Crime Scene Management Within Forensic Science

Jaskaran
Singh
Neeta Raj Sharma Editors
Crime Scene
Management
within Forensic
science
Crime Scene Management within Forensic
science
Jaskaran Singh • Neeta Raj Sharma
Editors
Crime Scene Management

within Forensic science
Editors
Jaskaran Singh Neeta Raj Sharma
School of Allied Health Sciences School of Bioengineering and Biosciences
Sharda University Lovely Professional University
Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India Jalandhar, Punjab, India
ISBN 978-981-16-4090-2 ISBN 978-981-16-4091-9 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-4091-9
# The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore
Pte Ltd. 2021
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether
the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of
illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and
transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by
similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or
the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any
errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional
claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.
The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721,
Singapore
Contents
1 Initial Response at Crime Scenes and Prioritization of Efforts . . . . . 1

Maha Ghanem
2 Crime Scene Processing: Documentation and Evaluation . . . . . . . . . 15
Maha Ghanem and Haidy M. Megahed
3 Crime Scene Searching: An Exploration of Forensic Evidence . . . . . 37
Maha Ghanem and Zahraa Khalifa Sobh
4 Collection, Preservation, and Packaging: Forensic Evidence
Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Amandeep Kaur, Faray Jamal, Shikha, Aadya Ramesh, Aarshaa Sojan,
and Devika Dileep
5 Paint, Soil, and Glass Evidences: A Silent Witnesses . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Shikha Choudhary and Aadya Ramesh
6 Questioned Document Examination: A Prevalent Dispute . . . . . . . . . 129
Shipra Rohatgi and Prakriti Kapoor
7 Postmortem Examination as an Aid to the Criminal Investigation
System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Osama S. Elserafy
8 Examination of Tampered Voice Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Akashlina Basu
v
Initial Response at Crime Scenes
and Prioritization of Efforts 1
Maha Ghanem
Abstract
Each crime or disaster necessitates, at a certain point, to reconstruct the events and
retrieve the evidence that proves a certain hypothesis. Science and experience can
fill in the spaces in each crime, allowing the investigator and the responsible team
to correctly interpret the facts.
The investigator and the crime scene team have many obligations before,
during, and even after being on the scene. At each crime scene, their mission is
to know how the crime was committed, determine the assailant personnel, and
eliminate the incorrect suspects.
Relevant evidence collected at the scene can help to diminish the list of
suspects and help reconstruct the sequence of the crime’s events. Different
types of crimes can take place, indoors or outdoors, with evidence that can be
easily distorted if precautions are not taken and proper methods for retrieving,
packaging, and storage of evidence are not followed.
Several ethical and legal issues should be considered, such as consent for
searching the victim’s property, taken either from him/her or from their next of
kin. Documentation and interpretations of the crime scene should be submitted to
the jurisdiction system when completed.
Keywords
Reconstruct · Documentation · Investigation
M. Ghanem (*)
Faculty of Medicine, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt
# The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte 1

Ltd. 2021
J. Singh, N. R. Sharma (eds.), Crime Scene Management within Forensic science,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-4091-9_1
2 M. Ghanem
The crime scene is a one-shot chance, like a photo, as soon as things have been
moved or changed, you can lose that little open door which can be the main lead, and
this is gone forever.
This sentence sums up the significance of thorough scene examination and shows
how fastidious we should be. A crime scene is where the crime takes place. It could
be an initial (primary) scene or a secondary one.
Sometimes this scene extends to another place such as in cases where the body
was dragged to another location as in case of foul play and this is called extended
scene. A secondary scene is when we do not know where the crime originally took
place (it is not where the actual crime took place) (LeMay 2011) as seen when a
stabbed body is found in the water. The secondary scene can also be where a terrorist
prepares his ammunition and plans his attack, or it can be a place where the criminal
can get rid of his clothes or weapon. Another example, in cases of armed robbery, the
stolen place is considered the primary scene, but the get-away vehicle is considered a
secondary scene. Sometimes secondary scenes are a limited indoor area and some-
times it is outdoors with several meters or even kilometers needing to be secured.
Education and training of officers are essential in building experience and utili-
zation of thinking aptitudes before going to the crime scene (Illes et al. 2019). This
makes officers familiar with their duties and responsibilities, while senior officers
monitoring their performance.
1.1 The Role and Prioritization of First Respondent

Officer(s) at the Scene
1.1.1 Before Going to the Scene, the Responsible Officer has

the Following Objectives
• On receiving the information memo, the responsible officer should carefully read
the details, outline the factors that can disturb the scene according to its location
(whether indoors or outdoors), and consider the effect of light and different
environmental factors (UN International Drug Control Programme. Division for
Operations and Analysis. Scientific Section 2009, p. 9).
• He should create a hypothesis about the events of the crime and according to the
nature of the crime, he can properly assume the evidence that he expects to find.
• He should know the standard investigation techniques and the appropriate
methods needed to secure the crime scene either by using appropriate tapes or
police barricades prior to stepping on the scene.
• Remember the investigation star: what, where, when, who, why, and how (Gehl
and Plecas 2016).
1 Initial Response at Crime Scenes and Prioritization of Efforts 3
1.1.2 On the Scene, the First Responding Officer will

be Responsible for Several Missions as
1.1.2.1 The Safety of the Living Persons

Officers and Investigators Whenever the first responding officer reaches the
scene, he evaluates if there are any dangerous elements that may harm the team
(UN International Drug Control Programme. Division for Operations and Analysis.
Scientific Section 2009). The team may be exposed to hazardous materials; as
chemical, biological, nuclear, or electrical substances. For example, if the victim
had committed suicide by the carbon monoxide gas, the gas released can cause
toxicity of the investigation team and even lead to an explosion if any spark is
generated. He may even find an armed assailant inside the scene. Moreover, they
may be exposed to unstable structures as falling rocks or bad environmental
conditions as lightning strikes. So, the first mission, while on the scene, is to ensure
the safety of the investigation team, e. g., wearing protective clothes, proper
equipments, calling experts for timed bombs, etc. Always check first the source of
a dangerous situation and deal with it (National Forensic Science Technology Center
2013, p. 12).
Rescuing Survivors After securing the crime scene, he should search for any living
victims, call for medical assistance, and try to create a pathway for the medical
personnel away from physical evidence (always use the designated safe route). He
should also be aware of the changes that may occur in the scene due to the entry of
medical personnel or their intervention with the victim by removing him from the
original place or pushing the furniture to make way or performing CPR or any other
medical intervention while making sure to document all that. It is of importance to
record the fingerprints and shoe prints of the medical personnel for exclusion.
It is better to take photos or sketches of the scene before the medical intervention
takes place. Also, if possible, secure their entry and make a rapid retrieval of the
evidence from their entry path such as clothes which are extremely important from
the scientific point of view. Clothes can differentiate between different types of
crimes. They are examined for fibers, blood spatters, DNA, bullet entrance or exit
which can be lost during medical intervention if the medical team is not instructed to
avoid their destruction and their like.
Dead Victim In case of the presence of a dead victim, the officer should inform his
superior officer of the death and the postmortem interval by looking at the postmor-
tem changes as hypostasis and rigor mortis. After that, the body is transferred to the
mortuary. It should be kept in the same position as that found on the scene so that the
forensic medical examiner (coroner) can make an accurate medicolegal (autopsy)
report. If it is difficult to transport the body in the same position as that found in the
scene, a detailed report should be written and the changes that were done are
documented.
Personal Protective Equipments According to the hazard which may be present at

the scene (biosafety levels, e.g., COVID-19), Chemical warfare, Nuclear hazard, etc.
4 M. Ghanem
1.1.2.2 Cordon Off the Boundaries of the Crime Scene and Limit Access
of Personnel for Security
Whenever the first responding officer and the team approach the scene, they should
define the extent of the scene. It is easy when the crime occurs in a room of a house,
but it is difficult when it is in a part of a forest. So, a decision is needed to secure and
surround that area and determine if there are extensions to the primary scene. It is
easy to decrease the boundaries than to expand them, so cordon it from the beginning
beyond the field of the crime scene. Consider the entry and exit points of the criminal
to be inside the secured area.
Large scenes may necessitate the help of police patrols to prevent vehicles and/or
people from passing through.
The first responder officer should specify who should be inside the scene and
prevent those who can distort it. As indicated by Locard’s statement the assailant will
carry something into the scene and leave with something from it, and therefore both
can be utilized as evidence. By assigning tasks, this will lead to the avoidance of
effort duplication and missing/misunderstanding evidence while investigating.
Regarding family, friends, and bystanders at the scene, they should be treated
politely, but kept out of the scene with their movements controlled.
Underwater Scene It is challenging to apply the normal regulations in the under-

water scenes, as regards the security, collection of data, and preservation of physical
evidence and it needs well-trained divers.
1.1.2.3 Avoid Contamination

Contamination can be defined as the introduction of something new to a scene that
was not originally there. This means that some substances are added to the scene
after the crime is performed. The scene of the crime should be considered as a
surgical theater, where it is preserved clean, with no contamination whatsoever.
Usually, a police officer reaches the scene earlier than the forensic personnel, and
sometimes, the investigator is the one who collects the evidence and sends it to the
forensic lab.
Anticontamination Measurements Should be Considered as

• Wearing gauntlet and over-shoe covers,
• Utilizing a single entrance when passing through the scene,
• Avoiding the utilization of any services in the scene, e.g., latrine,
• Maintaining a strategy of not moving anything/anyone, except in need and this
should be reported.
The first responding officer or any person (suspect, witness, etc.) should not eat,
drink, smoke inside the scene. Moreover, any person or vehicle in the scene should
be examined carefully, both on the scene or on leaving the scene.
So, the first responding officer should be meticulous with each detail of the scene,
preserve each evidence, and avoid distortion of that evidence by any hazardous
approach such as stepping over the assailant’s footprint or putting his hand over the
fingerprints of the assailant.
1.1.2.4 Initiate Survey/Assessment

After defining the scene boundaries, an initial assessment of the scene is needed
without moving any objects. A rapid search for the area is carried out, searching the
floor for footwear and tire impressions, after which a detailed search takes place.
Careful examination of the entry and exit points of the scene should be performed.
Then inspection for broken glass, blood spatters, whether it belongs to the victim or
the assailant, hairs, fibers, weapons, tool marks, fingerprints, and any other trace
evidence which could be left by the suspect should be carried out. After the
inspection of the points of entrance and exit, a careful search for the remainder of
the scene can be carried out. It will help to verify the theory about the crime or
change it.
The investigation team should collect the evidence and ask for assistance if
needed. Environmental factors as light and wind that can distort or destroy the
evidence should be considered. If the crime is outdoors and the first responding
officer reaches the area at night, he has to choose between searching for the evidence
in the dark, if any outside factors such as rain will destroy the evidence or postpone
the process until daylight to see the evidence properly.
The first responding officer should determine if the boundaries that have been set
for the crime are well-established or if they need a further extension.
1.1.2.5 Evaluate Physical Evidence

From the first responders to the last personnel, validated well-established protocols
and quality control methods are followed in collecting and analyzing the physical
evidence. Otherwise, something may be missed, distorted, contaminated, or
adulterated. Assign the missions to the responsible personnel and document this in
a formal sheet. The process of identifying physical evidence is difficult and needs an
expert eye to locate. So, all possible methods should be used starting with the naked
eye and magnifiers or by using specific equipment for the detection of prints or blood
spatters.
After detection and packaging, the physical evidence will be stored and trans-
ferred to the forensic labs for analysis with results prepared and submitted to the
legal system.
Distortion of evidence will misdirect the investigation and influence the case
result ultimately. The location of evidence should be precisely documented.
If the sample evidence is large, subsamples will be created without oversampling
as it may overload the labs and may lead to misrepresentation.
Once the collecting process is finished, the samples are stored in a cool, dry, and
secure place until it is time to transport them to forensics. A second documentation
process is needed for transportation, storage, and delivery to the labs. All steps of
delivery (to the storage place and the labs) should be with a written receipt.
6 M. Ghanem
1.1.2.6 Personal Statements

If the victim is alive, his statement is the first thing to be collected, by asking
questions about the crime collectively.
The reporting person should be interviewed and asked if anything changed or was
moved since he/she had passed through the scene.
As soon as the scene is secured and the evidence is collected, the witnesses are all
secured and questioned. It is important to isolate them separately. This will allow
them to report their experience without flaws and influences. These processes should
be carried out according to the laws and regulations in the officer’s department, and
according to the legal system. All statements and answers should be written and
signed.
The suspect also needs to be interviewed and sometimes the medical team
personnel to clarify certain situations especially if they arrived before the responsible
officer. All the statements should be documented.
1.1.2.7 Legal and Ethical Considerations

Legal Issues
There are general standards identified with scene examinations and the forensic
process, where these standards are ruled by local laws and guidelines. They identify
issues, for instance, how to acquire permissions to the method of gaining authoriza-
tion to launch the investigation, to lead the assessment, to manage physical evidence
(for instance best technique required), and to submit that evidence to the forensic lab.
They decide the acceptability of the evidence gathered at the scene as well.
Inability to cope with the existing laws, rules, and guidelines can bring about a
circumstance where the proof cannot be utilized in court. This is of significance for
the staff working at the scene, as they should be informed about it, and guarantee
appropriate consistence with these laws and guidelines.
Ethical Concern
Ethically the first responding officer should take oral consent from the victim as in
cases of robbery/burglary to search personal objects, or written consent from the next
of kin if the victim is dead. Confidentiality of private information that may influence
the reputation of a person should be considered and kept confidential if it does not
influence the case investigation.
Ethical principles include respecting human dignity, confidentiality, and privacy
of the victims while carrying out the examination and gathering physical evidence
from dead bodies or the living such as using screens, curtains, and tents.
Professional codes of ethics govern the process of investigation and evidence
collection. These codes consider acting with care, competence, impartiality, recep-
tiveness, and fairness. If there is a contradiction between human life and the
preservation of evidence, human life is always chosen.
1.1.2.8 Forensic Medical Examiners

The forensic examiners are assigned to investigate the circumstances of the crimes.
Besides, they are concerned with the determination of the manner and cause of death
that fall under their jurisdiction. They may involve any natural death where the
physician is unable or legally prohibited to do so. They carry out postmortem
dissection, testing body fluids for toxicological evidence, perform a pathological
examination of tissues, and examine different physical evidence. Identification of the
victims is considered part of their responsibilities. It can be performed by matching
the decedent to any formal documentation as ID or driver’s license or in other
situations identification methods can include the use of body X-rays, fingerprints,
dental records, or DNA examination. Medicolegal assessment of infirmities along
with the examination of various assaults can be also included.
1.1.3 Prepare a Narrative of the Scene
Documentation of the activities conducted at the crime scene must be carried out as
soon as possible after the event to preserve data. Documentation targets creating a
solid record of the scene, of the physical evidence, and any activities that had
happened. Documentation at the scene is the beginning stage of the chain of custody.
1.1.4 Relinquish Control
The first responding officer summarizes the scene investigations, evidence collected,
and interviews of the witnesses, victims, and suspects in the crime’s location. This is
then delivered to the responsible officer, the investigator, or the district attorney
according to the legal system of the country. This is carried out to help in the next
step of the crime investigation.
1.1.5 Communication with the Media
The officer in charge prepares a temporary location for releasing the information
about the crime to the media and to coordinate crime scene investigation activities
and team meetings there. If the reporters need to take photographs secure the scene
and prevent distortion of the crime scene and evidence.
1.2 The First Responder Responsibilities in Electronic Scene
In the era of the digital age, we can be confronted with computer crimes. It may be
used to cause threat to someone as in cases of child abuse, harassment, narcotics, and
stalking or it may be used in illegal actions as gambling online or economic fraud,
prostitution, and software piracy. Sometimes, it is more complicated and used by
terrorists to violate the safety of countries and peoples.
An electronic scene is a crime scene that contains digital evidence that is stored
on, received, or transferred by an electronic device. Like any other evidence,
8 M. Ghanem
electronic evidence could be easily lost. Just a button click is enough to permanently
distort this valuable evidence.
Types of digital evidence are variable and include computers, accessories of the
computers, laptops, minilabs, phones, etc.
Electronic Evidence
1. The computer system includes hardware, software, may be connected to an
external hard drive, removable media, USB, and memory cards. You can find
photos, email, database, chat, files, and different valuable information. All can be
considered as all potential evidence.
2. Mobiles: modern android phones can be considered as potential evidence as it
contains email, database, files, navigation systems, data storage, and individual
information management.
3. Computer accessories are tools that can be connected to a computer to improve
computer functions, capacity, and help user access.
4. Computer Networks are connected to computers to allow data exchange in
between. The connection could be direct through cables or by wireless networks.
A computer network often includes printers, accessories, and routers. So,
whenever you are the first responder in an electronic scene do not try to extract
any digital information unless you are experienced and trained to make such a
move.
In Case of Presence of Digital Evidence, the First Responders Should

• Be sure of the presence of the memo of evidence collection.
• Be sure of the safety of the scene and the safety of the team.
• Secure the scene by following the regular procedure admitted by the department
and secure all the digital devices.
• Apply personal protective equipment.
• Limit access to the scene’s digital devices and prevent any assistance from
nonexpert personnel.
• He/She should have appropriate collection tools for retrieval and preservation of
digital evidence, such as boxes, gloves, cameras, tapes, paper bags, labels,
antistatic bags, markers, isolation bags, and aluminum foil to wrap mobiles.
• Realize, collect, package, label, and preserve the digital evidence he finds.
• Be sure that all the scene’s devices condition is not changed. For example, if the
device is off (closed) leave it as it is, while if that device is opened (power on)
check for its activity (sound of the drive spinning), check the screen to be sure that
no order of destruction of the data has been carried out and document this steps.
• Ensure that external or internal powers of electronic devices are maintained to
protect the stored data. The data of mobile or smartphone could be affected if the
device remains closed. The software of mobile and smartphone could be
manipulated remotely. The data might be turned off, erased, or hidden.
• Be sure that no one contacts that device from a remote device or through the cloud
or there is any active communication with other devices.
• Document any activity in the digital evidence and determine the state of the
camera.
• Transport the evidence safely, keep it away from any magnetic field (lights, radio,
speakers), static electricity, heaters, hot or cold temperatures, humidity, and
vibrations. All these hazards can destroy the evidence.
• Document the transportation event and preserve the integrity of the chain of
custody.
• Respecting the department’s policies in the management of evidence.
• Keep the document of the scene and the location of the evidence.
• Plan for the role and responsibilities of personnel involved in the investigation.
• All information about the users of the device, the Internet, accounts, passwords,
etc., should be recorded.
• Documents including the scene location, condition, condition of the devices,
passwords, suspected criminal activity should be sent to the forensics.
• Be able to contact a superior officer if a question of appropriate authority arises.
1.3 The Role and Prioritization of the Investigator at the Scene
1.3.1 Investigator Assessment
The role of the investigator in charge starts at that point, where he has specific
responsibilities while on the scene. In addition to developing investigative plans in
agreement with the laws and regulations of the country. Moreover, he has to revise
all the steps taken by the initial respondent officer.
He communicates with the first responding officer regarding observations, docu-
mentation, and activities.
He should revise for:
• Safety of personnel either the team, the victim or other people related to the scene.
• Boundaries of the scene.
• Paperwork like the warrant of arrest or approval forms and consent.
• Defining authorized persons allowed to be in the scene.
• Confirmation for the presence of extensions to the primary scene or secondary
scene and if so, define a responsible officer for that scene and be sure for an open-
line communication.
• Establishment of a location for appliance staging (equipment needed for the
search).
• Establishment of a secure area for the temporary storage of the evidence with
consideration to the chain of custody rules.
• Asking for investigative resources as needed (according to the evidence present at
the scene).
• Ensuring complete control of the scene as regards the documentation and
photographs after the thorough search.
• Ensuring that the witnesses are identified and separated from each other.
10 M. Ghanem
1.3.2 Overview the Scene and Initial Documentation
There is a controlled process where the investigator searches all over the scene (it is
controlled by avoiding disturbance of the crime scene evidence).
The Walk-Through Should be Conducted by the Investigator and Expert

Personnel in Evidence Collection as Follows
• Specify a path for entry and exit to avoid contamination of the scene’s evidence.
• Consider personal protective measurements to avoid contamination.
• Prepare documents and revise evidence collection and storage.
• Confirm the scene condition as regards the state of the scene, lights: turned on or
off—day or night, doors, windows: opened or closed, odors: if there is specific
odor as kerosene, curtains and shutters, time and date indicators inside the crime
scene, electronic devices as answering machines, voice mail, signs of human
activity (food preparation, housekeeping, etc.), furniture, weapons, carpets, envi-
ronmental conditions and people involved.
1.3.3 Log Officer
He is the officer responsible for writing the activity of all personnel at the crime
scene. He is assigned by the responsible officer to write down who enters the scene
and who leaves it. (The detail is in Chap. 2).
1.3.4 Team Composition
Team composition is determined by the responsible investigator according to the

type of crime and the multiplicity of the scene. Each member should be an expert in
his/her field.
A qualified team is selected to perform specialized tasks as photography, latent
prints, DNA extracts, bomb deactivator, etc.
Team members and assignments should be documented.
1.3.5 Procedure of Evidence Collection
The collection of physical evidence must be processed according to a protocol to

prevent loss, annihilation, or defilement.
The investigation team should:
• Select a standard protocol for evidence collection.

• Select a movement strategy so that it would not compromise the further
collection.
• Determine the order of collection of the evidence.
• Start with the vulnerable evidence that can be affected by environmental

conditions.
• Assess the influence of heat, light, and other surrounding conditions on the
physical evidence.
• Start from the simple evidence that does not necessitate processing to the difficult
one which needs complicated methods.
• Define the role of each of the team members.
• Conduct a cautious and systematic assessment considering all conceivable
outcomes of the physical evidence.
• Begin with effortlessly open regions and proceed to out-of-view areas.
• Start with the primary scene if there are multiple scenes then go search others.
• Recognize other strategies that could be used in the collection of evidence and
report.
1.3.6 Contamination Control
It is an essential process that will guarantee the astuteness of evidence. It necessitates

the following:
• Establishing an entry/departure path at the scene.

• Considering personal anticontamination measurements.
• Establishing a secure area (for equipment and sanitizing it before use and after
collection of every evidence.
• Using disposable tools in evidence collection whenever possible.
• Handling the packaging and storage processes in a clean secure place until
delivery to the lab.
1.3.7 The Final Assessment of the Crime Scene
The best start is composing a debriefing team including officers and investigators to
be sure that all missions are completed. This should be carried out before releasing
the scene.
Then a final survey to be sure that all steps which should have been carried out in
the scene were accomplished and no equipment or evidence was left.
Case to Remember
I remember a case where a dead body of a 30-year-old man was found on a flat
riverbank devoid of plants. He was lying on his back, beneath him there was only a
pool of blood. The assailant said that there was a fight where both the victim and the
assailant had knives. He pushed the victim from his back where the knife cut his
throat accidentally. He then felt angry and stabbed the victim with the knife several
times.
12 M. Ghanem
Externally, it was found that there was a cut in the shirt from the beginning of the
sleeves of the left arm, some defensive wounds (multiple small incisions) in the
upper arm and left forearm of the victim and there was an incised wound in the neck
on the left side, eight stabs in the chest, as well as three stabs in the abdomen and a
stab in the left arm, two under the left armpit, and one in the right hand, and there
were several stab wounds in the back.
The autopsy showed the following
The Head We found that the scalp had no bruise, the skull bones were intact, the
brain and meninges were free from any injury.
The Neck We found that the wound described in the neck by the naked eye had
caused vital cutting of the muscles and the soft tissues in relation, including the
major blood vessels on the sides of the neck (carotid artery and jugular veins),
laryngeal cartilages, the upper trachea, and esophagus, with some blood trickled in
the tracheal cavity—and the hyoid bone was intact.
The Chest It showed the penetration of the stab wounds described in the chest in
the external examination across the rib distances and its internal pathways
interfering, causing vital lungs lacerations, heart-piercing incisions, profuse blood
bleeding around two liters and coagulated, and the chest ribs were unified and intact.
The Abdomen The stab wounds in the abdomen were penetrating the stomach
enforcement. A stab from the right side of the back was also, penetrating the
abdominal cavity, causing injury to the liver and mesentery tissue. Hemorrhage
inside the peritoneal cavity was about 1/2 L. The stomach has semi-digested food
and did not include any suspicious odor. The bladder has a small amount of urine.
The Extremities Limited contusions were seen against the lesions described by the
limb by external examination. We found the major blood vessels of the limbs intact,
including the arteries of the left forearm. All the bones of the corpse were found
intact.
Samples were taken for pathology and toxicology labs.
The Forensic Report Included The scene of the crime did not show the presence
of blood anywhere except under the victim in spite that the carotid was severed
which is represented by showers of blood in the scene.
Accidental cutthroats are exceptionally rare. It occurs in accidents where the
victim’s head passes through glass.
The assailant said that the stab wound was accidental during the quarrel. We
found that the lesion in the neck was transverse, deep, and its edges were regular.
This description requires that the skin of the neck must be stretched, and neither the
accused nor the simulation of the crime representation stated that the accused
did this.
There is only one deep, slaughtered wound that occurs only if the deceased’s head
was well fixed and this happens when there are several people where a person fixes
the head and the other performs the slaughtering process or if the victim is in deep
sleep or under the effect of drug of abuse that causes heavy sedation. This was
inconsistent with the investigations or the confession or the presence of defensive
injuries to the upper arm and left forearm of the victim.
So, this victim must be killed in another scene and more than one assailant was
there.
References
Fisher B, Fisher D (2012) Techniques of crime scene investigation. CRC, New York, pp 51–66
Forensic Science Communications (2000) Section A: arriving at the scene: initial response/prioriti-
zation of efforts. https://www.questia.com/library/journal/1G1-137863431/section-a-arriving-
at-the-scene-initial-response-prioritization. Accessed 5 June 2020
Gehl, R, Plecas D (2016) Introduction to criminal investigation: processes, practices and thinking.
New Westminster. http://solr.bccampus.ca:8001/bcc/file/0c9b47a1-9309-470c-b83c-
ed55f5e2a9ea/1/Introduction-to-Criminal-Investigation-Processes-Practices-and-Thinking.pdf.
Accessed 5 June 2020
Horswell J (2004) Practice of crime scene investigations. CRC Press, New Delhi, pp 45–54
Illes M, Wilson P, Bruce C (2019) Forensic epistemology: testing the reasoning skills of crime
scene experts. J Can Soc Forensic Sci 52(4):151–173
Kelley T, Dale Nute H, Zinszer MA, Fuelner M et al (2008) Underwater crime scene investigation:
a guide for law enforcement. Best Publishing Company, New York, pp 1–28
Learner D (2009) Electronic crime scene investigation. Nova Science Publishers, New York
Lee HC, Pagliaro EM (2013) Forensic evidence and crime scene investigation. J Forensic Investig 1
(1):5
LeMay J (2011) CSI for the first responder. A concise guide. CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp 1–168
Madea B, Henssge C, Reibe S, Tsokos M, Kernbach-Wighton G (2014) Handbook of forensic
medicine. Wiley, Berlin, p 75
Muhammad R, Tariq M (2019) Crime scene investigation in Pakistan: a perspective. Forensic Sci
Int: Synerg 1:285–287
National Forensic Science Technology Center (2013) Crime scene investigation—a guide for law
enforcement. https://www.nist.gov/system/files/documents/forensics/Crime-Scene-Investiga
tion.pdf. Accessed 5 June 2020
Pepper I (2005) Crime scene investigation: methods and procedures. Open University Press. https://
www.questia.com/library/119856810/crime-scene-investigation-methods-and-procedures.
Tilstone W, Hastrup M, Hald C (2013) Fisher techniques of crime scene investigation. CRC Press,
Boca Raton, pp 10–140
UN International Drug Control Programme. Division for Operations and Analysis. Scientific
Section (2009) Crime scene and physical evidence awareness for non-forensic personnel.
https://www.unodc.org/documents/scientific/Crime_scene_awareness__Ebook.pdf. Accessed
5 June 2020
Wade C, Trozzi Y (2003) Handbook of forensic services FBI laboratory publication Federal Bureau
of Investigation Quantico, Virginia. https://www.crime-scene-investigator.net/PDF/fbi-hand
book-of-forensic-services-2003.pdf. Accessed 5 June 2020
Crime Scene Processing: Documentation
and Evaluation 2
Maha Ghanem and Haidy M. Megahed
Abstract
Thorough and complete documentation of observations at the crime scene is

crucial. Failure of complete documentation of evidence at the crime scene may
result in challenges at court and unsuccessful prosecution and may affect the
credibility and reputation of the first responders.
Any incident, whether criminal or noncriminal must be documented thor-
oughly. Even accidental injuries can be open to civil litigation such as those
made by insurance companies or equipment manufacturers.
Crime scene documentation may include notes, photography, videos,
sketches, measurements, or reports. None of which are a substitute for the other.
During documentation, it is vital to be aware that there may be many other
people (attorney’s, attorneys’ investigators, crime lab analysts, etc.) who are
involved in the case and were not able to visit and assess the scene of the crime
by themselves and observe the placement of physical evidence within it. The aim
of documentation is to deliver an enduring record of the scene and provide
physical proof. It is the fundamental initial step of the chain-of-custody.
Keywords
Credibility · Noncriminal · Physical evidence
Crime scene documentation is carried out through a well-developed protocol by the

responsible investigator. The documentation process is the responsibility of the first
responder officer and the responsible investigator with the team of experts that are
involved. It can be divided into; crime scene processing as photography, notes,
M. Ghanem (*) · H. M. Megahed


Ltd. 2021
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-4091-9_2
16 M. Ghanem and H. M. Megahed
sketches, video recording, and recording of the responsibilities of each expert in the
team as well as the witness data. Bad documentation results in unaccepted evidence
in the court or by the insurance company in accidents and guilty criminal release.
Proper handling of a crime scene includes numerous diverse individuals
employing a wide assortment of media or strategies to record information, give a
timeline of the examination, as well as how the wrongdoing scene was drawn closer
and how proof was distinguished, checked, and collected for examination.
Documentation will be discussed by the court, attorney, and different parties
involved. So, it should be completed as soon as possible to avoid missing any of
the data.
Documentation should mention the point of entrance of the suspect, what items
he might have moved in the scene as well as what was left undisturbed. It may give a
hint about the modus operandi (MO) of the suspect. For example, in a housebreak,
where the suspect stole money and bijou from the bedroom, documentation of
undisturbed areas that contain valuables as sterling silver and entertainment devices
is important.
Documentation begins from the moment the first person reaches the crime scene.
First, record the time of arrival to the scene, the condition of the scene’s doors,
windows and if there is a characteristic odor and any observed or heard activity.
Always review the assessment of the scene to decide the kind of documentation
required. Documentation is done using appropriate methods such as photography,
videos, sketches, notes, and measurements. Detailed documentation should be
started prior to retrieval of any physical evidence. Each single recovered evidence
is tagged. Any person entering or leaving the scene and any movement or removal of
anything from the crime scene is also observed and recorded.
The objective of documentation is to deliver an enduring record of the scene and
physical proof. It is the fundamental initial step of chain-of-custody. The documen-
tation process requires highly organized and systematic personnel and it should be
his/her only assignment as it consumes a lot of time and needs full commitment.
According to the nature and type of the scene, the type of documentation needed is
determined.
2.1 Photography
Crime scene photography seems to be a simple task to do but it necessitates the use
of complicated techniques that should be carried out correctly and thoroughly to give
the viewer of the photograph a clear visual record. Photography is the most widely
accepted evidence and is considered a solid document by courts whatever the image
quality may be.
2 Crime Scene Processing: Documentation and Evaluation 17
Case number and description Day Month Year Time

Location City District
Victims name ID Code
Photographer name Scribe
Camera Flash lens Film
Total number of rolls Processing log
Serial Details Polar Tripod Type Flash Direction Facing Distance F stop
of the filter of the of facing from
photo Yes / camera lens Yes subject
No Yes / /No
No
Fig. 2.1 Example of a photo log
Some Crucial Points Must be Remembered When Taking Photographs

at a Crime Scene
• Photograph as soon as possible.
• Avoid disturbing the scene and always use the created secured pathway while
walking through the scene.
• Prepare a photograph log that shows the details and placement of the evidence
within the scene. Photo record (log) should include (Fig. 2.1):
– Title and information: as the time the photograph was taken, the date, the crime
case number, etc.,
– Type of equipment used in detail: as cameras, tripods, battery backups,
evidence placards, etc.,
– Numerical order of the photo shot,
– Brief note of the photo,
– The direction in which the photo was taken,
– Distance between the camera and the photographed item.
Take a photograph of a photo placard (a transcribed or organization created a

sheet that records significant case data for the photos to follow) as the first photo
taken (Fig. 2.2).
• Progress from overall to midrange then close-up photos.

• Take all close-up photos with and without scale.
• Take the photos at eye level to imitate the real ordinary view.
• Begin with the most fragile areas of the scene.
• Whenever you take a photograph include the scale in the view and if possible, the
date and time.
Photo placard
Case number:
Date:
Location:
Photographer name and ID:
Roll #:
Fig. 2.2 Example of a photo placard
• The photographer’s name should be recorded for the sake of the authenticity of
the photos.
• Prior to entering the scene, acquire prior blueprints or maps if possible.
• Caution: some equipment and materials used in the photographic process are
flammable, so use appropriate precautions when handling potentially flammable
materials.
• Prepare lighting for the long-range (in front of the object) or for close-up
photography (side lightning where the camera is in front of the object).
2.1.1 Types of Crime Scene Photography
2.1.1.1 Overall (Long-Range) Photography

Start the process with an overall picture of the scene. It functions to document the
layout and condition of the scene as found. Usually, they are shot from all available
corners of the crime scene. If the scene is a business or house, take a photograph of
the exterior crime scene from the street and include the address and sign of the
business to clearly identify the location.
Photographs should have a 360 coverage. Use aerial photography if possible
(used to document crime scenes by taking photographs from considerable heights as
from a helicopter). It is also advisable to take photographs facing away from the
scene to reveal the surrounding area showing the presence or absence of vehicles,
homes, streetlights, and parking lot security cameras.
When photographing interior crime scenes, use the four corners of the room as
guides. Use a normal lens to photograph the interior crime scene in overlapping
series. Wide-angle lens may be used to take overall photographs in such a way that
allows the viewer to see a wide area in the scene at eye level.
When photographing a structure, such as a vehicle, it is advised to photograph it
from various sides and angles. A vehicle is photographed from eight angles: front,
rear, two sides, and four corners. Include the license plates in cases of vehicles
(Fig. 2.3).
Fig. 2.3 A vehicle is photographed from eight angles: front, rear, two sides, and four corners. The
license plates here are stolen
2.1.1.2 Midrange Photography

After completing the overall photographs, we can move on to the midrange
photographs of the important regions within the crime scene (as points of entrance,
physical evidence, opened safe, etc.).
It functions to correlate the photographed evidence with an easily recognizable
marker or other items of evidence. It is not intended to show details. With close-up
photographs, they go together. The aim of midrange photography is to establish the
location of the item of interest within the crime scene and their spatial relationship
with other items of evidence. Take the photographs before and after placing placards
and scales.
For example, if there is a glass of wine on a table that is physical evidence, a
midrange photograph would show the entire table showing where the glass was on
the table and its relationship with other items on the table.
An overall photography was first taken to document the layout and condition of
the scene (body) as found. It is ideal that photographs should not include any
individuals and the scene should be properly secured. Then a midrange photograph
is taken as in of the areas of interest within the crime scene with respect to other
evidences.
When photographing a deceased, it should be done before the body is moved.
Take photographs from all angles (facial view, position of the hand and feet,
clothing) without altering the body. Close-up range is used to photograph wounds.
After removal of the body, photograph the area where the body was moved.
2.1.1.3 Close-Up Photography

Close-up photographs are then taken for items of evidence or areas as near as
possible portraying the details of the item of interest (footprint, fingerprint, tie tracks,
Fig. 2.4 On the right: Close-

up photographs of an inlet of a
firearm injury with 1 cm scale
including an abrasion from
distant firing of a M16 gun.
On the left: an X-ray photo of
the same victim. The arrow
represents the track from the
inlet to a point in the vertebral
column where it was fractured
(Dr. Mohamed Essam
el-Sheikh. Firearm injuries in
forensic medicine.
Arabization center for the
medical science—Arabic
medical curricula series. first
ed. 2012 p 92) (after
permission of the author)
firearm injuries, etc.). They permit one to see all the apparent details of the physical
evidence. Photographs ought to be near and fill the outline with the evidence item
itself. Photographs are taken first without a scale and then with a scale in which the
viewer can gauge the size of the item presented.
For example, after taking a midrange photography of the wine glass mentioned
earlier, a close-up photograph of the glass is taken to detect details such as lipstick
prints.
It is important to keep in mind the following: to utilize placards and remove the
flash from the camera, to use suitable side lighting, to overcome the shadows with
flash, and to include scales within the photos.
Figure 2.4 shows two close-up photos of an inlet of a firearm injury with 1 cm
scale including abrasion from distant firing of a M16 gun.
These photographs were later matched with the X-ray findings (Fig. 2.4 on the
left). The arrow represents the track from the inlet to a point in the vertebral column
where it was fractured, and the bullet remnants were recovered later from the victim.
Figure 2.5 are close-up photographs of different distances of firing. The upper
photograph is of 40 cm firing, the lower left photograph is of contact firing, and the
lower right photograph is of a 20 cm firing range.
2.2 Videography
One of the commonly used method of documentation nowadays is videotaping and it

is preferred due to its 3D filming of the scene. It is economical with high resolution
and a distinguished capability to zoom and having the feature of a compact size.
Although video recordings can be a great investigative aid, first responders may not
Fig. 2.5 (a) Close-up photographs where the picture on the right shows an almost contact firing
with leakage of residues taking the shape of black rectangular parts (arrows) and the picture on the
left shows contact firing over a folded pillow. (b) Close-up photograph where the left injury shows
near firing and the right one shows contact firing (the muzzle print is clear)
have that opportunity. Whenever it is used, it records the crime scene as it is. It is
used in conjunction with digital photographs. The video record tour of the crime
scene provides a graphical 3D representation of the crime scene but does not
substitute photography.
A video can demonstrate the scene from the point of view of the victim, assailant,
or witness. For example, if the video is recorded from the perspective of the witness,
the photographer stands where the witness was, following his footsteps, and records
the scene by slowly panning 360 covering every angle of the scene.
2.2.1 Guidelines for Videotaping a Crime Scene
• Prepare a photo sheet before beginning taping. The photo sheet should contain
information such as the offense number, the time, the date, the crime location, the
name of the personnel responsible for the video graphing process, and the name
of the officer.
• Avoid disturbing the scene.
• Do not include the officer or the investigator in your recorded film.
• The date and time of the video graphing must be documented and preferred to be
on the film. Film the photo sheet and begin with a 360 pan of the exterior of the
crime scene. Film overall, midrange, and close-ups of evidence. Do not stop till
the entire scene is documented. It is preferred to make the video film as one shot,
do not stop and restart repeatedly. It is recorded in one take to avoid giving the
recording an edited appearance.
– Walk through the scene slowly, zoom in and out slowly before moving to the
next evidence.
– A good illumination is needed, sunlight is preferred, or use a video strobe.
– Do not use a flashlight for illumination while filming the scene.
– After fully documenting the crime scene, turn off the camera. A second film of
the scene is important.
– Never edit, erase, or alter the video in any manner following initial taping.
– Finally, keep the film in limited access and submit the videotape or Micro SD
card whenever needed.
2.3 Sketching
Another tool used in documenting a crime scene and crime scene evidence is
sketching. It is an enduring record of the distance and size relationship of the
crime scene and physical evidence inside it. It clarifies the data in photos and
video reports since the other strategies do not permit the viewer to effectively
measure distances and relations between items found in the scene. The combination
of different documentation methods as photographs and videos, help provide a
perfect image to the crime scene. If the officer can add a sketch in the court, it will
be much easier to point out the exact location of the evidence recovered from the
scene.
Sketches are a simple and cheap method to document evidence in the crime scene,
illustrate the distance and relation between evidence and other landmarks. It is of
high benefit in large area illustration, mapping paths taken by cars, and sometimes
subjects can be demonstrated on sketches better than photographs.
2.3.1 Sketches Should Include the Following
• Title box: should include the case number, the date, time of arrival, the location,
and the sketcher’s name. It should be mentioned if a scale is used or not in the
sketch (e.g., add “not to scale”). It is preferred to add the scale in a final diagram
and not in a rough sketch. The scale should be presented graphically not numeri-
cally. For example, if numerical scale provided is 0.2500 ¼ 10 , and the diagram is
magnified for any reason, so the scale will not be accurate anymore.
• Dimensions as length, width, and height are sometimes needed for rooms, doors,
furniture, and windows.
• Distances between evidence, bodies, persons, and certain points.
• Whenever locating the evidence, you should use two fixed non-movable item
measurements as doors and windows.
– Should use a key, legend, compass orientation, or a combination of these.
Legends (a note of explanation, outside of the sketch area, which relates to a
specific item, symbol, or information contained within the sketch) may be
utilized to portray things inside the scene and can give estimations and
measurements. Putting this data in a legend instead of within the sketch
helps keep the outline neat and clean.
Crime scene sketches are mostly rough and not perfect in appearance and can be
drawn by freehand.
Usually, sketches are drawn using lead pencils which are easy to use especially if
erasures are made. Graph paper simplifies scale drawings and using clipboards is
very helpful. It is sometimes preferred to use different colored inks in drawing the
sketches, that helps in interpretation, as some cases take a long time in court and the
first responding officer may need to review it after months.
Colored inks can be used as follows:
• Red/Blue ink: for physical evidence.

• Black ink: for walls and furniture.
• Green ink: for distance, measurements, legends.
A diagram is not a scale or a work of art but can assist in understanding locations
of various item found.
2.3.2 Types of Sketches and Perspectives
During the investigations, two types of sketches are made: the initial rough sketch
and the final sketch. The initial (rough) sketch is drawn by free hand at the scene
(Fig. 2.6). It includes a scene outline with the clear location of evidence within
it. Multiple rough sketches maybe drawn depending on the crime: a sketch for the
surrounding area, a sketch with only distances, and a sketch with the location of
1 5/1 2/201 9- 1 2 elmathaf St., Azzarita , 1 0:30 PM
1-vicm 2-footwear soiled with blood 3-blood pool 4- foot print
Fig. 2.6 Example of an initial (rough) sketch
evidence and victims (Fig. 2.7). A rough sketch should not be altered after leaving
the crime scene.
A final computerized sketch is derived from one or more of the initial sketches
and is usually prepared for presentation in court. A final sketch can be produced by a
computer or ink, but it cannot be modified (not a pencil) (Fig. 2.7).
There are four main types of perspectives used: the overhead (bird’s eye view
sketch or floor plan) and the elevation (side view) sketch are the most common.
Sometimes a combination of both called a cross-projection sketch (exploded view)
can be used. It is similar to the bird’s eye view but things such as walls are drawn as
they are laid down rather than upright. Finally, the perspective diagram provides a
3D view (Fig. 2.8).
Floor plans are very common and provide a bird’s eye view as if the viewer is
looking down into the scene from above. The viewer can then understand the
structure (e.g., room) and layout and the placement of furniture, and location of
evidence found in the crime scene. However, the height of the objects is not recorded
and any other associated items on the walls which can be done using an elevation
sketch, especially in deaths involving hanging, where height is an important aspect
(Fig. 2.9).
Fig. 2.7 An initial sketch drawn by hand at the scene (this has been finalized on a computer)
Fig. 2.8 Computer generated

sketch (final sketch)
Fig. 2.9 A floor plan
Fig. 2.10 Elevation diagram (A ¼ bullet 1, B ¼ bullet 2, C ¼ desk with 3*2 diameter)
An elevation diagram is a drawing of a vertical surface such as a wall or a car’s

side. Usually utilized when the vertical, instead of the horizontal plane is of interest.
This sort of outline is utilized when vertical surfaces contain physical proof such as
bloodstains on a door. It is drawn from the perspective of standing in a room and
looking at the door. The width and height of the vehicle, door, or wall are recorded in
addition to the distance from one edge of the evidence (Fig. 2.10).
Fig. 2.11 Perspective

diagram
A perspective diagram is a 3D view of the scene, that is exceptionally complex

and may require more skills and expertise. Width, length, and height must be
measured (Fig. 2.11).
Types of techniques used to obtain measurements in sketches (mapping):

1. Rectangular coordinates,
2. Triangulation (trilateration),
3. Base line (fixed),
4. Polar (Azimuth) coordinates (compass point method).
They are all based on identifying two starting fixed points (building corners, large
trees, or utility poles) and all subsequent measurements are in relation to those
points.
The choice of method used to obtain measurements depends on the kind of scene,
if it is indoors or outdoors, and the presence of fixed points to measure from. It also
depends on the first responder’s preference (what he can use efficiently and what he
is comfortable with).
2.3.2.1 Rectangular Coordinates

• It is commonly used.
• It is uncomplicated.
• It is suitable whenever the scene has boundaries (as walls). The location of an
object (as a knife) is measured from two mutually perpendicular objects. For
example, two walls that meet at a 90 angle. A measurement taken from the north
wall and another from the east wall will provide the rectangular coordinates
needed.
• In case of large or irregular-shaped objects (e.g., body): record the distances to the
approximate center of the head, center of the abdomen and each hand, and foot
(Fig. 2.12).
Fig. 2.12 Rectangular

coordinates used in this scene
show the exact location of the
victim’s body
2.3.2.2 Triangulation
Measurements are taken from two fixed objects (lamppost, corner of a structure,
telephone pole) to the evidence to obtain the object’s location. It can be used both in
outdoor and indoor crime scenes especially in areas lacking straight lines. It is very
accurate and does not need advanced technology.
2.4 Method
– Select two fixed points.

– Draw a baseline between the two fixed points.
– Measure the distance to the object (evidence) from each of the baseline’s fixed
endpoint, creating a triangle (Figs. 2.13, 2.14, 2.15).
2.4.1 Transecting Baseline Coordinate Method
Mostly used for outdoor scenes (e.g., desserts, farmlands) that are irregular with no
natural baseline as trees. Used to measure items of evidence when there are numer-
ous objects and other measurement techniques can not be used. It is the most basic
and the least accurate.
Building
Pavement 1
Vehicle 1
Island 2 Island 1
Vehicle 2
S
Pavement 2
Fig. 2.13 Triangulation: measurements were taken from the head to the building, and from the
lumber region there are three triangles one to the building and the other to the traffic signals (S), for
the car 1 and 2 similar triangles were drawn from the car to the building, signals, and pavement
Fig. 2.14 Triangulation was

done by measuring the
distance from the head
(occiput) of the victim and the
lumbar region to the pavement
points
2.5 Method
• A tape measure is used to layout the baseline between two stable items deter-
mined in the scene as shown in the illustration. This measurement taken from the
first tape is considered as the baseline for all other measurements.
• The zero presents on the tape measure is considered the reference point.
• Measurements are then taken at right angles from the baseline to each item and
where that right angle intersects on the baseline as shown in Figs. 2.16 and 2.17.
• Determine the distance from the zero point on the tape measure to the bisecting
right angle.
• Record the measure from the baseline to the object of concern.
Fig. 2.15 Triangulation: D

measurements were taken
A
from the head occiput and the 5M
lumbar region to the wall
4.1M
E F 1.8M
1.7M
C B
4 .3M
Fig. 2.16 A transecting

baseline: measurements are
taken at right angles from the
baseline to each item and
where that right angle
intersects on the baseline. The
dotted lines represent the
brake marks and the
longitudinal lines represent
the measurement tape that is
parallel to the pavement
2.5.1 Polar (Azimuth) Coordinates (Compass Point Method)
Polar (azimuth) coordinates (compass point method):

Mostly used for mapping evidence scattered in a wide-open outdoor area (fields,
meadows) where only a single stable point is present (e.g., a falling balloon in a
woodland) (Figs. 2.18, 2.19).
Fig. 2.17 A transecting baseline coordinate method of measurements—not to scale (1 ¼ empty

cartridge—2 ¼ fired case)
Fig. 2.18 Polar coordinates

(compass point method): a car
accident with a dead man
found on the mountain and the
car is in the valley (each line
circle—5 m)
Fig. 2.19 Polar coordinates: a protractor is used to measure the angle formed by the two lines
Fig. 2.20 Azimuth board

used by drawing a flat circle
on a sketch paper and marked
with 360 as a regular
protractor, where the
horizontal line passes in the
center of that circle and is
considered as a zero. From
that point, use a tape measure
and record the distance and
angle to each object
If we want to determine the location of a victim’s body in a scene present over a

mountain or a plateau, we consider the land around the mountain as the reference
surface. So, everything higher than this point as a mountain or a plateau is measured
with plus measure for that reference surface and anything below that surface is
measured with minus measure. So, if the victim’s body over the mountain and the car
transferred the victim’s body at the valley, so, we take measurements from the single
chosen point to the body and to the car used. If we chose the single reference point on
the mountain (peculiar rock or larger one or marked rock) then we draw imaginary
circles from that point until we reach the victim’s body.
• This can be carried also by drawing a flat circle on a sketch paper and marked with
360 by a protractor, where the horizontal line passes in the center of that circle
and is considered as a zero, then we can measure the distance and the angle
between that point and the zero point (Fig. 2.20).
• Devices and commercial lasers are available now and can help in this method.
These devices provide the angle, and the distance is obtained by a measuring tape.
Figure 2.21 compares how triangulation, baseline, and polar coordinates are
measured.
2.6 Notes (Reports)
Taking notes is critical and perhaps the most important of all duties and
responsibilities of the first responder since it provides a written enduring record of
all perceptions, events, and tasks in the crime scene. Nothing can be considered a
Triangulation
Draw a triangle, where letters A and C are
stable chosen points.
And letters B and D represent the line of
measurement from the chosen points
Baseline
The chosen stable points are M and N, the
evidence in that scene are marked as L L
and O, the measurement taken from the
evidence object at a right angle to the line
M-N. M N
Polar/ azimuth coordinate

We measure distance and angle from the
physical evidence D
to the wall B. A protractor or compass is
used to measure the angles.
D
B480 N
Fig. 2.21 Compares triangulation, baseline, and polar coordinates methods used in crime scene
measurements
trivial detail in the report because whenever all the facts are gathered, later on after
completing the investigation, this minor detail can be the only clue to solving
the case.
Notes should:
Be taken as soon as the activities are completed to prevent forgetting any details
and to preserve information.
Include basic details as:
Notification information: when was the crime reported, type of the crime, method
of notification (e.g., by phone), and the name of the person requesting the
investigation.
Details of the officer’s arrival at the scene (date/time), evidence collection, and
clearing the scene (date/time).
Taken in chronological order as events unfold.

