ENVIRONMENT AT A GLANCE INDICATORS

Circular economy - waste and materials

Context
Issues at stake
Material resources form the physical foundation of the economy and are an important source of income
and jobs. They differ in their physical and chemical characteristics, their abundance and their value to
countries. Economic growth generally implies growing demand for raw materials, energy and other natural
resources, and growing amounts of materials that end up as waste if not properly managed.
The use of raw materials from natural resources and the related production and consumption processes
have environmental, economic and social consequences in countries and beyond national borders.
The intensity and nature of these consequences depend on the kind and amounts of natural resources and
materials used, the stage of the resource cycle at which they occur, the way the material resources are used
and managed, and the type and location of the natural environment from where they originate. Main
concerns relate to the pressures exerted on natural assets, the associated negative environmental impacts
(upstream and downstream) from the extraction, processing and use of materials, and the potential impact
from inappropriate waste management on human health and the environment such as soil and water
pollution, air quality, climate change, degradation of natural habitats and ecosystems.
Policy challenges
The main challenge is to improve resource efficiency and productivity and ensure that materials are
used efficiently at all stages of their lifecycle (extraction, transport, manufacturing, consumption,
recovery and disposal) and throughout the supply chain. This requires:

◦ A broadening of the scope of waste management policies in line with the waste hierarchy, which ranks
waste prevention as the most preferred option that can be encouraged through eco-design, reuse,
repair, refurbishment, re-manufacturing, and extended producer responsibility schemes (see figure).
◦ Integration of policies on materials, product and chemicals management, and use of life-cycle oriented
waste and materials and product management and related policies.
Examples include 3R policies (reduce, reuse, recycle), sustainable materials management, sustainable
manufacturing, resource efficiency and circular economy policies. Waste prevention can be encouraged
through eco-design, reuse, repair, refurbishment, re-manufacturing, and extended producer responsibility
(EPR) schemes.
Moving towards a resource efficient and circular economy is critical from both supply security and
environmental perspectives and provides the basis for a sustainable and competitive economy. It is the way
to ensure adequate supplies of materials; to manage the environmental impacts associated with their
lifecycle and supply chain; and to make sure that natural resources are not degraded and remain available
for future generations. Establishing a circular economy with improved waste and materials management
further helps addressing the issue of microplastics in the environment and marine litter. Recovering
materials from waste streams for recycling or reuse, using products longer and increasing the use intensity
of goods through sharing economy approaches like car-sharing are some of the areas in which circular
business models are operating. A circular economy seeks to:

◦ maximise the value of the materials that circulate within the economy;

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◦ minimise material consumption, paying particular attention to virgin materials, hazardous substances,
and waste streams that raise specific concerns (such as plastics, food, electric and electronic goods);
◦ prevent waste from being generated;
◦ reduce hazardous components in waste and products.

The waste hierarchy

reduce waste generation

Prevention and hazardous components
in products

Non waste reuse / re-manufacture

Reuse end-of-life products and
prepare waste for reuse
Waste
reprocess waste for use as a
Recycling secondary raw material or
a new product

Energy use waste as fuel in energy

and heat production
recovery
landfill and incinerate waste
Disposal without energy recovery

Source: OECD based on various other sources.

Source: OECD, "Waste: Municipal waste", OECD Environment Statistics (database), https://doi.org/10.1787/data-00601-en.

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Measuring progress and performance

Environmental performance can be assessed against domestic objectives and international goals and
commitments. Sustainable waste and materials management is part of the 2030 Agenda for
Sustainable Development (New York, September 2015) under Goal 8 “Promote inclusive and sustainable
economic growth, employment and decent work for all”, Goal 12 “Ensure sustainable consumption and
production patterns” and Goal 14 “Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for
sustainable development”. Absolute decoupling of materials use and environmental degradation from GDP
growth is targeted in SDG 8.4. The sustainable management and efficient use of natural resources is
targeted in SDG 12.2. The prevention and reduction of marine pollution, including marine debris is
targeted in SDG 14.1.
Agreements and regulations on waste in general and transfrontier movements of hazardous waste in
particular, include directives of the European Union, OECD Decisions and Recommendations and the Basel
Convention that was amended in 2019 to cover plastic waste. G8 and G7 countries further adopted several
plans and strategies related to the resource cycle, resource productivity and life-cycle based materials
management. Resource efficiency was part of the G20 agenda in 2017.
Indicator groups
◦ Waste management: total waste generation and intensities; municipal waste generation, intensities,
recovery, recycling and disposal shares; electrical and electronic equipment put on the market, e-waste
generated and collected intensities.
◦ Use of material resources: material consumption mix and intensities, material productivity and material
footprint intensities.

