative feedback does not prevent variation but maintains variation within normal range.
The maintenance of a normal body temperature is an example of a negative-feedback.
Negative Feedback Mechanism:
1. A receptor monitors the value of a variable, such as body temperature;
2. Control center, such as part of the brain, establishes the set point around which the
variable is maintained
3. Effector such as the sweat glands, can change the value of the variable. A changed
variable is a stimulus because it initiates a homeostatic mechanism.

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 MICROBIOLOGY AND PARASITOLOGY (SCI 111)

Figure 1.5 Negative-Feedback Mechanism: Body Temperature

Homeostasis Figure
1.6 Negative-Feedback
Control of Body
Temperature
To help you learn how
to interpret homeostasis
figures, some of the
steps in this figure are
numbered. (1) Body
temperature is within its
normal range. (2) Body
temperature increases
outside the normal
range, which causes
homeostasis to be disturbed. (3) The body temperature control center in the brain responds to
the change in body temperature. (4) The control center causes sweat glands to produce sweat
and blood vessels in the skin to dilate. (5) These changes cause body temperature to decrease.
(6) Body temperature returns to its normal range, and homeostasis is restored. Observe the
responses to a decrease in body temperature outside its normal range by following the red
arrows.

POSITVE FEEDBACK

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Positive-feedback mechanisms occur when the initial stimulus further stimulates the
response In other words, the deviation from the set point becomes even greater. At times, this
types of response is required to re-achieve homeostasis. For example, during blood loss, a
chemical responsible for clot formation stimulates production of itself. Birth is another
example of a normally occurring positive feedback mechanism. On the other hand,
occasionally positive-feedback mechanism can be detrimental. One example of a detrimental
positive-feedback mechanism is inadequate delivery of blood to cardiac (heart) muscle.
Key Note: Positive-feedback mechanisms usually increase deviations from normal, and
although a few positive-feedback mechanisms normally exist in the body, most positive-
feedback mechanisms are harmful

Figure 1.7 Comparison of Negative-feedback and Positive-feedback Mechanisms

(a) in negative feedback, the response stops the effector. (b) in positive
feedback, the response keeps the reaction going. For example, during blood
clotting, the "active product" represents thrombin, which triggers, "enzyme a,"
the first step in the cascade that leads to the production of thrombin.

References

 Van Puttee, Cinnamon, Jennifer Regan, Andy Rusoo. Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy and
Physiology. 9th ed. Boston: McGraw Hill Co., Inc. 2016
 Seeley, Stephens, & Tate, Anatomy & Physiology 8th ed. McGraw Hill Co., Inc. 2008
 https://l.facebook.com/l.php?u=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.slideshare.net%2Fkavita_grover
%2Flesson-plan-and-worksheets-on-characteristics-of-living-things%3Ffbclid
%3DIwAR2WdcnJBp2VOGjRJz_kyUOQTSKds_snC-
Wx89LfuIZFnY_KeWeDiyobaxM&h=AT2xIKjQrMdIxep9KDXrnQIJDJi2YjfdniZpeIa
VEfoKk0OdOH3pegY8I29xX4L4RNAKPKMKrJujb5kl7q2kS0qUKDwZveBsIBbeAdc8
csNN5EudmY7yt8zz41LPWT0z9zHS3w
 https://l.facebook.com/l.php?u=https%3A%2F%2Farccwaite.files.wordpress.com
%2F2018%2F12%2Fseeleys-essentials-of-anatomy-and-physiology-9th-edition.pdf
%3Ffbclid
%3DIwAR2GrJ1cwHLR7aukccmnnMgJbn_7mdKDhDjoXrW227aq2KxIRopI0dv2Ujo&
h=AT2xIKjQrMdIxep9KDXrnQIJDJi2YjfdniZpeIaVEfoKk0OdOH3pegY8I29xX4L4RN
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