Written thoroughly, clearly (not sloppy), and in detail so that they are not
subjected to misinterpretation.
Personnel present (crime scene team): crime scene members, beginning and
ending time. A detailed entry/exit log should be created. It is the responsibility of
the “log officer” to monitor it at all times. Record transient evidence as odors and
sounds.
Description of the scene: location, condition (windows, doors, etc.), if the scene is
disturbed or not, climate, if indoors (whether lights were on or off), identification of
possible points of entry, clothing, furniture, and weapons, if present.
Negative observations should also be included as lack of evidence after thorough
searching and lack of latent prints and bloodstains. This is important since it
emphasizes that these actions were performed and prevents another officer from
returning and performing them again. “If it is not written, it was not done.”
Description of victims: the position of the body, lividity, clothing, and any
identification if present. The body should not be moved till the arrival of the medical
examiner.
Statements of victims, witnesses, suspects, the person that reports the scene, and
the team of medical intervention in certain situations.
References
Barry AJ (2004) Processing a crime scene. In: Techniques of crime scene investigation, 7th edn.
CRC, New York, pp 98–112
Bevel T, Gardner R (2002) Bloodstain pattern analysis with an introduction to crime scene
reconstruction, 2nd edn. CRC Press, Boca Raton
Doyle A (1930) Methodical approach to processing the crime scene. Jones and Bartlett Publishers,
Burlington
Fisher B (2003) Techniques of crime scene investigation, 7th edn. CRC Press, Boca Raton
Forensic Science Bureau (2019) Crime scene section technical manual. Austin Police Department.
https://www.austintexas.gov/sites/default/files/files/Police/Forensics/CS_Technical_Manual.
pdf. Accessed 7 June 2020
Hochrein M (2002) Polar coordinate mapping and forensic archaeology within confined spaces. JFI
52(6):733–749
Laboratory and Scientific Section United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (2009) Crime scene
and physical evidence awareness for non-forensic personnel. https://www.unodc.org/
documents/scientific/Crime_scene_awareness__Ebook.pdf. Accessed 7 June 2020
LeMay J (2011) Crime scene documentation. In: CSI for the first responder, A concise guide. CRC
Press, Boca Raton, pp 9–25
Little D (2018) Using 3D laser scanners in crime scenes: understanding advantages and
disadvantages. Weber State University. https://apps.weber.edu/wsuimages/BIS/
PrimaryResearch/Darwin%20Little%20BIS%20Final%20Paper%202018%20(3).pdf.
Miller M (2013) Crime scene investigation. In: James S, Nordby J, Bell S (eds) Forensic science: an
introduction to scientific and investigative techniques. CRC Press, New York, pp 121–135
U.S. Department of Justice Office of Justice Programs (2000) Fire and arson scene evidence: a
guide for public safety personnel. https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/181584.pdf. Accessed
8 June 2020
U.S. Department of Justice Office of Justice Programs (2013) Preliminary documentation and
evaluation of the scene. In: Crime scene investigation: a guide for law reinforcement. https://
www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/178280.pdf. Accessed 7 June 2020
U.S. Department of Justice Office of Justice Programs National Institute of Justice (2000) Com-
pleting and recording the crime scene investigation. In: Crime scene investigation: a guide for
law enforcement. https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/200160.pdf. Accessed 7 June 2020
Wade C, Trozzi Y (2003) Handbook of forensic services FBI laboratory publication. Federal
Bureau of Investigation Quantico, Virginia. https://www.crime-scene-investigator.net/PDF/
fbi-handbook-of-forensic-services-2003.pdf. Accessed 7 June 2020
Wow Essays (2019) Research paper on photography modern criminal investigation. https://www.
wowessays.com/free-samples/research-paper-on-photography-in-modern-criminal-investiga
tion/. Accessed 8 June 2020
Crime Scene Searching: An Exploration
of Forensic Evidence 3
Maha Ghanem and Zahraa Khalifa Sobh
Abstract
Recovery of evidence from the crime scene is the first step towards crime
reconstruction. Therefore, searching for materials of significant evidential value
is a cornerstone of any crime investigation. However, not all evidence is evident.
Often minute evidence coexists within complex environments that contain items
of limited legal value. Moreover, in many occasions, the offenders may try to
erase or hide all potential clues that might point to their identity. Thus, explora-
tion of all forensic evidence in the crime scene is a challenging task.
Scenes should be searched systematically and thoroughly for relevant evi-
dence. Various standardized searching strategies could be applied such as lane
(strip), line, grid, circle (spiral), and zone method. The nature of the crime scene
and the evidence being searched govern the selection of the appropriate searching
approach.
The visualization of trace and latent evidence could be assisted by a wide
range of illumination modalities such as ultraviolet rays (UV), fluorescence, and
chemiluminescence illumination. All precautions should be considered to guard
against contamination of the scene or destruction of evidence during the manage-
ment of the scene.
Keywords
Physical evidence · Trace · Illumination
M. Ghanem (*) · Z. K. Sobh


Ltd. 2021
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-4091-9_3
38 M. Ghanem and Z. K. Sobh
3.1 Introduction
Crime scene investigation begins with the initial response, documentation of crime
scene, physical evidence recognition, preservation and examination of recovered
evidence, analysis, and finally reconstruction of the crime scene.
Locating an evidence is an essential step in crime scene investigations. The
unrecognized relevant evidence in the crime scene is irretrievably lost. Moreover,
vigorous handling or improper preservation of the forensic evidence might critically
reduce its legal value. Therefore, conduction of careful and thorough crime scene
search is a target for which we strive for. Locating physical evidence at the crime
scene might be challenging because the most valuable evidence might not be
obviously visible.
3.2 Value of the Physical Evidence
A successful crime reconstruction is dependent on forensic evidence retrieved from

the crime scene. Unfortunately, many crimes are not solved, or the assailant is not
sued because of missing evidence in the scene. Nevertheless, innocent persons might
be accused and sued because of misused evidence. On the other hand, the perfect
crime is theoretically possible, in which the criminal can perform the criminal act
without leaving any proof behind. It is more likely because valuable forensic
evidence was not recognized. Missed evidence in the crime scene means a lost
case and sets a criminal free.
3.3 Crime Scene Principles
3.3.1 Locard’s Exchange Principle
“ Every Contact Leaves a Trace.”

The value of trace evidence in criminal investigations was first mentioned by
Edmund Locard in 1910. He was the pioneer in forensic science and criminology
and the founder of the first crime laboratory located in Lyon, France. Locard
hypothesized that there will be an exchange with contact between two objects.
According to Locard’s theory, everyone coming to a scene will bring objects and
leave them in the scene and whenever leaving he will take another object with him.
Therefore, the perpetrators leave behind trace evidence and take tiny materials away
from the scene.
3.3.2 Linkage Principle
Linkage is the establishment of a relationship or connection between the physical

evidence and person. The linkage theory is based on the interrelations between the
3 Crime Scene Searching: An Exploration of Forensic Evidence 39
recovered physical evidence, a victim, a suspect, and a crime scene. Careful consid-
eration of the possible connections between these components will point to the
possible locations of potential evidence.
3.4 Challenges in Searching the Crime Scene
Evidence might be missed and undiscovered in most of the crime scenes. However,
proper systematized searching might minimize such inherited limitations. The
overlooking of evidence in the scene could be attributed to the following:
• The crime scene is a complex nature that contains different kinds of objects. Often
trace evidence with medicolegal importance is present within this crowded
environment that contains many items of limited legal value.
• Inappropriate securing of the crime scene might result in contamination of the
scene and introduction of foreign items to the scene that were not originally
present.
• Some evidence is fragile and easily destroyed if not managed properly. Outdoor
crime scenes are more liable to the destruction of evidence by environmental
conditions.
• In many situations the criminals try to erase or hide all potential evidence
therefore their detection might be so difficult.
• The crime investigators, as any human being, are prone to natural logical fallacies
even with the best of intentions.
3.5 Types of Crime Evidence
Forensic evidence could be classified according to the nature of the evidence, its
physical state or its chemical composition, or the type of crime. From the forensic
point of view, the classification of evidence according to its nature is more applica-
ble. The evidence could be temporary, contingent, pattern, exchangeable, electronic
evidence, medicolegal, associative, etc.
3.6 Temporary Evidence
This type of evidence is transient, rapidly changed, or easily lost. Temporary

evidence includes physical characters as color, odors, temperatures, and the drying
of blood. Due to its unstable nature, this type of proof should be examined and
documented as soon as possible.
3.7 Contingent Evidence
This kind of evidence is produced by the occurrence of actions. It is temporary and

should be documented immediately. Examples of conditional evidence include the
position of the dead body, the opened windows, closed doors, lightning condition, or
the position of any item in the pathway within the crime scene.
3.8 Pattern Evidence
Various patterns could be discovered at a crime scene in the form of prints or

markings. The commonly found patterns at crime scenes are tire marks, shoe prints
and impressions, blood patterns, palm and fingerprints, glass shatter patterns, fire
marks, and gun powder residues in firearm.
3.9 Exchangeable Evidence
They are evidence that can be transferred between the victim and assailant and are a
good example of the Locard’s Exchange Principle. Exchangeable evidence might be
of great medicolegal importance.
The commonest trace evidence in scenes is hair, fiber, blood, biological fluids,
paint, and skin.
3.10 Medicolegal Evidence
This evidence does not only include the medicolegal description only of different
injuries but also includes medical and drug history and all forms of medical
documents.
3.11 Electronic Evidence
In the last few years, electronic evidence became one of the commonest proof in
resolving criminal cases. The crime scene investigators should collect all electronic
devices, cameras, smartphones, computers, and data storage devices. Examination of
electronic evidence is carried out by digital forensic specialists.
3.12 Associative Evidence
During an investigation of a crime, specific objects might be found at a scene and

could be used to connect a person to a particular scene. Assailant’s vehicle is an
example of associative evidence.
3.13 Tasks of the Investigator in the Scene
The responsibility of the investigator in the scene is nearly similar to that of the first
responder to reach the venue. Each should evaluate the crime scene objectively and
neutrally. The main target of crime scene investigators is to discover and preserve
this evidence. Such clues might prove that the suspect committed the crime and
reconstruct the events of the criminal act.
The crime scene investigators are advised to be more meticulous and thorough
than needed. Comprehensive processing of the scene is better than missing items
evidence, that seems insignificant, that might be later proved to be critical in the
investigation.
3.14 Time of Crime Scene Search
The crime scene search should be initiated as soon as possible to avoid contamina-
tion of the scene or loss of important proof. However, the search is preferred to be
during the daytime. Examining at night should be avoided whenever possible.
Daylight is much more effective in scene examination than artificial lighting. The
outdoor search is easier to be conducted in natural illumination and often yields more
information. If the search for an outdoor scene is initiated at night, the scene should
be preserved until the final search in daylight.
3.15 Number of Investigators
The type of the crime and the nature of the scene determine the number of
investigators and expertise needed to fulfill the assignment. Two crime scene
investigators are better than one to search for physical evidence, especially in
major crime scene investigations. Even when the tasks could be efficiently carried
by a single crime scene investigator, two investigators are preferred to conduct a
more thorough search. Observations of two searchers might be more accurate and
reduce the risk of overlooking. The two investigators should be cooperative and
work together as a team. Any discovered evidence should be immediately reported
to the other partner.
3.16 Before Searching the Crime Scene
• The crime scene investigator should get brief information about the case from the
police officers and the first responders.
• The condition of the weather and the time of arrival should be considered.
• The persons who entered the scene before the examination are identified and any
disruption in the original state should be considered and recorded. Inexperienced
personnel might unintentionally destroy evidence by stepping or improper
handling.
• Certain crimes necessitate the inclusion of specialized experts in the investigation
team such as coroner in homicides. In such situations, crime scene investigation
should not be initiated before the arrival of the other specialized personnel. The
tasks of a crime scene specialists are often complicated. They should be permitted
to deal with an intact undisrupted scene to achieve the best results.
3.17 Searching in the Scene
Searching for physical evidence starts with initial observations of the scene with the
naked eye and magnifiers. A range of illumination techniques could be used to locate
potential evidence that cannot be visualized using white light. Besides, testing
procedures might be helpful in the detection of particular trace evidence, e.g.,
powders used in the visualization of latent fingerprints and chemicals to visualize
traces of seminal and bloodstains.
3.17.1 Precautions in Searching the Crime Scene
• When the investigator enters the crime scene, he should carefully watch one’s
step and proceed in the scene cautiously.
• Searching the scene should consider the use of noninvasive techniques. Further
search in the crime scene might be required if new information appears. There-
fore, preservation of the scene as long as possible is advisable. Fragile evidence
should be treated with caution when discovered to avoid distortion or contamina-
tion. Any impression on surfaces should be carefully protected until proper
processing.
• Avoidance of formation of early unjustified conclusions. Confirmation bias might
occur when crime scene investigators search for certain evidence that confirms
their hypothesis. In such circumstances, they frequently give more value to
certain evidence that proves their previous hypothesis and neglect any other
proof that does not agree with their presumptions.
3.17.2 Crime Scene Searching Approach
There is a generalized outline on how to proceed in a crime scene that could be

applied in most of the cases. However, there are no absolute rules for the manage-
ment of crime scenes. Even highly experienced investigators might be confronted by
unfamiliar situations. The investigators in the scene should not firmly stick to a fixed
routine in all cases. The competent investigator should be adaptable, and flexible to
modulate the approach done in every individual crime scene.
Each crime scene is unique regarding the manner of the criminal act and the
physical characteristics of the scene. The crime scenes should be searched thor-
oughly in a systematized manner with the periodization of areas that are most likely
to yield evidence. Besides, a survey that includes the scene and its adjacent areas is
mandatory.
The Crime Scene should be comprehensively searched for evidence. The objec-
tive of a crime scene search using any method is to locate all valuable evidence that
can be used to solve the mystery of any crime. An assortment of wrongdoing crime
scene search techniques is accessible and will generally be dictated by the area and
conditions within reach.
3.17.3 Crime Scene Searching Methods
• Linear or Lane Search

• Strip Method
• Grid Method
• Zonal Method
• Spiral Method (Outward Spiral and Inward Spiral)
• Wheel Search Method
• Random Search
3.17.3.1 Linear Search

Line search is a suitable method for searching large scenes either indoors or
outdoors. Line search is conducted by a team of crime scene investigators. The
scene is divided into narrow straight lanes that are marked using string to make sure
that all scene areas are included in the search. (Fig. 3.1).
Each investigator is responsible for searching in a lane. All investigators should
start at one side of the lane and end on the opposite side. All lanes should be
thoroughly searched until the entire scene has been completed. Flags are used to
mark the discovered evidence for further processing.
3.17.3.2 Strip (Parallel) Method

This search method is used when only one investigator is available to search the
scene. The method is suitable for the crime scene similar to classrooms that have
multiple rows, each row can be considered as a strip. The investigator walks back
and forth until the scene is completely searched. (Fig. 3.2).
Fig. 3.1 Linear or lane

search
Fig. 3.2 Strip (Parallel)

method
3.17.3.3 Grid (Double Strip) Search

Grid or double strip search method is suitable for large crime scenes. This method
necessitates the recruitment of an appropriate number of investigators. Grid search is
more comprehensive than the line search because the crime scene is examined twice.
The crime scene in the grid search is subdivided into lanes to guarantee proper search
of all areas in the scene. Each lane is searched with an assigned investigator. The
Fig. 3.3 Grid (double strip)

search
searching process starts at one end of the lanes, then a second search is carried out
perpendicular to the initial lanes. Flags are used to mark the potential evidence for
further processing. (Fig. 3.3).
3.17.3.4 Zone Search

The zone search method is suitable for the management of small scenes such as
indoor crime scenes and vehicles. A limited number of investigators are needed in
this method. In zone search, the scene is subdivided into three-dimensional
compartments. Then, zones could be further subdivided if needed. One zone is
searched at a time. After finishing searching in zones, the zones will be exchanged
to double-check for any missing evidence. This method is inapplicable in very
complex scenes like stairs and elevators. (Fig. 3.4).
3.17.3.5 Spiral (Circular) Search

The spiral search is suitable for large outdoor crime scenes in absence of a sufficient
number of searchers. This approach could be also implemented for indoor scenes.
Spiral search is helpful only to locate large obvious objects such as weapons. The
investigator starts either from the center of the scene (outward) or from the periphery
(inward) search. A flag is used to mark any discovered evidence. The main disad-
vantage of the outward spiral search method is that the evidence might be destroyed
while the investigator moves to the center of the scene to start the outward search.
(Fig. 3.5).
3.17.3.6 Wheel (Pie) Search

This method is applicable only to search larger outdoor crime scenes (open areas)
such as fields and deserts. The wheel is divided into several zones according to the
size of the scene. Multiple investigators will search in separate zones and then the
Fig. 3.4 Zone search
Fig. 3.5 Spiral (circular)

search
zones will be exchanged to double-check for any missing evidence. The searchers
can start from the central area and move towards the periphery to complete the search
and then returning to the center. In a wheel search, the zones are further subdivided
into numerous sectors and searched using other methods, such as a lane, strip, or grid
search. (Fig. 3.6).
3.17.3.7 Random Search

None of the previously mentioned rules is followed in this method. The random
search might be considered in complex crime scenes.
Fig. 3.6 Wheel (pie) search
3.17.4 Prediction of the Sites of Evidence
The scene should be properly evaluated first to minimize the probability of

overlooking significant circumstances. The investigator should anticipate the poten-
tial sites where the evidence might be found. To predict the sites of potential
evidence, the investigators should continuously ask “how and why?”. The manner
and intent of the incident might point to the sites of potential clues. The inlets and
exits of the scene should be carefully examined for possible evidence along with
items that are commonly touched by offenders such as light switches and doorknobs.
For example, in homicides, the crime scene searching begins with points of entry and
exit, followed by the area surrounding the victim’s body, then the rest of the scene.
The position of the dead body should be marked with chalk or any suitable marker
before the removal of the body from the scene. The area under the decedent should
be searched.
3.17.5 Decision Regarding the Relevance of Objects
Deciding what are relevant objects with potential value in crime investigation is
challenging. Any object in the crime scene might have a great evidential value. Even
apparently unimportant items in initial investigations might turn out to be extremely
valuable evidence later. If the value of any item is questionable, it is treated as
evidence until proven otherwise.
3.18 Crime Scene Imaging: Searching for Traces
In the initial survey, white light is sufficient for the visualization of obvious
evidence. However, the detection of traces with different colors that are present on
different backgrounds necessitates the application of more advanced modalities.
3.18.1 Principles of Light Theories
One of the most effective methods to explore the crime scene is the interactions
between matter and light to detect latent traces.
3.18.1.1 Physical Nature of Light

Light is radiant energy (electromagnetic radiation) that propagates in the form of
waves. The characteristic wave features are frequency and wavelength. The fre-
quency is the number of cycles per unit time, while the wavelength is the distance
between two successive peaks. The electromagnetic spectrum is the set of all the
radiations that are subdivided according to wavelength into several zones.
The visible range is a limited portion of the whole electromagnetic spectrum. The
visible range is located between 380 and 780 nm wavelengths which is a narrow
zone in the whole spectrum. Besides, the sensitivity of the human eye is different to
different wavelengths of the visible range. The highest sensitivity is for the percep-
tion of green color and diminishes gradually towards the violet color. Therefore, a
large number of trace physical evidence in the scene could not be observed and
remain latent. However, the near-ultraviolet and near-infrared portions in the spec-
trum are invisible to the human eye but easily detectable using appropriate
modalities. Thus, the use of detectors that operate with wavelengths outside the
visible range, increase the chances of detection of tiny traces.
3.18.1.2 Reflection of Light

The white light consists of all wavelengths of visible range. Each object could absorb
certain wavelengths and reflect the unabsorbed wavelengths. The unabsorbed
reflected wavelengths are perceived as a color. Therefore, the seen colors are
complementary colors to the absorbed wavelength.
• Specular reflection: This phenomenon occurs when the light falls on a shiny
smooth surface. In the specular reflection, the radiation is reflected perpendicular
to the surface and the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
• Diffuse reflection: This phenomenon occurs when the light falls on a rough
surface. Diffuse reflection of light occurs in all surrounding directions with a
scattering of the radiation.
It is worth mentioning that grazing or oblique illumination might assist in the

detection of traces on smooth surfaces, or impressions with three-dimensional
features such as tool marks and footprints.
3.18.1.3 Fluorescence Phenomena

In the fluorescence phenomena, electrons absorb light energy from external sources
and are promoted to higher energy levels (excited state) for a transient period. Then,
the electrons reemit light of the same wavelength and return to the ground state.
Fluorescence is a vital phenomenon for searching for latent evidence in crime scenes
because various traces display fluorescence.
3.18.2 Absorption/Reflection Mode
Absorption could be used to enhance the contrast. When the source of light has the
same color as the background, the surface appears lighter, and the tiny evidence on it
will be relatively darker in color. In contrast, when the complementary color is used,
the faint traces appear on a dark background. The selection of the wavelength
depends on the trace that the investigator is searching for. For example, a bloodstain
has a maximum absorption at 415 nm UV-visible spectrum.
3.18.3 Fluorescence
Fluorescence could be induced by the illumination of the object with an appropriate

wavelength. The fluorescence phenomenon could be used for the detection of latent
fingerprints and gunshot residues (GSR). Also, trace biological evidence could be
detected by fluorescence in particular wavelengths such as semen, vaginal
secretions, and saliva. The illumination sources are manufactured in a manner that
allows the tuning of the wavelength to adapt to the detection of a particular type of
evidence.
Electrons could be excited by visible wavelengths with subsequent emission
(fluorescence) within the visible range. However, crime scene investigations should
not be limited to the visible range for efficient detection of traces. Various substances
exhibit fluoresces when excited with UV light. Thus, UV illumination is used in
crime scene exploration where the appropriate wavelength is selected based on the
evidence that is searched for. In such a condition, special UV detectors are needed to
record UV-UV fluorescence.
3.18.4 Chemiluminescence
Chemiluminescence is the emission of light in response to a certain chemical

reaction. The chemiluminescence is triggered only by the interaction of the sub-
stance with particular chemicals. For example, Luminol (5-Amino-2,3-
dihydrophthalazine-1,4-dione) is a well-known reagent for the detection of blood
traces in the crime scene. Luminol and hydrogen peroxide are sprayed on the
surfaces that anticipate having traces of blood. The iron in hemoglobin acts as a
catalyst and the latent blood traces will glow blue light that could be photographed.
The utility of Luminol chemiluminescence in the crime scene has some

limitations. It always fades rapidly after a brief time (about 30 s) that is why rapid
photographing is mandatory. Besides, Luminol gives false-positive results with any
iron-containing substances other than blood. Also, if the blood is scanty, the
intensity of emitted light will be very faint.
References
Causin V, Guzzini G (2018) Light for crime scene examination. In: Miolo G, Stair J, Zloh M (eds)
Light in forensic science: issues and applications. European Society of Photobiology, London,
pp 1–25
Çubuk M (2002) Utilisation of ultraviolet light for detection and enhancement of latent prints.
Zagadnien Nauk Sadowych 51:150–154
Fisher B, Fisher D (2012) Techniques of crime scene investigation. CRC Press, New York, pp
51–66
Horswell J (2004) Practice of crime scene investigations. CRC Press, New Delhi, pp 45–54
Ian K (2005) Crime scene investigation: methods and procedures. Open University Press, England,
pp 39–47
Joanne L, Jonathan I, Terence I (2006) A comparison of the presumptive luminol test for blood with
four nonchemiluminescent forensic techniques. Luminescence 21:214–220
Kelty SF, Julian R, Robertson J (2011a) Professionalism in crime scene examination: the seven key
attributes of top crime scene examiners. Forensic Sci Policy Manage Int J 2(4):175–186
Kelty SF, Julian R, Robertson J (2011b) Professionalism in crime scene examination: the seven key
attributes of top crime scene examiners. Forensic Sci Policy Manage Int J 2(4):175–186. https://
doi.org/10.1080/19409044.2012.693572
Lee HC, Pagliaro EM (2013) Forensic evidence and crime scene investigation. J Forensic Investig 1
(1):5
Lee W, Khoo B (2010) Forensic light sources for detection of biological evidences in crime scene
investigation: a review. Malaysian J Forensic Sci 1:17–27
Lennard C, Stoilovic M (2004) Application of forensic light sources at the crime scene. In: Horswell
J (ed) The practice of crime scene investigation. CRC Press, New York, pp 97–123
Lin A, Tsai H, Tsai L, Linacre A, Lee J (2007) Forensic applications of infrared imaging for the
detection and recording of latent evidence. J Forensic Sc 52:1148–1150
Ludwig A, Fraser J, Williams R (2012) Crime scene examiners and volume crime investigations: an
empirical study of perception and practice. Forensic Sci Policy Manage Int J 3(2):53–61
Shenkenberg D (2009) Light sources help CSIs fight crime. Photon Spec 43:58–59
Wawryk J, Odell M (2005) Fluorescent identification of biological and other stains on skin by the
use of alternative light sources. J Clin Forensic Med 12:296–301
Wyatt D (2014) Practicing crime scene investigation: trace and contamination in routine work. Polic
Soc 24(4):443–458
Wyatt D, Wilson-Kovacs D (2019) Understanding crime scene examination through an ethno-
graphic lens. WIREs Forensic Sci 1:1–8
Collection, Preservation, and Packaging:
Forensic Evidence Management 4
Amandeep Kaur, Faray Jamal, Shikha, Aadya Ramesh,
Aarshaa Sojan, and Devika Dileep
Abstract
Evidence can be any object which helps in establishing a crime or provides a link
between the crime scene, victim, or perpetrator. It can be of any category such as
physical, biological, or trace depending upon the nature of the material. All
evidences at the crime scene should be collected and packaged in such a way
which helps in minimizing degradation and contamination. Whenever possible,
evidences should be submitted in sealed containers using an evidence tape for the
sealing. Each piece of evidence should be packaged separately. Specific
techniques and procedures must be followed during collection and packaging to
maintain the credibility of the evidence. The evidences which are fragile and may
be lost with time, must be collected first. Most of the evidence is collected in
paper bags or envelopes. Leakproof containers must be used for liquid evidence.
Wet evidence must be dried before packaging to avoid any contamination. Along
with the evidence found, control samples of the same must be collected using the
same protocol simultaneously for the purpose of analysis and comparison in the
laboratory. The initials of the officer and the date should be mentioned accurately.
An evidence log and chain of custody must always be attached. Evidence might
lose its evidentiary value if there is anomaly in its collection, preservation, and
packaging.
Keywords
Perpetrator · Degradation · Contamination
A. Kaur (*) · F. Jamal · Shikha · A. Ramesh · A. Sojan · D. Dileep

Department of Forensic Sciences, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, Punjab, India

Ltd. 2021
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-4091-9_4
52 A. Kaur et al.
4.1 Introduction
Scientific criminal investigation involves searching for the truth and solving the
crimes that occurred with the help of scientific techniques. For this to be realistic, the
evidentiary clues obtained at the primary or at the secondary crime scene should be
handled with extreme care. The current criminal justice law requires that the proof of
the facts to prove a suspect guilty, should be beyond any reasonable doubt. As the
scientific field has progressed and advanced in recent years, the evidences needed to
prove the integrity and truth of a fact have increased considerably. To make sure that
the evidences submitted before the court of law are admitted and defend the
credibility of the investigators, the evidences should be meticulously collected,
packaged carefully, and preserved without fault. The general requirements to be
known while handling a crime scene have been taught to the first-responders and the
investigating officers. Whenever the commission of a heinous crime or any other
crime has been reported, the responding officers must make sure that the primary
crime scene that contains many of the crucial evidences are secured and documented
well before any evidences recollected. The first-responders must always make sure
first that the victims or people present at the crime scene are safe and then the crime
scene should be secured followed by careful documentation and proper collection of
evidences. The scientific evidences submitted in the court of law must be reliable,
objective, convincing, and verifiable for it to be admissible. For all these criteria to
be fulfilled, the evidences must be handled with utmost care. Evidences are of a
very sensitive nature and can lose their integrity once tainted or tampered with.
Contaminated evidences may result in false positives or false negatives which may
in turn result in the incrimination of the innocent and acquittal of the guilty. The
handling of crime should not be delayed and the scene of occurrence should be
promptly examined. As the dictum goes, the success and failure of any investigation
begins and ends at the scene of the occurrence. The scene of crime cannot be
preserved forever and the evidences change with time. There are chances that the
transient evidences may be lost, other sensitive evidences may be lost due to
carelessness or ignorance, and there are also chances of the evidences being tam-
pered. The opportunity to examine the scene to the fullest may only arise once, so the
optimal utilization of the same is of utmost importance. The crime scene should be
processed diligently. No valuable evidences should be lost as the fate of people is
tied to the successful investigation. A standard operating procedure must always be
formed and the details regarding the scene search and evidence collection should be
planned carefully. The investigators must ensure that there is minimum disturbance
to the scene of crime and the evidences therein. All the evidences should be properly
identified, photographed, sketched, marked, tagged, and labeled and packaged
properly. All evidences should be preserved well and caution should be taken, so
as to not alter the evidences while in transit to the forensic lab. The evidences should
all be recorded in the evidence log long with the collector’s name, details of each
evidence, and other details. The chain of custody must be properly followed and
kept, so as to ensure the admissibility of the evidences in the court of law and
4 Collection, Preservation, and Packaging: Forensic Evidence Management 53
maintain its integrity. Everything done at the scene and everything that happens to
the evidences should be recorded and documented.
4.2 General Instructions
The process of collection of evidence should be detailed enough to include as many

relevant clues as possible but at the same time, sufficiently selective not to hinder the
laboratory analysis. Investigators should handle and process evidence using methods
that averts any changes in it during transportation from the crime scene to the
laboratory. Changes might come to light through contamination, rupture, evapora-
tion, scratching or bending by accident, or inappropriate or inattentive packaging.
• Always non-shedding clothes must be worn to a crime scene along with

non-powdered gloves and expendable lab coats to package evidence. The use
of latex gloves or expendable forceps for collecting evidence can avert such
issues.
• Any tool that is non-disposable must be cleaned or sanitized after every use.
• Evidence should not be moved until the officials have documented the precise
location and semblance in notes, sketches, and photographs.
• Evidence always keeps up the quality when preserved in its initial condition as it
was obtained from the crime scene.
• Whenever evidence is submitted in the court as an exhibit, the officials should
establish the continuity of possessions of the evidence, which in legal terms is
known as the chain of custody which means that the investigator should account
for each and every official who handled or examined the evidence. Failure to
provide the evidence’s chain of custody might lead to significant questioning with
respect to the authenticity and integrity of the evidence and its subsequent
analysis.
• Clinging to standard protocols in documenting the position of evidence, labeling
it for the purpose of identification, and accurately filling the forms for evidence
submission for the purpose of laboratory analysis are the accurate methods for the
evidence to withstand inquiries about what happened to the evidence from the
time it was found at the crime scene to its submission in court.
• Once an investigator selects a particular container for evidence collection, they
must labeled it for its identification. Containers for evidence packaging usually
contain a preprinted identification form on them; if not, the collector should attach
a tag to the container.
• All evidence packages’ openings should be sealed with evidence tape. The
official who packaged the evidence should mention their initials and the date of
collection on the tape seal.
• Anyone who detaches the evidence for the purpose of analysis or observation at
any stage must try to avoid tampering the original seal so that the labeling on the
seal will not be lost.
54 A. Kaur et al.
Fig. 4.1 Pill boxes of

different sizes and shapes for
the packaging of different
trace evidences
Also, anyone who reseals the packaging must record their initials and the date of
packaging on the new seal. Usually, the detail of the evidence that is used to prove
the chain of custody shows the collector’s initials, location of the evidence, and
the date of collection.
• Transfer of evidence to any other individual should be noted down in notes and
other appropriate forms. Also, all individuals who possess the evidence must
maintain a record of its acquisition and disposition.
• All individuals involved in the collection, preservation, and packaging of the
evidence should testify in court regarding the same. Therefore, to evade any
confusion and to maintain integrity of the evidence at all times, the handling of
evidence should be kept to a minimum. Whenever a delay occurs in handling the
evidence, the official should store the evidence securely with only limited access
by any personnel (Figs. 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 4.4, and 4.5).
4.3 Biological
4.3.1 Body
• Human: Normal, Skeletal, Charred, etc.
4.3.1.1 Collection
• The body is to be handled only by the medical examiner or appropriate authorized
personnel from the medical examiner’s office. The body should not be moved and
should be documented by photography, videography, note-making, and sketching
before being handled.
Fig. 4.2 Non-metal tweezers

with smooth or rubber tips
used at crime scenes for
collection of trace or delicate
evidences
Fig. 4.3 Ziplock plastic bags

in different sizes for pack-
aging purpose
• The body should not be cleaned or tested for fingerprints or GSR, etc., at the scene
but details like state of rigor/livor mortis, body temperature, visual anomalies,
etc., should be noted.
• Avoid causing further damage to the body during removal from the scene, though
it may be unavoidable in cases of bodies at mass disasters or fire incidents.
• In case of bodies at a CBRN (Chemical, Biological, Radiological, and Nuclear)
disaster, the bodies must be stripped of all personal effects and both the body and
personal effects need to be separately decontaminated with sodium hypochlorite
at a site removed from the disaster zone. The decontaminated body must then be
double-bagged in leakproof body bags or special CBRN bags and stored in
refrigerated repositories.
56 A. Kaur et al.
Fig. 4.4 Paper bags of

different sizes used to pack
evidences, especially those
stained with body fluids
Fig. 4.5 Steps involved in

preparing a paper bindle for
packaging of trace evidence
collected from a crime scene
4.3.1.2 Preservation
• The body must be transported to the lab within an hour of initial assessment of the
body by the medical examiner.
• Care must be taken to preserve trace evidence that may be present on the body
like hair strands or GSR, etc.
4.3.1.3 Packaging
• Paper bags are used to enclose each of the hands and the head, secured with
adhesive tape or twine at the wrists and neck, respectively.
• The body may be either encased in a body bag with a zipper or it may be wrapped
in a clean, unused plastic sheet about 2 m2. The body is gently placed in the
middle of the sheet and the edges are tightly wound around the body and secured
with adhesive tape to securely encase the body along with all the trace evidence
on it.
• Alternatively, cling film may also be used to wrap the bodies, especially in mass
disaster zones as an adequate number of body bags may not be readily available.
4.3.2 Animal Carcass
4.3.2.1 Collection
• The carcass should first be placed on a taped-down butcher paper or white roll
sheet and combed gently to collect any trace evidence present. This may also be
done on live animals. Alternatively, a special evidence vacuum may be used for
the same.
• The body is refrigerated if it is not in advanced stages of decomposition or if it is
for a short time duration.
• For longer storage periods and decomposed carcasses, freezing is preferred.
4.3.2.3 Packaging
• Paper bags are used to enclose the feet of the animal, which is secured with
zip-ties or rubber bands.
• Bags of cloth/plastic are used to wrap the head, which is secured with adhesive
tape or string.
• The entire carcass is then encased in a sterile white sheet before being placed in a
body bag.
4.3.3 Body Fluids
• Blood.
4.3.3.1 Collection
• Wet stains need to be air-dried before collection of entire object (if portable).
• For stains on large immovable objects, the stained area is gently cut out or
removed using other appropriate methods.
• Another option is to use sterile cotton swabs dampened with biological grade
distilled water, to swab the stain. At least two swabs are collected for a stain and
they are labeled and packed separately.
• The stain on immovable objects may also be scraped off if possible.
• Control samples taken from a person are collected in EDTA or ACD tubes, from
cardiac cavity, thoracic cavity, and blood clots if any.
58 A. Kaur et al.
• Stained objects or dry scraping are kept at room temperature (37 C) for transport.
• Liquid blood, such as control samples, are stored at 4 C for a short term or at
20 C or 80 C for a longer period, with EDTA as a preservative. For DUI
cases, the vacutainers contain potassium oxalate as the anticoagulant and sodium
fluoride as the preservative.
4.3.3.3 Packaging
• Paper bags or cardboard boxes are used to package the bloodstained object and
swabs. The objects must be immobilized so that evidences like fingerprints or
other trace/impression evidences are not destroyed.
• Smaller paper bindles are used for packaging the dry blood scrapings.
• EDTA tubes may be either packed in special cool-boxes or packed in a plastic bag
and then placed in a cooler for transport.
• For body fluid to be submitted for toxicological analysis, it is collected in 10 mL
vacutainers (grey or red top) (Figs. 4.6, 4.7, and 4.8).
4.3.4 Semen
4.3.4.1 Collection
Fig. 4.6 Body fluid

collection tools: syringes of
different volumes.
Fig. 4.7 Infusion set used for

blood collection from infants
Fig. 4.8 Various blood

collection containers
(vacutainers) with different
preservatives depending on
the analysis to be conducted in
the future
• Liquid samples, such as control samples, are stored at 4 C for a short term or at
20 C or 80 C for a longer period, without any addition of preservatives.
4.3.4.3 Packaging
• Paper bags or cardboard boxes are used to package the stained object. The objects
must be immobilized so that evidences like fingerprints or other trace/impression
evidences are not destroyed.
• Smaller paper envelopes are used for packaging the swabs.
60 A. Kaur et al.
Fig. 4.9 Semen collection

container for standard samples
Fig. 4.10 Used condom as

an evidence with semen sam-
ple, helpful in obtaining DNA
of the person involved
• Liquid samples, such as control samples are collected in plastic, leakproof

containers.
vacutainers (grey or red top) (Figs. 4.9 and 4.10).
4.3.5 Urine
4.3.5.1 Collection
• At least 50 ml of control sample is collected.
• Samples are stored at 4 C for a short term or at 20 C or 80 C for a longer
period, without any addition of preservatives.
• Liquid samples, such as control samples, are kept refrigerated.
4.3.5.3 Packaging
• Liquid samples, such as control samples, are collected in plastic leakproof
containers.
vacutainers (grey or red top) (Fig. 4.11).
Fig. 4.11 Sterile containers

for collection of standard
urine sample
62 A. Kaur et al.
4.3.6 Saliva
4.3.6.1 Collection
• Control samples may be collected as a liquid or with a cheek swab, which is
particularly useful for DNA analysis.
• Liquid samples, such as control samples, are kept refrigerated.
4.3.6.3 Packaging
• Liquid samples, such as control samples, are collected in leakproof containers
made of glass.
vacutainers (grey or red top) (Fig. 4.12).
Fig. 4.12 Swab kit for

buccal swab collection.
Similar swabs are used for
collection of body fluid stains
from the crime scene
4.3.7 Vaginal Fluid
4.3.7.1 Collection
• Control samples may be collected by swabbing the vaginal walls, which is to be
done only by an authorized medical personnel and with the consent of the person.
• Control samples are kept refrigerated.
4.3.7.3 Packaging
4.3.8 Vitreous Humor
4.3.8.1 Collection
• Samples may be collected using a 14 or 16 gauge needle and syringe by the
medical examiner for toxicological analysis in suspected cases of poisoning.
4.3.8.3 Packaging
• Sample collected from each eye is stored separately in leakproof containers.
4.3.9 Sweat
4.3.9.1 Collection
64 A. Kaur et al.
• Stained objects are kept at room temperature (37 C) for transport.
4.3.9.3 Packaging
4.3.10 Tears
4.3.10.1 Collection
• Stained objects are kept at room temperature (37 C) for transport.
4.3.10.3 Packaging
4.3.11 Feces
4.3.11.1 Collection
• Moldy samples are usually not collected.
• Samples are immediately frozen.
4.3.11.3 Packaging
• Smaller paper envelopes are used for packaging the swabs and scrapings
(Fig. 4.13).
4.3.12 Bile
4.3.12.1 Collection
• Bile is collected from the gall bladder by an authorized medical personnel using a
syringe.
• 10–20 mL is collected.
Fig. 4.13 Stool/faeces

collection container, used
specially in medical
institutions
66 A. Kaur et al.
4.3.12.3 Packaging
• Sample is packed in leakproof plastic containers.
4.3.13 Body Parts
4.3.13.1 Hair/Fur
Collection
• Samples may be collected using plastic tweezers or by using adhesive evidence
collection lifters/adhesive tape.
• If the hair strands are found affixed/embedded in dried blood or soft material,
carefully pack the entire substrate.
• Control samples should be collected for each color, from different locations on
the body, present with an intact root. They can be collected by plucking or gentle
massaging to dislodge loose hair.
• For humans, control samples are taken from the head and pubic region (in sexual
assault cases) around 50–100 and 30–60 strands, respectively. Before collecting
hair from the pubic region, it should be coxed to collect any other traces that may
be present.
• For animals, 10–20 strands are collected from dorsal and ventral body areas, the
tail/mane, and the neck (guard hair).
Preservation
• Samples are stored at room temperature (37 C).
Packaging
• Sample is packed securely in coin envelopes or druggists’ fold and then placed in
larger envelopes (Fig. 4.14).
4.3.13.2 Feather
Collection
• It is collected using soft-tip tweezers.
• Control samples are collected from different regions of the bird’s body.
Fig. 4.14 Hair strand is a

common trace evidence useful
for DNA and toxicological
analyses
Preservation
• Samples are stored at room temperature, without any addition of preservatives.
Packaging
• They are packed in resealable plastic bags or paper bags.
4.3.13.3 Nails
Collection
• Scrapings are collected using a scalpel or evidence scraper.
• Entire nail/claw may be removed by cutting it off at the base, especially from the
deceased.
Preservation
• Samples are stored at room temperature (37 C).
Packaging
• Sample is packed securely in coin envelopes or druggists’ fold and then placed in
larger envelopes (Fig. 4.15).
4.3.13.4 Tissue/Organs/Fetal Remains
Collection
• Samples are collected from the body only by a medical examiner, unless found
mutilated, i.e., outside the body at a scene of crime.
• Three-layer adhesive tape may be used to recover shed epithelial cells from a
surface, mostly one that is nonporous.
68 A. Kaur et al.
Fig. 4.15 Nail clippings

collected as evidence
• Skin tissue with a radius of 2–4 cm is collected around the area of any puncture
marks or chemical burns, when appropriate.
Preservation
• Samples are frozen immediately without preservative for DNA analysis.
• Samples for toxicological analysis are frozen with either saline or, very rarely,
formalin as a preservative.
• Tape lifts are stored a room temperature.
Packaging
• Sample is packed securely in sterile, leakproof plastic containers and then placed
in a cool-box.
• Tape lifts are pasted on appropriate backing material and then packed in paper
envelopes.
4.3.13.5 Bones/Teeth
Collection
• For toxicological analysis, bones from skeletal remains may be collected as
crushed particles. Synovial fluid and bone marrow may also be extracted for
the same.
• When entire unsaved bone is collected, femur is preferred.
• Teeth may be collected from a body, for analysis. Usually, molars are considered
appropriate for the same.
• Entire nail/claw may be removed by cutting it off at the base, especially from the
deceased.
Preservation
• Samples are air-dried.
• No preservative is added nor are they cleaned or bleached.
Packaging
• Sample is wrapped in brown paper/cloth before being packed in cardboard boxes.
• If the sample is wet, it is packed in leakproof containers.
4.3.13.6 Stomach Contents
Collection
• For toxicological analysis, the distal and pyloric ends of the stomach are clamped
and it is cut open to collect the contents.
• Entire content is collected and any distinctive odors are noted, except in cases of
suspected gaseous poisoning.
Preservation
• Samples are collected without addition of any preservative.
• It is refrigerated if immediate testing is not carried out.
Packaging
• Sample is collected and stored in leakproof plastic containers.
4.3.13.7 Plant Evidences: Pollen, Leaves, Wood/Woodcraft, etc.
Collection
• For macroscopic plant material, sufficient representative sample is collected from
the bulk.
• Pollen can be collected from a surface using adhesive tape or adhesive evidence
collectors.
• Control samples for pollen may be directly taken from the plant or it may also be
collected as pollen present in soil or water. 15–20 grams of soil is collected from
the top 1 cm layer of soil. For samples of water, 0.5–1 L is collected.
Preservation
• Dry samples are stored at room temperature (37 C).
• Moist/wet samples are frozen though samples of water may be preserved by
adding alcohol/phenol.
Packaging
• Adhesive collectors are packed in paper envelopes.
• Soil and water samples are packed in sterile, leakproof glass or plastic containers.
• Macroscopic plant material is air-dried and loosely packed in paper bags
(Fig. 4.16).
70 A. Kaur et al.
Fig. 4.16 Plant evidences are

often parts of a plant like
pollen (left) or wood pieces
(right), Pollen grains, a trace
evidence, is useful in
identifying the geographical
locations involved in a crime
4.3.13.8 Entomological Evidence
Collection
• Eggs and larvae of an entomological species, most commonly the blowfly, can be
collected using forceps. A paint brush moistened with water may also be effective
for the same.
• If maggots of different ages/sizes are present, both should be collected with
attention to the larger ones.
• Sampling must be done from different sites and samples from each site (ideally
50–100 in number) should be stored separately.
• Adult flies can be collected using an insect net or a moistened paint brush.
Preservation
• Eggs are preserved in 75–95% alcohol or 50% isopropyl alcohol. They may also
be stored on damp cloth with sufficient fee (like beef liver) if there is a long wait
before testing.
• Larvae and maggots are preserved by immersing them in very hot (but not
boiling) water and then placed in 70% alcohol. Half of the entire sample must
be kept alive.
• Adult flies do not require any preservation, though is valued, they may be
preserved in alcohol.
• Diptera and Coleoptera specimens are directly preserved in alcohol, as they
cannot be kept alive for long periods of time. They are much harder to feed
because they require their food to be at a certain level of decomposition.
Packaging
• All specimens are collected in glass vials/containers.
• For eggs, the vial is secured with a damp towel at the opening, held on with a
rubber band.
• For live specimens, plastic urinalysis vials may be used with a damp paper towel
at the bottom and only a few specimens at the bottom of the container. Since they
require air, dry paper towels secured with rubber bands are more appropriate lids
than the supplied lid.
• Adult flies can be kept in containers with supplied lids or dry paper towels.
• Live beetles are mostly predators and hence should not be packed together in a
single container.
• Empty pupal cases are collected in containers packed with paper towels for
cushioning them against any impact.
• The vials must be stored upright in cardboard boxes for transportation.
4.3.13.9 Microbes
Collection
• For transportable objects, entire substrate is collected.
• For large bulky samples, a representative sample or a small portion of the object is
collected by vacuuming, filtration, or by water sample collection.
• Microbes, which are trace materials, are also collected by swabbing or wiping the
surface with dry/moistened swab/wipe.
• Sample collection devices also include particulate air vacuums, filters, and
aspirating needles.
Preservation
• Samples are mostly dried and frozen or preserved on ice though certain samples
may be stored at room temperature.
• Preservative techniques vary from sample to sample.
Packaging
• Packaging depends on the particular sample, in general, they are stored in paper
packets or airtight plastic containers which prevent external influences/contami-
nation (Fig. 4.17 and Table 4.1).
4.4 Physical
4.4.1 Paint and Ink
4.4.1.1 Collection
• For transportable objects, entire object containing paint smear is collected.
• Paint chips can be collected by hand or using soft-tipped forceps.
72 A. Kaur et al.
Fig. 4.17 Biological evidences, especially those from human sources, are packed in containers as
mentioned above and then packed in biohazard bags such as these or tagged with a biohazard tape
• Loosely attached chips can be collected by lifting, prying, or dislodging the paint
by gently hitting the opposite side of the surface.
• Do not use strong adhesive tape for lifting.
• Standard samples for paint are collected from undamaged areas of object with
emphasis on proving and collecting all the layers of the paint. This can be done
using a scalpel.
• Pens contain ink may also be collected for comparison.
• No preservatives are required. Just airtight, leakproof conditions.
4.4.1.3 Packaging
• Paint chips or paint in a solid form are packed in spill-proof pillboxes. Druggists’
fold is also used to store paint chips though it is not widely approved.
• Liquid paint/ink may be stored in leakproof metal paint cans or glass containers.
They are then packed in cardboard or wooden box with sufficient padding to
prevent breakage.
Table 4.1 Biological evidences, especially those from human sources, are packed in containers as
mentioned above and then packed in biohazard bags such as these or tagged with a biohazard tape
S. no Evidence Preservation Packaging
1 Human body Transport within the hour of Paper bags to cover hands and
finding the body head, body bag with zipper or
plastic sheet or cling wrap for
body
2 Animal carcass Refrigerate only in early Paper bags for feet, plastic/cloth
decomposition stages or for bags for head
short duration Sterile white sheet to wrap
Freeze for longer periods entire carcass
3 Blood Room temperature for stained Paper bags/cardboard boxes for
object or dry scraping, 4 C for stained objects, dry scrapping
short-term and 20 C for vacutainers for liquid samples,
long-term storage of liquid swab kit for swabs, then packed
sample EDTA or potassium in paper bags
oxalate for liquid sample
4 Semen Room temperature, for stained Paper bags/cardboard boxes for
object, 4 C for short-term and stained objects,
20 C for long-term storage of Leakproof plastic containers for
liquid sample liquid samples,
Swab kit for swabs, then packed
in paper bags
5 Urine Room temperature for stained Paper bags/cardboard boxes for
object, 4 C for short-term and stained objects,
20 C for long-term storage of Leakproof plastic containers for
liquid sample liquid samples,
in paper bags
6 Saliva Room temperature for stained Paper bags/cardboard boxes for
object/swabs, liquid samples stained objects,
are refrigerated Leakproof glass containers for
liquid samples,
in paper bags
7 Vaginal fluid Room temperature for stained Paper bags/cardboard boxes for
object, stained objects
Liquid samples are refrigerated Swab kit for swabs, then packed
in paper bags
8 Vitreous humor 4 C for short-term and 20 C Leakproof container
for long-term storage
9 Sweat Room temperature for stained Paper bags/cardboard boxes for
objects stained objects
in paper bags
10 Tears Room temperature for stained Paper bags/cardboard boxes for
objects stained objects
in paper bags
11 Feces Immediately frozen Paper bags/cardboard boxes for
stained objects
(continued)
74 A. Kaur et al.
Table 4.1 (continued)