Waste management
Key messages
◦ Most countries continue to generate increasing amounts of waste; only a few have managed to decouple
total waste generation (i.e. all sources of waste) from population and economic growth.
◦ The developments for municipal solid waste are more positive as their growth rate appears to have
peaked around the turn of the millennium. A person living in the OECD area generated about 534 kg of
municipal waste in 2021; this is 39 kg more than in 1990, but 9 kg less than in 2000.
◦ Waste is (slowly) increasingly being recovered for recycling, but landfilling remains the major disposal
method in many OECD countries.
◦ The amount of per capita electrical and electronic equipment put on the market, related e-waste
generated and collected in the past decade, has been steadily increasing in almost all OECD countries.
Only a fraction of the e-waste generated is collected, and an even lower fraction is recycled.
Main trends and recent developments
In most countries the amounts of total waste generated (i.e. all sources of waste) continue to increase
generally in line with population and economic growth. Only a few countries (such as Hungary, Japan,
Lithuania, the Netherlands, Sweden) have managed to relatively decouple their total waste generation from
economic growth. The amounts of waste produced, their composition and their origin vary among
countries; they relate to the structure of the economy and the level of investment in innovation and cleaner
technologies.
During the 1990s, municipal solid waste generated in the OECD area has risen mostly in line with private
consumption expenditure and GDP. As of the mid-2000s, this rise has been slowing down. The amount and

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composition of municipal waste vary widely among OECD countries; this is linked to levels and patterns of
consumption, urbanisation rates, income levels, lifestyles, and national waste management practices.
In 2021, the quantity of municipal solid waste generated exceeded an estimated 730 million tonnes. A
person living in the OECD area generates about 534 kg of municipal waste per year; this is 39 kg more than
in 1990, but 9 kg less than in 2000. On average, Europeans generate less than people living in the
Americas, but more than people living in the OECD Asia-Oceania region. It is estimated that worldwide,
about 2 billion tonnes of municipal waste were generated in 2016 (about 270kg per person) and that this
number will continue to grow (World Bank, 2019, What a Waste 2.0).
More and more waste is being diverted from landfills and incinerators and fed back into the economy
through recovery and recycling. Mechanical and biological pre-treatment is increasingly used to facilitate
recovery, enhance incineration efficiency, and reduce the amounts being landfilled. Manufacturers and
importers are increasingly encouraged or required to accept responsibility for their products after the
point of sale, through so-called “extended producer responsibility” or “product stewardship”. The European
Union, Japan and other countries have introduced recycling targets and monitor progress through
indicators.
The share of municipal solid waste landfilled in the OECD area has decreased from an estimated 53% to
40% between 2000 and 2021, with some countries no longer using landfills (Switzerland, Germany,
Denmark, Finland, Sweden and Japan). Yet landfilling remains the main waste disposal method in several
countries (e.g. in the OECD America region).
The recovery of waste through recycling, composting and incineration with energy recovery shows an
encouraging increase since 2000 across the OECD area. Several countries now recycle more than one third
of the municipal waste they manage (Belgium, Denmark, Germany, Korea, Latvia, , Slovenia).
Waste from electrical and electronic equipment (i.e. e-waste) is one of the fastest growing and most
complex waste streams in the world, affecting both human health and the environment, and proliferating a
loss of valuable raw materials. The amount of per capita electronic equipment put on the market, related e-
waste generated, electrical and collected in the past decade, has been steadily increasing in almost all
OECD countries. Per capita values for materials put on the market is particularly high (over 30 kg/capita) for
countries such as Australia, Austria, Denmark, France, Germany, Iceland, the Netherlands and Norway. Only
a fraction of the e-waste generated is collected. For example, while 27.6 kg/capita were put on the market
in 2020 in the European Union, only 10.5 kg/capita were collected. Rates of recycling vary across countries
and are only available for European countries in recent years. Rates of recycling in European countries vary
between 62% and 92% of the per capita collected e-waste, resulting in low rates of recycling compared to
the amounts generated. It is estimated that worldwide only 17.4% of 2019’s e-waste was collected and
recycled (ITU, 2020).