S. no Evidence Preservation Packaging
Paper bindles for dry scrapping
in paper bags
12 Bile 4 C for short-term and 20 C Leakproof container
for long-term storage
13 Hair/fur Room temperature Coin envelope/druggists’ fold,
then placed in larger paper bag
14 Feather Room temperature Plastic resealable bags
15 Nails Room temperature Coin envelope/druggists’ fold,
then placed in larger paper bag
16 Tissue/organs/ Frozen immediately for DNA Leakproof plastic container and
fetal remains analysis placed in cool-box(for
Saline or formalin as transport). Tape is pasted on
preservative for toxicological backing and packed in paper
sample envelopes
Room temperature for tape
(epithelial cells)
17 Bones/teeth Air-dry and do not clean/bleach Wrapped in brown paper/cloth,
then packed in cardboard box.
Leakproof containers for wet
samples
18 Stomach Refrigerate if not immediately Leakproof plastic container
contents tested
19 Plant evidences: Room temperature for dry Paper bags for macroscopic
pollen, leaves, sample material
wood/wood- Freeze moist/wet samples Glass/plastic containers for soil/
craft, etc. Alcohol/phenol for preserving water sample
water samples Paper envelopes for adhesive
collectors
20 Entomological Differs from sample to sample Glass containers packed upright
evidence though alcohol is a common in sturdy nonmetal boxes
preservative
21 Microbes Dry and freeze/store on ice Paper packets or airtight plastic
room temp. for certain samples containers
• While packaging depends on the particular sample, in general, they are stored in
paper packets or airtight plastic containers which prevent external influences/
contamination (Fig. 4.18).
4.4.2 Glass
4.4.2.1 Collection
• In cases where it is possible that all the fragments of glass may be pieced back
together, it is imperative to collect all the fragments.
Fig. 4.18 A paint chip
• Both sides of the laminated glass as found in windshields are collected separately.
• For particles embedded in the clothing of a person, the clothes are carefully
collected.
• Tiny glass particles present inside a vehicle can be collected using special
vacuuming devices.
• Standard samples, around 1 sq.in. should be from the residual glass at a point
closest to the breakage.
• Do not process broken glass fragments for latent prints.
• Avoid chipping.
4.4.2.3 Packaging
• Each piece/object containing glass particles should be separately packed in paper,
and then securely packed in a wooden/cardboard box with sufficient padding.
• Smaller fragments are packed in film canisters or plastic pill bottles. Paper bindles
and glass/metal containers are not used for packing glass evidence.
• The larger glass pieces can be secured between sheets of plywood or sturdy
cardboard.
• Do not place any heavy objects at the area of impact.
4.4.3 Soil
4.4.3.1 Collection
• Collect soil samples as quickly as possible as they are transient evidence. In case
of impression of footwear or tire, document with photography/videography
before collection.
76 A. Kaur et al.
• Soil adhering to portable objects should not be removed. The soil should be
allowed to air-dry and the object collected in its entirety.
• Soil present on a vehicle or between tire treads should be allowed to dry before
scraping it carefully to maintain the integrity of the layers of soil formed.
• Collect 1–2 tbsp of control samples from the scene of crime, possible entry and
exit points, possible secondary locations for comparison. Control samples should
be collected from the same depth as from where the suspected sample may have
originated from, usually the topsoil layer.
• No preservatives are required. Just airtight, leakproof conditions.
4.4.3.3 Packaging
• Specimens are collected in plastic containers, each labeled with the site of
collection.
• For objects with soil adhered to it, air-dry the sample, wrap it in paper and then
pack it in a paper bag/cardboard box.
4.4.4 Fiber/Clothes (of Victim/Suspect)
4.4.4.1 Collection
• Individual fibers are picked up using plastic forceps though in some cases
adhesive tape lifts may also be used.
• Whenever possible, it is preferable to collect the entire garment/textile on which
the fibers are present or may have originated from.
• Car seats should be carefully covered with polyethylene sheets to protect fiber
evidence.
• No preservatives are required for transport. Just airtight, leakproof conditions.
4.4.4.3 Packaging
• Fibers are packed in paper bindles or druggist fold or in plastic pill bottles, before
placing in a larger paper bag.
• Clothing is packed in paper bags, with each article of clothing packed separately
(Fig. 4.19).
4.4.5 Tools: Knives, Hammer, Ax, Saw, etc.
4.4.5.1 Collection
• Handle the tool wearing gloves and if possible handle the tool at points where the
possibility of obtaining a fingerprint may be less.
• Make silicone casts of tool mark, if feasible (Fig. 4.20).
Fig. 4.19 Fiber strand which

may be collected using
forceps or tape lift
Fig. 4.20 Sharp tools like

knife are kept in padded
containers
• No preservatives but, airtight conditions are required.
4.4.5.3 Packaging
• Tool ends are wrapped in paper/paper bags such that none of the trace evidence or
marks are affected, contaminated, or tampered with. Secure the bag with tape
ensuring it is not on the cut end.
• Place the wrapped tool evidence in a study box and pack it appropriately to
prevent any jostling during transport.
78 A. Kaur et al.
4.4.6 Cordage: Wires, Rope/Cloth (Strangulation)
4.4.6.1 Collection
• If knots are present, do not untie them. Collect the cordage as it is, with the knots.
• In cases where it needs to be cut, do not cut at the knots. Reattach the cut ends
with cable ties.
• Collect fibers using tape lift or forceps.
• No preservatives but, airtight, leakproof conditions are required.
4.4.6.3 Packaging
• Cordage is packed in paper bags or resealable plastic bags.
• Seal edges with adhesive tape.
4.4.7 Ballistics
4.4.7.1 Firearm
Collection
• After noting down details about the firearm, handle it by the edge of the trigger
guard or the checked grip.
• Unload the firearm and empty the chamber but do not disassemble the firearm.
Note the position of hammer and safety, number and location of fired and unfired
ammunition, chamber position, etc.
• If the firearm was recovered from water, do not dry/clean it.
• All firearm attachments must be collected like silencer, scopes, etc.
Preservation
• Precautions must be taken to avoid rusting of the firearm, when possible.
• It is forbidden to make any marks on the firearm or the ammunition. Any labeling
needs to be done on the container or on an attached label tag.
• Avoid stuffing/corking the barrel. It will contaminate the trace evidence print in
the barrel.
• Weapons recovered from water should be kept submerged in a container
containing the same water, during transport.
Packaging
• Wrap the firearm in a clean cloth/paper and then pack in a sturdy box with
sufficient padding material to protect from damage due to jostling.
• Wrap attachments in a similar manner but distinctly and in separate boxes.
4.4.7.2 Projectiles (Bullets/Pellets): Fired/Un-Fired
Collection
• Collection of bullets lodged in a target should be carefully extracted by gently
breaking away the surrounding structure and without directly touching the pro-
jectile with any tool.
• Projectiles lodged in a body are removed by the authorized medical personnel
using their fingers instead of a tool, so as to preserve the markings on the bullet.
Preservation
• The projectiles must not be cleaned. Any trace material present on it must be
preserved as it is.
Packaging
• Wrap the projectile in soft tissue paper and then pack properly into a pill box or
match box. Avoid using cotton or gauze as padding.
• If the projectile is wet, do not use plastic containers.
• Mark the container as containing ammunition.
4.4.7.3 Casings
Collection
• Empty casings can be collected from the scene by hand or by using rubber-tipped
forceps.
Preservation
• Care must be taken to prevent any damage or formation of additional striations/
marks on the casing.
• In cases where there may be chances of recovering a print, do not unload
cartridges from the gun.
Packaging
• Each casing should be individually wrapped in paper bags and then packed in a
rigid box with sufficient padding material to protect from damage due to jostling
or friction.
4.4.7.4 Documents: Normal, Burnt/Charred,

Handwritten/Typewritten/Printed
Collection
• Documents are picked using rubber-tipped forceps, especially fragile ones like
charred or ancient documents.
• Exemplars or standard samples are collected from suspected authors by asking
them to write a text containing similar words as the questioned document on a
material with a writing instrument same/similar as that of the questioned
80 A. Kaur et al.
document. The exemplar must be signed by the writer and a witness. The process
is repeated several times for the same text using the same materials by the same
author.
• Typewriter ribbons that contain carbon copy of the typed text can be collected to
link a document to a typewriter. Exemplars are taken after replacing the ribbon
and typing a document of all the characters possible on the typewriter.
• Exemplars of photocopies can be taken by creating photocopies with/without
document and with/without the cover down. This helps identify individualistic
trash marks if any.
• Burnt/charred documents must be handled with extreme care, so as to prevent
further damage.
Preservation
• Do not create any marks, folds, cuts, tears, or stains on the document.
• Solution of polyvinyl acetate in acetone may be used to stabilize burnt document.
Else the charred document could be encapsulated in polyester film or between
cotton layers in a rigid box.
• Keep the documents away from moisture, humidity, and excessive sunlight.
• The document should be stored in an airtight container with silica gel desiccant or
lump of quicklime or a crystal of thymol or pentachlorophenol. Glue or adhesive
is protected by 0.5% of Santobrite.
• Water, salt, and acid should never be applied to the blood-stained document as
they may remove the blood stains.
Packaging
• Pack in celluloid map-case/polythene envelopes/cellophane folders and then in a
manila folder.
• Burnt documents are packed in polyester film or between layers of cotton in a
container.
• Documents suspected to contain indented writings should be kept in a shallow
box (Fig. 4.21).
4.4.7.5 Printers, Typewriters
Collection
• Printer and typewriters are packed as a whole, if required to be tested.
• Parts of the typewriter like thimble, ribbon, etc., are also collected.
Preservation
• Care must be taken to prevent any damage to the mechanical parts of the
equipment.
Packaging
• Pack in a sturdy box with sufficient padding material to protect from damage due
to jostling.
Fig. 4.21 Partially burnt

document as an evidence
collected and packaged in a
transparent folder
4.4.7.6 Adhesive Tape
Collection
• If adhesive tape is found adhering to a portable object, collect entire object as
evidence.
• If the object is too large to be transported or is a live being, gently peel the
adhesive tape, so as to not leave the collector’s prints on the tape.
Preservation
• It is important to ensure that the tape does not fold unto itself while collection,
packaging, or transport.
Packaging
• The object with adhesive tape sticking to it is packed in wax-lined box or boxes
lined with slick paper.
• When the tape itself is collected, it is mounted on wax or cellophane sheets and
then securely packed in a pill box or paper bag.
4.4.8 Impressions (Latent/Visible/3D)
4.4.8.1 Toolmarks
Collection
• For 3D prints, casts may be developed after photographing the marks, using
liquid silicone. A minimum of two casts are to be made, if feasible.
• If the object containing the tool mark is portable, the entire object is collected.
82 A. Kaur et al.
Preservation
• Avoid matching a suspect tool to the impression, so as to avoid any changes/
alterations.
Packaging
• Cover the marks on the object with paper to prevent further etching and then
securely pack in a rigid container using newspaper layers. Avoid using
plastic bags.
4.4.8.2 Fingerprint, Foot Print, Palm Print, Lip Print, Ear Print
Collection
• For 2D prints, photograph, with scale, at an oblique angle to ensure clarity of
detail.
• If the object containing the tool mark is portable, collect the entire object.
• For latent prints, chemical or physical visualizing methods are employed before
tape lifting or photographing the visualized impression.
Preservation
• Ensure individual items are packed separately and eliminate any risk of abrasion
to the surface of the object.
• Coated lift backings or fixed photographic papers are utilized for tape lifting.
• Ensure removal of air bubbles while lifting a print.
Packaging
• For portable objects, wrap in cellophane before packing in a rigid cardboard box
with support or in a paper bag.
• Lifted prints are packed in paper envelopes and sealed.
• Plastic containers may be used for objects that were retrieved from water
(Fig. 4.22, 4.23, 4.24, and 4.25).
4.4.8.3 Tire Marks
Collection
detail.
• Impressions in dust can be lifted using an ESDA, which transfers the print to a
Mylar sheet by using electrostatic charging. Gelatin lifters may also be used for
lifting impressions from smooth nonporous surfaces.
• For 3D prints, casts may be developed after photographing the marks, using
Plaster of Paris (PoP) or dental stone. A minimum of two casts are to be made, if
feasible. Snow Impression Wax is used to cast impressions made in snow. Snow
impressions are first coated with 2–3 layers of Snow Impression Wax before
pouring Class 1 dental stone to develop the cast.
Fig. 4.22 Latent fingerprint

collected using powder
method and preserved
Fig. 4.23 Plastic fingerprint

with identifiable ridge
characteristics on a substrate
Preservation
• Photography must be done at various angles to document the impression before
lifting of casting.
• The cast should be allowed to dry for 24–48 hours before transporting it to the
laboratory.
• Electrostatic lifts are preserved by placing it in a paper file folder and then packing
it in a shallow photographic paper box.
84 A. Kaur et al.
Fig. 4.24 Lip print as an

evidence on substrate at a
crime scene
Fig. 4.25 Footwear print

collected on a paper and
preserved by photography
both with and without scale
Packaging
• Air-dry the casts before wrapping it in bubble wrap and then pack in a paper bag.
4.4.8.4 Footwear Impression
Collection
detail.
• Impressions in dust can be lifted using an ESDA, which transfers the print to a
Mylar sheet by using electrostatic charging. Gelatin lifters may also be used for
lifting impressions from smooth nonporous surfaces..
• For 3D prints, casts may be developed after photographing the marks, using PoP
or dental stone. A minimum of two casts are to be made, if feasible. Snow
Impression Wax is used to cast impressions made in snow. Snow impressions
are first coated with 2–3 layers of Snow Impression Wax before pouring Class
1 dental stone to develop the cast.
Preservation
• Photography must be done at various angles to document the impression before
lifting of casting.
• The cast should be allowed to dry for 24–48 hours before transporting it to the
laboratory.
• Electrostatic lifts are preserved by placing it in a paper file folder and then packing
it in a shallow photographic paper box.
Packaging
• Air-dry the casts before wrapping it in bubble wrap and then pack in a paper bag
(Fig. 4.26 and Table 4.2).
4.5 Chemical
4.5.1 Drugs/Poisons/Medicines
4.5.1.1 Collection
• Sterile tweezers are used to collect the evidence.
• Determine the exact number of pills, capsules, baggies, marijuana cigarettes, etc.,
before packaging.
• Medicines found in bottles or boxes should be left as such in those containers that
are then marked and sealed. The information on the prescription label might be
significant.
• Moist evidence is air-dried before being sealed in the collection bags.
• Liquid samples are refrigerated and others are stored at room temperature.
4.5.1.3 Packaging
• Paper containers or envelopes are used for loosely packaging nonliquid
evidences, while plastic containers are avoided to prevent the environmental
contamination and/or deterioration.
86 A. Kaur et al.
Fig. 4.26 Steps involved in preparation of cast of footwear print at a crime scene using plaster of
Paris for preservation of the same
• Liquid evidences are packaged in sterile, leakproof glass stoppered bottles and
sealed with adhesive tape and wax.
• Heat-sealed KAPAK bags are used to package drugs like PCP.
• When possible the drugs and their packing materials should be separated and then
packed individually. The packaging may be forwarded to examine for latent
prints (Fig. 4.27).
4.5.2 Drug Paraphernalia: Beakers, Containers, Packets, Tubing,

Syringe, Spoon
4.5.2.1 Collection
• Sterile tweezers are used to collect the evidence.
• Medicine bottles or boxes should be collected as such since the information on the
prescription label might be significant.
• Empty liquid from smoking devices into a separate container.
Table 4.2 Steps involved in preparation of cast of footwear print at a crime scene using plaster of
Paris for preservation of the same
S. no. Evidences Preservation Packaging
1 Paint and ink – Pillboxes or paper bindles for
paint chips.
Metal or glass containers for
liquid samples
2 Glass Avoid chipping or Paper bags for objects with glass,
processing fragments then packed in rigid boxes with
for latent prints at scene padding
Plastic pill boxes for small
fragments plywood sheets/sturdy
cardboard for securing large
fragments between them.
3 Soil – Plastic container
Paper bags for objects containing
soil on it
4 Fiber/clothes Car seats are covered Paper bindles or plastic pill
(of Victim/suspect) with polyethylene bottles and then placed in paper
sheets bags
5 Tools—knives, – Wrap in paper and pack in a rigid
hammer, axe, saw, etc. nonmetal box with padding
6 Cordage—wires, rope/ – Paper or plastic bags
cloth(strangulation)
7 Firearm Prevent rusting. Wrap in cloth or paper and pack
Avoid marking directly in a rigid nonmetal box with
on the firearm or padding
cocking the barrel
8 Projectiles (bullets/ Do not clean. Preserve Wrap in a soft tissue paper and
pellets): fired/unfired trace evidence print on pack in match box with padding
it
9 Casings Preserve potential Wrap individually in a paper bag
prints by not touching and then pack in a rigid nonmetal
them container
10 Documents: normal, Polyvinyl acetate Celluloid map-case/polythene
burnt/charred, solution for burnt envelope/cellophane folder and
handwritten/ documents then packed into manila folder
typewritten/printed Store with desiccant polyester films or cotton layers
like silica gel for burnt documents
11 Printers, typewriters Avoid damage to parts Rigid box with padding
12 Adhesive tape Prevent tape from Wax lined boxes OR
folding unto itself Mounted on wax/cellophane
sheet and packed in paper bags
13 Toolmarks Do not attempt to Cover mark with paper then pack
directly match tool to in a rigid box with newspaper
mark padding
14 Fingerprint, footprint, Avoid air bubbles while Paper packaging.
palm print, lip print, ear tape lifting prints. Cellophane wrapping and
print Avoid smudging of packing in a cardboard box with
print padding for portable objects with
(continued)
88 A. Kaur et al.
Table 4.2 (continued)

prints.
Plastic packaging for objects
retrieved from water
15 Tire marks Air-dry casts. Paper packaging.
Store electrostatic lifts Cellophane wrapping and
in paper packing in a cardboard box with
padding for casts
16 Footwear impressions Air-dry casts. Paper packaging.
Store electrostatic lifts Cellophane wrapping and
in paper packing in a cardboard box with
padding for casts
Fig. 4.27 Marijuana is one

of the most commonly seized
drugs, especially from
individual youth users
• Moist evidence is air-dried before being sealed in the collection bags.
• Liquid samples are stored at room temperature in airtight conditions.
4.5.2.3 Packaging
• Syringes are packed in specialized syringe safety containers which are plastic
cylinders with a Styrofoam bottom on to which the needle of the syringe is
embedded.
• Packing materials are carefully packed in paper envelopes, so as to not smudge
any latent prints that may be present.
• Glass items are packed carefully in cardboard boxes, with appropriate amount of
padding.
• Paraphernalia-like tubes and spoons are air-dried and packed in paper bags.
4.5.3 Arson/Explosion: Accelerants, Residue, Parts of Explosive
4.5.3.1 Collection
• Appropriate PPE should be worn by the collector, such as TYVEK® suit with
latex or chloroprene gloves and sterile tools should be used to collect the
evidence.
• Explosives residue can be deposited on metal, plastic, wood, paper, glass, cloth,
and other surfaces. Residue may be deposited due to handling, storing, or
initiating an explosive.
• Collect control samples from the blast zone.
• The fragile evidences should be collected first before the bigger and heavier ones.
The investigator may also start collection from the top and then move on to the
bottom layers.
• Some explosives residue is water-soluble and must be protected from moisture.
• Volatile residue that evaporates quickly should be collected immediately in
airtight containers.
• Do not contaminate explosive residue evidence, especially with any unburnt/
unused explosives.
4.5.3.3 Packaging
• Airtight containers of metal or glass or heat-sealed or resealable nylon or Mylar
bags may be used to pack explosive residue, fire debris, or flammables. Ziplock
storage bags are not suitable for shipping or storing explosives residue evidence,
though plastic bags may be used to collect dry powder.
• The metal containers may be further packed in a wooden box with appropriate
amount of cushions.
• The inflammable volatile liquids found in open cans must be collected in a clean,
sterile, leak-proof glass vial with an airtight seal to prevent any loss.
• Large evidences like upholstery, wooden objects, etc., that cannot be packed in
cans are wrapped using heat-sealed KAPAK plastic.
• Do not fill the containers all the way to the top and use packing material to prevent
breakage or detonation due to shock.
• Pack each piece of evidence separately, so as to prevent cross-contamination
during storage or transport.
• Special labeling must be done to notify the recipient lab personnel of the
dangerous content.
90 A. Kaur et al.
4.5.4 GSR
4.5.4.1 Collection
• Approved laboratory-issued GSR kits are used for the collection.
• In case of collecting sample from a corpse, the hands may either be swabbed at the
crime scene or the hands may be wrapped with paper bags to prevent loss of trace
evidence during transport.
• Determine the exact number of pills, capsules, baggies, marijuana cigarettes, etc.,
before packaging.
• Moist evidence like GSR on clothes is air-dried before being sealed in the
collection bags.
• Do not cut through bullet holes, if present.
• Avoid shaking wringing the clothes.
4.5.4.3 Packaging
• Paper containers or envelopes are used for packaging nonliquid evidences, while
plastic containers are avoided to prevent the environmental contamination and/or
deterioration.
• Liquid evidences are packaged in sterile, leakproof glass bottles.
• Fold and wrap the clothes flat in paper bags such that no residue is lost. Only one
item should be packed per paper bag.

1 Drugs/poisons/medicines Air-dry moist samples. Paper bags or heat-sealed
Refrigerate liquid samples KAPAK bags
Glass vials for liquids
2 Drug paraphernalia: beakers, Air-dry moist samples. Paper bags.
containers, packets, tubing, Store liquid samples at Plastic container with
syringe, spoon room temperature styrofoam base for
syringes.
Cardboard box with
padding for glass objects
3 Arson/explosion: Protect from moisture Metal/glass airtight
accelerants, residue, parts of containers or nylon/
explosive Mylar resealable bags.
Leakproof glass
containers for volatile
inflammable liquids
4 GSR Air-dry residue on clothes Paper bags
4.6 Cyber and Digital
• The crime scene must be secured by the first responder to avoid any loss of
evidences. No further opportunity to operate any systems should be given to any
users nor should any help be accepted from them in documentation process and
the search for the evidences.
• The investigator should search and identify the evidences and make sure that the
scene is documented before the items are collected.
• Detailed information about the devices collected its physical condition and
characteristics including the make and model, its operational state, and any
marks or damage must also be included in the documentation.
• Written notes, sketches, photos, and videos of the crime scene and evidences are
also required to document the evidences.
• Sometimes due to the size of the devices or complexity of the system, hardware,
or software the digital evidences may not be collected. In these cases live
acquisition is used to collect the volatile and nonvolatile evidence. Important
items including the online credentials, passwords all are collected and the actions
taken by the collector are documented.
• The validity and reliability of the tools and techniques must be ensured and their
limitations must be taken into consideration before their use.
• The evidences along with their connecting cords and powering cords are labeled,
packaged, and transported back to the forensic lab.
• After being recorded and inventoried, the evidences are stored in a safe evidence
locker away from dust, other contaminants, humidity, and extreme temperatures.
4.6.1 Computer and Parts
4.6.1.1 Collection
• The first responders must check for any ongoing activity and operational state of
the computers. This can be done by just moving the mouse around.
• Document initial condition of devices, such as the programs running and status of
the device.
• No status change should happen to computers.
• Do not charge the devices.
• If a device is found OFF then it is collected as such and remains OFF and if they
are found ON then the volatile evidence like the temporary files, cache, registry,
and such are preserved before powering the device down.
• All the communication systems of the device should be disabled and placed away
from its cell tower.
92 A. Kaur et al.
• Volatile evidences should be collected with respect to its volatility, as in the most
volatile evidence should be collected first and so forth. The most volatile
evidences include cache, registry, routing table, process table, memory, tempo-
rary file systems followed by less volatile evidences like disks, remote logging
and monitoring data, network topology, physical configuration, archival media,
and so on.
• Any passwords, PINs, associated cords, cables, peripherals are all collected.
• If the system is ON and a destructive software is running the power supply must
be cut off immediately.
• Create hash values of the data stored on hard disk, RAM, and external memory
devices. Create forensic image of the evidence. Utilize write-blockers to prevent
loss and alteration of data during the copying process a hash value of the image is
created that is checked against the initial hash value to ensure integrity of the data.
• Exposure to moisture, static electricity, and extreme temperatures should be
avoided.
4.6.1.3 Packaging
• Antistatic packaging like paper bags, envelopes, and cardboard boxes are used to
pack digital devices. Plastic should be avoided to ensure that no electricity,
humidity, or condensation is present. Faraday cages may also be used to store
the hard drive, memory devices, etc., to prevent the tampering of stored data due
to external signals.
4.6.2 Phones, Tablets, and Parts
4.6.2.1 Collection
• Check for any ongoing activity and operational state of the device, if the device is
turned on.
• Document initial condition of devices, such as the programs running and status of
the device.
• No status change should be permitted.
• Do not charge the devices.
• Remove the battery if possible.
• Imaging of memory is done using physical and logical extraction.
• Do not activate the phone, if found turned off. If turned on, turn off the device to
prevent loss/overwriting of data. This also prevents any auto-updation, remote
data destruction, or usage of the device.
• The device should be stored in Faraday cages. This helps prevent the tampering of
stored data due to external signals.
4.6.2.3 Packaging
• Antistatic packaging like paper bags, envelopes, and cardboard boxes are used to
pack digital devices. Plastic should be avoided to ensure that no electricity,
humidity, or condensation is present. Faraday cages may also be used to store
the hard drive, memory devices, etc., to prevent the tampering of stored data due
to external signals.

1 Computers and Disconnect from power source Antistatic packaging and
parts Keep away from magnetic or heat rigid cardboard boxes
sources and moisture or
Faraday bags
2 Phones, tablets, Disconnect from the power source Antistatic packaging and
and parts Keep away from magnetic or heat rigid cardboard boxes
sources and moisture or
Faraday bags
4.7 Case Study 1
4.7.1 O J Simpson Case
4.7.1.1 Case
The criminal case of People of the State of California v. Orenthal James Simpson is a
classic example of why collection, preservation, and packaging procedures of
evidence is crucial for the delivery of justice. Criminalists often cite this as an
example of what NOT to do during evidence handling.
Brown and Ron Goldman were found at 12:10 a.m. on June 13, 1994, stabbed to
death outside her condominium in Brentwood, Los Angeles. The suspect was former
NFL player turned actor, O.
J. Simpson, who was tried and eventually acquitted on two counts of murder of
his ex-wife, Nicole Brown Simpson and her friend Ron Goldman.
4.7.1.2 Initial Evidences Recovered

A bloody glove was found at the condo which was identified as belonging to O. J.
Simpson, which led to him being the lead suspect for the double murders. He was
formally charged 4 days later on June 17.
Brown was suspected to be the intended target and killed first as the soles of her
feet were clean, without any blood on them, despite the copious amounts of blood on
the scene. She had multiple stab wounds to her head and neck and a few defensive
wounds on her arms. She had a large bruise on her upper back along with a final deep
cut on her neck which severed her carotid artery. Investigators deduced that the killer
placed his foot on the back of the face-down Nicole Simpson, grabbed her hair to
pull back her head, and then slit the throat. The cut nearly decapitated her and was
deep enough to expose her larynx and make an incision on the C3 vertebra.
94 A. Kaur et al.
Goldman’s body was found nearby with similar multiple stab wounds to the body
and neck with only a few defensive wounds, indicative of a short struggle.
A blue knit cap, a glove (Aris Isotoner light leather glove in XL), and an envelope
containing glasses were found near Goldman’s body, which were presumed to
belong to the assailant. There was a track of bloody shoe prints leading from
the scene to the back gate, with a few drops of blood beside the prints, indicating
that the assailant may be bleeding from their left hand. An analysis of the stride
pattern of the prints indicated that it was more likely that the assailant was walking
away instead of running away from the scene.
After Simpson came under the radar as the lead suspect, his room at the O’Hare
Plaza Hotel was searched and this recovered broken glass and bloody bedsheets from
the hotel room. The manager of the hotel at the time recalled Simpson asking for a
BandAid for his finger, the night of the murder.
The matching glove to that found at the crime scene was found at Simpson’s
house and had hair and fiber traces consistent with Brown, Goldman, and Simpson.
It also had fibers from a 93–’94 Ford Bronco and fur from Brown’s dog, an Akita.
Simpson’s car, a Bronco, was parked at Rockingham in a seemingly haphazard
manner and also had some blood traces on the door.
Hair strands were found on both the bodies, the gloves, and the blue knit cap.
Tests determined that they were consistent with that of Simpson’s.
As an example of Locard’s principle, hair and clothing fibers belonging to
Goldman were found on Brown and those consistent with Brown were found on
Goldman. This further asserted the theory that the assailant first stabbed and killed
Brown, then Goldman, and returned to Brown to slash her throat.
Hair was found on the glove which was consistent with Brown’s and it was
determined that they were torn out and not shed naturally, giving rise to the
prosecution claim of the assailant pulling Brown’s head by her hair to slash her
throat.
Dark blue cotton fibers were found on both bodies, consistent with the shirt
Simpson was wearing earlier as told by Keto Kaelin, a witness who was with
Simpson earlier that night. He had changed the shirt sometime later as when he
answered the door for his limo driver he was wearing a different shirt. The shirt that
left the fibers at the scene was never found. Another set of fibers were found at the
scene which were identified as only being used in the’93–’94 Ford Bronco, i. e., the
same model as Simpson’s car.
Store receipts were obtained from Ross cutlery indicating a purchase of a 12-inch
stiletto knife by Simpson, 6 weeks before the murder. After the knife was recovered,
it was tested and found to be congruous with the wounds sustained by both the
victims. Further testing revealed that oil was still present on the knife, similar to that
used on new cutlery hence signifying the knife was never used.
In a testimony by an FBI expert, William J. Bodziak, it was stated that the bloody
shoe prints, at the scene and in the car were identified as made by a pair of size
12 Bruno Magli Italian shoes, which were rare, expensive, and custom-made.
The size was accordant with that of Simpson’s footwear and these shoes were sold
in the US only in Bloomingdales. Only 29 pairs were sold that year and one was sold
in the same store that Simpson frequents for buying shoes. The testimony also stated
that the prints were made by a single person despite the two tracks of shoe-prints.
4.7.1.3 Evidence Mishandling

Despite the strong evidential case against Simpson, he was acquitted of the crime in
criminal court as the defense counsel led by Cochran was able to successfully
convince the jury of reasonable doubt regarding the collection, preservation, and
packaging of the evidence as well as their reliability.
The crime scene technicians admitted to not following protocol while processing
the scene.
• Gloves were not changed between the processing of different evidences.

• Evidences were packaged in plastic bags instead of the recommended paper
packaging.
• Evidences were stored for unto 7 h without refrigeration, as required for
evidences containing DNA, such as blood/bloodstains. The defense argued that
this could cause contamination of the killer’s DNA by bacterial growth.
• When first responders arrived on the scene, no care was taken to preserve the
scene as it is. Officers and crime scene technicians trampled all over the scene,
leaving their own prints and trace evade.
• The bodies of the victims were covered with a sheet to protect their modesty
before the Chief Medical Examiner arrived, which is a violation of the protocol.
• Blood sample collected from Simpson was not properly labeled or cataloged. This
fact, along with the result that two samples from the 108 DNA evidence samples
said to have been collected from the scene had EDTA (a blood preservative),
provided the defense a physical evidence to the allegation that the police were
trying to frame the defendant.
This led the jury to acquit Simpson of the murder in criminal court though he was
later sentenced to a 33.5 million dollar penalty in a civil suit filed by Goldman’s
father.
4.7.2 Case Study 2 Aarushi Talwar Case
4.7.2.1 Case
The double murders of the 13-year-old Aarushi Talwar and the 45-year-old Hemraj
Banjade on May 15, 2008, remains unsolved to this day. The highly publicized case
remains unsolved due to inefficiencies in the investigation, one reason being the
mismanagement of evidence.
The young girl’s body was discovered first, on the morning of May 16th, at which
point of time Hemraj, the live-in servant of the Talwars, was missing and hence
considered to have committed the murder and run off. His partially decomposed
body was recovered from the terrace of the house, the very next day, which was one
of the first instances where investigators failed to properly conduct their duties.
96 A. Kaur et al.
The discovery of Hemraj’s body led to the suspicion of murder shifting to

Aarushi’s parents, Dr. Rajesh Talwar and Mrs. Nupur Talwar. Multiple theories
arose regarding the reason for the murder, including the father catching them in an
“objectionable” position, or the father’s alleged affair leading to a blackmail by the
servant and a confrontation with the daughter.
When the case was later transferred to the CBI, due to the heavy publicizing and
sensationalizing of the case by the media, the Talwars’ personal assistant and two
other domestic help, Krishna Thadaraj, Rajkumar, and Vijay, were put under
suspicion of attempted sexual assault of the girl and subsequent murder of the
witness, i. e., Hemraj. They were subjected to the widely criticized “Narco-analysis”
interrogation but were released as no solid evidence was found to tie them to the
murders.
The investigation was handed over to a different team a year later in 2009. It cited
Dr. Rajesh Talwar as the singular suspect on the basis of the circumstantial evidence
but did not charge him due to the absence of sufficient physical evidence. Owing the
same, they recommended closing the case, which was opposed by the parents who
also claimed the suspicion on the father as “baseless.” This led to the rejection of the
closure request by a special CBI court. Which ordered proceedings against the
Talwars.
The parents were convicted and sentenced to life imprisonment in November
2013, which when challenged by them in Allahabad High Court, did not hold up and
they were acquitted in 2017. This decision was challenged by the CBI in Supreme
Court on March 8, 2018, and to date remains unsolved.
4.7.2.2 Initial Evidences Recovered

On the morning of May 16, 2008, Aarushi’s corpse was transported from the house
for an autopsy by two officers from the UP police. Her paternal uncle and his driver,
Dinesh Talwar and Umesh Sharma, respectively, accompanied them.
Aarushi was found on her bed which was hence blood-soaked. A cut-out of a
portion of the stained mattress along with the bed linen and her clothes were also
collected.
Hemraj’s body was partially decomposed when the police found it a day later on
the terrace, next to the external AC unit, covered by a panel from the roof cooler,
with bloody drag marks leading to it.
The blood trail along with the abrasions and contusions on his elbows, indicated
that he had been dragged along for at least 20 ft., postmortem. Experts from FSL
Gandhinagar and CBI CFSL surmised the pooling of the blood near the AC unit and
the drag marks were due to a blood-soaked body being dragged after being placed in
a bedsheet. This led to the theory that Hemraj was killed elsewhere and his body was
moved to the terrace to keep it hidden. This could not be supported by physical
evidence as UV Light testing by the CBI did not yield bloodstains anywhere except
the terrace.
Blood traces were found on the staircase on May 17th, which were assumed to
have come from the mattress that the cleaners were trying to dump on the terrace.
The bedsheet, of the bed on which Aarushi’s body was discovered, was found to
have a circular wet patch at a place where her pelvic was positioned, which was
determined to not be urine. No such wet spots/marks were present on her pajamas
nor was urine or any other fluid present in her underwear. The pajamas and the
underwear were haphazardly worn, indicating that they were pulled up and/or down.
The CBI postulated that the pajamas were pulled down, the pelvic are cleaned and
the lower garments pulled up afterwards.
Autopsy reports stated that both the victims were killed between 12 am and 1 am
on May 16th. The autopsy also stated that death was due to a blow from a heavy,
blunt object which left a “U/V shaped” scar. Post this, their throats were slit and there
were no signs of asphyxia.
While examining Hemraj’s body, it was noticed that his penis was swollen when
it was discovered. Dr. Naresh Raj stated in court that it could be attributed to Hemraj
either being engaged in sexual intercourse or just about to engage in one,
perimortem. The defense argued that the swelling of penis after death was normal
as cited in a medical book.
Examination of Aarushi’s body by Dr. Dohre revealed “very strange” findings.
There were no signs of rape but her vaginal orifice was “extraordinarily dilated” and
“unduly large,” such that the mouth of her cervix was visible. This could have been
done only if the vagina was manipulated while rigor was setting in. White discharge
was present in the vagina but none were found on her underwear. Her hymen was
ruptured but it was an old tear. These observations were not mentioned in the
original report as the doctor felt that they were his “subjective findings.” The
doctor’s examination concurred with CBI’s theory that the girl’s private parts were
cleaned postmortem.
Aarushi’s body had undigested food in her stomach. Hemraj did not have any
food in his stomach, just 25 ml of liquid. This meant that he did not eat dinner, which
was corroborated by the finding of his untouched dinner in the kitchen on the 16th
morning.
On the Talwars’ terrace, a smudged bloody palm print was found on the wall.
Though the blood was identified as belonging to Hemraj, the print could not be
positively matched to him or anyone else involved.
A size 8 or size 9 bloody shoe print was also photographed on the terrace.
In a description of Hemraj’s room, as per a statement by K K Gautam, there were
3 glasses in the room (1 empty and 2 containing some liquor) and 3 bottles: one of
Sprite, a Kingfisher beer, and a Sula whiskey. Hemraj’s DNA was found on the beer
bottle though investigations intimated that he was a teetotaler.
At the house, there was a Ballantine’s bottle on the table with bloodstains on
it. The blood was determined to have belonged to Aarushi and Hemraj though no
useable prints could be lifted from the bottle. The Scotch whisky bottle came from a
mini-bar concealed behind a wooden panel, so it appeared that the person who took it
out, knew the house well.
Almost a month later on June 14, 2008, when the Noida Police, carried out a raid
of Krishna Thadaraj’s living quarters, a purple pillow cover and a khaki were seized.
The pillow cover was a crucial evidence and was analyzed by both CBI CFSL, New
98 A. Kaur et al.
Delhi and CDFD (Centre for DNA Fingerprinting and Diagnostics), Hyderabad. The
CDFD report stated that Hemraj’s DNA was present on the pillow cover.
This “clinching piece of evidence” was an indication of Krishna’s presence in the
flat during the time of Hemraj’s murder. “Hemraj’s blood got embossed on the hair
of Krishna which in turn got embossed on his purple colour pillow cover which was
admittedly seized from Krishna’s premises,” the court noted. While Krishna was
arrested a month after the incident, he was released when the CNBI filed the closure
report.

It was stated by the CBI officials that 90% of the evidence were ruined as a result of
police negligence.
1. Blood stains present on the terrace floor and door were initially dismissed by the
police as rust.
2. The scene was not properly contained, especially the terrace, and the media were
freely moving about the crime scene before the arrival of the forensic team and
documentation and collection of important evidence by them.
3. The constable who took the first photographs of the scene, also collected
26 fingerprints from the scene, out of which 24 were improperly collected and
hence were unusable. The remaining 2 prints did not match anyone associated
with the crime. The constable also neglected to collect Aarushi’s fingerprints.
4. The person/people who found Hemraj’s body stated the presence of hair in his
mouth which was also neglected by the police. This was brought up in court by
the Talwars’ defense counsel, stating police negligence in procuring and preserv-
ing evidence that could possibly belong to the actual killer.
5. Reports of tampering with Aarushi’s vaginal swab samples arose in September
2009. The vaginal swabs were collected by Dr. Dohre (who did Aarushi’s
autopsy) and analyzed by pathologist Dr. Ritcha Saxena at Gautam Budh Nagar
District Hospital. Her report stated that the evidence was received by her
technicians, Vikas and Navneet and that the analysis showed an absence of
semen in the sample. The slides of the swabs were then stored in the lab’s steel
almirah. In 2008, the hospital’s medicolegal register went missing. In June 2008,
when the CBI asked Dr. Saxena for access to the sample, the doctor who was out
of town, guided the CBI officials over the phone to the lab. The samples were
handed off to the CBI by Chief Medical Superintendent Dr. S. C. Singhal. An
ongoing professional dispute between Dr. Saxena and Dr. Singhal was alleged to
be the reason Singhal took away Saxena’s registers.
6. The sample was then sent to CBI CFSL for analysis by Dr. B. K. Mohapatra, who
determined it to be a mix of 2 vaginal samples, one Aarushi’s and one unknown.
Further testing by CDFD Hyderabad revealed that majority of the sample did not
belong to Aarushi Talwar.
7. There was also a point of contention regarding a typographical error made by
either the CDFD or the CBI regarding the provenance of the purple pillowcase.
CBI argued that CDFD had made the error when they stated the pillowcase as
belonging to Krishna when it belonged to Hemraj. A rectification by the CDFD
after a “cryptic” and “clearly suggestive” letter from the CBI investigating officer
AGL Kaul was dismissed by the HC as the “tenor of the letter” prior to the
clarification cast a “serious shadow of doubt” on its authenticity.
4.7.3 Case Study 3 Meredith Kercher Murder Case
4.7.3.1 Case
The murder of UK-native exchange student Meredith Kercher occurred on
November 1, 2007, in Perugia, Italy. The body of the victim was found the next
day partially nude, drenched in blood, locked inside her room. She had a fatal wound
to her neck and several other insubstantial cuts and bruises.
The victim lived along with her other three roommates in a cottage near her
university. Two of her roommates were Italians while one was an American named
Amanda Knox. Since November 1 was All Saints Day in Italy and November 2 was
a day to commemorate dead relatives, most working people of Italy had these days
free of work. So only the victim was present in the room the day of the murder, while
the others went to visit their families and Amanda went to stay with her boyfriend of
the time Raffaele Sollecito, at his place. Sollecito’s apartment had some plumbing
issues due to which Knox had to return to her cottage to get the required supplies. It
was when she returned to her cottage that she felt something was off. The front door
was ajar, the bathroom that both Kercher and Knox shared had blood in the sink and
feces present in the toilet, all these raised suspicions in Knox’s mind. Initially finding
Kercher’s door closed she assumed that she must have been asleep and decided to
quietly shower and leave. Knox returned to her boyfriend’s apartment and called up
her other roommates and the pair went back to the cottage. Upon closer inspection,
they found that the window of Filomena Ramanelli’s room, one of their Italian
roommates’ was broken. They knocked on Kercher’s door but got no response.
Knox had previously tried calling Kercher’s cell phone but the calls were not
answered. Two cell phones of Kercher were found in a garden one mile away from
their cottage, when the phone rang the neighbors contacted the postal police or the
communications police. These two police officers came by the cottage at the time.
The police officers noted the presence of blood drops as told by Knox and
confirmed that Kercher’s room was indeed locked. Filomena’s friend force-opened
the door to Kercher’s room where her dead body was found under duvet partially
naked with only t-shirt present that was pulled up to her shoulders. Her clothes were
all scattered in the room towards the door and lot of blood covered her body and
around the room. Her throat was stabbed with a knife by the murderer.
The items missing from her room were the two cell phones found, around
300 euros, the house keys, and two credit cards while the valuable jewelry she had
remained untouched.
On November 5th, both Knox and Raffaele Sollecito were detained for
questioning. Raffaele Sollecito was her boyfriend of 8 days. Knox, upon detention,
implicated Patric Lumumba the owner of the pub where she worked in. But after
100 A. Kaur et al.
2 weeks in prison, his alibi was verified and he was released on November 20th. He
later sued Knox for the damages done.
Due to them being repeatedly called in for questioning the witness accounts and
alibis provided by both, varied. They both started getting false memories and
accounts about the events that transpired the day of the murder. The usage of
unethical methods of questioning led to all the events that followed including the
arrest of Lumumba. Raffaele Sollecito said that it was possible that Knox had left his
apartment in the middle of the night without his knowledge and Knox reported
having a vision of Lumumba murdering Kercher and Knox witnessing it.
Later Knox said that the officials hit her on the back of her head and denied
request for independent translators and threatened her with a 30 year jail sentence
which led to her confession of involvement in the crime on November 6th. She
signed two statements stating her involvement and was arrested and subsequently
jailed. Her boyfriend was also arrested and jailed.
In December, Rudy Guede from Ivory coast was caught without a train ticket in
Germany and was extradited to Italy. The DNA sample from Guede matched with a
vaginal swab taken from Kercher. Guede confessed to having sex with her but said
that another man killed her while he was in the bathroom.
In July 2008 the Italian police officially charged the three of them with the murder
of Meridith Kercher. Later in October, Guede was put on trial, was found guilty, and
was sentenced to 30 years of jail time. Both Knox and Raffaele Sollecito were also
tried and both were found guilty and sentenced to imprisonment for 26 and 25 years
in prison, respectively.
While the prosecutors implied all three of them in the murder, their individual
lawyers tried to form theories to help their clients. Guede claimed that he had a date
planned with Kercher on Halloween and that she was sick during the date and while
he was in the bathroom he heard a loud scream and saw an Italian guy with brown
hair running. He claimed to have tried to help Kercher but frightened by the blood,
fled the scene instead. Even though the judges did not believe his claims, his 30-year
sentence was reduced to 16.
Both Knox and Raffaele Sollecito were separately tried for murder but the
evidences against them were not as strong as that against Guede. Even though
witnesses testified of seeing them near the cottage, no one saw them enter or leave
the cottage. And the small amount of DNA evidence found against them could be
considered as contamination and those amounts would have been inadmissible
during trials in US or Britain criminal courts. Even though the shoe prints from
Guede’s shoes matched those from the crime scene none of them matched with any
pair of shoes that both Knox and her boyfriend possessed. There were eyewitness
accounts claiming to have seen them both in the street near the cottage but was later
found unreliable.
4.7.3.2 Initial Evidence Recovered

Kercher’s body was found partially naked with a pillow under her hips. Duvet
covered her body. She had several bruises on her face, several superficial cuts on
her arms, face, and hands. Three fatal wounds were present on her neck.
The victim’s bedroom was the scene of crime. The victim appeared to have been
sitting on her bed when the attack began. She appeared to have been stabbed on the
bed and struggled to move to the other side of her room where her table was. There
were blood drops on the floor and the slats of the bed had been slightly moved. By
the desk chair, bloody shoe prints, blood drops, and forcibly removed hair were
present. There was a wardrobe next to the desk. The door to the wardrobe had
aspirated blood on the front and blood smears were present on the floor in front of
it. Bloody fingerprints of the victim were found on the inside of the wardrobe,
indicting the last attempt at rising from the floor. The victim appeared to have been
dragged from the wardrobe and desk area by the perpetrators as drag marks were
present in the center of the room.
The autopsy revealed that she had been sexually assaulted several times and
stabbed. The other injuries were probably due to resistance and fight during the
assault. The autopsy also revealed that her injuries included 16 bruises and seven
cuts including several bruises and insubstantial cuts on the palm of her hand. There
were bruises on her nostrils, nose, mouth, and jaw indicating that a hand must have
been clamping over the victim’s mouth and nose. The injuries including the ones to
the genital area were indicative of the victim being immobilized during the sexual
assault.
The clothes discovered from the room included an inside-out jacket, indicting of
it having been pulled off from the victim, a pair of bloody boots, a bra with broken
straps containing aspirated blood, a t-shirt, and a sweatshirt. Even though all the
drawers were emptied and clothes were scattered about in the room, all the jewelry
were still present. The things that appeared to have been stolen were some cash, the
victim’s two cell phones, two of her credit cards, and her house keys. Other
evidences included a broken window in Romnelli’s room, a rock on the floor of
her room, and blood in several areas in the bathroom shared by the victim and Knox.
Raffaele Sollecito’s computer records showed that his computer was being used
at 9 pm and he lived almost 10 min away from the town area.
No other evidences were found from either of their houses or Sollecito’s car nor
were any fingerprints of Knox and Sollecito found in the victim’s room.
A knife was found in Sollecito’s kitchen that had the victim’s DNA on it near the
tip and the DNA of Knox on the handle. But the knife was too big to have made two
of the three stab wounds on the victim. It was also tested negative for any blood
residue.
Fingerprints were revealed using fingerprint powder. Only one fingerprint found
on a water glass found in the kitchen was found to match that of Knox out of
numerous other fingerprints. Fourteen of the fingerprints did not match with any of
the suspects. A bloody palm print on the bed pillow under the victim was found to
belong to Guede. He had a history of petty theft and break-ins. He was seen at a party
where Kercher and Knox were also present.
There were several footprints present, of which five were Nike shoe prints that
were found in the blood surrounding the victim’s body and led to the front door.
There was also one bare footprint on the bathroom mat. Even though it was
suspected that one of the footprints found on Kercher’s bed pillow, none of
102 A. Kaur et al.
Knox’s 22 pairs of shoes matched with the print found. The Nike shoes of Guede
matched the prints on the pillow when it was folded. The footprints found in the
victim’s bedroom and the ones leading outside were found to belong to Guede. The
partial bloody footprint present on the mat present in the bathroom was also said to
match Knox, but the print was vague and it also matched to Guede.
Extensive DNA analyses were done due to the high amounts of blood present in
the scene. On the victim’s purse, the sweatshirt, in the feces found in the toilet, and
on the victim’s body, Guede’s DNA was found mixed with the victim’s blood.
Touch DNA was found in the victim’s vagina, and epithelial cells, not identified as
seminal DNA, were found.
Knox’s DNA was found to be mixed with the victim’s DNA in the blood found
from the sink of the shred bathroom. Knife recovered from Sollecito’s kitchen also
contained minute samples of DNA from Knox. Minute traces of DNA of Sollecito
was found from a bra clasp that was recovered 6 weeks after the murder from the
crime scene.

The gross negligence that occurred at the scene of crime was severe. The scene of
occurrence was compromised as soon as the communication police showed up.
• The room of the victim was force opened and the police entered the scene without
any proper precautions or clothing or gloves, which would prevent any contami-
nation to the scene.
• The video footage taken during the crime scene processing clearly shows that the
evidences like the victim’s purse and the bloody boots have been moved. The
officers removed the duvet off of the victim and the moved evidences created new
bloodstains. They also moved a nightstand covering a crucial bloodstain from the
bedside thus obstructing proper crime scene reconstruction.
The bloodstains did not match up with the items present in the scene, so the police
came to conclusion that the scene must have been staged by the culprit.
• The bra clasp was recovered from the scene 6 weeks after the crime and had been
handled by several officers before it was finally bagged as evidence.
The forensic analysis also had severe drawbacks as the lab that performed the
analysis was not certified to conduct such analysis of DNA, much less the
touch DNA.
• The kitchen knife found from Sollecito’s apartment was tested negative for blood
but gave positive result for having been bleached. Later, it was found that the
substance present on the knife was potato starch. The knife was too large to have
inflicted the fatal wounds and the impression in blood on the bed as well.
• The mixed DNA of Knox and the victim could have very well been from the
shared use of the bathroom by Knox and the victim. The investigators could have
easily mixed them up while swabbing.
• The only indication that Sollecito was present at the crime scene was a trace
amount of DNA present on the bra clasp, which could have been the result of
mishandling of the evidence as the officials did not switch gloves or use any kind
of precaution for that matter. The DNA could also have been transferred from
other parts of the cottage or from the gloves of the officials. It was found that the
DNA analysis was not reliable and that contamination had to be the reason for the
presence of Knox’s DNA on the knife. The bra clasp also did not show any proof
of Sollecito’s DNA after analysis by independent analysts.
• The body temperature of the victim was not taken when the body was found, so
the time of death could not be accurately found. Only an estimated time of death
was determined as between 8 pm and 4 am. If the temperature reading had been
taken before November 3, like it should have been, then probably Knox and her
boyfriend could have been cleared from the charges as they had been seen in his
apartment at 8:45 pm and his computer showed activity at 9 pm.
• Several aspects of the case were criticized including the entry to the scene, safety
precautions used, and packaging and storage of evidences. The bloodied items
were packaged in plastic bags against the proper protocol.
• The state of the clasp had degraded when the independent analysts got the
evidence. The storage in the extraction buffer caused the bra clasps to rust
away making it nearly impossible to analyze.
• Several other evidences like Knox’s camera went missing and her computer was
destroyed.
Guede proceeded with an appeal against his judgment and the sentence was
changed from 30 years of imprisonment to 6 years of jail time. In December 2008,
his second appeal was held, still upholding the verdict of his guilt.
Knox and her boyfriend also appealed against their convictions with proper
documents, they were considered “presumed innocent.” The appeal began in
November 2010. The judge ruled to reexamine the DNA evidence and also granted
requestioning of the witness.
Two independent analysts from Rome’s La Sapienza University were entrusted to
reexamine the evidences. On October 3, 2011, the convictions against both Knox
and Sollecito were overturned and they were set free the same night. But Italy’s
supreme court ordered retrial and the hearing ended on January 30, 2014, with both
Knox and Sollecito being convicted guilty again and sentenced to 28 and 26 years in
prison, respectively.
Again after the retrial on March 27, 2015, the supreme court of Italy overturned
its verdict and they were set free. The case is closed now. This was a very lengthy
8-year legal saga that occupied Britain, the US, and Italy.
4.7.4 Case Study 4 Tandoor Murder Case
4.7.4.1 Case
The Tandoor Murder case or the Murder of Naina Sahni Sharma was a “landmark”
case in India which showed how with proper evidence management, the guilty is
punished and justice is delivered to the victim. It was one of the earlier cases in India
where DNA technologies played a pivotal role in the resolution of the case.
104 A. Kaur et al.
Police on a routine night patrol saw smoke coming out of a restaurant, Bagiya,
and rushed in suspecting a fire. Instead, they saw Sushil Sharma, a Youth Congress
leader and a friend of the restaurant’s owner, trying to burn something in the
kitchen’s clay oven, the tandoor. They doused the fire and saw parts of a human
torso and bones and immediately arrested the owner, Keshav Kumar while Sushil
Sharma managed to escape. The body was identified to be Sushil’s wife, Naina Sahni
Sharma.
She was killed by her husband, chopped into pieces, and then tried to be disposed
of by burning in a tandoor, because he objected to her friendship with Matloob
Karim, her classmate and fellow Congress worker. The night she was killed, July
2nd, 1995, Sushil came home to find her drinking alcohol and talking to somebody
over the phone. She hung up as soon as she saw Sushil but Sushil took up the phone
and redialed to find that she was conversing with Matloob. In a fit of rage he
killed her.
Sushil Sharma had influential contacts in high places and managed to evade arrest
for a long time, even after his initial surrender on July 10th, 1995, in Bangalore,
where he pled nonguilty. He was convicted by Trial Court (death sentence; in 2003),
the Delhi HC (death sentence upheld; in 2007), and the SC, where the SC sentenced
him to life imprisonment, years later in 2018 on October 8th. The SC initially
commuted the sentence from death penalty to life imprisonment, in 2013, stating a
lack of evidence that he chopped his wife’s body. Later a 3-judge-bench upheld the
conviction. The sentence was however reduced by the court stating that he had no
prior criminal record and that the crime was due to a tense personal relationship and
that the society at large was in no danger from Sushil Sharma.
Even without the social media frenzy that cases today are subject to, the ’95
Tandoor Murder Case was one of the most publicized murders in India, similar to the
Talwar Murder case of ’08 and the Nirbhaya Rape case of ’12.
4.7.4.2 Initial Evidence Recovered

At the scene of crime, burnt body parts and bones were recovered from the tandoor.
These were sent to the medical examiner whose autopsy report opined death due to
burn injuries.
They were sent to the lab where DNA analysis, a novel technique at the time, was
carried out. It helped to positively identify the body as Naina Sahni Sharma’s.
A black polyethylene sheet was also collected from the crime scene which had
bloodstains on it.
4.7.4.3 Evidence That Changed the Course of Investigation

The admission of DNA results in the court was what made it a landmark case for the
Indian legal system.
Furthermore, a second autopsy was conducted on the remains, which recovered
two bullets: one in the head and one in the neck, which was missed by the
incompetent initial autopsy. This conclusively proved that the cause of death was
firearm injuries and not burn injuries.
References
Beal B, Morton S (2006) Photocopiers, forensic and police science
Budowle B, Schutzer SE, Burans JP, Beecher DJ, Cebula TA, Chakraborty R, Heitkamp MA
(2006) Quality sample collection, handling, and preservation for an effective microbial forensics
program. In: Guidelines for collection, storage and transportation of crime scene DNA samples.
Central Forensic Science Lab, Chandigarh
Bugen H (2010) Password cracking technology. Chin J Forensic Sci 6(Issue 53):33–35
Cooper JE, Cooper ME (2013) Wildlife forensic investigation-principles and practice. CRC Press,
New York
Demirci S, Dogan KH (2011) Death scene investigation from the viewpoint of forensic medicine
expert. In: Forensic medicine-from old problems to new challenges. InTech, Rijeka, pp 13–52
Dinis-Oliveira RJ, Vieira DN, Magalhães T (2016) Guidelines for collection of biological samples
for clinical and forensic toxicological analysis. Forensic Sci Res 1(1):42–51
Evidence Packaging Procedures (n.d.) Division of Forensic Services, Illinois State Police
Fen J (2007) Discussion on collection and application of electronic evidence. Coastal Enterprises
Sci Technol 2(Issue 81):41–42
Gilbert G, Bienen LB (1988) Crimes of the century: from Leopold and Loeb to O.J. Simpson.
Northeastern University Press, Boston, p 174
Hongjun D (2011) Application of principles for collecting electronic evidence in judicial practices.
Soc Sci J Coll Shanxi 23(9):65–67
Jian Z, Yu Z (2010) Collection and application of electronic evidence in criminal procedure. Evid
Forum 0:162–172
Khoo LS, Lai PS, Saidin MH, Noor Z, Mahmood MS (2018) Cling film plastic wrap: an innovation
for dead body packaging, preservation and transportation by first responders as a replacement
for cadaver body bag in large scale disasters. Forensic Sci Int 285:50–57
Merck (2007) Special considerations in animal cruelty cases, Veterinary Forensics
Merck MD, LeCouteur RA (2013) Special considerations in animal cruelty cases. Wiley, New York
Ponsell G, Fillon C, Schuliar Y (2011) Guidelines for the management and identification of
deceased victims in chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear (CBRN) disasters. Rev
Forensic Pathol 2:94–107
Saferstein R (2016) Forensic science: from the crime scene to the crime lab. Pearson, New York
Seth M (1994) The Simpson case: the fugitive; Simpson is charged, chased, arrested. The New York
Times. 21 Nov 21 2009
Suchma KH, Holliday SD (2012) In: Waggoner K (ed) Handbook of forensic services. BN
Publishing, Hawthorne
Zhang Y (2014) Collection and preservation of electronic evidence
Paint, Soil, and Glass Evidences: A Silent
Witnesses 5
Shikha Choudhary and Aadya Ramesh
Abstract
“Every contact leaves a trace” as stated by Locard’s principle of exchange implies

trace evidence like paint, soil, and glass due to their ubiquitous nature. These
evidences can be encountered in a small scale at a crime scene but act as a crucial
silent witness for forensic investigation. Trace evidence like these can easily be
used to link the crime scene to the victim or suspect. The significance of the trace
depends largely upon the quality of sample collection. This chapter compromises
the detailed study of physical as well as chemical properties of such trace
evidence. In addition to that, forensic examination techniques with advanced
elemental analysis for identification are also incorporated in this chapter. The
examination facilitates the process of solving cases of road accident, home
burglary, sexual assault, etc.
Keywords
Evidence · Trace · Burglary
5.1 Paint
From a forensic perspective, paint would be any coating given to a substance, either
as a protective coat or to impart esthetic or any other special feature to the product.
Paint hence is a complex mixture of a number of components which may be
combined in an infinite number of ways and amounts, depending on the desired
end use. Due to this variety and variation, paint is highly consequential as a forensic
S. Choudhary (*) · A. Ramesh

Department of Forensic Sciences, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, Punjab, India
Ltd. 2021
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-4091-9_5
108 S. Choudhary and A. Ramesh
evidence as it can be easily identified and individualized. This degree of specificity

provides a higher evidentiary significance to the paint samples.
5.1.1 Paint as an Evidence
Paint flakes/chips may be considered as evidence most commonly in incidents

involving automobiles, either accidental or intentional. Since it is a coating, on
hard impart, the chip off and/or get transferred between the objects as per Locard’s
Law of Exchange. It may also be found in cases where the paint smears are
transferred when a tool is used against the surface of a painted object.
Another instance where paint may be analyzed as evidence is the case of art
crimes. Forging of famous art pieces is done in order to sell them off for large sums
of money. An analysis of the paint composition and dating may be done to verify the
authenticity of the painting. Graffiti, which is usually considered as a destruction of
property, also use paints. Most artists tend to use a specific brand of paint, which may
be identified and then used to find the perp.
5.1.2 Composition
The components of paint may be broadly classified as pigments, binders, and

solvents.
Pigments are fine powders that impart color and opacity (as required) to the
product. They may be organic (blues and greens) or inorganic (red, white, and
yellow pigments). They differ from dyes, in the sense that the pigment components
form dispersion in the medium (i.e., the solvent) and are not dissolved in it, unlike
dye particles. Extender pigments are inorganic components which yield special
properties to the paint film of primers and add to the bulk of the paint. Titanium
Oxide (TiO2) is a common pigment, which is used in white paint and primers.
Binders are polymeric resins that bind the pigment particles, and other additives if
any, together to form a continuous solid film when the solvent evaporates after
application. It influences the properties of the paint film such as glossiness, adhesion,
rate of drying and hardening, and flexibility. Epoxy, silicone resins and polyurethane
are commonly used binders for paint.
Solvents or vehicles are the medium in which the pigments, binders, and additives
are dispersed and/or dissolved in. Solvents form a continuous film and along with
some of the additives, evaporate after application leaving behind a solid binder film
with the dispersed pigment particles. It provides the consistency for the paint
application and the adhesion required to bind the paint to the surface that is being
coated.
Different additives may be added to paint for inducing specific properties to both
the liquid paint (before application) and the paint film (after application). These may
include but are not limited to UV protection, anti-corrosion agents, anti-fungal
properties, resistance to scratching/marking, easy-clean properties, anti-dust
5 Paint, Soil, and Glass Evidences: A Silent Witnesses 109
properties, etc. They may also be substances that improve the shelf life, drying rate,
or application properties of the paint.
5.1.3 Types
Based on the end use, paints may be classified as:
5.1.3.1 Architectural Paint

They are paints that are used in households or other buildings like wall paints, wood
varnish for doors and window frames, and for furniture.
5.1.3.2 Product Coating

They are used in the manufacturing industries and include automobile paints.
Automobile paints consist of a number of coatings or layers, which vary from
manufacturer to manufacturer. There are generally four basic coatings used for
automobiles: Electro-coat primer, primer surfacer, base coat, and clear coat. The
innermost layer/first layer is made of black/grey epoxy resins that are uniformly
electro-coated onto the metal (steel) surface of the automobile to provide an even
surface that is resistant to corrosion. The primer surfacer is epoxy-polyester sub-
stance that smooth out all the imperfections and also provides a foundation for the
base coat, that is pigmented so that the contrast between the electro-cast and the base
coat is reduced. The base coat is the layer that actually exhibits the color and esthetic
finish of the end product. Mostly organic pigments are favored over heavy metal
pigments and aluminum flakes are added to lend a metallic luster to the paint. The
clear coat, as the name suggests, is unpigmented and acts as a finishing touch,
yielding a durable, scratch-resistant, and glossy/matte outermost layer.
5.1.3.3 Special Purpose Coatings

They serve a specific purpose other than protective or esthetic functions. It may be
providing a waterproof layer or a luminescent effect (glow-in-the-dark effect).
5.1.3.4 Art Paints

These are similar to architectural paints. But most artists mix and match their paints
or in earlier time, formulate their own paint compositions thus giving it an individu-
alistic characteristic.
5.1.4 Collection and Preservation of Paint Evidence
Depending on the scenario, the paint could be smeared onto an object (like clothing)
or it may be present as loose paint chips. Before collecting the evidence, it must be
properly and carefully documented and photographed.
Whenever possible, the object containing the paint transfer must be packaged and
sent as a whole to the lab for analysis, especially in cases where the paint is smeared
on/embedded in the object. If the object is too huge to be transported, then the smear
may be scraped off, very carefully, with a clean blade/knife/scalpel. Fresh blades
must be used for each sample to prevent cross-contamination.
Paint chips are highly fragile and hence their collection must be done with utmost
care. Use rubber-tipped or other soft-tipped forceps to pick the flakes. They may also
be removed using wooden sticks/toothpicks or other tools of nonmetallic nature.
Tape lifting is generally not recommended as the tape adhesive could interfere with
the analysis. Paint chips that are embedded in objects may be dislodged by gently
bumping the object on the other side.
Control samples must also be collected from areas close to the suspected damage
site, but not from the exact point of damage, so as to reduce the variation in results
due to the variation in the paint. For example, on a car, in certain areas, the paint job
may have worn down or they may have been repainted hence causing a variation
there, which would interfere with the results. Also, different parts of a car are made
from different materials (metal, fiberglass, plastic, etc.) and hence will be treated
with different painting styles, also causing a variation of paint in different area. In
case there is no visible damage, control samples must be taken from all the different
possible substrates present on the object.
While collection of both suspected and standard samples, care must be taken to
collect all the layers of the paint, as it contributes to the individualization of the
particular sample. The number of layers and the composition/components of each
layer are an individualistic characteristic.
The collected samples may be stored in druggist-fold paper packaging, or in vials/
pillboxes of plastic or glass. Metallic containers are not preferred as they may
interfere in the future analysis of metallic components usually present in the paint.
It goes without saying that the samples collected from different areas must be
packaged and labeled individually. While labeling all the samples, it is important
to mention the origin, i.e., which object or part of the object the paint sample was
collected from.
5.1.5 Analysis
The analysis of paint includes determining its composition, physical, and chemical
properties in order to match the sample found at the crime scene to its source.
Examinations are done to compare the properties of the suspect sample with the
control sample.
5.1.5.1 Visual Analysis

It is the first examination any piece of forensic evidence is subjected to. In case of
paint samples, visual examination is done using the naked eye and then with the help
of a microscope, prominently the stereomicroscope. Transmitted light microscope
and polarizing microscope (PLM) are also used. The sample is usually sectioned or
sliced at an angle, using the microtome or manually using a scalpel, to prepare thin
samples that show all the layers of the sample clearly. Both the standard and question
samples are compared side-by-side to not the tiny irregularities in the samples.
Sample chips may often be embedded in an epoxy resin support which acts as a
preservative for storage and also makes it easier to section and handle the samples.
The surface texture overall color, number of layers, color and thickness of each
layer, pigment distribution, presence of irregularities or areas of homogeneity, and
any other defects may be noted in this initial examination. The questioned and
reference samples may also be compared with respect to their edges to see if they
complement each other. If they do, it is indicative of the fact that both the samples
were once part of the same continuous paint film.
PLM is used to study the properties of the different layers while transmitted light
microscopy is employed to detect the opacity of the sample. PLM can also prelimi-
narily identify the larger components, like extenders, in the paint film.
5.1.5.2 Chemical Examination

These tests are done to determine the composition of the various binders and
pigments and hence help differentiate between visually similar components. These
tests are destructive in nature and hence is used only when there is an ample amount
of suspected sample available for testing. The samples are subjected to reduction,
oxidation, or dehydration and their reactions and products are observed and com-
pared to that of the reference samples.
It is recommended to carry out the tests on a single layer at a time, so as to get
more specific results, though sometimes it may also be applied to a paint chip as a
whole. The chemical tests mostly produce results that are more descriptive than
definitive.
The different samples are subjected to acids, bases, organic, and inorganic
solvents to determine their reaction to it which is compared to the reaction of the
standard samples. If both samples produce identical results, it is assumed to have the
same origin. The results observed may be a change in color, change of shape and
texture, bubbling, flocculation, and/or dissolution or disintegration.
5.1.5.3 Instrumental Analysis

Most of the instrumental techniques provide a confirmatory analysis of the compo-
nent being tested.
Pyrolysis-Gas Chromatography (Py-GC) is the most widely employed technique
for the analysis of paint. The action of heat at temperatures of 500–1000 C
breakdown the sample into its constituent molecules, in the gaseous form, which
each form different peaks in the pyrogram. Furthermore, the products can then be
detected by a suitable detector like a mass spectrometer (MS) for a more specific
analysis of all constituents of the binders, additives, and pigments. Py-GC only
requires about 5–10 μg of the sample for testing but it is a destructive technique. For
comparison, it is necessary that both the control and questioned sample are of the
same size and shape and tested with identical instrumental parameters.
Spectroscopic techniques like Infrared (IR) spectroscopy and Raman spectros-
copy are often employed for analysis of paint samples. FT-IR is most commonly
employed, in the transmittance mode rather than the reluctance mode, for qualitative
and quantitative analysis of the components in the paint samples, especially the
organic components. Raman spectroscopy is a comparatively novel technique in
forensic science and is preferred due to the advantage of being able to analyze the
matter in any form, with minimal sample preparation. IR-based spectroscopy gives a
highly specific, “Fingerprint” spectrogram that helps individualize a paint sample.
Electron microscopy, more specifically, SEM-EDX (Scanning Electron Micro-
scope with Electron Dispersive X-ray spectrometer) provides elemental
(or qualitative) and structural analysis of the samples. It provides information
about the sample by analyzing the backscattered electrons (atomic number), second-
ary electrons (surface structure), and X-rays (elemental analysis) produced by the
sample when a beam of electrons is made to fall on it. It can be used to analyze all the
layers of the sample as a bulk or to individually analyze the different components.
The visualization produced by the SEM-EDX can determine the number and thick-
ness of layers in the sample, pigment particle size and distribution, and
contaminants, if any.
Absorption spectroscopy techniques are used for the most important analysis of a
paint sample, i.e., the color identification. While most colors can be differentiated by
the naked eye, sometimes there might be an undetectable difference. Micro-
spectrophotometer (MSP) is used to detect the exact color, as described by one of
the two color database internationally referred to. The two color systems used to
categorize color are the Munsell system and the CIE system as described by ASTM
standards, which provide information about the particular shade. This along with the
absorption spectra is used to forensically compare the standard and suspected paint
sample. In MSP as well, transmission mode is preferred over reflectance mode.
Since forensic analysis is a comparative study, a database of references is required
for any evidence. PDQ (Paint Data Query), maintained by the Royal Canadian
Police, is one such popularly used computerized database which provides a forensic
analyst all the required data about automobile paints with respect to the make, model,
and year of the vehicle in which particular paint was used.
5.2 Soil
From a forensic perspective, soil may be defined as an “earth material which may
have either natural (rocks, minerals) or manmade origins (asphalt, cinders), that is
transferred between a location and a person/object.” Soil is forensically analyzed to
determine the locations that are related to the commission of a crime, such as that of a
secondary crime scene or the origin of an object, such as a car (i.e., its travel history).
Soil analysis mainly concerns with the identification of the source of the trace soil
sample found at a crime scene.
5.2.1 Soil as an Evidence
It is an ideal trace evidence as it is widely prevalent, gets easily transferred, and is

minute and negligible enough not to be noticeable by a person, other than an
investigator who is actively looking for it. The soil sample can be used to link an
object or a person, on which/whom it was found, to a specific location which may be
relevant for the investigation. Layers of soil collected from shoes/wheels of a suspect
or their vehicle can show the presence of a suspect at a location or different locations.
Since the variations present in the soil composition are unlimited, they have high
evidentiary value, since the soil composition varies widely both across the land and
within the land as you go deeper into the Earth.
Soil is even more important when it bears impression evidence, such as shoe
prints or tire marks.
Despite this, soil is only considered a class evidence because of insufficient
technology and databases to be able to efficiently individualize it.
5.2.2 Types
Geologically, soil may be categorized as Sand, Silt, and Clay or a mixture of these.
This is done based on the particle size, where sand refers to the largest particle sizes,
silt to the medium-sized particles, and clay is the smallest of particles.
5.2.2.1 Clay
Particle size less than 0.002 mm, with a sticky texture.
5.2.2.2 Silt
Particle size between 0.002 mm and 0.05 mm, with a flour-like consistency; ideal
soil type for agriculture.
5.2.2.3 Sand
Particle size varies between 0.05 mm to 2 mm, with a gritty consistency, generally
seen in deserts and beaches.
Soil may also contain gravel which are broken down rocks with a size of more
than 2 mm.
The categorizations done based on the composition of the soil is dependent on the
quality and quantity of the various organic and inorganic matter present in the
particular sample at the particular location. This depends on various factors like
the environmental conditions, the nature of the biome of the area, the naturally
occurring minerals present, the amount and nature of human activity in the area, etc.
5.2.3 Composition
Soil is a complex mixture which contains both organic and inorganic substances.
The organic substances are generally decaying plant and animal matter (collectively
called the humus), while the inorganic substances refer to the mineral content which
may be metallic or nonmetallic in nature, that are usually present as gently crushed
rocks or clayey material. Other than that the soil also contains a certain amount of air
(in the form of pores) and water (present as moisture content).
The organic matter may be microbes, fungi, plant matter, and/or animal feces.
The minerals present are crystalline solids which are highly useful in the forensic
classification of soil because this imparts color to the soil and have highly unique
crystal structures which can be observed under the microscope.
The type and quantity of the organic and inorganic substances present in the soil
vary from location to location, which makes it possible to narrow down the original
source of a particular soil sample with considerable assurance, though it is impossi-
ble to individualize the soil sample to a particular location due to the presence of
large locations with a little variation in the soil chemistry.
5.2.4 Collection and Preservation
Samples must be collected as quickly as possible, especially in outdoor scenes,

before they may get contaminated or lost due to environmental or human conditions.
Ideally, a minimum of two tablespoons of the suspected sample must be collected. In
cases where there may be multiple layers of soil present, like when being collected
from the tire treads or undercarriage of a vehicle, care must be taken to collect the
sample with all the layers intact and in the same order. The samples may be stored in
plastic containers of appropriate size.
Standard samples must be taken from all possible locations and at each location, a
representative sample must be collected for every variation present. This helps in
establishing the variability of the soil composition of the particular area. While
mostly only the topsoil is considered, in some cases (like illegal graves), collection
of multiple layers of the soil profile may be required. In these scenarios, the layers
have to be collected as such, so as to not disturb the order. The standard samples in
these cases must be ideally collected at the same depth as the suspected sample.
The soil samples, which are dry, are generally packed in airtight plastic containers
and labeled with the location of the respective collection point, along with the other
pertinent details. Wet soil samples, that are usually found adhering to some object,
may be dried and packed or packed in cloth/paper bags. The small items on which
soil may be found adhered to, the entire item is packaged (after being air-dried)
instead of removing/dislodging the soil from the object. These items may be securely
packed with paper bags, separately for each item (clothing, shoes, etc.).
5.2.5 Analysis
Since soil is not a homogeneous mixture, the first step would be to ensure the
representative sample to be tested is homogenized so that it acts as a true representa-
tive. Usually, the soil sample is dried at 100 C in an oven before being tested. The
particle size distribution of the homogenized sample is determined using sieves with
different pore sizes, to separate the particles into constituent particles of different size
ranges. Each of these factions may be analyzed individually.
5.2.5.1 Visual Examination

In the macroscopic evaluation of soil, color and content are primarily examined.
The color varies depending on the mineral content present in the parent rock and the
moisture content of the geographic area. For example, if it contains more iron, the
soil would be more reddish and it would be more yellow if it had manganese salts.
Presence of organic matter can also affect the color, as soil with more humus content
tends to be darker. The color of soil is noted under sunlight after it has been oven-
dried and then is categorized as per the Munsell color chart available for soil. In some
cases, color is noted separately for each faction of the soil that has been separated as
per definite size ranges, instead of the bulk sample. Further microscopic analysis is
done for confirmation.
Soil content and texture are done based on the presence of different particles and
their sizes. The organic content is noted, qualitatively and quantitatively, and
analyzed separately. Other than natural components, soil may also contain anthro-
pogenic material like brick, cement, or microplastics. This is useful in determining
the source as the presence and amount of such content have a higher variability and
hence more specificity than that of the natural constituents.
Microscopic examination is usually carried out on the oven-dried homogenized
sample/size faction. Examination at low power shows the presence of plant and
animal debris and also artificial scraps. Further examination under high power helps
to distinguish the minerals and rocks present. Initial examination may be done using
a stereomicroscope to determine the shape and size of particles. It helps to determine
the color, particle size distribution of the bulk sample, and also the nature and
amount of the organic and inorganic content. A comparison microscope may be
used to compare the suspected soil sample to the most likely reference soil sample. A
polarizing light microscope can be used to analyze the mineral content of the soil and
determine its relative percentage as well.
Petrographic microscopes, which are similar to compound microscopes with the
exception of an additional set of Bertrand lens, are used to observe the optical
properties of prepared slices of rocks or loose soil material impregnated on a
plastic base.
5.2.5.2 Physical Examination

Different physical properties of soil samples may be analyzed such as density, pH,
and moisture content.
To measure the moisture content of either a bulk, homogenized sample or a

sieved fraction a soil sample is weighed twice-once, as the sample is collected and
then again after oven-drying the sample at 100 C. The difference in the weights
gives the moisture content of the particular sample. Since this is dependent on
environmental factors such as humidity and rainfall this can be used to eliminate
possibilities of what the source could be.
Soil pH is a measure of the soil health, important especially in the context of
agriculture. It is affected by both climatic conditions and the content of the soil.
Rainfall tends to lower the pH of the soil and hence forestland tends to have more
acidic soil than grasslands. This also causes a change in the soil pH depending on the
time of the year. Soils with more organic matter and clayey content tend to resist pH
changes and have more buffering capacity than sandy soils. The soil pH can be tested
using either a pH paper or a pH meter. It may be required to slightly damp or dissolve
(ideally 1 gm in 100 ml) the soil with neutral pH (i.e., pH 7) distilled, deionized
water.
The density measurement of soil samples is one of the most used test, in the
forensic analysis of soil. The bulk density of the sample may simply be calculated by
measuring the dry weight and dividing it by the volume of the sample. Since the
volume includes both the volume of the particles as well the volume of the air/water
pores, the bulk density is also a measure of the porosity of the sample. Apart from
that, a density gradient is developed of a sample and the profiles matched between
that of a suspected sample and a reference sample. In a glass tube, two or more layers
of liquids of varying density is taken, with the most dense liquid at the bottom and
the least dense liquid at the top. To this glass tube, the soil sample is introduced and
the particles are allowed to settle in the different layers according to their particle
density. Usually, pure solution and mixtures of tetrabromoethane and ethanol are
used. Alternatively, a hydrometer may also be used to obtain the density gradient of a
particular soil sample.

The chemical tests for soil are not widely used as the infinite number of possible
constituents making it a tedious task. Samples may be made to react with
concentrated HCl to observe for bubbling (in the presence of carbonates) or color
change (indicating the presence of metallic salts).
An analysis of the organic components can be done by using the HPLC technique
on extraction of soil done using solvents like acetonitrile. This can be carried out for
both the questioned and standard samples and compared to see the similarity or
variation in results.
The measurement of oxygen bioavailability is a novel technique, though not
widely used in the forensic lab. Along with DNA testing, it aims to determine the
microbial content of the soil. In some countries like the UK, palynology and
wax-marker analysis are also carried out for biological analysis of the sample.

IR spectroscopy has its applications in soil science as well. It is an excellent tool to
analyze both the organic and inorganic content of the soil. While the spectrum for the
inorganic fraction can not be directly obtained, it can be done by spectral subtraction
of the spectra of the bulk and the organic fraction.
SEM used in conjunction with Energy Dispersive X-Ray (SEM-EDX) provides
elemental analysis along with better magnification than a light microscope. It is used
mainly to analyze the minerals present in the soil, each of which have a distinct color
and shape.
Cathodo-luminesence observations can be made for soil samples by analyzing
them in a light microscope or a SEM with an attached luminoscope. The optical
luminescence produced when electrons are bombarded on the sample surface, vary
in both color and intensity based on the mineral composition, their structures,
quantity, and the presence of trace impurities.
XRD or X-Ray Diffraction is frequently employed for mineral analysis of soil. It
requires the soil particles to be finely crushed, before analysis. The X-Ray deflected
off the sample is allowed to fall on a film, producing a pattern that is specific for each
mineral. These can be identified by comparing them to the XRD patterns database of
known compounds.
Some soil databases used for identifying soil samples include the GIS (Geo-
graphic Information Systems), ASRIS (Australian Soil Resource Information Sys-
tem), World Reface Base, and the Soil Taxonomy database.
5.3 Glass
Glass is an amorphous mixture of minerals which is a transparent solid at normal

temperatures. Due to its amorphous quality, when glass breaks/fractures, it produces
different unique fracture patterns. Its predominant constituent is silicon dioxide
(SiO2), which is doped with other materials like soda (Na2O) and/or lime (CaO).
5.3.1 Glass as an Evidence
Glass is a class evidence that may be found in cases of vehicular accidents (glass
from the windows, headlamps, windshields, mirrors, etc.) or in crimes like burglary
or shootings (broken windows, mirrors, or glass furniture).
These glass, once shattered into fragments, may get embedded in the shoes or
clothing of the people present at the scene at the time of the incident and hence act as
a trace evidence. The glass shards may further contain other trace evidence like
blood or fibers. In cases of multiple shots being fired through a glass object (like a
window), it is possible to identify the sequence of the shots and their direction.
Impression evidence like fingerprints and lip prints may also be found on glassware,
which increases its evidentiary value.
Forensic cases mostly deal with glass evidence in the form of flat glass (windows,
lightbulbs, headlamps, etc), container glass (bottles and drinking glasses), and glass
fibers (optic fibers).
5.3.2 Composition
Glass is made by melting sand at high temperatures, whose major component is

silicon oxides, in the presence of various doping agents, which are usually metallic
oxides, such as Na2O (to reduce the melting point) or CaO (to reduce solubility in
water). This mixture is then allowed to cool down without permitting crystallization
to take place, to form the amorphous glass.
In forensic cases, soda lime glass, used to make automobile windows and
headlamps, is commonly encountered.
Different types of glass can be manufactured with varying properties, by varying
the compounds added to the melt mixture. While this helps distinguish between
different types of glass, it can not be sufficiently individualized.
The constituents of glass may be classified as:
• Formers: Which form the framework, i.e., the silicates.

• Fluxes: Which reduce the melting temperature and hence the production costs. E.
g., Na2O.
• Modifiers: Which modify the characteristics of pure glass-like CaO, Na2O,
MgO, etc.
• Stabilizers: Which provide chemical stability to the glass.
• Colorants: Which usually are metallic salts like iron or selenium.
• Decolorants and refining agents: Used to clarify the appearance of glass. E.g.,
As2O3, MnO2, CaSO4, etc.
5.3.3 Types
The different types of glass are mostly produced by varying the composition, i.e., by
adding different metal oxides to it.
5.3.3.1 Soda Lime Glass

Soda (Na2O) and lime (CaO) are the doping agents. This is the most commonly used
glass, whether it be for windshields or for glass bottles. Sometimes the molten
mixture is allowed to cool on a molten tin bath, to produce flat, “Float Glass” this
is used for the windows in a building.
5.3.3.2 Pyrex©
These are borosilicate glassware generally used to make lab-ware and glass kitchen-
ware, that can withstand extreme temperatures. As the name suggests, boron oxides
(B2O3) are added. It is resistant to cracking or shattering even when subject to rapid
and extreme changes in temperature.
5.3.3.3 Crystal Glass

Also called leaded glass, it contains lead oxide, PbO, which substitutes for CaO. It is
used to make dinnerware crystals and glass trinkets as the PbO makes the glass more
dense and hence lends more sparkle to it.
5.3.3.4 Tempered Glass

This is manufactured by rapidly and alternatively subjecting the glass to extreme
heat and cold, so as to induce stress on the surface. Due to this, when a shattering
force is applied to the glass, it breaks into small rounded pieces instead of pieces with
sharp edges. It hence causes less damage. This is used in phone screens and car
windows, but not the windshields.
5.3.3.5 Laminated Glass

It contains a plastic layer wedged between two layers of glass. This is typically used
in front windshields in automobiles. This further strengthens the resistance to the
glass shattering and causes less damage due to the glass shards.
5.3.3.6 Colored Glass

Different metal complexes are used to lend color to the otherwise transparent glass.
Nickel oxides can be combined with different glasses to give colors like yellow or
purple while cobalt gives glass a purple to blue shade and selenium imparts a red
color.
5.3.3.7 Glass Fibers

They are usually used in optic cables and fiberglass products.
5.3.3.8 Bulletproof Glass

It is made up of two, or sometimes more, layers of glass, one harder than the other
but with similar R.I. values. On impact by a projectile, the soft glass, which is more
elastic, tends to flex rather than to break/shatter hence protecting the people Indies
from the sharp debris.
5.3.4 Collection and Preservation
In case of large fragments, where they may be pieced together (and hence matched as
belonging to a single source), ensure collection of all the fragments at the scene.
Standard sample would be collected from an object with remaining broken glass
at the scene such as the glass still in the window frame which was broke. Around
1 sq.in. of the sample must be collected as close as possible to the point of break.
Care must be taken to prevent self-injury while handling glass shards. Rubber-
tipped forceps may be used if necessary. For the minute particles, a vacuum may be
used for collection. As tape lifting of glass particles is not recommended. Each
section is vacuumed and collected in separate plastic canisters. All glass fragments
should be packaged in plastic containers and not in metal/paper/glass containers. In
cases of objects suspected to have embedded shards of broken glass, they are taken
entirely and wrapped individually in paper, such that none of the dislodged shards
fall out, and then packed in boxes.
In cases when fracture pattern needs to be analyzed and the glass is not entirely
shattered, the glass sheet is removed and transported in its entirety by securing it
between plywood sheets or sturdy cardboard sheets.
Care must be taken to preserve any other trace evidence present on the fragment.
Do not opt to develop latent prints on broken glass at the scene.
The exterior and interior surfaces of all glass pieces must be labeled, whenever
possible. If it is difficult to determine, the more soiled side is usually the
exterior side.
5.3.5 Analysis
Glass samples are examined for the presence of traces of any other evidence such as
blood, tissue, hair, or fibers. If present, they are documented and carefully extracted
only at the lab. The presence of surface debris is noted before any impression
evidence like fingerprints are lifted. After all other possible evidence is collected
from the glass sample, it is then cleaned using standard glass cleaners or ultrasound
cleaners.
We will examine some of the properties of glass such as density, refractive index,
and fracture patterns that are used in forensic examination.
5.3.5.1 Visual Examination

It would include noting down the color, size, thickness, shape, surface texture, and
curvature (if any) of the samples.
To ascertain that a certain fragment is that of glass, different methods may be
employed. Thin section of glass observes under crossed polars using polarizing light,
it disappears as it is isotopic (i.e., has the same orientation as polarizer). If the sample
is plastic, pressure from a needlepoint would cause a visible indentation on the
surface unlike on glass. To differentiate powdered glass fragments from crystals like
those of NaCl, the sample may be observed under a polarizing microscope which
magnifies the structure of the sample, indicating if it is amorphous or crystalline in
nature. In addition, exposure to the polarizing light causes the minerals in glass to
exhibit different colors in varying intensities.
The color and texture of a fragment are noted as observed by the naked eye. While
it is mostly transparent/white, glass bottles or colored light bulbs may be found in
brown, green, red, or blue colors. Glass may have either a smooth glossy finish or a
matte finish. Specialty glass has more possible texture variations though they are
rarely found as forensic evidence.
The thickness of the glass may be measured using a micro-caliper. Window glass
is thicker than the glass of a picture frame while it is narrower than the glass used in
glass doors, which may additionally be reinforced with wire.
A spherometer is used to measure the curvature of the glass fragment. This helps
determine if its source was a flat glass, such as a window or door, or curved glass,
like in bulbs or container jars/bottles.
5.3.5.2 Physical Examination

Density is one of the important parameters considered for forensic analysis of glass
fragments. Depending on its end use, glass is manufactured in varying densities and
hence it is possible to compare samples to determine the source of a particular
fragment with sufficient certainty. It is measured as the mass by volume, in g/ml. The
sample fragment is weighed on a balance and then immersed in a beaker filled up to
the brim with water. The amount of water displaced by the immersion is measured
and density calculated as (Mass of sample as weighed (in g))/(volume of water
displaced (in ml)). Density comparison can be done using flotation technique where
both the standard and suspected sample are immersed in a mixture of two liquids
with different densities (like bromo-form and bromo-benzene). The density is
adjusted such that the sample neither floats (indicating it is less dense than liquid)
nor sinks (indicating it is denser than the liquid), but instead it remains suspended in
the middle. If both the questioned and reference samples remain suspended in the
same mixture of the two liquids, then it can be assumed to have a common origin.
The flotation technique is sensitive enough to be able to distinguish between glass
particles with a density difference of 0.001 g/mL.
Refractive Index (R.I.) is another important property of glass, that is forensically
relevant as well. It is a measure of its ability to bend light, a phenomenon which
occurs when light travels between media with different densities. Standard R.I. for
any substance is calculated at a wavelength of 589.3 nm, which is the predominant
wavelength of the sodium D lamp source. The Becke line is an important concept
when it comes to measuring the R.I. of a glass sample. It is a bright halo-like outline
that appears near the edges/border of the glass fragment when immersed in a medium
of different R.I. and is invisible if the fragment and the liquid medium have the same
R.I. When the sample is immersed in a liquid medium, the media in which the Becke
Line appears (glass or liquid) has the higher R.I., i.e., if the Becke line appears
outside the physical edges of the glass piece, it indicates that the R.I of the liquid
media is higher than the R.I. of the glass, and vice-versa.
Two methods may be used for analyzing the R.I. of glass samples. The immer-
sion/submersion method involves immersing the clean fragment in liquids of differ-
ent known R.I. till the outline of the fragment is invisible in one of the liquids. This
indicates that the liquid media and the fragment have same R.I.
Another method to determine the R.I. of a sample is by using a microscope
mounted with a hot stage. The suspected sample is mounted on the stage in an
immersion oil (with higher R.I. than that of glass) like silicone oil, whose rate of
change of R.I., with respect to temperature, is known. As the sample and the
immersion liquid are heated, the R.I. of the immersion liquid drops at a constant
rate. When observing the sample at 589 nm light of the Sodium D lamp source,
through the eyepiece, the Becke line slowly fades, until at one point, it completely
disappears, indicating the liquid and the sale fragment have the same R.I. The R.I. of
the sample is the same as that of the liquid and can be determined from the known
rates of change of R.I of the liquid hence providing an R.I. value of the liquid
corresponding to the temperature at which the Becke line disappeared.
GRIM 3 (Glass Refractive Index Measurement) is an automated system that
computes R.I. as it automatically processes the Becke line visibility and later
matches the temperature to an R.I. value as per its saved calibration date.
R.I. analysis can also be used to differentiate between tempered and
non-tempered glass. On subjecting the glass to annealing (slow heating followed
by cooling), the change in R.I. of tempered glass is more than that of non-tempered
glass fragment.
Reconstructing the fracture patterns of glass is another aspect of the forensic
analysis of glass. In instances where the glass has completely fragmented into
comparable large pieces, it is possible to physically match the edges, like a jigsaw
puzzle. Since glass is amorphous, no two glass pieces would break in exactly the
same pattern, and so a physical match of the edges is an individualizing characteristic
that can be used to prove that the two fragments have a common source.
When a projectile impacts a glass object, due to its flexible nature, glass initially
bends, before it cracks under the excess stress. The initial bending causes compres-
sion on the side of impact and weakens the opposite side as tension is increased
there, causing the weaker reverse side to crack. This induces the formation of radial
fractures or primary fractures on the side opposite to the side of impact. These
fractures radiate out the point of impact, with the number and length of the fractures
directly proportional to the force of the impact. Due to its amorphous flexible nature,
the glass tries to return to its original state but this causes the formation of concentric
fractures or secondary fractures, which are observed on the same side as that of
impact. They form a concentric ring with the point of impact as the center and
indicate the speed of the projectile. The more the speed of the projectile, the lesser
are the number of concentric fractures formed.
The direction of the projectile, such as a bullet, can be determined by observing
the side on which the radial fractures are present. Furthermore, the exit hole is always
larger than the entry. For determining the sequence of shots when multiple shots
were fired, the radial fracture patterns are observed. The first shot would produce
uninterrupted radial fractures. The radial fractures produced by a second shot would
terminate if it extended up to an existing fracture caused by the first shot, and so on.
Analyzing fracture patterns to determine details about the projectile is difficult in
cases of laminated glass, tempered glass, or bulletproof glass as they are specifically
designed to not shatter as conventional glass would.
The 3-R rule is a thumb rule that is used to summarize the fracture pattern of a
projectile. Radial fractures are formed on the Reverse side of impact with stress
marks on the edge of radial fractures at Right angles to the opposite side of impact.
Stress marks are arch-like patterns that can be observed on the edges of the glass
along the radial and concentric fractures. They are at 90 to the side where the glass
first cracked, i.e., the reverse side of impact, and then gently curve, running almost
parallel to the other end, i.e., the side of impact.

Sometimes, the heavy metals present in the glass exhibit fluorescence. It can be
observed by viewing the glass under a UV source. These heavy metals may be the
traces of tin from the float process or other metals present in the coatings applied to
the glass.
In cases of glass lamps, it is possible to determine whether or not the lamp was
glowing (i.e., turned on) when it broke, by observing for the presence of oxidation.
In tungsten filament bulbs, light is produced when the tungsten is heated. If the
vacuum in the bulb is breached while the filament is hot, the oxygen in the
atmosphere will oxidize the hot filament and form tungsten oxides. This is especially
useful in the investigation of vehicular accidents, to corroborate with the testimony
provided.