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Indicators

Total waste, intensities per capita

Kilogram per capita

2020

30k

20k

10k

0
Colombia
Latvia
Türkiye
Portugal
Hungary
Spain
Lithuania
Slovak Republic
Italy
Norway
Greece
Iceland
Australia (2019)
Ireland
Denmark
Japan (2019)
Czech Republic
Slovenia
Korea
Switzerland (2019)
United Kingdom (2018)
Poland
Germany
France
Belgium
Netherlands
Austria
Estonia
Sweden
Luxembourg
Finland
© OECD

Source: OECD, "Waste: Waste generation by sector", OECD Environment Statistics (database), https://doi.org/10.1787/data-00674-en.

Total waste, intensities per unit of GDP

Kilogram per thousand USD

2020

500

250

0
Colombia
Ireland
Latvia
Norway
Türkiye
Portugal
Hungary
Spain
Switzerland (2019)
Lithuania
Iceland
Australia (2019)
Denmark
Slovak Republic
Italy
Japan (2019)
Germany
United Kingdom (2018)
Korea
Czech Republic
Greece
Slovenia
France
Belgium
Poland
Netherlands
Luxembourg
Austria
Sweden
Estonia
Finland

© OECD

Source: OECD, "Waste: Waste generation by sector", OECD Environment Statistics (database), https://doi.org/10.1787/data-00674-en.

ENVIRONMENT AT A GLANCE INDICATORS

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Circular economy - waste and materials

Municipal waste, intensities per capita

Kilogram per capita

2021

1000

500

0
Colombia (2018)
Costa Rica
Japan (2020)
Poland
Estonia
Türkiye (2020)
Hungary
Sweden
Korea (2020)
Chile (2018)
Latvia
United Kingdom
Spain
Lithuania
Italy (2020)
Australia (2019)
Slovak Republic
Slovenia
Netherlands
Portugal
Greece (2019)
OECD (2020)
France
Czech Republic
Finland
Iceland (2020)
Ireland (2020)
Germany
Israel
Switzerland
New Zealand (2018)
Belgium
Denmark
Luxembourg
Norway
United States (2018)
Austria (2020)
© OECD

Note: See country metadata.

Source: OECD, "Waste: Municipal waste", OECD Environment Statistics (database), https://doi.org/10.1787/data-00601-en.

Municipal waste by treatment operation

Percentage of total treatment, 2021

% Landfill % Incineration without energy recovery

% Other disposal % Recycling
% Composting % Incineration with energy recovery
% Other recovery
100

50

0
Belgium

Costa Rica

Czech Republic

Denmark

Estonia

Finland

France

Germany

Hungary

Israel

Lithuania

Luxembourg

Netherlands

Norway

OECD - Total

OECD Asia Oceania

Poland

Slovak Republic

Slovenia

Sweden

Switzerland

United Kingdom

© OECD

Note: See country metadata.

Source: OECD, "Waste: Municipal waste", OECD Environment Statistics (database), https://doi.org/10.1787/data-00601-en.

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Comparability and interpretation

Waste is generated at all stages of human activities. Its composition and amounts depend largely on
consumption and production patterns. Data on waste are available for most OECD countries, but their
quality varies significantly across countries.
Municipal solid waste is only a small share of total waste generated (about 10%), but its management
and treatment often represents more than one-third of public sector financial efforts to abate and control
pollution.
The definition of municipal waste, the types of waste covered and the surveying methods used to collect
information vary from country to country and over time. The main problems in terms of data comparability
relate to the coverage of household-like waste from commerce and trade, and of separate waste collections
that may include hazardous waste from households such as waste batteries or waste electric and electronic
equipment (WEEE) and waste collected by the private sector in the framework of extended producer
responsibility schemes.
Electronic waste, or e-waste, refers to all items of electrical and electronic equipment (EEE) and its parts
that have been discarded by its owner as waste without the intent of re-use. E-waste is also referred to as
WEEE (Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment), electronic waste or e-scrap in different regions and
under different circumstances in the world. It includes a wide range of products - almost any household or
business item with circuitry or electrical components with power or battery supply.
For further details see the metadata in the source databases listed under Sources below.