Instrumental analysis is less frequently employed but used to conduct trace elemen-
tal analysis. Electron microscopy, like SEM, is one such technique which helps to
qualitatively and quantitatively analyze the trace elements present in the glass.
ICP/MS (Inductively Coupled Plasma/Mass Spectrometry) can also be used to
detect trace elements. The ICP vaporizes the plasma before passing it to the MS
which detects the trace elements. Alternatively, laser ablation or hydrogen fluoride
may be used to dissolve the glass before feeding it into the ICP/MS.
Case Studies
Vicki Lynne Hoskinson.
In the case of the disappearance of 9-year-old Vicki Lynne Hoskinson and her
subsequent murder, the paint evidence played the part of an important corroborative
evidence.
Vicki, a resident of Tucson, was reported missing on 17th September 1984, when
she did not return after going out on her cycle to run an errand for her mother. When
Vicki did not return after the 10 min that it should have taken her, her elder sister,
Stephanie, went out to look for her. There she found Vicki’s pink bicycle, abandoned
in the middle of the road but no sign of her little sister.
The police investigation led to suspicion on Frank Jarvis Atwood, a man seen in
the Tucson area, at the same time as that of Vicki’s disappearance. It was discovered
that Atwood had two prior records—one for “lewd and lascivious acts upon a child”
and one for kidnapping, both of young boys—and had just been released on parole,
after serving his time in California. On examining Atwood’s car, a Sports car Datsun
260Z, the detective noticed a smear of pink paint, which seemed visually similar to
that of Vicki’s bicycle. Atwood was arrested on suspicion of abducting Vicki and his
car was confiscated.
When accident reconstruction was carried out, it was noticed that when Vicki’s
bike was laid sideways, the height of the pedal was an exact match to the scratches
and the indentation on the gravel pan under the front bumper of the car. The lack of
blood at the scene was explained by the fact that the car was traveling too slow
(approximately 5 mi/h) to cause any heavy injury or damage. It merely struck
the bike, pushed it down, and dragged it for a distance, just enough to cause the
indentation. The car was then sent to the FBI forensic lab for further analysis. The
pink paint fleck collected from Atwood’s car was compared to a sample taken from
Vicki’s bicycle (from a spot close to the area of damage). Microscopic analysis did
not reveal any differences in the samples while microchemical tests of both the
samples gave identical reactions. This led to a preliminary confirmation that both the
samples were from the same source, i.e., Vicki’s bicycle. To confirm the suspicion,
the samples were subjected to testing using GC-MS at 760 C. It confirmed that both
the samples had identical chemical compositions. When the sample from the dam-
aged area on Vicki’s bike was analyzed using SEM, it was found to contain traces of
nickel, which was not a constituent of her bike or its paint. A look at Atwood’s car’s
bumper revealed that the chrome had been scratched at a spot right next to where the
pink paint was smeared thus exposing the nickel underplating underneath. The
composition of the trace nickel found on Vicki’s bicycle was an identical match to
the nickel underplaying of Atwood’s car.
This proof of a two-way transfer became the deciding factor in Atwood’s
conviction. Seven months later, decomposed bones of a human child were found
scattered in a desert near the town. They were identified by forensic anthropologists
to belong to Vicki Hoskinson, using dental comparison. Adipocere formation on the
bones along with the ecological data of the location helped determine the time of
death and dumping of the body in the desert to be within a day or 2 of her
disappearance, which was before Atwood was picked up by the police.
Atwood was later tried and convicted for first-degree murder and sentenced to
death row.
Hisar Hit-and-Run
A hit-and-run case was reported in the Hisar district of Haryana in India, where a
white Maruti Ritz was hit by an unknown vehicle, killing two youngsters.
A brown paint smear was observed near the rear of the car, which was badly
damaged, with most of the damage found on the right side of the car. There were
grazes and dents on the right side and both the door handles were broken. At the
scene, a piece of red glass was found, preliminarily assumed to belong to the
indicator light cover of a vehicle. When police rounded up a few vehicles in a
nearby district, a brown truck was flagged because of minor damages on it.
On further inspection, a white paint transfer was observed which was a forensic
match to the hit Maruti Ritz. Additionally, the brown paint of the truck was also a
match to the brown paint smear on the Maruti. Pieces of the broken door handles
were found lodged in the driver’s footrest and the broken red glass was forensically
matched, in physical properties and fracture patterns, to the broken indicator lamp
cover of the truck.
These evidences led to the seizure of the vehicle and the arrest of the truck driver
for causing the accident.
Adelaide Double Murders

A disturbance reported in the suburb in Adelaide hills, South Australia, on 18th
September 2000, was later reported as a case of two missing women. Mr. Holding
reported his wife and mother-in-law to be missing and found blood stains and broken
glass on the lounge room floors along with some towels, quilt, and pillow missing
from his son’s bedroom. He also reported that his wife’s car and their son, Matthew
Holding, were missing.
The car was discovered abandoned the next day, over 200 kms away near
Moonta. The evidences collected from the car included a shovel covered with pink
powdery soil which had faint traces of blood along with other blood-stained items
like a knife, towels, and bedding. There was also a jade bracelet found along with
boots, in the trunk of the car, that was caked with the same pink soil as the shovel.
The police arrested, and later charged, Matthew Holding from nearby, where he was
seeking help for his broken-down car. The police then proceeded to search the
nearby Moonta cemetery, for the bodies of his mother and grandmother. It went
on for 3 days with no results as Matthew continued to be uncooperative.
The soil scientists from CSIRO were asked to help identify the soil caked on the
bracelet, shovel, and boots. Visual analysis of the color of soil showed that the pink
fine particles, smaller than 50 μm, present on all three objects belonged to the same
source. Microscopic analysis using handles and stereomicroscope revealed the
presence of large quartz crystals and yellow-pink grains of a mixture of iron oxides
and clay. The presence of clayey sand was also observed along with small white
fragments that are typical of kaolinite enriched areas like a quarry. All these points,
along with the absence of plant material, indicated that the sample originated from a
depth, i.e., from the subsoil horizon. This led the scientist to narrow down the origin
of the soil sample to be an industrial quarry. When the pH of the soil was tested, it
was determined to be acidic, i.e., pH <7.
The samples were sieved through 2 mm and 0 mm sieves. Further testing on the
particles less than 2 mm followed the preliminary visual comparison, which com-
pared the morphology (color, texture, gravel content, structure, etc.) and the chemi-
cal characteristics (Effervescence to 6 N HCl, water retention, electrical
conductivity). The particles were sieved through the 0.4 mm sieve and the small
white fragments were individually finely ground and tested using XRD for mineral-
ogical analysis. The sample from the shovel indicated the presence of quartz,
kaolinite, muscovite feldspar, and talc while the white fragments comprised domi-
nantly of kaolinite, with trace amounts of quartz and muscovite. The presence of this
combination of constituents indicated the source to be human-made soil rather than
natural soil.
Using geological and soil data maps, namely the ASRIS database, the Oakbank
Quarry area was found to be a possible match as the source for the questioned soil
sample. A particular quarry was mentioned by Matthew Holding’s father as it was a
place he had taken his son to depose some old tires. The soil scientist,
Dr. Fitzpatrick, said that the bodies would be found near a wet area in the quarries.
After many days of unsuccessful searches, foxes uncovered a hand (human) near a
pool of water in the quarry. The next day, a second body was discovered 50 m away.
With all the evidence against him, Matthew Holding pled guilty and was sen-
tenced to life imprisonment with an 18 year non-parole period.
Neeraj Grover Murder Case

Neeraj Grover, a media executive was reported missing by his father on 7th May
2008, in Mumbai. Upon investigating, it was found that he was last seen with Maria
Susairaj, at her flat in Malad, Mumbai.
Maria Susairaj was taken into custody. She initially claimed that he left her house
at 1:30 AM on May 7th and forgot his phone at her home. When his phone records
were checked, it showed a ping at 5:15 AM at a different location. A search of her
house revealed fresh bloodstains on doors and some upholsteries, which
accompanied by knife cuts on her left palm, raised suspicions. Her phone records
showed she talked to her fiancé at the time, Lt. Emile Jerome Matthew, the night of
the disappearance and flight records show that Matthew had flown into Mumbai on
May 7th. Maria’s card recorded purchases of air-fresheners curtains, bedding, two
bags, and a chopping knife from a mall nearby. She had claimed to have borrowed a
car from one of her friends which was found out to be a lie. She then claimed that the
car belonged to someone else.
After over 10 days of questioning and false statements, on 21st May, she admitted
that her fiancé killed Neeraj Grover in a jealous rage. Grover, a friend of Susairaj,
was helping her move to Mumbai and establish her acting career in Bollywood. On
the night of May 6th, Grover was helping Susairaj set up her flat when Matthew
called from his place in Kochi, Kerala. On hearing a man’s voice in the background,
he flew down to Mumbai, surprised Susairaj, and saw Grover in her bedroom. In a fit
of rage, he stabbed Grover and then coerced Susairaj into covering up the murder
with him.
Grover was stabbed repeatedly, killing him and then chopped into tiny pieces,
packed into three bags, and taken to Manor where his body was burned. The
bloodstains in Maria’s house were identified as Grover’s, through DNA profiling.
DNA from the remnant charred bones found at the Manor were also matched to
Grover. Soil evidence played an important role to help locate the site of disposal.
Soil from the treads of the car used to transport the body were analyzed and later
matched to the soil sample at the Manor.
In 2011, 3 years later, Maria Susairaj was convicted for destruction of evidence
and sentenced for 3 years while her fiancé Emile Matthew was sentenced to 10 years
for murder and 3 years for destruction of evidence to be served concurrently.
Glass Bangles
In Chandigarh, a woman reported the murder of her husband to the authorities. It was
a case of death by strangulation and the wife alleged that it was the doing of her
husband’s mistress.
The main evidence turned out to be pieces of glass bangles found on the bedroom
floor and one piece was found lodged beneath the body.
These samples, along with reference samples of whole glass bangles, collected
from both the wife and the mistress were analyzed at the Central Forensic Science
Laboratory, Chandigarh. Visual examination by the naked eye and UV examination

was accompanied by spectroscopic examination as well. This demonstrated that the
pieces of the bangle found at the scene were all structurally identical. They were
analyzed for a “physical fit” and it was determined that all the pieces were part of one
whole bangle, whose size (2.7 cm radius) matched that of a whole bangle collected
from one of the suspects. The size of the bangle piece found underneath the body
was calculated and found to be of a larger size, (3.2 cm radius). The presence of
bangles of two sizes indicated that evidence may have been planted to incriminate
another.
The wife confessed to strangling her husband to death because of his affair with
the mistress and said she had stolen a bangle her husband gifted the mistress in order
to frame the mistress for the murder. But in the scuffle that arose, one of her bangles
broke and lodged itself underneath the husband’s body thus incriminating her.
Questioned Document Examination:
A Prevalent Dispute 6
Shipra Rohatgi and Prakriti Kapoor
Abstract
Questioned Document is one of the significant components in forensic science.

This chapter explores the basic principles of handwriting, signatures, and the
factors affecting them. Some of the commonly encountered questioned
documents generally include paintings, rent receipts, prescriptions, letters (sui-
cide, love, or threatening), security documents such as passport, ID cards, and
currency notes. Tampering is one of the burning issues which are easily achieved
by the means of addition, alteration, erasure, obliteration, charring, and adopting
secret writings. The challenge faced by the experts in recognizing the sign of
tampering, forgery, and the employment of examination technique to it is a
prevalent dispute. The Questioned Document Examination (QDE) will be valu-
able for the students, police officers, investigators, and attorneys as they will gain
information regarding the court and the procedure of litigation. They will also
achieve information regarding the guidelines in forensic document examination
and the role of the expert in questioned document examination. The focus on the
admissibility of various questioned documents in the court of law and the
associated laws is being expounded.
Keywords
Questioned document · Obliteration · Charring · Alteration · Tampering
S. Rohatgi (*)
Amity Institute of Forensic Science, Amity University, Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
P. Kapoor
O.P Jindal Global University, Sonipat, Haryana, India
Ltd. 2021
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-4091-9_6
130 S. Rohatgi and P. Kapoor
6.1 Introduction
This chapter permits a brief understanding of what encompasses the domain of

forensic document examination, the kind of documentary evidences usually encoun-
tered, types of examination techniques, and their significance for the purpose of
justice. Forensic document examination is an old practice. From olden times, people
in courts have encountered a plethora of unidentified handwritings, problems with
authenticity of seals and later in eighteenth century scientific process of examination
started gaining momentum.
Let us imagine a situation, a policeman finds a deserted car at the back of a house
which matches the description of a missing woman. The crime scene investigation
team examines the interior of the car, so as to find some belonging of the woman or
leading evidence. Few printed documents, a handwritten letter, bloodstains on the
dashboard, and hair strands on the seat were recovered. In this case, the handwritten
letter and printed document will be examined by the “Questioned Document” unit in
order to determine its source and the individual involved. After obtaining a sample of
handwriting of the missing woman, the expert examines it with reference to the letter
and finds a match. The other documents suggested that the car belongs to the same
woman. There can be a number of situations where written or printed materials are
obtained which on further investigation give a lead and help investigators to connect
the crime with the suspect.
Albert S. Osborn is acknowledged as “father of the scientific examination of
questioned documents.” His works Questioned Document, 1910 (first edition) and
The Problem of Proof (1922) were universally applauded in the legal fraternity and
agencies involved in justice-related issues that concerned over questioned
documents. He pioneered the field and laid down a scientific basis of examination.
His work was extensive and the name “Osborn” is legendary in the world of forensic
science especially in the community of students, lawyers, judges, experts, and
investigators dealing in concerned cases.
6.1.1 What Is a “Questioned Document”
Whenever we think of “a document” we envisage a “piled up files” or “stack of

papers”, but is that all? As per the site of interest of a questioned document examiner,
not only just papers but also written pieces on the mirror, walls, on the body of
deceased/victim, desks, vehicle, etc., are taken into assessment. A “document” can
also be any writing surface which carries letters, marks, or symbols which suggest
some message or meaning.
A “questioned document” refers to a document whose authenticity is under
dispute, source is unknown, or ownership is put under question. For example, letters,
suicide notes, threat letters, etc., as shown in Fig. 6.1. They can be bank checks,
drivers’ license, passport, wills, and contracts. Marks, symbols, and writing on
doors, walls, window panes, or boards are encountered in various crimes. Cases
such as white-collar crime, art crime, robbery, arson, burglary, kidnapping, suicide,
6 Questioned Document Examination: A Prevalent Dispute 131
QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS
LEGAL DOCUMENTS WILLS AND AGREEMENTS
FINANCIAL DOCUMENTS CHEQUES, UNDERTAKING, GUARANTEES, RECIEPTS
IDENTITY DOCUMENTS ADHAAR, VOTER ID, DRIVERS LICENSE, PASSPORT
CONTRACTS COPIES OF TERMS & CONDITION, CURRENCY
ANONYMOUS LETTERS SUCIDE NOTES, RANSOM NOTES
BUSINESS DOCUMENTS TYPED OR WORD PROCESSED
COMPOSITE DOCUMENTS CUT/PASTE, ELECTRONIC MANIPULATION
Fig. 6.1 Categorization of questioned documents
and serial murders may have these types of “questioned documents” as evidences
(Legal 2020).
According to Sect. 29 of IPC word “document denotes any matter expressed or
described upon any substance by means of letters, figures, or marks, or by more than
one of those means, intended to be used, or which may be used, as evidence of that
matter. It is immaterial by what means or upon what substance the letters, figures, or
marks are formed, or whether the evidence is intended for, or may be used in, a Court
of Justice, or not. Illustrations of writing expressing the terms of a contract, which
may be used as evidence of the contract, is a document. A check upon a banker is a
document. A power-of-attorney is a document. A map or plan which is intended to
be used or which may be used as evidence is a document. A writing containing
directions or instructions is a document (IPC n.d.).
According to Sect. 3 of IEA “Document” means any matter expressed or
described upon any substance by means of letters, figures, or marks, or by more
than one of those means, intended to be used, or which may be used, for the purpose
of recording that matter. Illustrations A writing is a document; Words printed,
lithographed, or photographed are documents; a map or plan is a document; an
inscription on a metal plate or stone is a document; a caricature is a document (IEA n.
d.).
6.2 Counterfeiting
The term counterfeiting means the manufacture of non-genuine consumer products

which appears to be an authentic product. In most of the nations counterfeiting is
prohibited under law and may lead to criminal and civil penalties, fines and impris-
onment are also imposed when found guilty. Counterfeiting of money has been done
since time immemorial and detecting of counterfeiting currency is a part of routine
casework of a questioned document examiner. As the printing and scanning tech-
nology developed, counterfeiting of currencies and banknotes became more preva-
lent. As the fake notes increase in a system and hence will the counterfeit money.
This reduces the value of the real currency. It leads to inflation because more money
is supplied in a country. Counterfeit currency is strongly used in infiltration activities
across borders. Weit is imperative that counterfeiting can be checked by the use of
potent IP-based technology to incorporate and enhance the security features of
banknotes (Sharma 2020).
6.3 Security Features of Bank Notes
In order to detect counterfeiting of notes, security features are incorporated at them at

various stages of manufacturing. Few of them are done while paper production and
rest at the time of printing. Security features can be classified as machine detected or
machine readable features and public recognizable features which are more effective
to detect counterfeiting. Printing is distinct on banknotes and special type of ink is
used. Paper is special and it crackles, it is crisp in quality, and also has optical fibers
as shown in Fig. 6.2 (Slbcmadhyapradesh.in 2020).
6.4 Art Crimes
Criminal activities like forgery, looting, and illicit trafficking of artworks are con-
sidered as art crimes. Apart from artwork, it also includes cultural properties like
work of archeological sites, religious institutions, museums, libraries, etc. In most of
the countries, they are protected under laws. As estimated, they lead to an annual loss
of billions of dollars (Federal Bureau of Investigation 2020; Chen and Regan 2020).
Deliberate false misrepresentation of artwork, artist, or ownership is done for
monetary gain. Cases of misattribution occur when the origin or age of an artwork is
purposefully manipulated. Provenance forgery is misleading the history of origin or
ownership. Other categories of art crimes are theft, vandalism, smuggling of pre-
cious art and antiquities. Copyright infringement and money laundering with respect
to artwork also occur quite frequently (Chen and Regan 2020).
Part of scientific investigation in order to ascertain authenticity and attribution of
antiquities and art is accepted in the community. Scientific methodology investigates
materials and techniques of the object which generates data about history and
manufacture of a particular artwork. This kind of work makes the evidence verifiable
and undisputed as needed in legal proceedings. Many techniques involve
Fig. 6.2 Obverse and reverse image of Indian banknote of denomination 2000
noninvasive methods. We work from least invasive to more invasive procedures.

Smallest possible sample size is taken. High-level analytical instrumentation is
involved in various cases. Visual and macro examination is done under different
light sources. Nano and microanalysis is also done to identify age and type of
constituting materials which includes trace elements. SEM can indicate size of
paint particle size, shape, and thickness of paint layers. The cross-section is exam-
ined using UV fluorescence, polarizing microscope and Raman spectroscopy, X-ray
diffraction, spectrometric techniques, and chromatography are also preferred
methods (Sloggett 2015). Scientific methods can prove that the art is fake however
it cannot ascertain the authenticity of the art piece. Microscopy helps to see the layers
of paint and craquelure pattern. These patterns are networks made up of cracks or
fine lines on the surface of a painting.
6.5 Scope of Questioned Document Examination
There are many questions encountered by a “Questioned Document Examiner” in

their due course of work; which includes
• Is the signature presented genuine or not?

• Is the document forged?
• Is the will signed by a person voluntarily or his hand was guided?
• Is some part of the document altered, obliterated, or erased?
• Is a particular person author of a particular document?
There is a general conception which people may have with respect to “Questioned
Document” like it is a written piece of paper whose author is not known. Partially it
is true as most of the documents encountered in the past years involved handwriting
whose author was unknown and also many contemporary cases today revolve
around it. Here comes the forensic document examiner. They analyze the given
document with a known sample of the suspect. Now times have been changed, lesser
documents are “handwritten” but now typed and printed and rest are composed on a
computer system and send over e-mails and mobile phones which are dealt and
examined differently under the domain of cyber forensics (Houck and Siegel 2009).
Questioned Documents have also been found on mirrors, walls, other objects, the
document examiners not just compare handwritings but also examine inks and make
of the paper. They also decipher currency note frauds, age estimation of a document,
reconstruct charred documents, decipher writings, and uncover obliterated writing
and many more as depicted in Fig. 6.3.
The Government Examiner of Questioned Documents (GQED) laboratory in
Shimla, India, was set up by the British in 1904. It is the second oldest laboratory
after Scotland Yard. The GQED was pivotal in investigating high-profile national
and international cases. The GQED was later merged with Central Forensic Science
Laboratory in Chandigarh (Sharma 2020).
FEW CASES WHERE FORENSIC DOCUMENT EXAMINATION IS DONE
SUICIDE
FORGERIES NOTE
CONTESTING
KIDNAPPING
ROBBERIES COUNTERFIETING WILLS AND
NOTE
CONTRACTS
IDENTITY MEDICAL
FRAUD EXTORTION
THEFT MALPRACTICES
Fig. 6.3 Types of cases examined in the questioned document domain

6.6 Handwriting
Handwriting is an intricate motor skill which is a composite of sensory, neurological,

and physiological impulses. Physiology and anatomy of muscles and bones together,
visual abilities, conception of form, pathway of central nervous system all unite to
give product “handwriting.”
Most of us have learnt writing at a young age by “copying” letters from a
copybook. Each one of us has a different capacity to observe images and replicate
the same, both visual and motor skills. The dexterity is achieved with repetitive
practice, as the writer incorporates their own characteristics than just simply “copy-
ing” it. This deviates an individual from the copybook form and handwriting
becomes a modeled, intuitive, subconscious configuration which is repeated at
consequent writing (Hilton 1992; Huber and Hedrick 1999).
6.6.1 Theory of Handwriting
Recalling our kindergarten days when we just started to write, classroom walls had
charts depicting letters and we spent the class trying to form letters. They had
instructions to follow and we were instructed to follow any one of the copybook
styles—Bloser, Palmer, and Zaner methods. At this age of early learning, all focus
was on correctly writing the letters. After this, as a child grows in ages their
handwriting deviates from the copybook style and now attention shifts from letter
formation to content. Visual or ocular perception and neuromuscular coordination
vary from person to person, which in turn makes the ground for handwriting. As a
person continues to grow, the skill of handwriting develops and gets individualized
(James and Nordby 2002).
Children are given an exemplary or a prototype of each letter in the alphabet and
they are taught to copy it accurately. Later is the step of making words by putting the
letters together. At this period of learning and growing most of the children have
similar handwriting as they are getting skillful at “copying.” As they grow and
proceed with writing, their focus shifts to what they are writing and less than just the
letters formation. These habits become intrinsic and the process of handwriting shifts
from a conscious effort to subconscious. This leads to the development of “Individ-
ual Characteristics.” After a period of time, gradual changes come into pictures but
the individual characters remain the same (James and Nordby 2002).
6.6.2 Physiology of Handwriting
Arm and finger along with wrist movement work collectively to form writing.
Writing is formed over the paper and pen when positioned in a correct way as the
movement of arm occurs. The movement of arm can be continuous or be done in
parts when and where needed. In order to develop writing, one has to defeat the
physical and mechanical inhibitions like paper placement, securing it with one hand,
and writing with the other guiding the movement of pen over paper.
Over the years of practice, writing skills are developed with time. Every person
has inherent observation and comprehension aptitude, which manifests into techni-
cal execution. With full development of motor skills, a person attains graphic
maturity and writing becomes a subconscious act. Handwriting remains underdevel-
oped due to mere lack of writing or even lack of proper schooling as this skill is
mastered with practice only until a person has a learning disability or so. Before
usage of office equipment came into practice, regular and extensive writing
continued into adulthood. In present times, the method of teaching “writing” is
relatively relaxed as compared to olden times when more stress was given paper
positioning, posture, and grip of the writing tool (Koppenhaver 2007).
6.6.3 Characteristics of Handwriting and Identification Principles
Handwriting is unique to an individual and individuality of handwriting is supported

as validated through research programs like CEDARFOX (computer-based). This
was developed at the State University of New York, Buffalo by Dr. Sargur Srihari
et al. Another one namely FLASH ID which is developed in Alexandria, Virginia by
Gannon Technologies Group and FISH developed in Germany by BKA and the US
Secret Service (Lewis 2014).
The principle behind handwriting examination is based on “no two people write
exactly alike” and handwriting is individual in nature and particular to a person.
Class characteristics develop from the copybook style and are shared by most of the
people and are not sufficient enough to ascertain authorship. Handwriting of an
individual when becomes subconscious over a period of time and learning age.
Individual characteristics are acquired subconsciously and become an inherent
character beyond a person’s awareness. These are very individual in nature, do not
change over a period of time, are not easily modified as conscious habits, and are
very difficult to imitate (Koppenhaver 2007). There are various characteristics of
handwriting which is different from one individual to another. Method of construc-
tion, size, and space between the letters, slant, proportional size of the letters, line
spacing, curves, etc., are a few examples.
Class Characteristics The properties of penmanship are reflected in a social affair

of person which are discovered by the child toward the start of making sense of how
to form. The style of making, which is gotten by the understudy, is what is popular at
a particular time and spot. Following are the features, which are solicited in class
credits (Allen 2015).
• Line quality: The lines made by a practiced creator are smooth and uniform. The
start, finishing, and decoration strokes are ordinary and smooth. Partner strokes
are uniform and incessant beside where the creator regularly lifts the pen to
complete or change the letters. On the other hand, in impersonated and followed
manufactures, there are standard pen-stops, pen lifts, and vacillating engravings.
• Skill: Ability level can be best portrayed as vitality about greatness as associated
with hand forming. An Individual with a high capacity level produces forming
that is fluid melodic, possibly innovatively designed and, to lay it out simply,
stunningly fulfilling to the eye. An individual with a low mastery level makes a
thing that is postponing, progressively executed; when in doubt, it is not fulfilling
to the eye. His fitness level breezes up one of the noteworthy characteristics of
recognizing confirmation.
• Rhythm: It is found in the penmanship of educated individuals with sufficient
arrangement experience so to speak. Rhythm is shown by the movement of
creating, right line quality and emphasis, and proportionate improvement of
letters and figures. It is the aftereffect of making and examining foundation and
can not be imitated.
• Speed: Composing rate can not be assessed unequivocally from the finished cycle
of handwriting anyway can be settled on a choice from the idea of the strokes or it
will in general be unraveled in wide terms as moderate, moderate or quick.
• Slant: Tendency suggests the edge of affinity of making or a letter out of making
from the measure out of that piece. It might be forward and inclining aside, or
“strike” on the off chance that it reviews aside. The inclination of making may
transform from the most reliable early phase of a word to the part of the
arrangement, from the earliest starting point phase of a sentence, territory or
page to the part of the arrangement, passage or page.
• Pen Pressure: Pen pressure is the ordinary power with which the pen contacts the
paper, as assessed from the appraisal of making. Pen position is the association
between the pen point and the paper expressly; the edge between the nibs of the
pen and line of making and between the reason for the pen and the paper surface is
the segments of the pen position.
• Alignment: The forming may slant upward, sliding, be bent or angled, or have a
case of changes for different words, word pieces, or checks. It may seek after the
benchmark or experience the example or be capricious concerning the check.
• Spacing: It is the space given by the writer among letters/words/lines, etc. It might
be tight, even, medium, or clashing.
• Pictorial impacts: The pictorial impact of composing shows the aptitude of the
author. A cumbersome penmanship shows small composing experience. Creative
penmanship shows esthetic bowed of psyche. Powerful composing is found face
to face who composes with forsake. Faltering and toiled composing is by people
who are sick, old, or weak. It is exceptionally normal in reenacted or followed
frauds.
• Connecting Strokes: Connecting strokes join the letters in words. They are
similarly called ligatures. Letters in a word may be related or disengaged.
Connectors can include bends, wreaths, focuses, or string affiliations.
• Size and extents of letters: It is a propensity wherein blend and similar size of
square and little letters are taken in thought and are nearly fixed and remains
genuinely steady.
• Tremors: Tremors are normal in the penmanship of people who are old, wiped
out, alcoholic, or unskilled. In reenacted quakes, the counterfeiter is probably
going to put them at working spots and the shape and sizes of the quivery bends
are unique. The fake idea of the composing can hence be set up.
6.6.3.1 Individual Characteristics

The author with the movement of time gets singular credits and each individual
makes idiosyncrasies in his handwriting; some are deliberately picked up for style
and pictorial appearance or for comfort, while various inclinations become built up
in the organization strategy. The guidelines of removing out the individual hand-
writing styles credits in the penmanship are: Rehashed characteristics which are
unnoticeable should be first searched for recognizing and isolating characteristics
which are generally one of a kind from the ordinary copybook standard. Attributes
those are adjusted or individualized by different scientific specialists in different
manners as depicted in Table 6.1. The curious physical turn in the plans of characters
would show individualized characteristics of a specialist (Allen 2015;
AinswortháMitchell 1925; Mitchell 1922).
6.6.4 Factors Affecting Handwriting
Mechanical factors like body position and writing surface affect the handwriting of
an individual. As a child grows in age, his handwriting develops and stabilizes at
young age; however, with old age it deteriorates. Physical and mental infirmities
affect the handwriting of an individual. Drug abuse and alcohol alter handwriting
and deteriorate it. Accidental jerks, strokes, or bumps deviate handwriting from the
normal. Support of a guided hand also differs from the handwriting of an individual
as shown in Fig. 6.4. Occurrence of tremor reflects distortion in handwriting and is
difficult to imitate (Koppenhaver 2007).
6.7 Signatures
Signatures are one of the most commonly encountered evidence to questioned

document examiners and are subjected to forgery. We can define signatures as
“special kind of handwriting”; it is a way for a person to authenticate the contents
of any document. This is not just limited to curating the content themselves but
complying with the content. For example, in a check where the amount, date, and
payee name can be written by a third person but only the signature of a particular
person enables transaction of funds (Allen 2015).
Using signature in documents related to legal and financial transactions is based
on the fact that the handwriting of any individual is a unique character associated
with that person. This helps the questioned document examiner to find out the author
of a particular handwriting sample and also make necessary recommendations on
genuine and non-genuine exemplars.
Table 6.1 Depicting few characteristics of handwriting

Characteristic Description Example
Text quality Letters are firm or shaky
Continuity Continuous writing or pen lifts
Connecting letters Uppercase/

Lowercase connected/
Discontinuous
Cursive or printed letters Cursive letters, printed letters, or both
Pen pressure Pressure of pen while writing
Slant Left, right, or variable
Line habits Positioning of text, on either side of

the line
Placement of dots and Right, left, or centered correct or

crosses misplaces
Artistic curls and loops Presence of fancy curls and loops

TimeSpan
Mechanical factors:
position & writing surface
Guided hand and tremorsTime
Physical and mental health
Accidental factors
Effect of drugs and alcohol
Fig. 6.4 Factors affecting handwriting
Fig. 6.5 Normal hand simulation
Copying of a signature mostly depends upon the skill of the person doing it;
signatures can be simulated or forged in different ways. In routine casework, the
most commonly encountered simulation is a freehand simulation or freehand forg-
ery. In this case, the person strives to emulate from a source signature without using
any tools. Apart from copying, signatures are also traced and many of these are
encountered in the practice. In normal hand simulation, the person does not tries to
copy the signature but writes in his own style as shown in Fig. 6.5 (Koppenhaver
2007; Allen 2015).
6.8 Tampered Documents
Tampering is a kind of imitation which is being embraced by the falsifiers to

accomplish some cash, property, or with other reason, for example, envy. Reports
structure an indispensable wellspring of proof that can be inspected for tackling
wrongdoings. Individuals generally compose and sign various kinds of records so is
the danger of altering them. Altering can be accomplished in numerous ways. It
incorporates expansion, cancelation, mystery compositions, burnt records,
eradications, devastation, and so forth (Godown 1964; Souder 1955; Harrison
1958; Osborn 1986).
6.8.1 Alteration
Alterations might be characterized as the change or alteration in the record. The

adjustment might be made by eradication, expansion, erasure, dropping,
interlineations, and replacement of some composing material or figures which can
change the character, rights, or commitments of the gatherings as shown in Fig. 6.6
(Godown 1964; Souder 1955).
Fig. 6.6 (a) Depiction obliteration in course training evaluation form using highlighter. (b) Data
written was 2,811,494 deciphered under 735 (Lumi)
6.8.2 Charred Documents
The outdoors consuming is a sort of complete oxidation and the effects conveyed by
the past and the later devouring structure will have different effects. The resulting
factor melds such a paper or ink used. Whether or not the singing is done or
generally, the proportion of ink stacked and the paper surface is essential since ink
varies remarkably in their demeanor, they can be water, mineral shading, or
oil-based (Mitchell 1922). The majority of inks mainly contain iron as an important
compound and get kept as iron oxide, faintly perceptible. In the occasions of pencil
forming, the constituents of graphite and earth are incorporated degrees and soil
being noncombustible records the outline of the creation making it obvious to be
scrutinized by stripped eyes. Procedures for the location and decipherment of such
fragile reports are not still all around perceived. During the endeavor of deciphering
the halfway scorched archives, the specialist must hold some basic real factors as a
top need that the recouped addressed mostly singed record may change amazingly in
their physical and compound cosmetics close by the sort of surface (paper) and the
kind of ink (ball, gel, wellspring, imperceptible, and so forth) in comprehension to it
the consuming conditions in like manner impact the devouring models. There are
certain components which impact the consuming procedure as shown below in
Fig. 6.7 (Ellen et al. 2018).
6.8.3 Erasures
The process of creating, typing, or printing from a record, regularly accomplished by

either manufactured strategies or a grinding instrument is known as erasures. One of
the most notable ways to deal with later the report is by killing its piece.
Annihilations can be impacted by engineered and mechanical methods. A flexible
erasure, sandpaper, razor, sharp edge; the cutting edge is used by scratching the
paper surface. The mechanical destructions will trouble the upper fibers of the paper
and the particles of flexibility will be seen on the paper surface. Such sort of erasures
Fig. 6.7 (a) Chemical erasure in a rent receipt, (b) decipherment under docubox HD Bottom
5/4.49x
Fig. 6.8 Obliteration in bank

slip (deciphered in 830 Lumi)
can be perceived by microscopic strategy. Substance erasures are oftentimes

recognized and the arrangements are restored by fuming with explicit synthetics,
for instance, with the fumes of ammonium sulfide, alcohol, iodine exhausts, etc., as
shown in Fig. 6.7 (Brunelle and Crawford 2003; Sharma 2005; Kelly and Lindblom
2006).
6.8.4 Obliteration
Repealing or spreading over structure or printing to make the main disjointed is

called as obliteration. The most widely recognized strategy for destruction is by
overwriting or intersection with a pencil, pen, or spreading ink or dull liquid.
Figure 6.8 shows the example for the obliteration at the point when the devastation
is completed by a similar pen and ink then not long after it is drying, it is regularly
hard to separate with the first content (Sharma 2005; Nabar 2017).
6.8.5 Secret Writings
Prisoners for the most part pass on their messages and information through riddle
attempts to their family members, sidekicks. The prisoners may be offenders,
political liable gatherings, overall secretive specialists, and people from puzzle social
requests. The liable gatherings are using differing qualities and designed sources
which are fulfilling the need of making imperceptible organization. There are various
types of imperceptible inks available in the market. The most notable ones are the
evaporating ink, vanishing ink, and erasable which is used in the field of material,
paint, and other compound endeavors along these lines viably available for tricky
purposes. These inks work on the standard of acid/base science (Grant 1942).
Thymolphthalein is a substance, underneath 9.3 it is bleak or more than pH 10.3 it
is blue. Most of the imperceptible inks rely upon this destructive base (pH) pointer.
The quantifiable investigators are encountering cases of imperceptible arrangements
in various bogus cases. Thusly, there is a basic prerequisite for the headway of
legitimate systems (Dawson 1980; Emily 2009; Basalaha 1906; Krup 2003).
6.9 Burning Issues Encountered in Questioned Document
The forensic document domain of criminological report assessment comprises of an

assortment of expert errands identified with the history and starter of addressed
records. The wide territory of errands actualized by criminological report inspectors
incorporates the aptitude to recognize the initiation of penmanship and mark;
segregate among veritable, imitated, or camouflaged penmanship; to look at and
break down segments of inks, papers, and different materials associated with
records; and other profoundly talented examinations dependent on a specific
method. The field of penmanship assessment is firmly identified with observational
information and down-to-earth understanding. Penmanship is generally thought to
be social exercises that are recognizable because of the existing highlights and
attributes inside the composition. Inferable from the capacity of applying new
procedures into report assessment had for some time been thought of, the moderni-
zation of greetings tech scientific innovation has brought about quick advancement
in created nations, particularly the use of informatics, framework investigation
designing, PC method, man-made reasoning, and so on. All the advancements
referenced above have essentially advanced the modernization of the field of scien-
tific archive examination. An addressed report need not be a bit of paper; it tends to
be any item. To be an archive, it must contain semantic or numerical markings that
are put there by penmanship, typing, duplicating, PC printing, or different methods.
On the off chance that there is a question about whether the record is true (e.g., a
genuine draft card or identification) or who the writer is, for example, the instance of
the reports asserted to have been composed by Howard Hughes for the situation
referred to toward the start of the section, at that point it is an addressed archive.
Individuals think about an “addressed report” as a bit of paper containing penman-
ship whose creator is obscure. The facts demonstrate that, truly, most of the
addressed archive cases included obscure penmanship, many despite everything do
today. The errand of the criminological archive inspector in these cases is to figure
out who composed the record. This is finished by looking at the attributes of the
penmanship on the report with known examples of the presumed creator.
Circumstances are different, nonetheless. Few reports are being written by hand.
Many are currently made on a PC. Quite a bit of our mail and different archives are
currently sent by cell phone and, after the conveyance and perusing, are erased until
the end of time. Indeed, even in cases that despite everything includes penmanship,
there is significantly more to break down than just penmanship on paper. Addressed
archives have been composed of mirrors, dividers, huge bulletins, and different
articles. Report analysts are frequently called upon to look at typewritten or PC
printer-produced records, investigate inks and papers, decide the age of an archive,
reveal charge card fabrications and cash extortion, and remake singed or demolished
composition (Tajani 2014).
6.10 Challenges to Forensic Document Examination
The space of questioned document assessment comprises of an assortment of expert

errands identified with the history and starter of addressed records. The wide territory
of errands actualized by criminological report inspectors incorporates the aptitude to
recognize the initiation of penmanship and mark; segregate among veritable,
imitated, or camouflaged penmanship; to look at and break down segments of
inks, papers, and different materials associated with records; and other profoundly
talented examinations dependent on a specific method. The field of penmanship
assessment is firmly identified with observational information and down-to-earth
understanding. Penmanship is generally thought to be social exercises that are
recognizable because of the presence of highlights and attributes inside the compo-
sition. Inferable from the capacity of applying new procedures into report assessment
had for some time been thought of, the modernization of greetings tech scientific
innovation has brought about quick advancement in created nations, particularly the
use of informatics, framework investigation designing, PC method, man-made
reasoning, and so on. All the advancements referenced above have essentially
advanced the modernization of the field of scientific archive examination. An
addressed report need not be a bit of paper; it tends to be any item. To be an archive,
it must contain semantic or numerical markings that are put there by penmanship,
typing, duplicating, PC printing, or different methods. On the off chance that there is
a question about whether the record is true (e.g., a genuine draft card or identifica-
tion) or who the writer is, for example, the instance of the reports asserted to have
been composed by Howard Hughes for the situation referred to toward the start of
the section, at that point it is an addressed archive. Individuals think about an
“addressed report” as a bit of paper containing penmanship whose creator is obscure.
The facts demonstrate that, truly, most of the addressed archive cases included
obscure penmanship, many despite everything do today. The errand of the crimino-
logical archive inspector in these cases is to figure out who composed the record.
This is finished by looking at the attributes of the penmanship on the report with
known examples of the presumed creator. Circumstances are different, nonetheless.
Fewer reports are being written by hand. Many are currently made on a PC. Quite a
bit of our mail and different archives are currently sent by cell phone and, after the
conveyance and perusing, are erased until the end of time. Indeed, even in cases that
despite everything includes penmanship, there is significantly more to break down
than just penmanship on paper. Addressed archives have been composed of mirrors,
dividers, huge bulletins, and different articles. Report analysts are frequently called
upon to look at typewritten or PC printer-produced records, investigate inks and
papers, decide the age of an archive, reveal charge card fabrications and cash
extortion, and remake singed or demolished composition (Tajani 2014).
6.11 Issues in Handwriting Analysis
Criminological report assessment proof has been conceded in courtrooms for about
more than 100 years. Whereas penmanship/handwriting assessment is an interdisci-
plinary field that did not create in a scholarly situation yet rather out of legal need.
However, the logical premise of this field was frequently tested by the legal
counselors and judges in late years. Much has been accomplished in the course of
recent decades in comprehension and testing the unwavering quality and legitimacy
of flaw identification and avoidance (FDE) (Liu et al. 2018).
There has been a general acknowledgment worldwide by the legal science
network in guaranteeing the presence of logical premise over all the measurable
science disciplines. The practical methodology taken to approve the penmanship
strategy should have been focus at the evaluation and testing of FDEs themselves as
the technique itself could not be straightforwardly approved because of the subjec-
tive procedures by which penmanship assessment assignments were conveyed out.
The scientific penmanship inspectors as needs be were viewed as the instruments to
be validated. The presence of aptitude in itself does not furnish the legal executive
with data in regards to the potential the proof must be deluding (Mohammed 2009).
6.12 Questioned Document Examination (QDE)
The request for authoritative report evaluation, consistently suggested as

“Questioned Document,” is once in a while associated with white—neckline wrong-
doing, for instance, check fakes; in any case, eventually, this region of quantifiable
science which can be put into use in a wide show of cases from remedial bad conduct
to murders. Outfitted with present-day development, logical report investigators can
investigate undeniable and imperceptible keeps an eye on record to expel a plethora
of nuances which may affirm realness or give additional information significant to
the examination. Questioned Documents Examination (QDE) gives logical assis-
tance to the pros by driving criminological evaluations on verification assembled
during an assessment. This is developed through formed reports which contain
outcomes of evaluations and particular information relating to the confirmation
and by giving expert revelation regarding information and speculations
encompassing the reports when needed. Addressed record evaluation consistently
is done in the cases of manufacture, mail blackmail, seizing, wagering, sifted
through bad behavior, burglary, robbery, arsonist tendencies, murder, consecutive
manslaughter, mental profiling, sorted out, and desk crime (Lewis 2014). One of the
most inconvenient issues is to set up from an examination of the creator who
organized a fake, routinely the request can not be answered since the strategy of
manufacture is itself a fantastic kind of disguise. With only a sensible pantomime of
the bona fide mark, conspicuous evidence of the falsifier by techniques for his
arrangement alone is the exclusion instead of the norm. Just once in a while do
what is fundamental of the forger’s own piece penchants to fill in as the purpose
behind unmistakable verification. In rather remarkable events, in any case, the
falsifier may be perceived by a portion of his little anyway significantly singular

affinities that occur in imitated marks. With deceiving (non-imitated) marks, espe-
cially those in which the creator did not try to change or disguise his regular
synthesis, it is much more straightforward to develop who organized the imprints
(Tajani 2014; Liu et al. 2018; Mohammed 2009).
6.12.1 Handling of Documentary Evidence and Chain of Custody
Original documents should be handled with utmost care. Use of gloves is suggested,
so as to not leave fingerprints. Examiners should have minimal contact and hold the
document from the edges. Mylar sheets and envelopes should be used readily and
ensuring protection from heat, fire, strong light, and humidity. As per the general
practice, examination is done on photographs and photocopy of the original, so as to
ensure protection. Destructive testing is done when needed with the use of minimal
sample.
Documents are delicate and are vulnerable to deterioration by various means like
humidity, heat, light, fire, pests, chemical substances, etc. While handling, the
document should be protected from folds, staple pins, glue, soil, tears, and cuts.
They should be protected from chemicals and abrasive surfaces as they can damage
the paper fibers and cause discoloration.
They should be collected carefully and safeguarded while transport. They should
be sent through credible mailing service. They should be tracked and handed over to
the concerned person only.
In order to ascertain integrity and credibility of evidences, the chain of custody
has to be ensured and documented at each and every step. Every party that handles
the evidence should mandatorily sign the form for chain of custody and should be
maintained with the casework file (Koppenhaver 2007).
6.12.2 Principles of Questioned Document Examination
Archives can be inspected for proof of adjustments, destructions, eradications, and

page replacements. Or on the other hand, the analyst can examine the strategies,
materials, or machines that made the report, giving key data that can distinguish or
limit the potential wellsprings of the archive. The ink, paper, composing instruments,
strips, stamps, and seals utilized underway of the record may all uncover significant
pieces of information. Measurable assessment and correlation of penmanship, which
incorporates hand printing and marks, depends on three fundamental standards:
1. Given an enough penmanship, no two talented journalists display indistinguish-

able penmanship highlights;
2. Each individual has a scope of characteristic variety to their composition;
3. No essayist can surpass their expertise level.
In the examination of questioned documents various approaches are being

adopted which include the physical, chemical, and instrumental methods. Initially,
the equipment used in forensic document examination was paper, pen, and
magnifying glass in China; however, this equipment is no longer used nowadays.
In recent years, along with the development of physical and chemical analysis as
well as instrumental analysis, techniques of forensic document examination have
significantly improved, which has played a vital role in solving crimes and obtaining
evidence.
In general, there are many questioned documents that require physical and
chemical analysis for objects such as paper, ink, stamp inks, and glue. By analyzing
the components and structure of these objects, we can recognize and compare them
to carry out an examination; we can also determine the relative date of the document.
The following are some physical and chemical analysis methods that are applied in
forensic document examination (Tajani 2014; Liu et al. 2018; Mohammed 2009).
6.12.3 Hand Magnifying Lens
Mechanical components like body position and composing surface influence pen-
manship of a person. As a kid develops in age, his penmanship creates and balances
out at youthful age, anyway with mature age it falls apart. Physical and mental
sicknesses influence penmanship of a person. Medication misuse and liquor change
penmanship and disintegrates it. Unintentional yanks stroke or knocks goes as tray
penmanship from the ordinary. Backings of a guided hand likewise vary the pen-
manship of a person. Event of tremor reflects contortion in penmanship and is hard to
impersonate (Inouye et al. 1979; Hobbs 1963; Rumney 2007).
6.12.4 Microscopy (Stereomicroscope)
Stereomicroscope is otherwise called analyzing magnifying lens. It is an optical

magnifying instrument intended for perception of low amplification test, normally
utilizing light reflected from the outside of an item as opposed to utilization of
transmitted. It gave a 3D perspective on the example. It was first found by Cherubin
d’ Orleans yet he neglected to appropriately clarify its working. After that Charles
Wheatstone, an English researcher portrayed the standard of stereoscopic vision. It
can utilize from numerous points of view like basically it used to see examples like
plants and creatures, yet in late world it is utilized in fractography, scientific
designing, microsurgery, and in particular in entomology (Inouye et al. 1979;
Hobbs 1963; Rumney 2007; Nakamura and Mitaka Kohki Co Ltd 2002; Muchel
and Strahle 1985).
6.12.5 Spectral Analysis
Bright (UV) noticeable reflectance spectra of the minuscule photo. The photographic
technique can be utilized to distinguish comparative shades of ink, which is substan-
tially more solid than optical microscopy or visual perception. Fluorescence micros-
copy can be utilized to distinguish the ink of the paper and some paper-added
substances (light-radiating fiber and plastic material) that have outflow spectra.
UV spectrometer estimations could be joined with different instruments to distin-
guish addressed records.
Raman spectroscopy has been generally used in the criminological examination
of addressed reports including stamp inks and composing inks. Moreover, Raman
dispersing was utilized to decide a succession of heterogeneous convergence strokes,
for example, those from ballpoint pen ink (red and dark), pencil, and laser printer
toner aside from stamp ink and ballpoint ink or gel pen ink (all hues) (Muchel and
Strahle 1985; Spink et al. 1999).
6.12.6 Chromatographic Techniques
6.12.6.1 Thin Layer Chromatography

Separation relies on the overall proclivity of mixes toward fixed and the versatile
stage. The mixes affected by the portable stage travel over the outside of the fixed
stage and the compound with higher fondness to the fixed stage travel gradually
while the others travel quicker. It is utilized to distinguish the ink parts, laser toner
and inkjet, and paper ink.
6.12.6.2 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography

Separation is based on the analytes’ relative solubility between two liquid phases.
HPLC utilizes different types of stationary phase, a pump that moves the mobile
phase and analytes through the column, and a detector that provides a characteristic
retention time for the analytes. It is used to identify ballpoint ink and gel pen ink
ingredients.
6.12.6.3 Gas Chromatography

The example arrangement infused into the instrument enters a gas stream that ships
the example into a division tube known as column. The different parts are isolated
inside the section. The identifier quantifies the number of components that leave the
column. The standard sample of top maintenance time and the zone are contrasted
with the test to figure the fixation (Spink et al. 1999).
6.12.7 VSC (Video Spectral Comparator)
Distinguishing any kind of tampering which are not noticeable to the natural eye can
regularly be recognized through utilization of photography and other imaging
gadgets that use bright and infrared frequencies of light. Utilizing radiation separated
at different frequencies, an imaging instrument, for example, a video spectral
comparator (VSC) can uncover composing that has been included with an alternate
ink, or has been modified or evacuated by abusing varieties in the way various inks
react to various frequencies of light. For instance, under certain light sources
consolidated with an infrared channel, a record containing data written in ink that
has blurred after some time might be improved or handled to seem darker and in this
manner increasingly readable. Destroyed note saw with noticeable light (Hobbs
1963; Rumney 2007; Nakamura and Mitaka Kohki Co Ltd 2002; Muchel and
Strahle 1985).
6.12.8 Electrostatic Detection Apparatus (ESDA)
Uncovering text from indented impressions—Documents that may contain indented

impressions not noticeable to the unaided eye can be imagined using an Electrostatic
Detection Device (EDD, for example, the Electrostatic Detection Apparatus
(ESDA). An EDD utilizes applied charges and toner to imagine territories of
indented composing, making them noticeable to the eye. The ESDA utilizes the
rule that indented zones of the record convey more positive charge than
encompassing zones. This causes the toner utilized in the EDD to be pulled into
these territories, uncovering spaces that are available. Utilizing this method, indented
impressions have been recouped from up to seven layers of paper underneath the first
works. Exploration has shown that impressions can be effectively pictured from
reports as long as 60 years of age, gave the papers are most certainly not misused or
put away inappropriately.
6.12.9 Docubox HD/Dragon/Projectina NIRVIS Docucenter
Docubox Dragon and HD are another assigned optics which contains incorporated
enlightenment sources in single apparatus. The working of such advanced instru-
ment is through jogger handled and contact screen. The two of them give a
progressed diagnostic assessment, both methodical and extensive. Docubox mythi-
cal serpent and HD have been contrived, so as to satisfy the expanding interest for
quick and precise assessment of a few addressed reports principally cash notes,
security records, mystery compositions, incompletely burned archives, and so forth.
These instruments involve a minimal chamber with various light sources inbuilt into
it, a PC with programming to break down the outcomes.
Docubox Dragon and HD comprise of 12 facilitated light sources, automated 20x
Zoom optics, and a CCD IR delicate concealing camera with autofocus. New
Sequence mode the Docubox Dragon thus picks various light sources and assess-
ment times and gives the results inside a particularly short period of time. The main
distinction between them is just in the nature of picture. Docubox Dragon gives 2D
pictures and Docubox HD gives top quality pictures.
The progression in the explanatory strategies for different addressed records has
been accomplished since ages. Projectina NIRVIS is such a sort of conservative plan
machine which can recognize, assess, and see the pictures straightforwardly on the
screen with amplification up to 175X. It fills an incredible need in the field of
measurable science. It contains different light sources which have transmitting and
side lighting capacity. It can without much of a stretch recognize modification and
attractive ink. It can likewise uncover the counter strokes inks. A high goals IR
shading computerized incorporated camera plays out the activity of picture catching
(Tajani 2014).
6.13 Computer-Assisted Handwriting Examination
The domain of computer-assisted handwriting examination assessment is an inter-

esting issue both at home and abroad. Kroon, 1998 has proposed the utilization of
SCRIPT as a preparation tool. Mohammed, 1999 has considered the Write-On
programming program as another guide to penmanship correlation. He thought
that it was an important guide for enormous cases including numerous archives.
He proposed it was helpful in creating measurable information to help the investiga-
tion. It can likewise be utilized as a refined method of making examination graphs for
the courtroom. Because of the multifaceted nature and decent variety of Chinese
characters as far as text style and structure, combined with the way that a suspect
may intentionally camouflage his/her composition, it is amazingly hard to utilize PC
helped penmanship distinguishing proof frameworks. To build up a lot of characters
reasonable for PC clever HARYs, we have to give more consideration to the
accompanying three perspectives:
• The programmed choice of composing highlights: From penmanship tests or tests

of penmanship, the trademark estimation of the word is naturally chosen.
• The programmed extraction of penmanship qualities, that is, from the determina-
tion of the element words, significant highlights can be removed.
• Connected with foundation data of the case, the assessment of penmanship
qualities can be surveyed from tests.
6.14 Digital Signatures
The digital signatures are generally used at the shopping center to capture the
signature on an electronic pad and in any event, for protection strategy reports.
Measurable record analysts have analyzed printed renditions of marks produced
from electronic mark catch cushions, and now genuine computerized documents
might be submitted for assessment. Criminological record assessment is venturing
forward into another period. The assessment of advanced mark documents is a valid
example for what is to come. Figure 6.9 shows the steps for digital signature
Fig. 6.9 Digital signature insertion in e-mail
generation in gmail account (Nakamura and Mitaka Kohki Co Ltd 2002; Muchel and
Strahle 1985; Spink et al. 1999).
6.15 Paper
Paper fills in as a substrate for the advancement of different sorts of records, for
example, wills, deeds, money notes, bank checks, stamps, just as personality
archives, international IDs, visas, driving permits, and other government-related
reports. The part of paper utilized in the assembling of security archives is extremely
noteworthy as far as their tolerability when changed over into a valuable and
confirmed report. The security reports are for the most part created on two significant
sorts of substrates, for example, paper and plastic. The crude material utilized for the
equivalent is principally unadulterated cotton fiber-based cellulose blended in with
titanium oxide and different security highlights are inserted into it according to the
necessity of security record to be delivered. The Security papers have the property of
being impervious to mileage, high temperature with explicit GSM, haziness, and
thickness making it appropriate for fusing the security highlight.
6.15.1 Paper Production
Pulps are produced from a diversity of cellulose-containing raw materials like hard
and softwood, as well as non-wood sources, like hemp, jute, flax, sisal, and cotton.
Besides, contrasting with a wide range of the normal strands, cotton fiber is the most
elevated cellulose fiber in the nature with 95–97% of its fixings.
Besides, cotton-based crude materials have a rich assortment of great properties
in physical and optical perspectives. Right off the bat, the fiber length of cotton crude
material is between 20–30 mm with around breadth 20 micrometers, while softwood
fiber length is 3 mm, and about measurement 20–35 micrometers.
Furthermore, cotton fiber has the benefits of brilliant adaptability, great persever-
ance, versatility, and absorptivity, high quality, and mistiness, vigorous protection
from weakened acids and antacids, and can be put away for quite a while. Giving a
favorable position to the cotton-based paper is more grounded than the principal,
tough, will not turn yellow by time, and of higher caliber.
Every one of these highlights is incredibly appropriate for security archive paper
producing like international IDs and banknotes, that are utilized over and over and
habitually for a long period. Conversely, wood-based paper highlights are not
reasonable for security record fabricating, as they have less adaptability, less flexi-
bility, less strength than cotton-based paper, and will turn yellow over time.
The cotton fiber has other benefits and value:
• The polymerization degree (The quantity of rehash units connected together to

shape the cellulose polymer) is somewhere in the range of 9000 and 15,000
(wood fiber: 600–1500).
• The crystallinity (Which demonstrates that the fiber atoms are firmly stuffed and
corresponding to each other) is about 73% (wood fiber: 35%).High level of
hygroscopicity on account of slenderer fiber.
• Good bendability that permits it to be difficult to break. The best warmth
opposing property among every single common fiber, it stays adaptable even at
exceptionally low temperature and disintegrated steadily when under long pre-
sentation to dry warmth (above 300 F–149 C).
• High beating degree, and it is long and even. Good mechanical properties like
rubbing and union because of its regular bowing.
6.15.2 Wood Paper Manufacturing Process
It targets setting up a mash of cellulose fiber to deliver paper. Concerning wood-

based crude materials, the assembling cycle starts from wood logs, which are put in a
turning drum to eliminate the bark, at that point the chipping cycle chooses a uniform
chip size. For mash development, two primary techniques are utilized.
Compound cycle: a digester with synthetics is utilized to cook wood chips
targeting eliminating lignin and fritting the wood chips into strands, most of sub-
stance wood mash creation on the planet used to digest the wood chips are utilizing
soluble craft or sulfate measure, by utilizing burning pop and sodium sulfate (around
80%), and the other technique is spoken to by the sulfite pulping measure
(around 10%).
Mechanical process: which utilizes mechanical powers to isolate filaments from
groundwood by turning drums, processors, and purifiers. Be that as it may, wood
chips are pre-relaxed by warming or substance treatment when required. The fading
stage targets adding certain attributes to the paper: quality, strength, cleanness, and
brightness. All other inserted security highlights like strands, planchettes, and
security strings are added to the mash at this stage, before being moved for drying
either to the paper-making mash plant in an incorporated cycle, or is squeezed and
dried in a wet state. Furthermore, subsequent treatment and covering may be done to
get the most loved properties to what in particular reason papers utilizing for.
In any case, the assembling innovation utilized for paper creation can upgrade and
improve the installed security highlights in the paper product, like hostile to bacterial
and against dirtying, and added substance compound properties. Antibacterial paper
is made in the reaction of the way that banknotes are flowed through the hands of an
uncountable number of people, this component assumes a preventive function
against various sorts of microorganisms to be moved through the banknotes.
• Against dirtying paper: spoke to by adding a coat to the paper to expand its
protection from soil.
• Paper planned for ink-stream personalization: for improving the quality and
toughness of the ink-fly personalization measure by special covering materials.
• The semi-engineered paper: aimed to improve the nature of exceptionally made
sure about paper by including explicit organoleptic properties.
• Laser Engravable Anti-Counterfeiting Paper (LEAP®): an interesting exception-
ally made sure about trademark, spoken to by including unique parts and covering
answer for the mash that permit the chance of applying customized information
by every accessible procedure, including laser etching to create a reasonable and
decipherable laser engraved picture without the need of extra overlay to the paper,
and to draw an etching trail on the paper surface and inside the paper mash,
permitting to reinforce of a picture seen through communicating light, and
records could be recognized by contact.
• Synthetically made sure about paper: planned to shield engraved information in
the record from producing assaults and any unapproved information changing
endeavors utilizing substance reagents or solvents.
6.15.2.1 Cotton Paper Manufacturing Process

The delivered cotton-based paper is described by quality, strength, adaptability,
flexibility, artfulness, non-abrasiveness, and high haziness, that are not discovered
all together in some other sort of paper. The normally utilized cotton mash-making
measure is cotton linter basic pulping, that incorporates five stages.
• Material planning of cotton linter to get a treated cotton linter with contamination
rate somewhere in the range of 1–3%.
• Pulp cooking by tornado separator and added substance white and afterward to
mash digesting.
• Pulp washing by thumping to expand the hydration degree and washing the mash
by a wide range of hardware incorporates vacuum drum washer, twin move press,
single screw press, or others.
• Pulp screening and de-gritting for eliminating various contaminations and to
isolate the fine mash and coarse screenings.
• Pulp bleaching measure that targets meeting the particular paper trademark
necessities, and hence fading conditions, conditions, hardware, and dying spe-
cialist are carefully controlled (Forensicsciencesimplified.org 2020; Deviterne-
Lapeyre 2020; Fabriano Security is a brand of Fedrigoni SpA n.d.; Shaw and
Bicking 1926).
6.16 Ink
The appraisal of ink is one of the most inconvenient yet then huge domain in the field
of reports. The substance and physical examination of inks intended for records give
a critical information concerning their genuineness. The proportion of ink open for
the evaluation is next to know anyway the order of inks is colossal. The comparative
assessment of manufactured and physical properties of in any event two inks can
choose the going with:
• If the inks were made by a comparative producer.

• Whether or not the inks are the consequences of same age gathering.
• The central age date of the specific ink plan is included. Henceforth, the assess-
ment of the ink is amazingly irreplaceable and overseen by experienced people
(Brunelle and Crawford 2003; Sharma 2005).
The significant explanations behind exploring the inks are:
• Contrasting at any rate two ink areas with choose similarities or differences in
inks which can give information concerning whether sections have been
incorporated or altered.
• To choose whether at any rate two entries were formed with a comparable
formula and bunch of ink, as such giving a lead in regards to whether certain
areas could have been created with a comparative pen.
• To date ink segments to choose if records have been back-dated (Nabar 2017;
Grant 1942).
Ink arrangement is significant for fathoming the clarifications behind various

techniques used to separate the inks. For the exploration different sorts of inks were
utilized for altering of archives which consolidates the imperceptible natural liquids
(for example, lemon juice, onion juice, spit, pee), ball point, gel, wellspring pen, and
pilot pen ink (CNBM n.d.; Mini-Encyclopedia of Papermaking Wet-End Chemistry
n.d.; European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) n.d.; Polish
Security Printing Works n.d.).
6.17 Constraints of Questioned Document Examination
The assessment of addressed archives might be hampered or restricted by the

accompanying variables:
1. Nonunique proof (for example, copies or faxes) was submitted for assessment.
Each time an archive is exposed to a duplicating procedure, a modest quantity of
data is lost. Exclusive archives may bear imperfections, blemishes, or qualities
that are not repeated in a duplicate. Multigenerational duplicates (i.e., duplicates
of duplicates) might be of lacking quality for assessment. It might even bring

about the inspector being not able to render an end.
2. Deficient amount of addressed material. On the off chance that there is not
sufficient material for a satisfying estimate, the reviewer will not able to render
an authoritative end.
3. Absence of equivalence between the addressed archives and the known
examples. The inspector must have the option to think about “one type to its
logical counterpart” as the maxim goes. For example, the example material must
be of a similar sort of composing as the addressed material; capitalized passages
must be contrasted with capitalized, and cursive composing must be contrasted
with cursive composition.
4. Absence of contemporaneous works submitted for correlation. It is imperative to
get known composing that is set up around a similar time span as the addressed
composition.
5. Mutilation or masked composition. The content of the addressed record or the
realized example might be extremely misshaped or masked. For instance, spray
painting on a divider might be viewed as misshaped and can not be contrasted
with a speculator typical penmanship to currency (Mohammed 2009; Inouye et al.
1979; Hobbs 1963; Rumney 2007; Nakamura and Mitaka Kohki Co Ltd 2002;
Muchel and Strahle 1985; Spink et al. 1999).
6.18 Admissibility in Legal Proceedings
There are many parameters as to what kind of evidence will make it to the court and
be pertinent. Admissibility is guided by the rules of evidence. These rules make a
scheme which retains the probity of any evidence being produced. For any evidence
to be admissible, they should fulfill the criteria of being “to the purpose” and
“proficient.” Both of these conditions should be met. (Houck, Siegel). In the earlier
times, reports from questioned document analysis and expert testimony were not
promptly accepted in the courts. The science of “Questioned Document Examina-
tion” has been progressively developing with novel researches and work done in the
area since the early nineteenth century.
With respect to admissibility few other parameters are taken into consideration.
Falsibility—the technique used in the due process should be verifiable. Knowl-
edge of error rates should be known or can be estimated and they can vary from one
technique to the other. Peer review—this ascertains “scientific” value of a process as
it has undergone review and is reputable enough to be published in a journal. Highly
accepted in the community of experts (Houck and Siegel 2009).
For more than a century now, forensic document examiners’ testimony has
helped in court cases where disputed handwritings were put under question.
Researchers have shown proficiency of forensic document examiners as “Expert
Witness.” For the admissibility of scientific evidence each “Daubert Factor” is
totally satisfied in forensic document-related evidences (Lewis 2014).
Note: In one of the pivotal cases, the United States Supreme Court ruled in
Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, 509 US 579 (1993) that few more factors
to be considered for the admissibility of scientific evidences. The Daubert guidelines
lay down factors which determine the reliability of “scientific evidence” in the court
of law if the underlying theory can be tested, if there are any standards, publication in
peer-reviewed literature, existing error rates or if they can be developed and general
acceptance in the community (Lewis 2014).
German Federal Police, FBI, US Secret Service, etc., have maintained their
respective databases for handwriting samples from innumerable writers, as per
their comparison they have not identified same handwriting for two individuals
having same handwriting characteristics. This adds to the credibility of handwriting
as an individual character and reliable evidence.
6.19 Summary
The objective of this particular chapter is to give an overview of a major domain of

forensic science, i.e., forensic documents. Forensic document examination in itself is
a vast field; however, a brief insight can be obtained from here. There is a substantial
scope of examination and some limitations too. This chapter explores the basic
principles and factors affecting handwriting and signatures. Various types of
questioned documents are encountered by the experts and the major area of investi-
gation lies around tampered documents, handwriting examination, signatures, coun-
terfeit documents, and currencies. Understanding the basics of Questioned
Documents Examination (QDE) will be helpful for the students, police officers,
investigators, and attorneys as they will gain information regarding practices, current
issues and limitations and henceforth find its application in the legal proceedings.
References
AinswortháMitchell C (1925) The examination of charred documents. Analyst 50(589):174–180
Allen MJ (2015) Foundations of forensic document analysis: theory and practice. Wiley, New York
Basalaha RF (1906) Vanishing inks. In: Basalaha RF (ed) Limits of scientific proof in cases of
counterfeiting and forgery, 1st edn. DarNobar Printing, Egypt, p 318
Brunelle RL, Crawford KR (2003) Advances in the forensic analysis and dating of writing ink.
Charles C Thomas Publisher, Springfield
Chen F, Regan R (2020) Why are there so many art thefts, and what can be done about them?
EconomistsTalkArt.org. https://economiststalkart.org/2016/05/31/why-are-there-so-many-art-
thefts-and-what-can-be-done-about-them/. Accessed 25 Jun 2020
CNBM (n.d.) International pulp and paper, Cotton pulp making. http://www.paperpulpingmachine.
com/applications/cotton-pulp-making/. Accessed 19 July 2020
Dawson GA (1980) Fraudulent use of vanishing inks paper presented at the meeting of the
American Society of Questioned Document Examiners, Vancouver
Deviterne-Lapeyre CM (2020) Interpol review of questioned documents 2016–2019. Forensic Sci
Int Synergy 2:429
Ellen D, Day S, Davies C (2018) Scientific examination of documents: methods and techniques.
CRC Press, New York
Emily W (2009) Faded handwriting forensic document examiner
European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) (n.d.). Sub-sectoral Environmental
and Social Guideline: Pulp and Paper, 2014. https://www.ebrd.com/documents/environment/
env-emanual-manufacture-of-paper-and-paper-products.pdf. Retrieved: 10 July 2020
Fabriano Security is a brand of Fedrigoni SpA (n.d.). Products: Banknote & security papers:
Federal Bureau of Investigation (2020) Art theft. Federal Bureau of Investigation. https://www.fbi.
gov/investigate/violent-crime/art-theft. Accessed 25 June 2020
Forensicsciencesimplified.org (2020) A simplified guide to crime scene investigation. http://www.
forensicsciencesimplified.org/. Accessed 24 Jun 2020
Godown L (1964) New nondestructive document testing methods. J Crim L Criminol Police Sci
55:280
Grant J (1942) Deciphering charred documents: some recent work and a new method. Analyst 67
(791):42–46
Harrison WR (1958) Suspect documents: their scientific examination. Universal Law Publication,
Delhi
Hilton O (1992) Scientific examination of questioned documents. CRC Press, New York
Hobbs HE (1963) Focally illuminated hand magnifier. Am J Ophthalmol 56(4):661
Houck MM, Siegel JA (2009) Fundamentals of forensic science. Academic Press, Amsterdam
Huber RA, Hedrick AM (1999) Handwriting identification: facts and fundamentals. CRC Press,
New York
IEA (n.d.). Section 3, IEA 1872
Inouye, H., Inouye Hajime and Inouye Executrix by Mika, 1979. Extra hand magnifying glass.
U.S. Patent 4,133,603
IPC (n.d.). Section 29, IPC 1860
James SH, Nordby JJ (2002) Forensic science: an introduction to scientific and investigative
techniques. CRC Press, New York
Kelly JS, Lindblom BS (2006) Scientific examination of questioned documents. CRC Press,
New York
Koppenhaver KM (2007) Forensic document examination: principles and practice. Springer,
New York
Krup RD (2003) DAP products Inc., assignee. Ready to use spackled repair product containing
dryness. US patent, 6, pp 351–528
Lewis J (2014) Forensic document examination: fundamentals and current trends. Elsevier,
Amsterdam
Liu Z, Wang H, Hui L (2018) Pulping and papermaking of non-wood fibers. IntechOpen, Rijeka
Mini-Encyclopedia of Papermaking Wet-End Chemistry (n.d.). Additives and Ingredients, their
Composition, Functions, Strategies for Use
Mitchell CA (1922) Documents and their scientific examination: with especial reference to the
chemistry involved in cases of suspected forgery, investigation of disputed documents, hand-
writing, etc.
Mohammed LA (2009) Alterations: erasures and obliterations of documents. In: Encyclopedia of
forensic science. Wiley, New York
Muchel F, Strahle F (1985) U.S. Patent No. 4,518,231. U.S. Patent and Trademark Office,
Washington, DC
Nabar BS (2017) Forensic science in crime investigation. Asia Law House, Telangana
Nakamura K, Mitaka Kohki Co Ltd, (2002) Stereomicroscope. U.S. Patent 6,473,229
Osborn AS (1986) Difficulties in proving forgery reprinted. Va Law Rev 16:5
Polish Security Printing Works- PWPW (n.d..): https://www.pwpw.pl/en/Competencies/Security_
features.html#elementy_zabezpieczajace_w_papierze. Retrieved: 18 July 2020
Rumney NJ (2007) Hand magnifiers. In: Low vision manual. Butterworth-Heinemann, New York,
pp 198–209
Sharma A (2020) In Shimla, another raj relic is history - Indian Express. Archive.indianexpress.
com. http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/in-shimla-another-raj-relic-is-history/663739/#:~:
text¼The%20Government%20Examiner%20of%20Questioned,of%20subversive%20literature
%20through%20handwriting. Accessed 24 June 2020
Sharma BR (2005) Forensic science in criminal investigation & trials. Universal Law Publishing
Company, New Delhi
Shaw MB, Bicking GW (1926) Research on the production of currency paper in the bureau of
standards experimental paper mill. Department of Commerce Bureau of Standards, Technologic
papers of the bureau of standards, No. 329, [Part of Vol. 21], Washington government printing
office, Washington
Slbcmadhyapradesh.in (2020). http://www.slbcmadhyapradesh.in/docs/Security%20Features%
20of%20Genuine%20Notes.pdf. Accessed 24 June 2020
Sloggett R (2015) Art crime: fraud and forensics. Aust J Forensic Sci 47(3):253–259
Souder W (1955) Composition, properties and behavior of ball pens and inks. J Criminal Law
Criminol Police Sci 45(6):743–747
Spink R, Braunecker B, Rogers JR, Zimmer KP, Leica Geosystems AG (1999) Stereomicroscope.
US Patent 5,867,309
Tajani A (2014) Photonics for forensic applications. In: Photonics for safety and security
Hackensack. World Scientific, New Jersey, pp 368–397
US Legal (2020) Questioned document law and Legal definition | us legal, Inc. [online] Definitions.
uslegal.com. https://definitions.uslegal.com/q/questioned-document/. Accessed 24 June 2020
Postmortem Examination as an Aid
to the Criminal Investigation System 7
Osama S. Elserafy
Abstract
When it comes to crimes associated with human injuries or deaths, the criminal
investigation should answer specific questions, i.e., the causative instrument and
the time of injury or death in addition to the cause and manner of death. To
support the criminal investigator in understanding the forensic approaches to
answer those questions, this chapter discusses the systems of death investigation
and the differentiation between the cause, manner, and mechanism of death. In
addition, this chapter demonstrates the responsibilities of the medicolegal exam-
iner in death investigation with a special focus on the forensic distinction between
the different types of injuries and how this is implemented in identifying the
causative instrument and the time of incidence of the injury. Besides, the author
discusses the postmortem changes and their values for the criminal investigation.
Special attention is paid to autopsy and its value in the determination of the cause,
mechanism, manner, and time of death. This is to be followed by communication
of death investigation workflow, results, and conclusions to the legal authorities.
Keywords
Autopsy · Death investigation · Postmortem changes · Medicolegal examination
O. S. Elserafy (*)
Faculty of Medicine, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt
King Fahd Security College, Riyadh, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
Ltd. 2021
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-4091-9_7
162 O. S. Elserafy
7.1 Introduction
Worldwide, the criminal investigation systems enroll the scientific applications and
techniques of the formal, natural, and social sciences to enhance the outcomes of
criminal investigations. Those applications and techniques should be based on
evidenced scientific methods in order to be accredited by the jurisdictional systems.
Among those scientific applications, forensic medicine is considered as one of the
oldest scientific practices accredited by the jurisdictional system.
In civil and criminal cases, the criminal investigators and law enforcement
personnel may request the opinion of the forensic pathologist to reveal the
mystifications in cases of violent, unattended, or unexplained deaths. In such
situations, the forensic pathologist should apply the medical knowledge and skills
to perform the examination and autopsy procedures to identify the cause, mecha-
nism, and manner of death, in addition to estimating the time passed since death. A
common misunderstanding of the forensic examiners’ duties to deal only with a
death investigation. However, it is of the core duties of the forensic examiners to
investigate living individuals (victims, assailants, or suspects) especially those
involved in domestic violence and sexual assaults.
As a forensic examiner, the priorities in managing cases are extremely different
from those priorities applied by the clinical medical practitioners for the same
person. The physicians’ primary responsibility is to consult and treat the patient in
order to satisfy his/her well-being to achieve a better quality of life. On the other
hand, the main responsibility of the forensic examiners while managing medicolegal
cases is to apply the medical scientific knowledge and skills to fulfill the needs and
questions of the jurisdiction system with an obligation of keeping the same distance
from the conflicting parties. In order to attain this function, forensic practitioners
should discard their feelings and intuitions and convey only facts when discussing
the medicolegal reports.
7.2 History and Development of Medicolegal Investigation
Even though medical practices are deemed to be among the oldest practices in
human history, there is no concrete evidence on the exact date of the emergence of
forensic medicine as a distinguishable branch of medicine serving the law. However,
it is well known that the old civilizations of the far and near east had taken
precedence to establish the first known jurisdiction system that deals not only with
criminal acts but also with the civil transactions within the society. This was reflected
in the medical practices where the right to practice was legally permitted to a special
population within the society who should follow the general roles of medical
practice enacted by legislators.
The earliest known medicolegal practitioner is Imhotep (2667–2600 BC) being
the chief official of the Pharaoh Djoser responsible for implementing justice in
addition to his responsibility as a physician. Moreover, the ancient Egyptians
believed in the resurrection of the body from death and everlasting therefore they
7 Postmortem Examination as an Aid to the Criminal Investigation System 163
Fig. 7.1 A historic mural showing Anubis supervising the embalming process with the four
canopic jars containing the heart and the extracted body organs beneath the mummification table
(lion bed)
had excelled the process of mummification as an essential step in maintaining the

integrity of the body and omitting the process of putrefaction with the aim of keeping
the body in a fit condition to house the soul in the other life after recovering from
resurrection and judgment. The practice of mummification demonstrated the signifi-
cant knowledge of the ancient Egyptians in anatomy and surgery as well as their
awareness about the postmortem changes. They understood that the process of
putrefaction is much faster for internal organs than the exterior of the body and by
removing those organs, the decay process within the body could be prolonged or
eliminated. Thus, surgical removal of the brain was done through the nasal opening
and base of the skull with the heart, lungs, liver, and spleen being surgically removed
and then preserved in the canopic jars to be preserved near the sarcophagus
(Fig. 7.1).
Within the same era, the Hippocratic Corpus written by the ancient Greek is
considered as one of the earliest regulations of the patient and physician relationship
that regulated the physician’s behavior and conduct with its famous Hippocratic
oath. In addition, the Corpus handled some medicolegal concerns in which the courts
of the law asked for the testimony of medical experts to give their opinion about
wound fatalities, malingering, and pregnancy-related disciplines such as the duration
of pregnancy, superfetation, and fetal viability.
164 O. S. Elserafy
In the thirteenth century, a remarkable Chinese book entitled “Hsi Yuan Chi Lu
-The Washing Away of Unjust Imputations, or Wrongs” written by a jurist named
Sung Tzhu had discussed the medicolegal procedure to be followed in cases of
homicidal or suspicious deaths in addition to the wound examination with special
focus to the sequelae of injuries. At this time, postmortem human dissection was
performed by Chinese and Muslim physicians aiming at understanding the pathol-
ogy of contagious diseases. Meanwhile, in Europe just before the thirteenth century,
body dissection after death was completely forbidden with the first law authorizing
the process of autopsy in 1231.
Later on, in the sixteenth centuries where the Europeans developed the
Bamberger Code and the Caroline Code, both codes established the principle that
medical experts should give their testimony to guide the jurisdiction system in cases
of suspicious or criminal deaths. As a result of such a favorable environment,
publications were developed by many authors aiming at enriching the different
aspects of forensic medicine. Besides, police and jurisdiction systems started to
establish institutes of forensic medicine where experts in forensic medicine can
perform their examinations. Subsequently in the early nineteenth century, pathology
had been recognized as a distinct specialty for the first time by the University of
Strasbourg. This was followed by steady progress in the practices and development
of forensic pathology during the twentieth century with more acceptance of the
judicial systems to the newly developed medical practices in forensic medicine such
as forensic radiology and forensic genetics in addition to the advance in the other
forensic sciences specialties that corresponds to the development of the concept of
integrated management of crime scene investigation.
7.3 The Medicolegal Investigation Systems
Generally, Forensic medicine is a shared term describing the overall practices of

medicolegal investigation including investigation of death as well as the investiga-
tion of criminal assaults that involve living persons. The theoretical framework
suggests that forensic pathologists involve only in cases of death investigation
while clinical forensic medicine deals with cases that require the medicolegal
examination of a living victim or a suspected assailant in a criminal investigation.
However, the common global practices cover both areas of work due to the great
overlap in the duties of both terms.
In addition, the coroner and medical examiners are common interexchange titles
used by the different medicolegal systems globally. Where the medical examiners
are certified in forensic pathology, being responsible for the investigation of the
cause of death by employing autopsy and the examination of gross and microscopic
tissue samples collected during autopsy. On the other hand, the recruitment of
coroners does not necessitate holding a medical license for practice, though it is an
advantage. Coroners’ responsibilities include the identification of the deceased along
with notification of the next of kin, in addition to planning of additional testing to
conclude the cause and condition of death. Coroners are not obliged to perform the
planned tests by themselves, instead, they may collect samples and send them to
specialized laboratories. The reason behind the need for coroners is the global
deficiency in licensed forensic pathologists.
Nevertheless, the variabilities in medicolegal practices between countries are
mainly taking place at the authority level that would be reflected in the organization,
recruitment, and reporting process. The organizational structure in most of the
countries is governed under the umbrella of either of the ministry of justice, ministry
of interior, ministry of health, or the universities or even a combination of more than
one authority. Each organizational structure has its own advantage in implementa-
tion over the others whereas the practice of medicolegal investigation under the
umbrella of the ministry of interior grants the medical examiner with the advantage
of accessing the informational and material resources within the ministry of interior
that would facilitate the fast interpretation of data. While the ministry of justice
umbrella grants the medical examiners an advantage in relation to authorities, on the
other hand, the recruitment of medicolegal practitioners from universities assures the
persistence of scientific knowledge in addition to independence from other
investigating authorities.
7.4 Death Registration
The main objective of a death investigation conducted by the medical examiner is to

conclude the cause, mechanism, and manner of death. So, it is essential to distin-
guish between the three terms and understand the proper use of each in order to avoid
any confusion when reading the report of the medicolegal investigation.
The cause of death is related to the disease or injury that directly caused or
initiated the cascade of events leading to the fatal outcome. Examples include stroke,
cutthroat, or organophosphorus poisoning.
Mechanism of death: The primary physiological derangement that occurred as a
result of the cause of death and leading to the cessation of life. For instance, a
cutthroat victim could die from a hemorrhage, venous air embolism, or neurogenic
shock due to the stimulation of the carotid sinus. In the previous example, cutthroat
is considered as the cause of death. On the other side, the mechanism of death could
be hemorrhage, venous air embolism, or neurogenic shock.
Manner of death: it is a classification of the way in which the cause of death came
about. The significance of this classification is due to its impact on the outcome of
trials and prosecution of murders. In addition, insurance companies may reject the
payment claims in cases where the suicidal manner of death has been confirmed. The
manner of death can be classified into five categories:
• Homicide: unnatural death resulting from injury or poison inflected by person

(s) with the aim of ending other person(s) life (regardless of justification).
• Suicide: unnatural death resulting from an explicit or implicit, self-inflicted injury
or poison, with the aim of causing death and ending one’s life.
166 O. S. Elserafy
• Accidental death: unnatural death due to injury or intoxication where there is no

evidence of intent to cause harm or induce death.
• Natural death: death due to natural causes including the aging process or a known
illness.
• Undetermined: this is usually applied when the provided evidence on the intent is
not adequate to conclude one manner than the others.
7.5 Death Investigation
The involvement of medicolegal practitioners throughout the process of death

investigation has been formed to be an essential requisite especially in cases
involving homicidal, suicidal, or suspected deaths. This role starts as soon as the
medical experts receive the notification for the incidence where they should show at
the crime scene for the initial examination of the corpse and recording of the
circumstances and environment at the crime scene. Next, they proceed to obtain
history, autopsy examination, and sampling for histopathological and other labora-
tory investigations. All these efforts are guided by the primary objectives of death
investigation in order to establish the cause, manner, and timing of death to achieve
justice for the victim and community.
7.5.1 Crime Scene Examination
In suspected deaths, medical experts are summoned by the detective or the police
officer responsible for the crime scene being a member of the crime scene investiga-
tion team. This is considered an essential practice in many medicolegal systems to let
the medical expert aware of the circumstance of death. For example, the absence of
bloodstains in the crime scene despite having an apparent cause of death due to
hemorrhage from a killing wound may indicate postmortem transportation of the
body by the assailant from the original or primary crime scene to the secondary crime
scene where the body was recovered with the intension to mislead the investigators.
Besides, the attendance at the crime scene would help in the interpretation of injuries
and linking the injuries to expected causative agents at the crime scene. This could be
aided through the preservation of the cadaver position and limitation of manipulation
of the corpse till the arrival of the medical experts and fulfillment of their
responsibilities within the crime scene including the initial forensic examination of
the body, collection of essential samples, and the facilitation of cadaver transporta-
tion to the morgue for further studies.
Thus, for the effective completion of the mission and achievement of the aim, a
thorough examination of a death scene using a comprehensive systematic approach
in recording the various observations and collection of potential evidential material
should be applied. The medicolegal examiner responsibilities could be classified into
pre-crime scene duties, in-crime scene duties, and post-crime scene duties as
follows:
7.5.1.1 Pre-Crime Scene Duties
Gathering Information
The initial step following the notification to the medical expert is to collect informa-
tion about the crime scene. The required information is primarily provided from the
police department that received the crime notification represented in the first respon-
dent officer as well as the crime scene officer in charge. In addition, a medicolegal
expert can make use of the computerized information-based intelligence system
(IBIS) in gathering the required information. The requested information varies
within the different crime scenes, but it is recommended to ask on the following data:
• The exact location of the crime scene.

• How to approach the crime scene location and if any special preparation is
required to approach the exact location easily.
• The contact information of the crime scene officer in charge.
• The weather and geographical condition at the crime scene.
• Time of arrival of first attending officer at the crime scene.
• The number of cadavers at the crime scene.
• The circumstances of death.
• If the body has been moved or the body position has been changed, who, why,
where, when, and how this happened.
Based on the answers to the previous inquiries, a medical expert can take critical
decisions that can affect the investigation process including the value of attendance
at the scene by the medical expert. Besides, selection and preparation of the essential
arrangement, equipment, tools, and material to be fulfilled before attending the crime
scene depends on the answer to those questions.
Preparation of Investigative Tools and Equipment

The time factor is very crucial in the process of death investigation. Thus, medicole-
gal experts usually have a ready prepared, well-stocked tool kit available to take to a
scene of death investigation at a short notice. The content of this tool kit may vary
from a crime scene to another, but it is advisable to have a checklist for the
commonly used tools and equipment needed in most of the crime scenes for easier
preparation (Table 7.1).
Apply Safety Measures

Safety is the first priority for all staff and personal within the crime scene field. The
word safety does not include only safety from criminal acts but also the safety from
other environmental and physical threats as well as the infectious risks. Thus,
training on the application of the different safety standards is a must for all medico-
legal staff to be applied in real practice in crime scenes. Hence, if the staff safety
cannot be secured, the corpse can be transferred to the morgue for examination and
to ensure the safety of the medical staff. However, protection of the evidence from
168 O. S. Elserafy
Table 7.1 The tool Kit content to be used by the medical examiner in crime scene visit
Item Item
Safety and Waterproof apron Evidence Sterile swabs
protective Disposable (paper) jumpsuits collection Containers for blood and
equipment body fluids
Rubber gloves Syringes and needles
Hair covers Specimen containers (for
evidence items and
toxicology specimens).
Face shield Formalin jars for
histological samples
Shoe-covers Envelopes
Disinfectant Body bags
Waterless handwash Body id tags
First aid kit. Paper bags (for hands, feet,
etc.)
Foul-weather gear (raincoat, Plastic bags
umbrella, etc.)
Communication equipment Fingerprint kit
(cell phone, pager, radio)
Personal comfort supplies Forensic Thermometer
(insect spray, sunscreen, hat, examination
etc.) tools
Basic hand tools (bolt cutter, Medical equipment kit
screwdrivers, hammer, (scissors, forceps,
shovel, trowel, paintbrushes, tweezers, scalpel handle,
etc.) blades, etc.)
Documentation Camera, usually 35 mm Cutting needles and twine
tools single-lens reflex with for body closure
electronic flash (with extra
battery).
Measurement instruments Electric torch
(tape measure, ruler, rolling
measuring tape, etc.)
Writing implements (pens, Handsaw
pencils, markers)
Mini-tape recorder Hand lens
Departmental scene forms A presumptive blood test
kit
Printed body charts for
recording external injuries
contamination or loss should be assured. Medicolegal practitioners should trail the

following safety measures:
• Assess and secure the crime scene area (external environment and within the
crime scene).
• Review the crime scene safety protocol and incident command.
• Secure all unused tools and machines.

• Use personal protective equipment that matches with protection protocol of the
expected threat.
• Obtain clearance/authorization to enter the scene from the individual responsible
for scene safety (e.g., fire marshal, disaster coordinator).
Confirm or Pronounce Death

Before proceeding in the death investigation procedures, rescue, resuscitation, and
evacuation of all living individuals should be confirmed as saving lives within the
crime scene stays on top of all work priorities. It is essential not to declare the death
of the victim(s) based only on the signs of cessation of the vital function of the body.
In some cases, too feeble respiratory and circulatory functions as in cases of
suspended animation may be misinterpreted by an inexperienced paramedic as
sure signs to declare death. Thus, forensic examiners depend on the actualization
of postmortem changes to confirm and declare the death to eliminate the possibilities
of misinterpretation.
7.5.1.2 In-Crime Scene Duties
Medical Expert Self-Introduction and Role Identification

With the arrival of the medical expert at the crime scene location, he/she should
introduce himself/herself to the police officer in charge of the scene. Then, the
medical expert should proceed to attend the scene briefing to acquire the updated
data on the crime scene location, time frame, first responders’ initial notes, initial
testimonies by the witness, and the entity of the investigational department and
agencies involved in the crime scene examination process in addition to the safety
and precautions to enter and exit from the crime scene. This allows the exchange of
necessary information between the medical expert and the other officials working at
the crime scene in addition to the establishment of formal contact with all the crime
scene investigation personnel. As well, this briefing will give the chance to clarify if
any intentional or nonintentional manipulation to the body or contamination of the
crime scene has occurred prior to the arrival of the medical expert. From this moment
forward, the medical expert should document all the provided information as well as
observation and survey results.
Crime Scene Survey

The reason behind the conduction of the first scene walk-through by the medicolegal
experts is to give the opportunity for having a holistic overview of the entire scene
along with the assessment of the correlation between the individually located
evidence in order to help the medical expert in the reconstruction of the scene of
death. During this initial survey, the medical expert would fulfill the flowing:
• Document the scene location, the time of arrival, and general weather condition.
• Assess the crime scene safety and the elimination of any potential hazard.
170 O. S. Elserafy
• Identify the investigators and officials working at the crime scene with their
responsibilities.
• Mapping of the crime scene in relation to boundaries, entry, and exit.
• Identify, document, and photograph possible evidence.
• Identify the corpse(s) location.
An important precaution to avoid during crime scene walk-through is to keep the

investigators’ hand always occupied with note writing, flashlight, or even keeping
them in their pocket to avoid the contamination of the crime scene with the
investigators’ fingerprint.
The Scene Documentation

Documentation of the crime scene usually takes part in the second walk-through
with the aim of creating aid for the investigators, prosecutors, lawyers, and attorneys
who were not able to attend at the crime scene to reconstruct the scene as being there.
The standard methods used include notetaking, sketching, photographing, and video
recording of the crime scene.
Note-Taking
It is worth noting that the delay in time that usually exists between the crime scene
examination and the processing of evidence by the laboratories, lawyers,
prosecutors, and juries allows for missing some details observed during the process
of death investigation. Thus, in order to remember all these details, the medicolegal
expert should comprehensively describe the crime scene details in his/her notes
without leaping to any conclusion. These notes in addition to the other methods of
documentation give the chance to the expert to correlate and reconstruct the crime
scene in the future even if a long period of time had elapsed. These notes usually
include:
• The scene environment including the temperature, light intensity, and any abnor-
mal smell.
• Description of the collected evidence and its relation to the body.
• The characters and measures of stains, blood, and fluids including volume, color,
odor, and pattern of spread.
Photography and Video Recording

Photography has become an essential irreplaceable practice in the process of crime
scene investigation providing permanent detailed documentation of the crime scene.
It can aid the investigators when the other methods of crime scene documentation or
the witness testimony fail to mention or remember the fine details within the crime
scene. Usually, photography is the responsibility of professional crime scene
photographers who are trained on the adjustment of the different photographic
equipment and techniques according to the light environment within the crime
scene to maximize the detailed output in the taken photograph. However, this
knowledge should be available and applicable by all crime scene investigators to
allow for the sustainability of work in case of a deficiency of photographers. In order

to create detailed reconstructing pictures of the crime scene, the following steps
could be followed:
• Adjust the shutter rate, focus, and flashlight source to contrast the light intensity in
the crime scene.
• Shoot an overall wide-angle photo of the scene that can reveal the relation
between the crime scene and the surrounding area.
• Photographing the crime scene at different angles to minimize the liability of
missing shadowed evidence.
• Divide the scene into smaller areas where photography can give more details.
• Photograph a holistic view of every specific piece of evidence to allow for spatial
orientation to the surrounding evidence.
• Take a scaled photograph of each piece of evidence.
• Obtain photographs even if the body or other evidence has been moved and
document in your note who, when, and how it was removed.
The advantage of video recording in documenting crime scenes over photography

is the fact that video recording can add the time and distance dimensions for the
documentation. In addition, video recording can offer a better correlation between
the different areas and zones within the crime scene demonstrating the layout and
directions within the crime scene with the aid of sound clarification. However,
precautions should be applied during recording to avoid diminished video quality
resulting from poor practice and training.
Sketching
Besides notetaking and photographing, coroners can seek help with crime scene
sketch to draw a diagram that illustrates the location of different evidence within the
crime scene in addition to pathways, entry, and exit sites. The sketch can provide
many adding values over other methods of crime scene documentation. It can
provide a detailed layout of the indoor and outdoor crime scene with a comprehen-
sive spatial orientation of evidence in relation to each other. However, it is time-
consuming to draw an elegant version of the sketch in the crime scene. Usually, this
polished version is completed at the office using the sketching kit or computerized
software while in the crime scene a primitive drawing is sketched demonstrating the
accurate scaling of measurements and dimensions between the different objects in
the crime scene. it is worth noting that, estimation or guessing the dimensions and
scaling of the distances on the sketch are not permitted, instead, a measuring tape is
used to locate evidence on the sketch to determine the actual distance between the
evidence and two fixed objects in the crime scene. Besides, sketch alignment to north
direction is indicated using a compass heading designating north along with the
dedication of symbol, number, or letter for each item on the sketch to be reflected in
the legend that is placed below the sketch. When the sketch is completed, it must
reflect all information within the crime scene in order to be admissible evidence in a
courtroom.
172 O. S. Elserafy
External Body Examination

The corpse is considered the most valuable evidence in any crime scene investiga-
tion. Thus, the focused assessment of the corpse within the crime scene is believed to
be a very critical requirement to be done by the medicolegal expert as early as
possible to avoid the loss of valuable information with the lapse of time. Examina-
tion of the cadaver at the crime scene provides the chance for more accurate
documentation of death circumstances, postmortem changes, and injuries for later
confirmation and comparison with autopsy results performed at the morgue. The
transportation of cadaver from the crime scene as well as the storage of cadaver for
delayed examination may result in autopsy artifacts that can mimic antemortem or
postmortem injuries. Therefore, it is essential to examine and document the follow-
ing data on the cadaver at the primary site where it was found before any manipula-
tion of the body takes place.
• General identification features and physical characteristics of the cadaver.