Use of material resources

Key messages
◦ The general trend in OECD countries is towards higher material productivity and lower per capita
consumption of materials. But levels of material consumption per capita remain higher compared to
other world regions.
◦ Productivity gains are more modest once indirect flows of materials needed to satisfy final demand are
considered. The material footprint, including materials extracted abroad and embodied in
international trade, has increased in many OECD countries.
Main trends and recent developments
The amounts of materials consumed in OECD countries, in terms of domestic material consumption
(DMC), and their per capita levels increased along with economic growth in the 1990s, and at a slower pace
in the 2000s. Material consumption in the OECD area is about 19 Gt per year; almost half of this amount is
consumed in the OECD America region. The material mix is dominated by non-metallic minerals, mostly for
construction, followed by fossil energy carriers and biomass; metals represent less than 15% of the total on
average.
DMC per capita decreased in most OECD countries since 2000. In some countries, such as the Baltic
countries, per capita material consumption increased driven by economic growth and infrastructure
development associated with a declining population. Overall, the levels of material consumption per capita
remain higher in the OECD area (about 15 tonnes per person per year) compared to other world regions.
However, in the coming decades growing populations with higher incomes and living standards will drive a
strong increase in global demand for goods and services. Material consumption per capita in emerging
and developing economies is thus expected to grow faster than in the OECD region.

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Since 2000, the vast majority of OECD countries experienced improvements in material productivity
(expressed as the amount of economic value generated per unit of materials used). OECD countries
generated USD 2.9 per kg of materials consumed in 2017, compared to USD 2 per kg in 2006 (USD in 2015
constant PPP). This progress reflects efficiency gains in production processes, as well as changes in the
materials mix and substitution of domestic production by imports. It also reflects a decreasing demand for
materials following the 2008 financial crisis. In many countries, domestic material consumption decreased
following the 2008 financial crisis and remained relatively stable afterwards while economic growth
resumed.
When accounting for all materials needed to satisfy final demand in OECD countries, i.e. including materials
extracted abroad and embodied in imported goods (i.e. a demand-based measure), progress is more
modest. The per capita material footprint, is generally higher than DMC per capita. Countries with high
import rates and high-income levels show higher material footprints.
Indicators

Domestic material consumption mix

Percentage, 2019

Biomass Fossil energy materials/carriers Non-metallic minerals Metals

100

50

0
Australia
Austria
Canada
Chile
Costa Rica
Czech Republic
Denmark
Estonia
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
Hungary
Iceland
Ireland
Israel
Italy
Japan
Korea
Latvia
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Mexico
Netherlands
New Zealand
Norway
OECD - Total
Poland
Portugal
Slovak Republic
Slovenia
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland
Türkiye
United Kingdom
United States

© OECD

Source: OECD, "Material resources: Material resources", OECD Environment Statistics (database), https://doi.org/10.1787/data-00695

-en.

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 0
2
4
6
8

-en.
-en.
0
25
50
75
Chile (2019)
Colombia (2019)
Canada (2019)
Italy
Estonia
Netherlands
Australia (2019) United Kingdom (2019)
New Zealand (2019) Spain
Finland Greece
Mexico (2019) Costa Rica (2019)
Lithuania

ENVIRONMENT AT A GLANCE INDICATORS

Switzerland
Colombia (2019) France
Circular economy - waste and materials

Israel (2019) Türkiye (2019)

Poland Japan (2019)
Portugal Mexico (2019)
Latvia Slovak Republic
Costa Rica (2019) Germany
Norway (2019) Slovenia
Sweden Belgium
Hungary Hungary
Korea (2019) Czech Republic
Denmark Latvia
Czech Republic Iceland

2020
2020

OECD (2019) Portugal

• 10 •
USD per kilogram
Tonnes per capita

United States (2019) Poland

Austria

Material productivity
OECD (2019)
Slovenia Austria
Türkiye (2019) Korea (2019)
Slovak Republic Lithuania
Greece Luxembourg
Belgium Ireland
Iceland Israel (2019)
Domestic material consumption, intensities per capita

Germany United States (2019)

Spain Denmark
Japan (2019) Sweden
France Estonia
Ireland New Zealand (2019)
Italy Norway (2019)
Luxembourg Finland
United Kingdom (2019) Australia (2019)
Netherlands Chile (2019)
Switzerland Canada (2019)

© OECD
© OECD

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Source: OECD, "Material resources: Material resources", OECD Environment Statistics (database), https://doi.org/10.1787/data-00695
Source: OECD, "Material resources: Material resources", OECD Environment Statistics (database), https://doi.org/10.1787/data-00695
Circular economy - waste and materials

Material footprint per capita

Tonnes per capita

2019

75

50

25

0
Colombia
Mexico
Italy
Portugal
Spain
Chile
Costa Rica
Greece
Hungary
France
Türkiye
Poland
United Kingdom
Japan
Slovak Republic
Germany
Czech Republic
OECD
Korea
Austria
Slovenia
Denmark
Sweden
United States
New Zealand
Israel
Latvia
Switzerland
Netherlands
Belgium
Canada
Finland
Estonia
Norway
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Australia
Ireland
Iceland
© OECD

Source: OECD, "Material resources: Material resources", OECD Environment Statistics (database), https://doi.org/10.1787/data-00695

-en.