• The initial location and position of the body and if the body has been moved
before the attendance of medical experts.
• The full details of the clothes and covering of the cadaver including special
drawings, tears, and stains.
• Personal belongings with the cadaver.
• Tattoos, old scars, and marks on the skin.
• Injuries and wounds.
• Resuscitative measures are done to the victim before declaring death.
The examination process goes from head to toes in order to assess the degree of
progression of postmortem changes in addition to the evaluation of concurrent
injuries. Exposure of the body is done by pushing the clothes aside as complete
undressing of the body is usually done as part of the autopsy process performed in
the morgue. The documentation of the observations obtained during body examina-
tion is recorded in a combined process in which the medical examiner can make use
of notetaking, and photography in addition to drawing and labeling of the injuries on
body diagrams (Fig. 7.2).
Photography
Beginning with the photographic documentation of the whole body is a fundamental
step prior to the start of examination and handling of the body. Photographing
effectively document permeant and detailed information of the cadaver identity,
position, and injuries in addition to the body’s relation to the other objects at the
crime scene. This detailed information can be used later by the investigator, lawyers,
and juries to reconstruct the terminal events of the victim’s life. Intended for the
effective photographing of the body, the medical examiner should photograph the
body to meet the following conditions:
• The original position of the cadaver within the immediate environment, e.g.,
partially buried bodies.
Fig. 7.2 Example of body diagrams used to document injuries. (a) anteroposterior diagram and (b)
lateral diagram
• A holistic photo of the cadaver in the original position after the removal of any
object that may obscure the photo.
• The face of the cadaver and other identification marks.
• Holistic photos of the cadaver in the supine and lateral positions.
• Document injuries using midrange and close shots with and without scale
measurements.
• The underlying surface after removing the body.
Identification of the Decedent

Victim identification is an extremely important requisite in the process of death
investigation. The confirmation of decedent identity makes it easier for the investi-
gator to reveal information on the victim relation and consequently prepare a list for
the suspects. As well, this would help in the notification of next of kin, settlement of
civil obligations, and fulfillment of the death registry. Variable methods and tools are
applied in the process of assessment of identity that can be classified into presump-
tive and positive methods of identification. The presumptive identification methods
are a group of non-confirmatory tests in which the person is related to a smaller
group leading to saving the effort of search among the larger group. These methods
include the custom of dressed clothes, facial features, physical characteristics,
tattoos, blood grouping, etc. On the other hand, positive identification tests are
confirmatory tests that can confirm the identity of the victim by comparing victim
unique features to the victim own records that were taken during life. Positive
recognition could be applied by direct photographic identification or the utilization
of scientific methods of comparison such as fingerprint and dental records or even
the application of DNA profiling.
174 O. S. Elserafy
Document Postmortem Changes

With the cessation of the vital function and declaration of death, the normal cellular
functions will eventually cease at variable rates that depend on the tissues’ metabolic
reserve with cells that can resist oxygen deprivation lasts for a longer time until the
depletion of all cellular energy and cellular death ensue. This gradual layoff results in
progressive cellular death and degeneration that leads to the emergence of postmor-
tem changes. These changes are represented in both the external surface of the body
as well as the internal organs and tissues.
The postmortem changes are affected by many environmental factors including
time, gravity, atmospheric temperature, and humidity. Therefore, the documentation
of postmortem changes within the crime scene is vitally essential for proper inter-
pretation of the postmortem interval, body position, and even the initial judgment of
the cause of death.
Primary Flaccidity
As a result of somatic death and permanent loss of all brain functions including the
cessation of all nerve impulses, loss of all muscle reflexes occurs that is associated
with complete relaxation and loss of tone of all muscles of the body (voluntary and
involuntary muscles). Due to this relaxation in the muscle, the face acquires a
peaceful look associated with the dropped lower jaw. The muscles of the eye relax
with the successive dilatation of the pupils and loss of eyeball tension. Moreover, the
muscles around the joint and sphincter relax leading to the flexibility of the joint and
incontinence of urine and stool. The primary flaccidity gradually disappears
overlapping with the development of muscle stiffness and rigidity (Rigor Mortis).
Algor Mortis (Postmortem Cooling)
During life, the oxidation process within the cells results in heat production that is
balanced against heat loss through convection, conduction, and radiation. After
death, heat production stops and the body continues losing heat till the equilibrium
between the temperature of the dead body and the temperature of its surroundings
with an average rate of heat loss of 1–1.5 C. The rate of heat loss can be affected by
different factors including the actual body temperature before death, the body fat
content, gender, and body surface area in addition to the posture and the covering of
the body.
The measurement of body temperature can be applied by placing a chemical
mercury thermometer into the rectum, vagina, axilla, deep nasal passage, or external
ear. However, the conventionally applied method is by setting the thermometer
within the rectum, 10 cm above the anus. In criminal cases where sexual assaults
are suspected, measuring the core temperature through either the anus or the vagina
may spoil crucial evidence on the clothes coverings the perineal area. Based on the
medicolegal expert experience, measuring the core temperature can be either
measured through placing the thermometer into the other alternative sites mentioned
before, or it can be delayed till the full recovery of all trace evidence is performed by
the forensic scientists attending to the crime scene.
In order to use the changes in body temperature in the estimation of postmortem
interval, a mathematical equation can be used to calculate the time passed since death
provided that the ambient temperature is known, and all other factors are constant. In
Fig. 7.3 Henssge nomogram for calculation of postmortem interval in ambient temperature above
23 C
order to consider the other factors that can affect the postmortem cooling, a nomo-
gram published by Henssge (Fig. 7.3) succeeded to integrate the body weight,
clothing, ambient temperature, and the current of air to calculate the time passed
since death using the equation (Trectum – T ambient)/(37.2-T ambient).
Postmortem Lividity (Hypostasis)
Following the cessation of circulation, the arterial and venous circulations cannot
maintain the flow of blood within the capillaries. Subsequently, the effect of gravity
on the blood component is maximized leading to the gravitation of the red blood
176 O. S. Elserafy
Fig. 7.4 blush-red postmortem hypostasis intermitting with pale areas on the back of a female
victim. The pale areas represent the pressure areas where the skin is pressed against the untidy bed
mattress
cells and the other cellular components within the vascular network into the most
dependent areas of the body leading to staining of the dependent areas of the skin and
viscera with a bluish-red discoloration. This discoloration is usually absent against
the pressure areas where the vascular tree is compressed preventing the free sedi-
mentation of blood content. As well, the fluid component of the blood diffuses into
the lower parts of the body leading to the development of postmortem dependent
edema that contributes to the appearance of postmortem skin blistering.
The sedimentation process starts immediately after death. In half an hour to 1 h
after death, hypostasis starts to be noticeable as scattered discolored patches on the
most dependent areas of the body. Then the patches start to coalesce together in
about 3–6 h. Once postmortem clotting occurs, the establishment of fixed hypostasis
ensue.
Hypostasis can aid the medicolegal investigator to understand the maintained
position of the cadaver after death. In cases of death where the cadaver was laying in
the supine position, hypostasis is observed over the posterior aspects of the body
sparing the pressure areas (buttocks, elbows, heels, and upper part of the back just
below the shoulder in addition to the areas that correspond with the folds in rumpled
bedlinen) (Fig. 7.4). While In a prone position, hypostasis is distributed over the
anterior aspects of the body where it is absent in areas compressed against the ground
as the nostrils and mouth. Where in the vertical suspension of the body as in hanging,
the distribution of hypostasis is mainly observed in the feet, legs, and external
genitalia as well as the hands and distal parts of the forearm. However, if the
distribution of hypostasis is not consistent with the position of the recovered cadaver,
a delayed change of the corpse postmortem position should be suspected as the
Fig. 7.5 Deep blue hypostasis over the posterior aspects of the body in case of traumatic asphyxia
Fig. 7.6 A charred body recovered from a fire scene showing a cherry-red hypostasis over the
posterior aspects of the body. The cause of death is attributed to the inhalation of carbon monoxide
produced by the partial combustion of organic material in the scene of the fire
primarily fixed hypostasis that was developed in the primary position failed to move
or develop in the (secondary) recovered position.
Besides, the color of the hypostasis may indicate the mood of death. In cases with
severe blood loss or severe anemia, hypostasis may not develop or even develop as
ill-defined patches that are too hard to be diagnosed. Where in cases of traumatic
asphyxia that is characterized by increased levels of carboxyhemoglobin, hypostasis
develops in deep blue color (Fig. 7.5). On the other hand, in cases of carbon
monoxide and cyanide intoxication as well as severe cold exposure where high
levels of oxyhemoglobin occur, the hypostasis developed as bright red or pink
(Fig. 7.6).
However, the detection of livor mortis is not essentially constant as deaths in the
extremes of age as well as due to severe anemia may not demonstrate hypostasis.
Besides, the hypostasis may be masked by the hyperpigmentation of skin as in black
colored skin, jaundice, and hyperpigmentation diseases. Moreover, the color of
178 O. S. Elserafy
hypostasis may be altered under the effect of postmortem cooling if the corpse is
kept in a very cool environment as in cases of cold preservation of the corpse for
delayed examination or autopsy.
Postmortem Rigidity (Rigor Mortis)

Due to the cessation of respiration and circulation with the occurrence of death, the
muscles within the body fail to relax as a result of the depletion of all energy
resources within the muscles. This leads to stiffening and shortening of all muscles
of the body (voluntary and involuntary) in a consequential manner depending on the
rate of depletion of the energy resources within the muscle. Stiffening starts in the
small muscle groups around the eye and mouth then it advances along larger muscles
starting from the head to the lower limbs.
The muscle stiffness under normal conditions starts 2 h after death and spreads all
over the body 12 h from death (Fig. 7.7). The muscle stiffness is tested at the joint by
applying light pressure using one to two fingers. The body maintains the state of
stiffness for another 12 h that is followed by the disappearance of muscle stiffness in
the same order it appeared as a result of the process of decay and putrefaction within
the muscle. However, this process can be accelerated in a hot environment and
extreme muscle activity before death as in cases of death due to convulsions that may
ensue in electrocution, strychnine poisoning, or tetanus as well as vigorous exercise
or fighting just before death. Conversely, in law muscle bulk condition as in
extremities of age and emaciation, rigor may be extremely hard to detect.
In addition to the value of rigor mortis in the estimation of postmortem interval, it
can be of great value in helping the medicolegal investigator to diagnose the change
Fig. 7.7 A case of hanging

showing rigor mortis in both
lower limbs in the form of
plantar flexion as the
maintained position by
gravity. The hands are
showing cadaveric spasm in
the form of complete flexion
of the interphalangeal joints
(against gravity)
in the corpse postmortem position in case of misalignment of any part of the body
against gravity.
It is worth noting, in certain conditions a rare form of muscle stiffness develops at
the time of death with no period of postmortem flaccidity that is called Cadaveric
Spasm. It is usually observed as the hand is gripping firmly on objects even before
the onset of rigor. This could be attributed to the high levels of emotional and
nervous stress at the time of death as in cases of drowning and struggle just before
death where the deceased is found grasping weeds or parts of the assailant clothes.
Body Decomposition
Following the termination of cellular function, enzymatic autolysis of the cells
associated with the action of the invading bacteria and fungi leads to the initiation
of the cell lysis process and advancement in the body decomposition. The process of
decomposition is not constant for all deaths as it is affected by the surrounding
environmental conditions as well as the different body compositions. The process of
decomposition varies from body to body or even this variation is represented in the
different parts within the same body where part of the body showing mummification
and the rest of the body is in the advanced putrefactive stage.
Putrefaction
It is the process in which the body soft tissue liquefies with the production of gases
under the effect of bacterial enzymes and enzymatic cell autolysis. During summer-
time, the first external sign of putrefaction appears 1 day after death over the lower
abdominal wall in the form of greenish discoloration of the abdominal wall espe-
cially over the right iliac region where the caecum lies superficially loaded with
contents that are more fluid in nature favoring the action of bacteria (Fig. 7.8). This is
followed by the breakdown of hemoglobin within the venous system into
sulfhemoglobin and other pigmented substances leading to the appearance of arbori-
zation (marbling) where a red to greenish discoloration of the skin over the venous
system develops mainly over the thighs, sides of the abdomen, and chest and
shoulders giving rise to the mosaic appearance (Fig. 7.9). This is accompanied by
the spread of reddish-greenish discoloration by the bacterial action in the moist
Fig. 7.8 Putrefactive form of postmortem decomposition demonstrating greenish discoloration

and peeling of the skin over the abdomen
180 O. S. Elserafy
Fig. 7.9 Postmortem decomposition showing arborization due to staining of the blood vessels by
the putrefactive products of hemoglobin
tissues especially in dependent areas that show hypostasis and edema. This may be
associated with skin blistering especially in areas loaded by fluids due to hypostasis
and edema. Besides, skin degeneration is associated with the disintegration of its
appendages leading to easy detachment of the hair and nails under slight pressure.
In 1 week, discoloration spread over the whole body in association with disten-
sion of the abdomen and genitalia. A considerable production of gases is denoted
leading to protrusion of the tongue and eyeballs that are associated with coarse foul
bloody froth coming from the mouth and nostrils. The face and neck become bloated
with gases leading to the blurring of features. The increased tension within the
abdomen (Fig. 7.10) may lead to purging of urine and feces in addition to uterine
prolapse or even postmortem expulsion of uterine contents. These features may
mislead inexperienced police officer to perceive the leaking bloody froth as a
hemorrhage leading to suspecting a violent manner of death.
This is followed by the peeling of the skin and bursting of the abdomen under the
effect of the accumulated gases. Tissue autolysis proceeds to liquefaction of the
viscera into a dark doughy mass. The rate of tissue autolysis is not constant for all
organs. The pancreas and the adrenal medulla degenerate within hours of death. On
the other hand, the prostate and uterus resist putrefaction for a longer period aiding in
the identification of the gender of the corpse in some partially skeletonized bodies.
Larvae appear at or even before this stage. The larvae feed on the decomposed
tissue facilitating and fasting the decay process (Fig. 7.11). The origin of these larvae
goes back to the deposition of eggs in moist areas of the body especially in the
orifices by the different kinds of flies. The time from laying eggs by the adult fly to
hatch is variable depending on the environmental condition, especially temperature.
Usually, it takes hours to 3 days for the first instar to appear. This is followed by the
successive development of different larval stages till reaching the adult stage and the
cycle is repeated in 15–25 days. The study of the larval stages on the corpus in
addition to the number of life cycles can aid in the determination of postmortem
interval.
Fig. 7.10 Postmortem decomposition showing bloating of the abdomen under the effect of
accumulated gases produced by the bacterial action on dead tissues
Fig. 7.11 Upper part of a female victim showing postmortem decomposition and larval infestation.
The victim was cut into two pieces and thrown into two separate places to mislead the investigator
182 O. S. Elserafy
The decay and liquefaction of the soft tissues take about 6 months to leave only
bones attached with ligaments. This is followed by the degeneration of ligaments
keeping separate bones 1 year after death. Over time, bones become lighter, whiter
less smelly, and more brittle.
Adipocere (Saponification)
It is a common postmortem decomposition replacing putrefaction. The word Adipo-
cere is derived from the Latin words (Adeps ¼ fat; cera ¼ wax) which means the
formation of a waxy-like substance derived from the body fat. This condition is
fairly common in cases where bodies are placed for some time in a moist environ-
ment not favoring putrefaction (submersion underwater). The interaction between
the body fat, bacteria, and the hydrogen content of water leads to the formation of
greasy or waxy-like substance.
In most cases, adipocere formation starts 3 weeks following submersion in the
fatty areas of the body including the abdomen, buttocks, breast, and cheeks. The
distribution is not representing a regular pattern. it may involve the whole or only a
part of the body leading to the formation of the off-white greasy waxy material with
characteristic earthy, cheesy, and ammoniacal odor (Fig. 7.12) However, the red or
greenish ting of adipocere is due to staining by the degradation of blood component
and body putrefaction products.
Mummification
This is a condition that can replace decomposition by putrefaction in which dehy-
dration of the body tissues occurs if the corpse is left in a dry atmosphere. A dry
environment is the main factor affecting the advancement of mummification that can
be enhanced by the warm environment as in cases of placing the corpse in a warm
dry desert. However, the absence of a warm atmosphere is not necessary for the
completion of the process of mummification. For instance, mummification has been
Fig. 7.12 A young adult

male corpse submersed in
shallow water for 2 months.
The corpse is showing the
picture of adipocere in the
form of off-white greasy waxy
material with a characteristic
earthy, cheesy sensation
Fig. 7.13 A case of suicidal

hanging that was left in a close
dry environment. The left
hand is showing a picture of
mummification in the form of
discolored, desiccated, brittle,
and stretched skin
reported in a cold dry atmosphere where the dry air dehydrates the tissues, and very
cold temperature suppresses bacterial growth.
As in adipocere, partial mummification of certain parts of the corpse can develop
while the other parts go for adipocere formation or even putrefaction. This variation
is observed more with the internal structure where adipocere formation, as well as
putrefaction, may accompany the process of mummification on the surface. A
desiccated, brittle, stretched, and discolored skin is a characteristic feature of the
mummified body (Fig. 7.13). This makes the anatomical features more prominent
giving the chance for facial recognition in some medicolegal cases.
With the advancement in the process of mummification, the skin and the under-
lying tissues become harder making the dissection a challenging process. Thus,
softening of the mummified tissues can be done by soaking the tissue in a 15%
concentration of glycerine solution for several days to facilitate the dissection and
histopathological examination.
Maceration
Maceration is septic autolysis in cases of stillbirth where the dead fetus is retained in
the uterus. As the fetus is kept in a sterile environment within the uterus spared of air
surrounded by the amniotic fluid. This unfavourite condition for the development of
putrefaction is to be replaced by a process of endogenous autolysis of the fetal
structures. In the first 2–4 days, the fetus may present a fairly normal appearance,
with only softened skin and histological evidence of cellular degeneration. If the
dead fetus is retained in the uterus for more than 5 days, the gross manifestation of
maceration appears in the form of softening of the dead fetus in the form of flattening
when placed on the table in addition to over mobility of the joints and overriding
184 O. S. Elserafy
Fig. 7.14 Ultrasound

assessment of stillbirth fetus
showing overriding skull
bones (Spalding sign)
skull bones (Spaulding sign) that can best be seen by radiographic assessment
(Fig. 7.14).
Injury’s Documentation
Traumatic deaths represent the commonest indication for the involvement of medical
examiners in the process of criminal investigation. The reason behind this involve-
ment is to identify the cause of death and subsequently whether the case was a
suicidal, homicidal, accidental, or natural death. In order to approach such a conclu-
sion, the investigation of injuries should be fulfilled in order to identify the causative
instrument. According to the physical properties of the causative instrument, trau-
matic deaths are classified into mechanical, thermal, and electrical trauma
(Fig. 7.15).
Clothes Examination
In trauma deaths, comparing the injuries in the body with the damage on the clothing
is very essential for understanding the mechanics of trauma and the exclusion of
fabrication in self-inflicted injuries. This could be done by assessing the degree of
matching between the characters of inflected injuries on the body and tears on
clothes. These characters include number, location, dimensions, and edges. In
cases of self-inflected fabricated wounds, a mismatch in number, location, or
dimensions usually exists as the inflection of either of the wound or tearing of
clothes precedes the other.
Blunt Force Injuries
A blunt-force injury is inflected if dull and/or firm objects such as brick, pipe, or
stone impact the skin leading to disruption of the integrity of the skin and/or the
underlying tissues. The value of blunt force trauma in the medicolegal investigation
is attributed to its high prevalence in forensic practice. Blunt force trauma can be
induced in many daily life circumstances including road traffic accidents, falling on
the ground, blows, kicks, or bites. In addition to prevalence, the examination of blunt
Traumatic Deaths
Mechanical Theramal Electrical
Blunt Force Sharp Force Firearm Injuries Dry Burn High voltage
Abrasions Cut Rifled Moist Burn Low Voltage
Bruises Stab Non- Rifled Corrosive
Lacerations Radiation
Fig. 7.15 Forensic classification of traumatic injuries
trauma provides information on the causative instrument and time of incidence in

addition to the spatial orientation of the victim to the assailant or the causative agent.
Blunt force injury can result in either abrasion, bruises, laceration of the skin, or a
mixture of either or all of them. The resulted injury depends on many factors
including the intensity of the applied force as well as the type of tissue on which
this force is applied. For instance, the needed force to induce laceration of the skin
over a fatty abdomen or the sole of the foot is much higher than that applied to induce
laceration of the skin over the shin of the tibia. The intensity of the applied force is
directly proportional to the mass of the causative instrument as well as the square of
the velocity of impact. The force of impact can be calculated using the formula;
Kinetic energy ¼ 1/2 massvelocity2.
Abrasions
Abrasions occur as a result of applying pressure or friction on the skin by a rough
blunt object leading to the destruction of the superficial skin layer sparing the lower
layer. The size, shape, and type of abrasion depend upon the nature of the surface of
the object which contacts the skin. Therefore, according to the nature of the object,
abrasions can be classified into:
• Scratches: are linear marks induced by passing a sharp tip object across the skin,
the typical example of scratches is dragging the tips of the nail over the skin
producing fingernail abrasions (Fig. 7.16).
• Grazes: are brush abrasions that arise when a wider tangential impact by a blunt
object to the surface of the skin, dragging on the rough roadside in road traffic
accidents represents the typical example of graze abrasions (Fig. 7.17).
186 O. S. Elserafy
Fig. 7.16 A case of

homicidal throttling showing
multiple fingernail abrasions
on the middle and side of
the neck
Fig. 7.17 Graze abrasions on

the inner aspect of the left
forearm indicating sliding or
friction with a rough object
(the rough edge of a side wall)
According to the direction of the applied force, abrasions can be classified into:
• Impression abrasions: caused by stamping of some object against the skin as in

cases of marks caused by teeth producing the characteristic bite mark (Fig. 7.18).
• Friction abrasions: are caused by linear pressure upon the skin accompanied by
movement as in abrasion induced by sliding on a rough surface like the ground.
The existence of abrasions on the victim’s body at the crime scene is one of the
most valuable tools used by the medicolegal examiner for death scene reconstruc-
tion. In rape and murder cases, if the victim defends him/herself against the assailant,
this resistance and struggle result in variable forms of blunt force injuries of the skin
on both of them. The interpretation of the shape of the abrasions provides valuable
clues on the causative agent. The fingernail abrasions typically produce curved
scratch abrasions that are typically seen as semilunar abrasions (Fig. 7.16), where
human bite marks are represented as two opposing curved rows of bruised abrasions
(Fig. 7.18). In addition to the identification of causative instrument, the direction of
inflection can be detected by careful examination of the epithelial layers of the
scratch, within the start point, the floor is left clean due to heaping up of the surface
layers that tend to accumulate at the end.
Fig. 7.18 Abraded bruises

over the lateral side of the
abdomen showing the dental
impressions associated with
hyperemia indicating vitality
and recent incidence
The location of the abrasion indicates the type of crime as in asphyxial deaths
where we can observe the fingernail abrasions around the mouth and nostril
openings in smothering or around the neck in cases of throttling (manual strangula-
tion) (Fig. 7.16). In cases of hanging, the typical robe mark abrasion is seen as
incomplete circular abrasions that lie obliquely in the upper part of the neck towards
the suspension point. While in strangulation the robe mark is represented as single or
multiple horizontal and complete circular abrasion around the neck.
Besides, abrasion can help medicolegal examiners in estimating the approximate
date of the injury by studying the healing process. The early manifestation is
discoloration and moistening of the floor of the scratch by the produced exudate
resulting from the injury. This is followed by the formation of a soft scape that lasts
for about 2 days. The soft scape then drays to form a dry layer that falls after 1 week
leaving a red area that takes around 2–4 weeks to disappear.
Abrasions, bruises, and lacerated wounds share a common character of the
causative instrument being dull and firm in nature. This indicates that the mixed
form of abraded lacerated bruises is more common than having a solo picture of
each. Thus, in cases where it is hard to distinguish between bruises and hypostasis,
the coexistence of abrasions is inclined to favor bruises over hypostasis. The same
role could be applied for the differentiation between lacerated and cut wounds.
Bruises
Contusion or bruises occurs when a blunt object impacts the skin resulting in
extravasation of blood from the tiny blood vessels underneath it, resulting in
discoloration of the subcutaneous tissue and the covering skin by the leaked blood
from ruptured vessels into the subcutaneous tissue. However, bruises are not limited
to the skin and subcutaneous tissue as contusion and bruises of the abdominal viscera
is not a rare phenomenon following blunt trauma to the abdomen as in cases of road
traffic accidents.
188 O. S. Elserafy
Fig. 7.19 Vital abraded bruises showing an imprint of the used belt buckle
Many attempts had been made in order to establish an accurate method for dating
of bruises. These attempts are usually confronted with the individual variabilities
between subjects especially when it comes to their coagulation profile, vascular, and
tissue factors in addition to the depth and amount of extravasated blood. Thus,
medicolegal examiners are aware of the difficulties of using color changes in dating
the approximate time of bruising. Even in some cases of blunt trauma to the soft fatty
tissues, e.g., the abdomen and buttocks, bruises become visible on the skin service
after a while despite the extravasation of blood within the subcutaneous tissue that
can be confirmed by the dissection of the skin.
Following the escape of red blood cells from the blood vessels into the
surrounding tissues, the membrane surrounding the red blood cell ruptures leading
to the liberation of hemoglobin. Under the effect of enzymatic cleavage, hemoglobin
is degraded into hemosiderin, biliverdin, and bilirubin. The explanation of sequence
and spectrum of color in bruises is attributed to red blood cells, hemoglobin, and
their degradation products. This spectrum usually exists as purple, bluish-brown,
greenish-brown, green to yellow which then fades gradually.
In medicolegal practice, bruises are usually accompanied by abrasions especially
if a rough blunt object is used in impacting the skin. Therefore, they share the same
medicolegal value being a strong indicator of resistance and struggle within the
scene of death. Besides, it helps in predicting the causative instrument as it may
demonstrate the pattern of the used instrument (Fig. 7.19), as in cases of road traffic
accidents where the seat belt leaves its imprint over the skin of the anterior chest in
cases of Collison. In living persons, this imprinted shape does not persist for a long
time due to fading of the borders and edges with the degradation of hemoglobin.
Extravasation of blood within the tissues usually settles in the same site where
blunt force had been applied. However, in some cases, the leaked blood may shift by
gravity as in cases of anterior scalp hematomas that may represent a black eye due to
the gravitation of the extravasated blood downwards around the orbit.
Bruises and hypostasis share a common character being a color change of the skin
due to the presence of blood. However, the distinction between both is not so hard.
Bruises are represented in association with abrasion at the sites of primary trauma
irrespective of the effect of gravity. Besides, different stages of healing and color
changes may be observed in cases where a period of time exists between trauma and
death. Yet, hypostasis location is restricted to dependent areas of the body under the
effect of gravity except in cases where the corpse had been moved after the fixation
of hypostasis. On dissection, extravasated blood can be seen only in cases of bruises
while in cases of hypostasis, skin dissection shows a bloodless field under the skin.
Lacerated Wound
Laceration occurs as a result of the application of high momentum compression or
grinding of the skin with a blunt object that induces the tearing of the full thickness
of the skin. It is unlikely to have a lacerated wound in lax fatty areas like the anterior
abdominal wall or the buttocks unless a heavy object with very high momentum is
applied. On the other hand, lacerated wounds are common in the scalp, face,
forearm, and leg where the firm underlining tissue turns into an anvil that compresses
the skin against the blunt object.
Lacerations usually appear in the form of tearing of the skin with irregular
margins that are accompanied by abrasions and tissue bridges formed of the incom-
pletely torn connective tissue, nerves, and crushed blood vessels (Fig. 7.20). Still, the
variation of the direction and type of the striking force reveals other subtypes of
lacerated wounds as follows:
• Avulsion: a grinding compression results in tearing off part of the skin with its
underlying tissue by applying a shearing force in an oblique direction. It often
occurs in runaway accidents when the car passes over the victim.
• Crush lacerations: occurs in cases where the blunt object together with the hard
base underlying the skin compresses the soft tissue in between resulting in
crushing of the soft tissue. This usually occurs in scalp lacerations.
Fig. 7.20 A lacerated wound over the upper anteromedial aspect of the right leg showing gaping
and tissue bridges
190 O. S. Elserafy
• Stretch lacerations occur as a result of blunt trauma of heavy object that applies
combined forces of pressure and pulls (friction force). This results in
overstretching and flapping of the skin and subcutaneous tissue.
• Tearing: occurs when a hard object with an irregular edge impacts the skin as in
cases of barbed wires or rough knobs resulting in tearing of the skin and
subcutaneous tissue.
• Cut laceration occurs when a heavy sharp-edged weapon impacts the skin with its
high momentum leading to deep and wide wound with regular edges and abraded
margins.
Lacerated wounds are characterized by tearing of the full skin thickness resulting
in irregular and abraded edges except for the overstretched skin over bones as in the
case of the skin over the skull fault and front of the shin of the tibia, this may result in
a subtype of lacerated wounds with nearly regular edges named incised-looking
lacerated wounds that can mimic the appearance of a cut wound. In such cases,
lacerated wounds can be differentiated from cut wounds by careful examination of
the wound margins, edges, and interior. As the margins and floor of the lacerated
wounds show abrasions and bruises accompanied by tissue bridging. On the other
hand, cut wounds demonstrate linear margins with sharply cut tissues and vessels
within the interior aspect of the wound that is not accompanied by abrasions or
bruises. Confirmation is done by examining the tip of the hairs on the margin of
lacerated and cut wounds where it reveals crushed tips and cut ends, respectively.
Sharp-Force Injuries
The use of a weapon with sharp edges such as knives, daggers, or scissors blades can
result in injuries that are characterized by having sharply defined wound edges that
are associated with profuse bleeding from the completely slashed underlying vessels.
This profuse bleeding helps the investigators to locate and reconstruct the victim’s
primary injury location and the subsequent movements.
Cut Wound
Cut wounds caused by pulling a sharp cutting object over the skin resulting in an
injury that is longer than deeper. Cut wounds are characterized by having regular
edges not associated with bruises and abrasions however in case of dragging a sharp
object over corrugated skin, e.g., axilla and scrotum, this may induce a cut wound
with irregular edges. Besides, tissue bridging is absent in cut wounds and subse-
quently, profuse bleeding is common due to cleanly cut blood vessels across the
edges.
The location, depth, and number of fatal wounds can help in identifying the
manner of death. Usually in suicidal deaths, the investigator can find a single fatal
wound within the reach of the victim’s hands that may be associated with superficial
wounds (hesitations marks) indicating the regression to take the action for the killing
injury. On the other hand, multiple, deep killing injuries indicate homicidal deaths,
especially when associated with defensive cut wounds on the dorsum of the forearm
and palm of the hands (Fig. 7.21). However, the lack of defensive wounds does not
exclude homicidal deaths, as the victim may be unconscious or controlled by tying
both hands and legs.
Fig. 7.21 A case of homicide

showing a cut wound within
the palm of the left hand
indicating an attempt to grasp
the knife by the victim to
defend himself
Fig. 7.22 Stab wound of the

anterior chest wall induced by
a dagger showing relatively
sharp edges on the right and
left sides of the wound
Stab Wound
This type of sharp-force injury is induced by forcing a sharp pointed end of an object,
e.g., a dagger or a knife, into the victim’s body resulting in an injury that is deeper
than longer. The examination of the size, shape, and depth of the stab wound may aid
in identifying the used weapons. As the wound length and depth may correspond
with the blade height and length, respectively. Besides, the shape of the wound and
the number of angels may align with the blade shape as in cases of stab wounds
induced by a dagger, the wound would have two angels (Fig. 7.22) in comparison to
one angel in case of a knife (Fig. 7.23).
However, it is not unusual to have many outliers of those roles. As the victim and
the assailant bodies are not in static positions, a dynamic resistance and struggle
prevail in such circumstances. Thus, it is very hard to ensure forcing the full length of
the object into the body without under or even overpenetration of the blade. Besides,
during withdrawal of the weapon slight rotational movement may obscure the
angles.
Preserve Evidence
The documentation and collection of evidence related to the corpse are the primary
responsibility of the medical examiner. This responsibility is carried as early as
192 O. S. Elserafy
Fig. 7.23 A stab wound

induced by a knife indicated
by the relatively rounded left
edge to the relatively sharp
right edge
possible either while performing the corpse examination within the crime scene as in
cases of stab wound where an object is found penetrating the victim’s body or even
during an autopsy after extraction of any retained bullet as in cases of a retained
firearm. However, the process of documentation should be started at the crime scene
in order to prevent any manipulation or even contamination of the evidence. For
instance, in the case of firearm deaths, testing of products of firing on the victim’s
hand should be performed at the crime scene. But if testing could not be performed
and indispensable transportation of the body reveals, the corpse’s hands should be
gloved within unused clean paper bags to avoid contamination or loss of traces
during transportation.
Besides the collected evidence related to the crime scene, the medicolegal
investigator collects other biological samples including blood, urine, bile, cerebro-
spinal fluid (CSF), and vitreous humour in addition to hair and other tissue samples
for toxicological and histopathological analysis. For alcohol and toxicological
screening of drugs, medicolegal experts prefer peripheral blood (withdrawal of
samples from limb veins) over central blood (collected from the heart and great
vessels in the trunk) in order to minimize the risk of measuring high false results due
to either postmortem redistribution of drugs from the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) and
tissues or the internal production of alcohol by the putrefactive bacteria. In cases
where blood and urine samples are not sufficient or in doubt, vitreous fluid and CSF
represent a potential opportunity for more accurate toxicological analysis being
relatively protected from the action of putrefactive bacteria.
Sampling for DNA profiling and victim identification is usually done by applying
different approaches. The first common approach is by placing a spot of blood on an
absorbent paper which is then left to dry to be stored and preserved in an envelope.
The second approach is by pulling hair and placing it in an envelope. Nevertheless, if
the hair is preserved for DNA profiling, the examiner should confirm that the pulled
hair includes the bulb which contains nuclear DNA used in profiling. In situations
where DNA samples were not preserved, the histopathological samples can provide
adequate DNA for profiling. However, if samples are preserved for weeks using
formaldehyde, the cellular DNA may undergo hydrolysis and the integrity of DNA
for profiling will be affected. This could be avoided by embedding the sections into
paraffin that will preserve DNA and prevent further autolysis.
It is essential to collect all physical evidence on the body including hair, blood,
powder traces, or any other fluid before proceeding with the transportation of the
body. This is done by photographing the evidence followed by the collection and
preservation of the sample. Besides, the medicolegal expert should ensure and
maintain the chain of custody of the collected evidence till delivery to the specialized
laboratory for further analysis.
Interview Witness(Es) at the Scene

The information collected from recalling the terminal events prior to death by the
witnesses represents a valuable tool for the medicolegal investigator that can be used
to create a scientifically tested hypothesis to reconstruct the crime scene. This
especially applies when injuries are not evident enough to reconstruct the events
of death. However, dealing with information collected from witness testimony
should be taken with precaution. Recalling these data can be affected by different
factors including the ability of the witness to recall recent events or even the witness’
conflict of interest with the suspect. To maintain the statements’ conformity, the
crime scene first responder should work on witnesses’ separation to prevent cross-
contamination between individual statements. Besides, interview with the witness as
early as possible within the crime scene to avoid collecting misleading information
due to the weak recall abilities of the witness.
Interviewing the witnesses should be done on an individual basis to take note of
any discrepancy existing between the individual given statements. At the start of the
witness interview process, the witnesses’ identity information is collected including
the full name, age, residency address, occupation, contact numbers, etc. Besides, the
witnesses are asked about their relationship with the victim and assailant in addition
to why and how they witnessed the crime scene. This is to be followed by inquiring
about the circumstances of the crime scene they witnessed. These data will provide
the medicolegal examiner with data involving the circumferential events
surrounding the discovery of the body.
Collect Decedent History

Medicolegal investigators collect information from all available sources to build up a
clear view on the circumstance of death and consequently the cause, manner, and
mechanism of death. History obtained of the decedent is of great value especially in
deaths where injuries alone cannot provide much information on the circumstances
of death. Thus, medical investigators invest part of the effort in gathering data about
the decedent’s mental health, social history, and past medical history including the
terminal episode history.
The mental health history can provide aid to the medicolegal investigator to
investigate the manner of death by understanding the mental state and general
behavior of the victim as well as the assailant. This can be approached by inquiring
about the history of receiving psychological treatments following visits to mental
194 O. S. Elserafy
health professionals or any suicidal ideations, gestures, or attempts. Besides, the

obtained history on the decedent’s interactions and conduct towards his/her family
members, colleagues, and friends in addition to the daily activities and habits that are
reflected on the financial behavior of the decedent help in improving the personal
profile of the victim and consequently identifying the motive for the crimes.
Medicolegal investigators may involve in death investigation where injuries
alone can be translated into different scenarios as in cases of agonal injuries in
which the cause of death is attributed to the impact with the causative instrument
after losing consciousness. In such cases, investigating medical history can direct the
medicolegal examiner to proceed with special autopsy techniques and tests to
uncover the real cause and manner of death. In such cases, the medical history
includes hospital visits, prescribed medications, dependence on drugs, or alcohol.
Besides, seeking information on chronic neurological or cardiovascular diseases can
result in a sudden loss of consciousness. In cases of sudden death where medical
history is not conclusive, investigation of the terminal episode can help the medical
investigator in reconstructing the cause and manner of death. Awareness about the
time, persons, place, and condition of the last known time the victim was living can
aid in reconstructing the incidents prior to death.
7.5.1.3 Post-Crime Scene Duties
Jurisdictional Transfer of the Decedent

Proceeding with the full examination and autopsy following photographing, docu-
mentation, and initial crime scene examination of the corpse necessitates the transfer
of the cadaver to the morgue. The medicolegal examiner has to ensure the safety of
the corpse throughout the transfer. This is done by following the chain of custody
protocols while collecting, packaging, and labeling the remains in addition to the
protection of the remains from contamination and/or incorrect handling.
Before transfer, documentation, photographing, examination, and safeguarding
of the personal belongings of the victim should be performed by the medicolegal
examiner in a controlled environment with a colleague witnessing and attending the
procedure. This is to be followed by the delivery of those personal belongings—if
not subject to the process of investigation as evidence—to the next of kin. This is
also applied for the victim’s clothes; however, taking off the corpse clothes usually
takes place at the morgue at the time of external examination of the cadaver during
autopay.
For purpose of future identification of the corpse, the medicolegal examiner labels
the cadaver with a wristband written on it the case details including the case number,
name of the victim, gender, date, and time of recovery. This is to be followed by the
placement of the body into the bag and removal and transportation of the body from
the scene to the morgue. It is the medicolegal examiner’s responsibility to ensure the
security and good practice of those procedures through close and direct supervision.
Establish Chain of Custody

It is essential to maintain the chain of custody of the evidence collected by the
medicolegal examiner over the process of death investigation. Proper documenta-
tion, photographing, labeling, transfer, and preservation ensure the integrity of the
evidence and protect against the possibilities of allegations by the defense against the
reliability of the evidence in front of the juries.
It is vital to allocate and preserve each piece of evidence within the appropriate
container or envelope according to nature (solid, fluid, etc.), size, and fragility.
However, moist or wet evidence cannot be preserved in a closed container for
more than 2 h as moisture encourages the growth of bacteria and microorganisms
that can affect the integrity of the evidence. If the time needed for preservation and
transportation is less than 2 h, moist or wet evidence can be secured in containers or
envelopes till delivery into the evidence receiving area where a secure place is
available to unpack the evidence and leave it to dry completely.
Documentation and labeling of the evidence should include the location of the
evidence within the scene, time of collection, name of the collecting person, time of
disposal, and name of the person who received the evidence. Besides, the recogni-
tion of the agency(ies) responsible for collection and examination is essential to
avoid misallocation and loss of the evidence. Finally, a list of the custodians of
evidence, personnel, witnesses who dealt with the evidence is created along with a
full description of the evidence. The commitment of the chain of custody protocol
ensures delivery, testing, and allocation of the evidence in addition to acceptance of
validity and reliability by the jurisdiction system.
Determine Notification Procedures

Part of the duty of the medicolegal examiner is to notify the next of kin as early as
possible. This responsibility is hard enough for the notifier as well as the next of kin;
however, it is an essential step to complete the process of identification of the
decedent by the next of kin to be followed by collecting relative information on
the victim in addition to facilitation of disposition of remains. Before proceeding
with the notification procedures, the notifiers should collect as much information on
the victim and circumstances of death in addition to the identity and relationship
between the victim and next of kin. This is to be followed by in-person notification—
not by telephone—of the next of kin to give him/her a sense of support. In cases
where a shock reaction occurs, medical help and support should be provided.
Following this, the medicolegal investigator provides the next of kin with an
estimated date to finish the autopsy, so the family can arrange the procedures for
final disposition. Documentation of all details concerned about next of kin notifica-
tion is a crucial step in the process of death investigation, even if these efforts failed
to locate the next of kin, as this indicates that all efforts were done to locate the next
of kin.
Participate in Scene Debriefing

The crime scene debriefing gathers police officers, investigators, and expertise who
had participated in the scene investigation including the medicolegal expert who was
196 O. S. Elserafy
responsible for corpse examination. It allows the exchange of data and

responsibilities among team members working on solving the death investigation
scene. During scene debriefing, investigators provide information on findings within
the scene as well as the assignment, duties, and responsibilities for any planned
procedures and tests that need integration between different authorities and agencies
participating in the investigation process.
Scene debriefing allows the police officer in charge of the crime scene to review
all procedures done within the crime scene. Besides, gathering information on the
collected evidence and ensuring the custodian authority following the dispatch of
each evidence. Moreover, the team members can discuss the preliminary findings,
potential tests, and time plans. This received feedback among the team members will
provide the opportunity to identify the gaps and consequently take the required
actions to complete the crime scene investigation.
Final Survey and Exit Procedures

Just before departing the crime scene, investigators conduct a final survey of the
crime scene to make sure that all evidence was documented and collected properly.
Besides, this allows the medical investigator to look for the equipment and materials
used during examination procedures. Subsequently, the investigator can guarantee
that no material or equipment has been left behind at the crime scene and the
elimination of all hazards had been fulfilled.
Release Jurisdiction of the Body

On completing the death investigation procedures including autopsy and taking the
essential samples from the body, a death certificate and release jurisdiction of the
body proceed. The death certificate should include information on the cause, time,
date, and location of death in addition to the demographic data of the deceased.
However, before signing the death certificate by the forensic pathologist, collec-
tion of needed histopathological and toxicological samples in addition to all retained
evidence, e.g., bullets or foreign bodies should be performed to avoid the need for
the future exhumation of the body to recover this missed evidence.
This is followed by notification of the next of kin and the authorized receiving
agency to review all the documented data and organize the necessary arrangement
for release and transportation for the final disposition.
7.6 Autopsy
Conducting the forensic examination of the bodies provides the investigator with
detailed information on the external and internal characters of the inflected injuries,
that information can be translated into objective data to be used for the interpretation
of the cause, mechanism, and manner of death. It is most valuable in cases where the
external appearance of the injuries does not correlate with the magnitude of the
injuries within the body. This is not an uncommon observation especially in cases of
blunt trauma over a vital organ or any of the triggering zones of the body where a
single punch can lead to sudden death with minimal or even no apparent injury on
external examination of the body.
The forensic examination of the deceased implies an examination of the clothes
and external examination of the body in addition to autopsy. Some authors consider
the word “Autopsy” as a misnomer of the practice of dissection that should be
replaced by the word “Necropsy.” As autopsy is derived from the Latin words
(auto ¼ self; opsis ¼ a sight) that means to look at the self while, the word necropsy
is derived from the Latin words (necro ¼ death; opsis ¼ a sight) that means looking
at the dead. However, traditional English uses the word autopsy in cases where
dissection of humans is performed. At the same time, the word necropsy is used if
dissection of an animal is conducted.
An autopsy is conducted to reconstruct the scene of death by answering the
following questions:
• Identification of the decedent especially in cases where the alternation of external

features exists, especially in cases of decomposition, burns, or even intentional or
unintentional mutilation.
• Estimation of the time passed since death which can lead to the last place and
person(s) who had seen the victim alive.
• Analysis of the number, distribution, age, extent, and vitality of the different types
of injuries to identify the time of injury, causative instrument, and contribution of
these traumas to the cause of death.
• Confirmation or exclusion of the existence of associated pathologies that
contributed to the occurrence of death.
• Qualitative and quantitative analysis of blood, urine, bile, vitreous fluid, CSF, and
tissues for the incidence of coadministration of drugs or poisons either in thera-
peutic or toxic doses.
• Diagnosis of the cause and mechanism of death.
• Recognition of the manner of death and the number of assailants in homicidal
deaths.
The worldwide practice of autopsy falls under two major categories, clinical and
forensic autopsy. The clinical or academic autopsy is performed only for academic
purposes to teach students about the nature of diseases or to help the research efforts
to deeply understand the pathology of a disease that leads to the terminal event. The
clinical autopsy cannot be performed in cases where the cause of death is still
undetermined. As in such circumstances, medicolegal authority is reported to inves-
tigate the cause of death. Moreover, this type of autopsy cannot be performed
without obtaining informed written consent from relatives. In Contrast, suspicious,
unnatural, undetermined, or criminal deaths require the referral by the local legal
authority for a medicolegal investigation where a forensic or medicolegal autopsy is
performed. The primary purpose of the referral is to investigate the death and
subsequently determine when, how, and why the death occurred. In such cases,
the legal authority represented in the prosecutor has the right to request for the
performance of forensic autopsy without the consent of the relatives. However, in
198 O. S. Elserafy
religious communities where restrictions applied to the dissection of the decedent,

respect for the cultural and religious practices cannot be neglected. The relatives are
assured that autopsy is mainly concerned about achieving justice for the victim and
all tissues, blood, and organs are preserved for proper resurrection.
The medicolegal autopsy is comprised of an external examination and an internal
examination. The external examination concerned about documenting and examin-
ing the coverings, clothes, and relative objects with the body like robes used in
hanging or strangulation. Besides, the general identification characters, postmortem
changes, and injuries are recorded. The internal examination entails the dissection of
the body with the removal of the internal organs for inspection and examination.
7.6.1 Clothes
The external examination starts with documentation, photographing, and examina-

tion of the clothes over the victim. In some contexts, undressing the victim may
occur prior to the arrival of the body at the morgue especially if the medical
intervention was conducted in the hospital to resuscitate the victim. In such cases,
the examination of clothes should be performed during the initial external examina-
tion in the hospital or within the crime scene. Besides, it is essential to request the
delivery of those clothes to run an in-depth examination at the morgue.
As the corpse is still dressed, a general overview of the clothes is done to assess
the compatibility in size between the clothes and the victim, in addition to the
assessment of the integrity of clothes and the existence of stains. This is to be
followed by an assessment of alignment between the tears or missed parts of clothes
and the associated injuries on the bodies. This assessment can help in the determina-
tion of the direction and force of trauma applied to the body. If great discrepancies
exist between the injury and the tear that cannot be interpreted by the active
movement and displacement, then a self-inflicted injury or manipulation should be
suspected. This is to be followed by careful undressing of the victim without tearing
them to avoid any misinterpretation of those induced tears as signs of resistance or
struggle. If removing the clothes cannot be done without tearing them, cutting off the
clothes away from the site of original tears can be done with documentation and
notification of the forensic scientist about the sites of the induced cuts.
Documentation of the order of clothes on the victim’s body is mandatory,
especially in rape and firearm injuries. For example, in firearm deaths, an examina-
tion of clothes can help to determine the distance and direction of firing as well as the
type of ammunition. Therefore, changes in the description of the order of clothes on
the body may lead to misdiagnosis of the existence of gunshot residue on the
outermost cloth and consequently the misinterpretation of the direction and range
of firing.
It is worth noting that, the examination of the clothes should be repeated
following undressing the victim with a focused examination of the inside of clothes.
Staines on the exterior or the interior of clothes including semen, blood, saliva, or
other fluids or secretion are documented, photographed, and collected to be
transferred for analysis by the forensic laboratory. Besides, other objects with the
body are also documented, photographed, collected, and sent for examination by the
specialized laboratory. This is especially important in asphyxia and intoxication
cases where the analysis of the knot on the robe and drug or poison containers can
help in understanding the cause and circumstances of death.
The documentation of clothes should include the nomination of the size and brand
in addition to the description of any drawings or writings on it. Following,
photographing of the cloth is done while the body is dressed in the cloth and after
undressing. Photographing should include a holistic picture of the cloth in addition
to midrange and close-range pictures of the tears with and without scaling.
Finally, individual parts of clothes and other objects are collected separately in a
well-ventilated evidence bag to be sent for examination by the specialized forensic
scientists in the forensic laboratories. However, air-dryness of all parts of the
collected clothes should be guaranteed before placing them in the evidence bags to
avoid the spoilage of evidence by the overgrowth of fungi and bacteria.
7.6.2 External Examination
A significant amount of data can be extracted from the external examination of the
corpse, especially in traumatic death investigations. The interpretation of these data
would be of great help to the medicolegal examiner to proceed with the internal
examination and subsequently to reconstruct the circumstance of death and diagnose
the cause, mechanism, and manner of death.
External examination starts with measuring and recording the anthropometric
measures of the body including gender, race, approximate age in decades, body
built, and dentations in addition to weight and length of the body. Moreover, the
description of the general characters of the corpse should be documented including
the hair color, type, staining, and distribution over the scalp, beard, axilla, perineum,
and other parts of the body. Similarly, other characters that can be used in the process
of identification should be documented, photographed, and described. These
characters include moles, tattoo marks, and scars of previous injuries (Fig. 7.24),
in addition to deformities, amputation, circumcision, and/or dermatological signs of
diseases. Besides, the precise documentation and photographing of evidence related
to the medical interventions prior to death are essential to avoid the misinterpretation
of those interventions as signs of trauma as in the case of puncture sites of the
cannulas that may be confused as injection signs of addiction.
This proceeds to the inspection of the whole body from head to toe including the
back, sides, front and creased areas within the body like the axilla and perineum. The
initial overview aims at a general inspection of the injuries, postmortem changes, and
the associated soils, dust, or stains on the body. Then, cleaning and rinsing the skin
with water is done while inspecting the products of rinsing for impeded evidence to
be collected. Following cleaning of the body, reinspection is performed to look for
the actual characteristics of injuries or even emergence of previously invisible
injuries that were obscured by dirt or stains covering the body. Before rinsing the
200 O. S. Elserafy
Fig. 7.24 Old scars on the

anterior trunk associated with
more recent scares on the
inner aspect of the left
forearm. Both scars are
superficial, nonfatal, within
the access of the victim’s
dominant hand indicating self-
inflexion
body with water, examination, and inspection of discharge from the natural body
orifices including the nose, mouth, ears, urethra, vagina, and anus is performed. This
discharge is swabbed and smeared on slides to be sent for examination by forensic
scientists.
The examination of the face including the eye and mouth, in addition to the neck,
represents a very indispensable step in the external examination. The color of the
face can indicate the cause of death as in cases of traumatic asphyxia and hemorrhage
where cyanosis and pallor of the face can be detected, respectively. Besides,
petechial hemorrhages over the face and conjunctiva significantly indicate increased
vascular pressure prior to death as in cases of traumatic asphyxia. Special attention
should be paid to the examination of the eyelid, lips, tongue, gums, teeth, and the
inner side of the cheeks. The number, type, and distribution of injuries over these
areas can indicate the manner of death as in cases of smothering where abrasions and
abraded bruises of the assailant’s fingers can be found around the mouth and nostril
associated with internal bruises over the gums and cheeks due to the applied pressure
against them (Fig. 7.25). Besides, Petechiae on the eyelids, along with a swollen and
a blue/purplish appearance of the face are a common presentation in cases of
asphyxia especially with hanging and strangulation where abraded bruises of robe
mark can be seen obliquely on the upper part of the neck and transversely on the
neck, respectively.
Documentation of postmortem changes is a mandatory act to be done at the start
of external examination by observing and recording body temperature, postmortem
lividity (hypostasis), level of stiffness (rigor mortis), and extent of body decomposi-
tion. The interpretation of these data in addition to the study of maggots on the body
and stomach content can help in estimating the time passed since death as well as
primitive prediction of the cause of death.
Still, the documentation and analysis of the injuries being the main aim of the
external examination, the medicolegal examiner should spend as much time in
surveillance, documentation, photographing, scaling, and evaluation of the different
Fig. 7.25 Vital blunt injuries

within the inner aspect of the
lip, gingiva, and left angle of
the mouth in a corpse
recovered from water raised
the suspicion about homicide
types of injuries on the body. It is worth noting that special attention should be paid
to search for concealed injuries within the inner side of the lips, inside the mouth, and
tongue in addition to the injection marks.
Classification of injuries is done by clustering them into groups that share a
common character either in location or type of injury. Numbering of injuries during
documentation and photographing is essential to avoid any possible chance of
overlapping in the interpretation of injuries. Demonstration of location and
interrelations between injuries should be fulfilled while photographing the injuries
by taking overall photographs of the body in addition to midrange and close-up shots
with and without scaling. As well, documentation of injuries should incorporate the
full description of the injury. Variations exist among medicolegal investigators in the
methodology used in describing the injuries; however, the acronym (TEN SAD)
covers most of the different aspects to be described while documenting injuries as
shown in Table 7.2.
Other evidence found with the body or with the external examination of the
orifical opening should be documented, photographed, collected, and preserved to be
sent for examination by the forensic laboratories. Special attention should be paid to
the examination of the fingernails of the corpse for the presence of tissue, blood,
dust, or other foreign bodies that may indicate the existence of struggle with the
assailant. This also applied for the marking on the skin resulted from firearm
shooting including burning, blackening, and tattooing, where the documentation
and analysis of consistency, shape, and density can help in the identification and
comparison with the suspected firearm used in inducing the injury as well as the
estimation of the range of firing.
202 O. S. Elserafy
Table 7.2 Description of injuries using the acronym (TEN SAD)