Comparability and interpretation

Indicators presented are estimates. Their interpretation should take into account the properties and
composition of material groups (materials are measured in weight), as well as countries’ endowments in
natural resources and the structure of their economy. It should also consider commodity prices, waste
management practices and consumption levels and patterns.
The data presented here refer to the mass of materials or substances produced from renewable and non-
renewable natural resource stocks, used as inputs into human activities, and the products that embody
them. Data coverage and completeness vary by variable and by country. In general, caution needs to be
exercised when drawing conclusions based on country-level data. Although considerable progress has
been made in the past decade to set up material flow accounts, missing information, including on physical
flows of international trade and on secondary (recycled) raw materials, and a lack of consensus on
conversion factors limit the calculation of some material flow indicators at the international level.
For further details see the metadata in the source databases listed under Sources below.

Glossary
Domestic material consumption: Refers to the amount of materials directly used in an economy, or the
apparent consumption of materials. DMC is computed as domestic extraction used minus exports plus
imports.
Domestic material consumption mix: DMC of non-metallic minerals includes domestic extraction and trade
of minerals used in industry and construction, plus trade of derived processed products; biomass includes
domestic production from agriculture, forestry and fisheries, plus trade of raw and processed products
from these sectors; fossil fuels include coal, crude oil, natural gas, peat and traded-derived products; and
metals include domestic extraction of metal ores, plus trade of metal ores, metal concentrates, refined
metals, products mainly made of metals, and scrap.

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E-waste: Electronic waste, or e-waste, refers to all items of electrical and electronic equipment (EEE) and its
parts that have been discarded by its owner as waste without the intent of re-use. E-waste is also referred
to as WEEE (Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment), electronic waste or e-scrap in different regions and
under different circumstances in the world. It includes a wide range of products - almost any household or
business item with circuitry or electrical components with power or battery supply. The definition of e-
waste is very broad and covers six waste categories: (1) Temperature exchange equipment; (2) Screen,
monitors; (3) Lamps; (4) Large equipment; (5) Small equipment; (6) Small IT and telecommunication
equipment.
Material footprint per capita: Expressed in tonnes per capita; the material footprint is the global
allocation of used raw material extracted to meet the final demand of an economy, thus including raw
materials used in the production of imported products.
Material productivity: Expressed in USD/Kg; material productivity is the effectiveness with which an
economy uses materials extracted from natural resources (physical inputs) to generate economic value
(monetary outputs).
Municipal waste: Waste collected by or on behalf of municipalities. It includes household waste
originating from households (i.e. waste generated by the domestic activity of households) and similar waste
from small commercial activities, office buildings, institutions such as schools and government buildings,
and small businesses that treat or dispose of waste at the same facilities used for municipally collected
waste.
Municipal waste recovery rates: percentage of waste that is recuperated via recycling, composting or
incineration with energy recuperation.
Municipal waste disposal rates: percentage of waste that is sent to final disposal (landfill or incineration
without energy recovery).
Total waste generated: Primary waste (i.e. excluding residues from treatment operations) produced by
the various sectors of economic activity (agriculture, mining and quarrying, manufacturing industry, energy
production, water purification and distribution, construction, etc.).

Data sources
OECD, "Waste: Municipal waste", OECD Environment Statistics (database), https://doi.org/10.1787/data-0060
1-en.
OECD, "Waste: Waste generation by sector", OECD Environment Statistics (database), https://doi.org/10.1787
/data-00674-en.
OECD, "Waste: Waste from electrical and electronic equipment", OECD Environment Statistics (database), http
s://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=EWASTE
OECD, "Material resources: Material resources", OECD Environment Statistics (database), https://doi.org/10.1
787/data-00695-en.
References and further reading
OECD Data Portal, https://data.oecd.org/environment.htm.
ITU, UNU, UNITAR, ISWA (2020). The Global E-waste Monitor – 2020, United Nations University (UNU),
International Telecommunication Union (ITU), United Nations Institute for Training and Research (UNITAR)
& International Solid Waste Association (ISWA), Bonn/Geneva/Vienna, https://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Environ
ment/Pages/Spotlight/Global-Ewaste-Monitor-2020.aspx

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OECD (2019), Global Material Resources Outlook to 2060: Economic Drivers and Environmental Consequences,
OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264307452-en.

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