T Type of injury
• Blunt force injury
• Abrasions
• Bruises
• Lacerations
• Sharp-force injury
• Cut
• Stab
• Firearm injuries
• Rifled
• Non-rifled
• Thermal injury
• Dry burn
• Moist burn
• Corrosive
• Radiation
• Electrical injury
• High voltage
• Low voltage
E Edges, margins, and base of the wound
N Number of wounds
S • Site (identification from two anatomical landmarks representing the two axes)
• Size (length, breadth, and depth).
• Shape
A Antemortem vs postmortem wounds to indicate the timing and vitality of injuries
D The direction of the inflection force
7.6.3 Internal Examination
The autopsy examination generally referred to the internal examination of the body
to look at the integrity of the internal organs and assess the magnitude and depth of
external injuries. The forensic pathologist can utilize different patterns of skin
incisions to inspect and examine the individual organs and deeper tissues
(Fig. 7.26). The decision to choose between the different approaches depends on
the circumstances of death to be investigated as well as the need for preservation of
cosmetic appearance by hiding the sutures line. The usual incision is represented as a
straight line (I-shaped) extending between the upper border of the symphysis pubis
and a point just above the laryngeal prominence passing around the umbilicus.
The Y-shaped and sub-clavicular incisions are other common methods that are
considered as modified forms of the I-shaped incision to avoid the disfigurement of
taking the incision at the anterior midline of the neck. In those methods, a straight
incision is made from the upper border of the symphysis pubis to the sternal notch
to meet the two lines coming from just behind the two ears in a Y-shaped incision or
to meet two lines extending laterally to the acromial head of the clavicle and upward
to a point just behind the ear (Fig. 7.26). These methods are commonly used in cases
Acromial End of Clavicle Symphysis Pubis

Umbilicus
Sternal notch
I- Shaped Y- Shaped Modified Y- Shaped

incision incision incision
Fig. 7.26 Autopsy Incisions; I-Shaped incision, Y-Shaped incision, and modified Y-Shaped
(Sub-clavicular) incision
Fig. 7.27 Incision and reflection of the skin over the neck, chest, and abdomen to observe and
examine the underlying structures
where a wide exposure of the neck structures is essential especially when the damage
of neck structures is suspected as in cases of hanging and strangulation.
Either of the previous types of incisions allows for dissection of the skin from the
subcutaneous tissue and exposure of the underlying structures. This enables the
medical examiner to assess the muscles and deeper structures for the existence of
deep bruises that did not get to the skin surface. Besides, this can help in the
estimation of the momentum in cases of blunt force trauma by evaluating the amount
and depth of the extravasated blood (Fig. 7.27).
204 O. S. Elserafy
The opening of the body cavities (skull, chest, and abdomen) takes place after
flapping the skin laterally to allow for better exposure. In most of the cases, the
abdomen and thorax are the first cavities to be opened followed by the skull cavity
and dissection of the neck structure. This practice allows the drainage of blood from
the vascular tree after the opening of the chest structure and consequently reduces the
possibilities of artifactual hemorrhage especially in cases of head injuries and
traumatic asphyxia to the neck.
The examination of individual body organs is subjected to four methods, i.e., En
masse, En bloc, Virchow’s method, and in situ dissection. En masse (Letulle)
dissection allows for the removal of most of the internal organs in one unit. This
allows for better evaluation of the organs outside the body while keeping the
interorgan relation. On the other side, the evisceration of body organs in Virchow’s
method is done one by one. This method is usually applied when a forensic
pathologist is seeking a time-efficient method to assess the individual organ pathol-
ogy. In turn, the in situ dissection allows for inspection of the individual organs
while being in a place with little or no evisceration of organs. This method is usually
used when little manipulation is required as in patients with highly infectious
diseases.
The En bloc method combines the advantages of En masse and Virchow’s
methods being a timely efficient method that keeps the attachments and relations
between the individual organs. In this method, the forensic pathologist removes the
organs in large blocks to provide a better opportunity for the examiner to investigate
the relationship while dissecting the body.
To examine the brain, an incision is made between a point just behind one ear
passing across the scalp to a corresponding point behind the other ear. Reflection and
peeling of the scalp with inspection for bruises or fractures should be performed. To
reconstitute the skull after performing autopsy, the skull cap is seen as two oblique
opposing half circles that meet together at the deepest points on the lateral sides of
the skull. The inner table of the skull, meninges, and brain surface is inspected for
fractures, tears, or hemorrhage (Fig. 7.28). As the brain is freed from the underlying
nerves, vessels, and spinal cord, examination, and dissection of the brain can be done
immediately or after fixation in a formaldehyde solution.
Inspection and weighting of the individual organs are done followed by the
dissection of these organs to look for injuries or pathology. Besides the dissection
of the viscera and organs, the dissection of the leg veins is performed in suspected
cases of pulmonary embolism to search for the source of embolization within the
deep veins of the legs.
It is worth noting that, in cases of penetrating trauma as in firearm and stabbing,
tracking of the path within the body cannot be done before opening the
corresponding cavities. This allows the forensic examiner to have a direct exposure
on the pathway and avoiding the induction of new injuries by the probe if used
blindly.
Fig. 7.28 inspection and examination of the inner table of skull bone and brain. (a) brain, (b) base
of the skull (anterior, middle, and posterior cranial fossae), (c) Skull cap
7.6.4 Investigations
Forensic pathologists can make use of all available tools and investigations that can
help in solving the questions related to death investigations. Still, the jurisdictional
approval on the use and application of those investigative tools is limited to the
validity and reliability of those tests. The test validity and reliability rely on many
factors starting with sample collection and chain of custody and ending with the
applied technique and interpretation of results. Radiological, histopathological, and
toxicological investigations represent the most commonly used tests in death
investigations.
7.6.4.1 Radiology
The application of radiological studies can add significantly to the process of death
investigation. Different radiological modalities are currently implemented including
plain X-ray examination, fluoroscopy, computed tomography (CT), magnetic reso-
nance imaging, and angiography techniques in addition to the radiological
techniques applied for a dental examination. These radiological modalities can
help in the determination of identity, assessment of internal pathology, injuries,
and fractures in addition to the localization of foreign bodies and firearm bullets.
With the advancement in radiological technologies, dramatic growth in the
applications of forensic radiology has occurred with the development of a new
science called Virtual Autopsy or Virtopsy. This technique applies both CT and
MRI modalities to rebuild three-dimensional images of the body using virtual
autopsy software. The value of radiological and virtual autopsy over the conven-
tional autopsy is the construction of permeant three-dimensional images of the body
that can be examined remotely in time and distance even after the complete decom-
position of the corpse. However, the validity and reliability of virtual autopsy are still
under investigation against a conventional autopsy.
206 O. S. Elserafy
7.6.4.2 Histopathology
The microscopic examination is essentially recommended in most cases of autopsy,
especially when no apparent cause of death can be detected by growth examination.
The overwhelming majority of the forensic bodies worldwide advise the forensic
pathologist to perform histopathological examinations of the major organs in all
suspicious deaths to confirm and/or exclude pathological causes of death. However,
the experience of the pathologist helps in making decisions for the organs and sites
of sampling depending on the circumstances of the case.
In addition, histopathological studies of tissues can provide clues to the forensic
pathologist on the cause, vitality, and aging of injuries. The quantitative and
qualitative study of the cellular and inflammatory response within the tissues can
help in estimating the time of incidence of injury. In cases of drowning, the study of
diatoms within the tissues, gut, and lung can differentiate between antemortem
drowning and postmortem submersion underwater.
However, the results of histopathological studies in some circumstances may be
limited especially in advanced stages of decomposition. Besides, the processing and
fixation may ensue false-negative results as in cases of immunohistochemistry where
the long fixation time may destroy the antigenic properties of the tissue.
7.6.4.3 Toxicology
Taxological screening in death investigation can help forensic pathologists to estab-
lish the cause of death. Samples of blood, urine, bile, vitreous humour, CSF, tissues,
stomach, and intestinal contents are collected for toxicological screening. Based on
the medications’ history, the forensic examiner submits a list of the suspected drugs
enclosed with the containers’ samples. Quantitative analysis for the suspected drugs
followed by confirmatory and quantitative tests is performed to measure the exact
concentration of the drug. The results are then interpreted against the therapeutic and
toxic levels to conclude the magnitude of the contribution of those drugs to the cause
of death.
The validity of test results depends on the applied precaution in sampling,
collection, preservation, transfer, and processing. For instance, blood samples
should be collected as early as possible from peripheral veins of the body (femoral)
to avoid measuring high false results due to endogenous generation of substances as
in the case of alcohol or the postmortem redistribution of drugs and toxins due to
affection of the cellular permeability. Besides, the selection of sampling containers
can affect the concentration of screened substances that may be affected by any
physiological or pathological process that leads to the consumption or overproduc-
tion of the screened substance. This is especially important in collecting samples for
the detection of alcohol where samples should be stored in tubes containing sodium
florid. Sodium florid prevents the consumption of alcohol in the process of glycoly-
sis by the RBCs.
If the reliability of blood and urine samples are questionable as in cases of severe
hemorrhage where no enough blood samples can be collected from the peripheral
veins or even fear of postmortem redistribution, vitreous sampling can be of
significant value to screen for alcohol as the endogenous production of alcohol

within the vitreous is limited.
In un-routine circumstances where an uncommon drug or poison is suspected, the
forensic pathologist should mention the required test to be done in the form sent with
the sample. The perfect example is cases where cherry-red discoloration of the skin
and hypostasis would raise the suspicion about toxicity with carbon monoxide
especially if the corpse is recovered from a sealed environment.
7.6.4.4 DNA Fingerprint

The need for the collection of samples of DNA is usually linked to a death investi-
gation where the victim’s identity is not established by routine methods. This
especially applies in burnt, mutilated, or decomposed bodies where disfigurement
and loss of the skin limit the ability of forensic scientists to use facial features and
fingerprints in the process of identification.
When blood is available, a spot of blood is placed on an absorbent paper and left
to dry to be sent to the DNA laboratories. However, in decomposed or skeletonized
bodies, samples from bone can provide the DNA profile of the victim, especially
when using a tooth, clavicle, femur, or humerus. As well, hair represents a good
source for DNA profiling taking the precaution to include the hair root as a source of
nuclear DNA.
Examination of the underneath of the victim’s fingernail may reveal biological
material. Thus, nail evidence is usually collected before proceeding with autopsy
especially in sexual assaults cases where resistance and struggle between the victim
and assailant are evident. Processing, extraction, of the isolated DNA material, may
indicate the identity of the assailant in such cases.
7.6.4.5 Microbiology
The collection of samples for the study of bacteriology, virology, and even fungal
infection is deemed to be uncommon practice in medicolegal death investigations. It
is recommended in cases where an underlying infection is presumed to contribute to
the occurrence of death. However, the current COVID-19 pandemic raised the need
for workup on microbiological samples before proceeding with autopsy to eliminate
the potential risk on the medicolegal staff during autopsy.
The choice of sampling site depends on the suspected disease. In suspected
coronaviruses, nasopharyngeal swab or bronchial lavage are considered as the
samples of choice. On the other side, in cases where bacteremia is suspected as the
leading cause of death, sampling for blood cultures is collected from the heart and
spleen. However, the current recommendations are to avoid conducting an autopsy
on suspected infectious cases unless indicated by the medicolegal authority.
208 O. S. Elserafy
7.7 Estimating the Time of Death
One of the required tasks to be fulfilled by the medicolegal examiner is to estimate

the approximate time of death. However, it is very hard or even impossible to
indicate a precise time of death by the medicolegal examiner unless it is revealed
from a certified witness statement or surveillance recording. To estimate the time
passed since death, a forensic pathologist observes and analyses the circumstances of
death in addition to the changes that occur to the body after death. Following, a
congregated interpretation of those observations leads to the conclusion of an
approximate time of death.
7.7.1 Algor Mortis
With the cessation of the vital function after death, the heat production stops, and
consequently, the body starts to lose heat to reach an equilibrium with the
surrounding environment. Under typical conditions, the body cools at a rate of
1–1.5 C per hour. The calculation of the difference between the ambient tempera-
ture and the measured body temperature can help to estimate the approximate time of
death. Thus, it is essential to measure body temperature and ambient temperature as
early as possible at the crime scene. Still, the use of the cooling curve alone is of
limited value as it is affected by different factors including the ambient temperature,
the distribution and fat content of the body in addition to the coverings on the victim
and clothing,
7.7.2 Livor Mortis
Stagnation of blood within the vascular bed at the dependent areas of the body
succeeds the cessation of the pump function of the heart. This process gave a bluish
to purple discoloration to the skin. Small, discolored patches develop over the skin of
the dependent areas within 20 min to 3 h from death. These patches enlarge and
coalesce together to cover the whole surface of the dependent area with the sparing
of the pressure sites. Initially, fading of color followed by regaining of lividity occurs
with pressing on the discolored patches due to the displacement of blood within the
vascular bed. The permanent fixation of the site and depth of color of hypostasis
occurs within 8–16 h from death.
The exact detection of the time of death cannot be done by documenting the
changes in hypostasis alone as it is affected by individual and environmental factors
that can accelerate or decelerate the progression of lividity. For instance, deaths
associated with dehydration and/or hypercoagulable conditions express acceleration
in the development of lividity in comparison to corpses recovered from the hot
environment. Consequently, in early recovered deaths, lividity can be utilized by the
forensic examiner to estimate the approximate time of death in association with the
other methods.
7.7.3 Rigor Mortis
The declaration of somatic death indicates the cessation of all vital functions of the
body including the respiratory and circulatory functions. Consequently, the delivery
of the nutritional and oxygen supply to the cells is impaired leading to depletion of
ATP stores within those cells. The muscle cells depend mainly on its storage from
ATP to detach myosin from actin in the relaxation phase, so the muscles fail to relax,
and contracture and rigidity of the muscle develop.
In average environmental temperature, muscle rigidity starts in the small muscles
of the face 2 h from somatic death then it progresses downward and distally. All
muscles of the body express rigidity at 12–24 h from death. With the start of muscle
decomposition, the muscle rigidity starts to disappear in the same manner it devel-
oped until complete relaxation of the body is attained within 36 h of death.
A rough estimation of time passed since death can be performed using rigor
mortis as the rate of progression and disappearance of rigor mortis is not constant
and can be affected by individual and environmental factors as well. In summer
seasons and hot climates, Rigor Mortis may develop and vanish in all muscles of the
body in less than 18 h. On the other side, the time needed in a cold environment until
the complete disappearance of rigidity may reach up to 36 h. As well, physical
activities such as struggle or exercise prior to death can accelerate the progression of
muscle rigidity due to the consumption of muscle storage of ATP during these
activities. Besides, with decreased muscle mass rigor mortis may be delayed or
even absent as in cases of infants and elderly people who manifest with low
muscle mass.
7.7.4 Decomposition
Cessation of vital functions leads to tissue anoxia and subsequently, cell autolysis
starts under the effect of liberated proteolytic enzymes from the cells. Besides,
microorganisms act on the dead tissues of the body leading to its degradation and
decomposition. The manifestation of decomposition starts as greenish discoloration
on the skin over the right iliac region. This is followed by the appearance of
arborization, skin blistering, and disintegration of skin appendages including the
nails and hairs.
Discoloration and bloating of the abdomen pursue in 1 week in association with
the appearance of bloody froth from the mouth and nostrils and protrusion of the
tongue and eyeballs. Under the effect of accumulated gases, the peeling of the skin
and bursting of the abdomen occurs. In 6 months, the soft tissues disappear leaving
bones attached with ligaments. The ligaments also degenerate in the following
6 months to leave separate bones that degenerate over time.
Changes in the surrounding environment may lead to acceleration, slow down, or
even replacing of putrefaction by other decomposition sequelae. In a moist environ-
ment, putrefactive changes are replaced by adipocere formation. In this condition
saturation of the fat content of the body leads to the formation of an off-white greasy
210 O. S. Elserafy
waxy material with a characteristic earthy, cheesy, and ammoniacal odor. Usually,
adipocere formation starts to manifest in 3 weeks and fully develops in 3 months. On
the other hand, a dry environment leads to the evaporation of the water content from
the tissues and the development of mummification that typically takes about
6 months to develop.
7.7.5 Maggots
The study of insects at the crime scene can add a lot of information to forensic
examiner especially in advanced cases of decomposition. The most important of this
information is the application to estimate the time passed since death. Flies deposit
their eggs in moist areas of the body which then hatch to produce the first instar.
Successive stages of development follow until the development of the adult fly that
can repeat the cycle. Depending on the degree of moisture and environmental
temperature, the cycle takes around 15–25 days. Forensic entomologists breed the
collected insects from the crime scene in environmental conditions similar to that
recorded at the crime scene to conclude the average number of cycles and subse-
quently the estimated time passed since death.
7.7.6 Potassium Eye Levels
The potassium equilibrium is maintained during life by the integrity of cell mem-
brane permeability in addition to the potassium-dependent ATPase pump. After
death, the loss of integrity in addition to depletion of ATP stores leads to diffusion
of the intracellular potassium into the extracellular spaces. Subsequently, the Potas-
sium level starts to build up in the vitreous humour in a progressive manner. A
sampling of potassium is done as early as possible in the crime scene by drawing
bloodless clean vitreous fluid from the center of one eyeball to be followed 1 h later
by a sample from the other eye. Different formulas are available to compute the time
passed since death by the compensation of the measured potassium levels. However,
the accurate estimation of the time interval is still questionable due to the affection of
potassium levels by many factors including the procedure of sampling, degree of
body decomposition, and environmental temperature.
7.7.7 Stomach Contents
Examination and analysis of the quantity and quality of content within the digestive
tract can help forensic investigators in the determination of the cause, manner, and
timing of death. The nature of the individual food elements within the stomach can
indicate the nature of ingested last meal by the victim. Consequently, this may help
in the identification of the last time, location, and persons who witnessed the victim
in a living condition. Though different hypotheses had argued about the time needed
for the stomach and digestive tract to release their contents. A forensic examiner
cannot depend on these hypotheses as the time needed by the stomach and digestive
tract to release their content can be affected by different factors including the nature
and type of ingested food.
7.8 Autopsy Report
To make use of the data and results concluded from the procedures of death
investigation, observations, results, and outcomes should be communicated to the
principal officer in charge of the crime scene. The format, method, and person in
charge of this communication may vary between the different medicolegal systems.
However, the included data and their interpretation are not much affected by the
variability between the systems. Based on this report, Judicial decisions will be made
by the court months or years later. Therefore, the medicolegal examiner is requested
to submit a detailed informative report that documents all the performed procedures
and their outcomes while investigating the deceased.
According to the general format, the report can be classified into free-style and
printed proforma. In the free-style form, the magnitude of data written on each
subject is left for the forensic pathologist estimation based on his own practice.
While in the printed proforma, the data items are preselected to be filled by the
forensic pathologist within the empty blanket. The latter form is preferred over the
former one as it provides a generalized, comprehensive, and systematic approach for
report writing. Still, it ignores the special writing requirements within the individual
cases that can be assessed by the experience of the medicolegal examiner.
No matter what the used format in writing the report is, the included data and
sequence of writing do not show great discrepancy among forensic pathologists. The
introductory part of the report usually starts with identification. This includes
identification data of the forensic examiner who performed the death investigation
in including name and qualifications. This is to be followed by the identity data of
the deceased, e.g., name, age, gender, residence, occupation, etc., unless the case is
still unidentified. Besides, identification of the location, timing, and personnel who
attended the examination of the body at the crime scene as well as autopsy.
Then, a chronological recording of the procedures of death investigation is
documented in the report as follows:
• A description of the circumstances of death as per the official referral sent to the
medicolegal examiner by the principal crime scene investigator.
• Crime Scene Examination.
– Survey
– External examination of the body
Clothes
Postmortem changes
Injuries
– Report on collected evidence and chain of custody.
212 O. S. Elserafy
• Autopsy:
– External examination of the body
Clothes
Postmortem changes
Injuries
– Internal examination
– Collected samples.
• Conclusion and interpretation of injuries and investigational results. In this part,
the medicolegal examiner translates the professional medical expression into
logistic, understandable conclusions to be read by the nonmedical legal staff
including juries, prosecutors, and lawyers.
7.9 Summary
A medicolegal expert is one of the key members of the death investigation team.
They involve in the process of death investigation with the purpose of answering the
jurisdiction inquiries on the cause, manner, and time of death and/or injuries. To
respond to those assigned questions, the medicolegal expert’s responsibilities essen-
tially include the attendance at the crime scene to conduct an onsite comprehensive
assessment of the corpse as well as the related evidence within the scene. The
assessment comprises observation, documentation, photographing of the evidence,
postmortem changes, and injuries in addition to the collection and transfer of
evidence to the assigned authorities. The key assessment of the corpse is conducted
within the morgue during autopsy. Autopsy can provide more detailed information
about the general characters of injuries to be used in the reconstruction of the events
of death and consequently answering the jurisdictional questions on the cause,
manner, and time of death. The outcome of the process of death investigation is
represented in the submitted comprehensive report. In addition to the conclusion, the
report represents the documentation of the performed tasks and results of the process
of death investigation.
Acknowledgment All gratitude is due solely to Allah Who aided me throughout my life helping
me for success and standing by me in failures, gifted me with people who tried to help all through.
My infinite thanks and appreciation would be to Dr. Jaskaran Singh and Prof. Neeta Raj Sharma for
providing me with this opportunity to join the honorable author team of the book “Crime Scene
Management within Forensic Sciences.” I wish to express my deepest gratitude to Dr. Adel
Mohamed Abdallah Elberry; senior consultant of forensic medicine, Egyptian forensic medicine
authority, and forensic department, general administration of criminal evidence, public security,
KSA for his indispensable advice and support by enriching the work with his distinguishable
pictures that helped me a lot in the demonstration of the value of forensic examination. For my
mother and father thanks for being always there for me from the very first step to every step of the
way you made me what I’m today. I am eternally grateful to my awesome wife, Sajwa for all the
love, support, and all the wonderful things she provides me. For my sons Mohammad, Seif El-Dien,
Hamza, and Omar, thank you for the lovely smiles that light up my world.
Bibliography
Biswas G (2012) Review of forensic medicine and toxicology. Jaypee Medical Ltd., New Delhi
Bolliger SA, Thali MJ, Ross S, Buck U, Naether S, Vock P (2008) Virtual autopsy using imaging:
bridging radiologic and forensic sciences. A review of the Virtopsy and similar projects. Eur
Radiol 18(2):273–282. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00330-007-0737-4
Byard R, Payne-James J (2015) Encyclopedia of forensic and legal medicine. Academic Press,
Amsterdam
Carr NJ, Burke MME, Corbishley CM, Suarez V, McCarthy KP (2002) The autopsy: lessons from
the national confidential enquiry into perioperative deaths. J R Soc Med 95(7):328–330
Catanese C (2016) Color atlas of forensic medicine and pathology. CRC, New York
Choo TM, Choi Y-S (2012) Historical development of forensic pathology in the United States.
Korean J Legal Med 36(1):15. https://doi.org/10.7580/KoreanJLegMed.2012.36.1.15
Clark SC (1999) Death investigation: a guide for the scene investigator. National Institute of Justice,
Washington
Coradazzi AL, Morganti ALC, Montenegro MRG (2003) Discrepancies between clinical diagnoses
and autopsy findings. Braz J Med Biol Res 36(3):385–391. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-
879X2003000300014
Corey TS, Hanzlick R, Howard J, Nelson C, Krous H (2007) A functional approach to sudden
unexplained infant deaths. Am J Forensic Med Pathol 28(3):271–277. https://doi.org/10.1097/
01.paf.0000257385.25803.cf
Cross SS (1993) Clinical demonstration, autopsy report and teaching. In: The hospital autopsy.
Butterworth Heinnemann, Oxford, pp 131–133
Dhingra V, Sarthak J (2017) Importance of medicolegal expert at scene of crime related to death. J
Forensic Sci Criminal Inves 6(1):555682
Dix J (1999) Color atlas of forensic pathology. CRC, New York
Fatima FFF (2019) Forensic photography: a visual and legal record of crime scene. IJECI 3(2):10
Foran D, Hebda L, Doran A (2015). Trace DNA from fingernails: increasing the success rate of
widely collected forensic evidence
Gouse S, Karnam S, Girish HC, Murgod S (2018) Forensic photography: prospect through the lens.
J Forensic Dent Sci 10(1):2–4
Hanley B, Lucas SB, Youd E, Swift B, Osborn M (2020) Autopsy in suspected COVID-19 cases. J
Clin Pathol 73(5):239–242. https://doi.org/10.1136/jclinpath-2020-206522
Ingemann-Hansen O, Charles AV (2013) Forensic medical examination of adolescent and adult
victims of sexual violence. Best Pract Res Clin Obstet Gynaecol 27(1):91–102. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.bpobgyn.2012.08.014
James SH, Nordby JJ (2002) Forensic science: an introduction to scientific and investigative
techniques. CRC, New York
Karger B, Billeb E, Koops E, Brinkmann B (2002) Autopsy features relevant for discrimination
between suicidal and homicidal gunshot injuries. Int J Leg Med 116(5):273–278
Kaur S, Krishan K, Chatterjee PM, Kanchan T (2013) Analysis and identification of bite marks in
forensic casework. Oral Health Dent Manag 12(3):127–131
King LS, Meehan MC (1973) A history of the autopsy. A review. Am J Pathol 73(2):514
Langner C (2016) Book review—autopsy pathology: a manual and atlas. Springer, New York
Lee HC, Palmbach T, Miller MT (2001) Henry Lee’s crime scene handbook. Academic Press,
Amsterdam
Lu G-D, Needham J (1988) A history of forensic medicine in China. Med Hist 32(4):357–400.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0025727300048511
Madea B (2014) Handbook of forensic medicine. Wiley, New York
Menezes RG, Krishna K, Vaswani VR (2016) Professional bodies: India. In: Encyclopedia of
forensic and legal medicine. Elsevier, Amsterdam
214 O. S. Elserafy
Mihailovic Z, Atanasijevic T, Popovic V, Milosevic MB, Sperhake JP (2012) Estimation of the

postmortem interval by analyzing potassium in the vitreous humor. Am J Forensic Med Pathol
33(4):400–403. https://doi.org/10.1097/PAF.0b013e31826627d0
Mousa AAH, Moawed DMNA, Elberry AMA (2020) Short tandem repeat typing technologies used
in paternity testing: a case study. Instant J Forensic Sci 2020:04–09. https://doi.org/10.36811/
ijfs.2020.110012
O’Grady G (2003) Death of the teaching autopsy. BMJ 327(7418):802–803. https://doi.org/10.
1136/bmj.327.7418.802
Payne-James J, Jones RM (2019) Simpson’s forensic medicine. CRC, New York
Prahlow JA (2010) Forensic pathology for police, death investigators, attorneys, and forensic
scientists. Springer, New York
Robinson EM (2016) Crime scene photography. Academic Press, London
Saukko P, Knight, B. (Eds.). (2015) Knight’s forensic pathology, 4th edn. CRC, New York
Sharma R, Kumar Garg R, Gaur JR (2015) Various methods for the estimation of the post mortem
interval from Calliphoridae: a review. Egypt J Forensic Sci 5(1):1–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
ejfs.2013.04.002
Singh D, Bansal YS, Sreenivas M, Pandey AN, Tyagi S (2004) Weights of human organs at autopsy
in Chandigarh zone of north-West India. JIAFM 26(3):971–973
Smith S (1951) History and development of forensic medicine. Br Med J 1(4707):599
Spitz WU, Spitz DJ, Fisher RS (2006) Spitz and Fisher’s medicolegal investigation of death:
guidelines for the application of pathology to crime investigation. Charles C Thomas Publisher,
Springfield
Stark MM (2019) Clinical forensic medicine: a physician’s guide. Springer, Cham
Ubelaker DH (2015) The global practice of forensic science. Wiley, London
Vinay J, Harish S, Mangala GSR, Hugar BS (2017) A study on postmortem wound dating by gross
and histopathological examination of abrasions. Am J Forensic Med Pathol 38(2):167–173.
https://doi.org/10.1097/PAF.0000000000000314
Weber DL, Fazzini EP, Reagan TJ (1973) Autopsy pathology procedure and protocol. Charles C
Thomas Publisher, Springfield
Examination of Tampered Voice Cases
8
Akashlina Basu
Abstract
Among the many things that make us who we are, our voice is a major factor. The
ability to use voice to form words and hold a conversation is something only
humans are blessed with. But speech can be tampered and misused to form
malicious messages. When this happens, the individuality of the voice and
identity of the person is lost. The job of a forensic personnel is to reestablish
the authenticity of the individual. This is where the examination of tampered
voice comes in. By focusing on the minute differences between original and
tampered audio exhibits, a lot of evidence for a culpable crime can be collected.
This chapter aims to serve as a basic guideline on how to approach the examina-
tion of such tampered voice samples.
This chapter will start by explaining how speech is produced and how
hormones affect the pitch of voice. Then it will explore the ways in which speech
can be tampered. Further the procedure for tape authentication and speaker
identification in Forensic Science Laboratories will be discussed in detail in this
chapter. During analysis of speech, various spectrographic tools are used that
employ waveforms for in-depth signal processing. This chapter will explain the
working of few such tools like Goldwave, Computerised Speech Lab, etc. Lastly,
case studies in India and worldwide that have used tampered speech as evidence
will be studied from a student’s point of view.
Keywords
Fundamental frequency · Tape authentication · Speaker identification · Speech
spectrogram
A. Basu (*)
School of Medical Science and Technology, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, India
Ltd. 2021
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-4091-9_8
216 A. Basu
8.1 Introduction to Speech Analysis
When human species originated from their ape ancestors, they already
communicated through series of sounds. However, these sounds were very primitive
and had no lexical meaning. Then human beings learned how to communicate with
each other using gestures and sounds. Soon this became words and words turned to
language. This was a major factor behind the advancement of humans on Earth. So,
in summary, it can be very well said that communication is the essence of human
lives.
Before Alexander Graham Bell could be credited for his success in developing
the telephone, his father had already been working on speech for some time. In 1864,
Alexander Melville Bell designed Visible Speech that is a system which uses
phonetic symbols to represent positions of various articulators during speaking.
This system was very helpful for deaf people to correctly pronounce words by
imitating the same nuances of speaking. This is where analysis of speech beyond
just the spoken word started.
The Bell Laboratories continued to work with sound and in 1941 developed the
Sound Spectrograph which was published in the Journal of the Acoustical Society of
America. It showed how an energy vs time graph can be made out of spoken
sentences. The darkened area of higher intensity speech and white area of gaps
between speaking are used even to this day. This was among the very first attempts at
visualizing speech.
In 1962, a physicist by the name of Lawrence G. Kersta working in Bell
Laboratories published a paper on Voiceprint Identification in Nature journal. He
had been working on identifying fake bomb threat callers. He developed a spectro-
gram that showed frequency and intensity of speech with respect to time. This was
then used to compare samples through observation and pattern matching. During the
same time period, another scientist called Gunnar Fant developed a model of human
voice production system.
Then in the years between 1970 and 1973, two groups of scientists called Bolt and
collaborators, and Tosi and collaborators tried to find the validity of “voiceprint.”
Bolt and his group proved that unlike fingerprint, speech was a function of acquired
manners and accent. Hence, it did not depend on the physiology of the vocal tract.
Simultaneously Tosi and collaborators proved that critical listening along with
spectrographic observation can be used for forensic analysis with good reliability.
Finally, in 1996, M. Dermott et al. proved that for speech evidence to be useful,
sufficient quantity of the sample should be provided to a well-trained expert for good
analytical results.
Further development in speech analysis occurred when in 1965, scientists Cooley
and Tukey published their research on how to use Fourier Transform for speech
analysis. This is now known as FFT or Fast Fourier Transform.
Cortes and Vapnik designed Support Vector Machine in 1995 to use statistics for
machine learning. This algorithm has since been widely used for speech analysis. In
1999, NIST Speaker Recognition Evaluation worked on text-independent speaker
recognition to study pitch, duration, and medium of speech recording for analysis.
8 Examination of Tampered Voice Cases 217
Another algorithm being used very frequently for automated speaker identification
since early 2000s is the Gaussian Mixture Model. In 2008, a text-independent
speaker verification system was developed using GMM in Bahasa, Indonesia.
Another project was undertaken by the Human Language Technology in 2002 to
explore high-level information in speaker recognition.
Currently, research is still going on for robust speaker identification systems as
they can be used both in forensic science and for biometric security.
8.2 Speech Production
8.2.1 Organs of Speech Production
Sound is a type of mechanical wave that can be produced by both living and
nonliving beings. Animals and birds can modify these sounds to express emotions
and needs. But only human beings have the ability to modulate these sounds into
words and form meaningful speech to hold a conversation between each other. This
modulation requires the unified efforts by many different organs of the human body.
Production of sound starts with the pulmonary system. When air is breathed into
the lungs, it expands the rib cage to accommodate the entire volume of air. Then this
air is released slowly back up through the windpipe to form a column of air. The
column should be imagined like a cylinder with one end open and the other end
closed, as shown in Fig. 8.1. The open end is the mouth from where the air escapes as
speech. The closed end is the lung and diaphragm that act as a “displacement node”
where the waves have no vibration. This is called the “Respiratory system.”
Next, the column of air passes through the larynx and glottal folds. The epiglottis
looks like smooth lip-like structures of muscle that are thin enough to vibrate. As the
Fig. 8.1 Representation of the human speech production physiology as a closed at one end and
open at other end tube system
218 A. Basu
Fig. 8.2 Flowchart showing the different organs that are involved in the production of speech
air passes through these folds, they vibrate giving rise to the fundamental frequency
of voice. The vibration is caused by the vocal fold opening and closing rapidly. This
vibration can be increased with vocal training as in the case of opera singers, who
produce a sound called “falsetto.” If the tension on the vocal cords is modulated, the
quality of voice can be controlled. This is why larynx is called the “voice box.” This
system is called the “Phonatory system.”
Then the air stream reaches the oral and nasal passage. In this passage, it comes
across the soft and hard palates, lips, teeth, tongue, uvula, and nose. Depending on
the type of consonants and vowels that are being produced, the mouth is articulated
differently. For some sounds, the lips have to be closed while for some others tongue
and teeth need to interact. Because of this, the oral organs are called “articulators”
and this system is the articulatory system. The articulatory system along with the
medium of voice transfer contribute to creating the formant frequency which are
derivatives of the fundamental frequency. The different organs of speech are shown
in Fig. 8.2.
8.2.2 Role of Articulators
Articulators contort in various combinations to form different types of vowels.

Depending on the place of articulation, consonants can be differentiated into bilabial,
labiodental, alveolar, post-alveolar, glottal, and velar. Depending on the shape of the
articulators and type of closure this produces, consonants are divided into plosives,
fricatives, affricatives, approximants, nasal, and laterals. When producing vowels,
the articulators do not close completely. This allows the oral passage to act as a
resonator and different formations of the lips produce different vowels. Apart from
these voiced sounds, some other types of sounds produced are falsetto, creaking,
whispering, and murmur. Each of these includes some degree of articulation, if not
complete modulation.
8.2.3 Hormones Responsible for Voice
The fundamental frequency or Pitch of a voice produced by a person can be used to

differentiate between the person’s genotypical gender, ethnicity, and even their
height. While the last is still under research, the first topic is well documented.
Children are known to have the highest pitch which is above 300 Hz, while female
voice ranges from 225 to 300 Hz. Male voice ranges from 80–120 Hz. This high
pitch in children exists as an evolutionary characteristic because mothers are known
to be able to hear high frequencies easily.
Although in childhood both male and female children have similar high pitch,
during puberty it changes. It is due to the production of testosterone in the body. This
hormone directly influences the length of the vocal tract. When more testosterone is
produced, the vocal tract tends to lengthen more and when testosterone is low in a
body, the tract develops shorter. Since the tract essentially acts as a column of air, the
frequency of voice is inversely related to the length of the column, which is the vocal
tract in this context. Hence, males tend to have lower pitch and females tend to have
a higher pitch of voice.
Moreover, since testosterone plays such a big part in creating the quality of voice,
any imbalance in the level of hormones in the body can alter the voice of the
individual. Therefore, people who are classified as intersex tend to have a pitch of
voice that falls in the range of 160–220 Hz. This condition may arise due to
Klinefelter’s syndrome, Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia, etc.
8.2.4 Age and Its Effects on Voice
The glottal folds are thin flaps of muscles that have elasticity which contributes to the
vibration. However, when an individual gets older, the elasticity of these folds tends
to lessen. Therefore, due to less elasticity, the folds harden and they vibrate more
slowly. This causes a change in the individual’s normal pitch of voice. The effects of
age can be slowed down or avoided by continuous vocal coaching, which is what
musicians opt for.
8.2.5 Theory of Speech Production
Speech production can be explained using mathematical functions for the system.
However, most of these functions are based on two very simple theorems:
220 A. Basu
1. Bernoulli’s effect.
Production of voice can be very easily simplified into a basic physics phenome-
non. When a stream of air escaped through the vocal cords, the glottis is thrown
wide apart. This creates a negative pressure below the vocal folds. This is when
Bernoulli’s effect comes into play. This negative air pressure causes the vocal
folds to come back towards each other and close the gap. This rapid opening and
closing cause the vibration that produces sound.
2. Source and Filter Theory.
This theory demonstrates the production of voice in humans by considering the
glottal folds as the “source” of voice. This sound is unmodified and unique for
every individual. However, the vocal tract above the glottal folds, nasal passage,
and oral passage contribute to some change in this fundamental frequency of
voice. The connection of articulators give rise to specific consonants while
modulation in the passage gives rise to different vowels. This passage above
the vocal folds is called the “filter.”
8.3 Features of Speech Samples
Speech that is used in conversation has various types of high-level and low-level
features. Some features like the meaning of words, accent, and emotions are easily
understood by human beings and are called high-level features of speech. Other
features like frequency, intensity, rhythm, and tone of voice are more easily under-
stood by machines and are known as low-level features of speech.
Hence, while choosing the type of analysis to be done on the speech sample, it has
to be kept in mind whether a human listener or a computer program will be doing the
analysis. Current softwares are developed to identify low-level features of speech
only to observe a spectrogram of the sample. While this technology is effective for
comparing two samples, it does not give more information about a person apart from
their identity. Moreover, the low-level features are very susceptible to noise due to
recording environment and quality of recording medium.
High-level information, on the other hand, shows much more robustness in
speaker recognition. Furthermore, features such as the prosodic characteristics,
phonetics, and lexicon of speech of an individual do not vary much with acoustic
conditions. High-level information can also indicate much more than a positive
identity, such as age, ethnicity, emotional state, and height of an individual.
Hence, there is a need to collect a huge amount of data and use machine learning
for developing advanced softwares that employ high-level speech features for
speaker recognition.
When the same individual utters the same sentence twice, there are minute natural
variations in their speech. These minute variations are called intra-speaker
variations. When two individuals speak the same sentence, the difference in their
spoken words is called the interspeaker variation. So when choosing features for
comparison, it needs to show less difference between the speaker’s own spoken
speech and more difference when it is compared to another speaker’s speech.
For the purpose of a tampered voice examination, an ideal feature to be extracted

for analysis should have the following qualities:
1. The feature should be impossible to be mimicked.

2. It should not show changes due to age and time.
3. It should be a robust feature that is also easily measured by an instrument.
4. Its occurrence in conversation should be quite frequent.
5. This speech characteristic should show more interspeaker variability and less
intraspeaker variability.
8.4 Tampering of Recorded Speech
Altering, destroying, or hiding any information from a physical evidence with the
intention of causing loss to any individual is a crime punishable by law. The
punishment for this type of crime can result in a term of imprisonment and fine or
both. In case of audio and speech tampering, the intention of the criminal generally is
to convey wrong information and to change the content of a conversation. This
results in miscommunication and can lead to serious crimes like murder and riots.
To tests whether any tampering has been done in any audio tape recording,
authentication must be done. The court will not consider any audio evidence
admissible for proceeding unless it is authenticated by an expert in FSL. When
such an evidence is presented in court, the expert can testify its authenticity and this
increases the value of an evidence substantially in a proceeding.
The various methods in which speech or audio can be tampered with are:
1. Deletion: Cutting and deleting some part of a recorded conversation.

2. Addition: inserting some words or dialogs in an existing conversation with the
intent to change or alter the meaning of the conversation.
3. Transformation: splicing of the original content of a conversation or speech and
rearranging the words to impart a different meaning.
4. Obscuration: introducing noise or distortion by slowing or quickening the speed
of spoken words, with the intent to make that conversation hard to comprehend.
All of this editing can be done in real-time or after recording the speech.
Therefore, during speech analysis, it is very important for the original tape and
recording equipment to be submitted for examination. Further, the person submitting
the data should give details of the sophisticated softwares being used for the editing.
Because these softwares are highly advance, many times reverse engineering needs
to be done to recover original content. Moreover, critical listening and spectral
imaging give a very good indication of places where editing is done due to their
unnatural sound.
222 A. Basu
8.5 Softwares Used in Speech Analysis Cases
Few softwares that are used for visualizing and analyzing speech are given below:
1. Goldwave Digital Audio Editor.

This software is marketed by Goldwave Inc. On March 3rd, 2020, it released its
latest version 6.51. It can be used for recording speech at very high quality.
Further, it can professional editing such as noise reduction, restoration,
enhancements, and conversions. It has support for many languages other than
English, which makes it highly versatile. Simple commands such as trim, cut,
paste, and overwrite can be done with keyboard controls easily. Further, it can
very efficiently display waveforms, spectrograms, and other graphs. Processing
algorithms like Fourier transforms and filters can also be included using
Goldwave. This software can be supported by Windows OS, Linux, Android,
and iPhone/ iPad.
In forensic analysis, Goldwave is employed for segregation, conversion from
different formats, sampling, and quantization. Its basic software environment is
free, but for an advanced setup, it can be bought.
2. Praat.
Praat is a free software developed by Paul Boersma and David Weenink, in 1991,
at the Phonetic Sciences department of the University of Amsterdam, the
Netherlands. The latest version of Praat, version 6.1.16 was released on May
20th, 2020. It can run on Windows, Linux, and Mac OS with equal ease of use.
However, the versatility of Praat is due to its open source code. Its Developers
have made the source code downloadable and open for edits for added
functionalities.
Praat is not used for submitting forensic reports in court. However, it is one
such versatile software where speech analysis using spectrograms and phonetics
can be very easily done. It is very helpful for students who are new to the subject
of speech analysis.
3. Computerized Speech Lab.
CSL is a software that is used for voice and speech capture with analysis. The
current version is Model 4500B. It has to be purchased from Pentax Medical and
it comes with a hardware and software. Its hardware includes VisiPitch, which is
a system for recording of speech using microphone. The software comes loaded
into a USB interface that makes installation a very hassle-free job. It is compatible
with the latest Windows OS.
Forensic speech analysis experts utilize CSL for comparison of spectrograms
between suspect and control samples. Linear Predictive Coding graph is utilized
for submitting reports to the court of law. It is modeled upon the sound production
using source filter theory. It is used to match formant frequencies for a particular
spoken vowel between control and suspect. CSL is also used for speech therapy
in hospitals.
4. Multi-Speech.
Multi-Speech is another speech analysis software by Pentax Medical. Its current
version is Model 3650. It has similar applications to CSL but is not as costly.
Further, it allows multiple users to work on the same data acquired by a recording
device. It is easier to use, and good for teaching, research, speech therapy, and
forensic work.
5. VoiceNet.
This system is designed for automatic speaker identification using audio
recordings. It automatically compares two voice samples and gives probable
matches. It is marketed by SpeechPro company. It employs spectral-formant,
pitch statistics comparison, and gaussian mixture model for analysis. VoiceNet
software has few requirements for the software to function properly:
• Signal data formant should be 16 bits.
• Sampling rate should be above 8 kHz.
• Signal to noise ratio should be above 10 dB.
• Duration of pure speech should be more than 16 s.
8.6 Types of Cases Encountered
Speech sample evidence can arrive in many different forms. Few of those types are:
• Speech recorded by the police while bribe trap case investigation.

• Disputed speech submitted in a case.
• Speech recorded in extortion calls.
• Hoax bomb threat calls.
• Hate speech against a community or group of people.
• Sexual harassment and blackmail calls.
• Civil cases such as divorce, infidelity, etc.
Many more types of speech evidences have been used as corroborative evidences
when a case requires it. The speech evidences that are collected from the scene of
crime or as part of the crime are labeled as Sample Speech. This speech is then
compared to a Control sample derived in a controlled environment, which in our case
is the FSL.
8.6.1 Bribe Trap Case
Under the Prevention of Corruption Act, 1988, asking or accepting any kind of
reward for any act by a public servant is punishable by the law. When public servants
demand bribes, they are punished under Sect. 7, 11, 13(a), (b), and (e) of Prevention
of Corruption Act 1988.
224 A. Basu
When a police station receives any such complaint, an FIR is lodged against the
accused public servant. Then, the secretive “Trap Case” operation is set into motion.
A team of police officers and witnesses are arranged for the operation. The com-
plainant is asked to arrange the demanded amount of currency in bank notes.
Phenolphthalein powder is sprinkled on these notes. The serial number of each of
the notes is recorded. The complainant is also provided with a blank audio and video
recorder for recording the entire operation. This recorder is hidden in such a way that
it can record the entire proceeding, without discovery by the accused.
Before starting the operation, the date, time, police station details, and details of
the complainant are recorded in the tape recorder. A demonstration of the chemical
reaction of the phenolphthalein powder with the base is given to the complainant.
Two witnesses are arranged for becoming a part of the operation. As a rule, the
police officer who gives the demonstration and arranged the trap kit is not part of the
actual operation. Another officer of the rank of Deputy Superintendent/Assistant
Commissioner/Inspector of Police is appointed as the “Trap Laying Officer” for that
purpose. The TLO gives a briefing of the sequence of activities when the operation
commences.
On commencement of the operation, the complainant is sent to the accused first.
When the accused accepts the currency, the police officers enter the scene of crime
and arrest the accused. The accused’s hands are washed in 2–3% sodium carbonate
solution, which turns pink due to reaction with phenolphthalein. This handwash and
audio/video recording become the chief evidences for proving the guilty act of the
accused.
When the recorder is brought back to the police station, it is subjected to post-trap
processing. A constable plays the recording and prepares a transcript of all that has
been recorded. The transcript is prepared in detail by marking with their respective
speakers. Next, the recording is copied into two CDs labeled with the FIR number,
date, and other details of the case. The original recording medium, along with one of
the CD is sealed with the investigating officer’s signature. These are not tampered
with until the case reaches the court. These are only used while presenting the
evidence before a judge in court.
The other CD is sent to the Audio Examination Department in the FSL/CFSL.
This audio is then used as the disputed sample. The accused, victim, and I.O are
called to the FSL. They have to each provide their voice for control samples. Each of
these control samples is then compared with the respective speaker’s recording in the
disputed sample. The report of whether the samples match or do not match is then
sent to the court.
8.7 Handling of Samples
According to the principle of analysis, evidence can be helpful only if it is collected

and preserved properly. So, just like biological evidences need preservatives, audio
samples also need to be preserved. While they are not harmed by biological and
microbial factors, they can be easily destroyed by magnetic radiation and mechanical
damage.
8.7.1 Checking of Package
When evidence is forwarded to any FSL, on receipt of the package by the receiving
officer, the following form called the “First Page” of the report is filled. This page is
meant to maintain a chain of custody. The seal is drawn on this page by copying from
the one found on the package. Exact state of each evidence is recorded with minute
observation.
The seal is checked for any breakage. The seal and number of parcels are also
matched with the number mentioned in the forwarding letter.
8.7.2 Physical Examination of Evidence
Since audio cassettes and tapes are electronic medium, they can be destroyed by
magnetic field. Therefore, they are collected in faraday bags or faraday cages to
prevent the action of any field. If the recording medium is an optical CD/DVD, care
has to be taken not to expose it to direct sunlight or UV radiation. When the evidence
reaches the FSL, any marks or scratches or intentional break on the evidences is
carefully observed and recorded in the receiving form whose format is shown in
Fig. 8.3. The evidence needs to be handled very carefully with cloth gloves and
without any sharp object to prevent additional damage.
After initial observation, the evidence should be subjected to microscopic obser-
vation. Any marks of splicing of the tape need to be recorded. Further, the tape needs
Fig. 8.3 Format of evidence received form for physical examination of voice evidences
226 A. Basu
to be heard repeatedly for any foreign sounds, clicks, or changes in noise, to identify
alteration in the tape. For evidences that are audio recording, critical listening is very
important. It is done by direct playback of the tape. The amount of amplitude loss at
any specific point is checked carefully.
The length of the recorded audio has to be matched with the information supplied
with the forwarding letter. Finally, any damage done to the tape has to be
photographed so that it is known that the damage happened before the evidence
reached the FSL.
8.7.3 Pre-Analysis Processing
Before any analysis can begin, a transcript of all the recordings in the evidence needs
to be prepared. Then the transcript has to be marked with the dialogs of the
investigating officer, witnesses, victim, and suspect. This helps to identify which
words are to be used when controls are recorded for comparison. It is also important
that the amount of audio submitted is long enough for any noise reduction and
segregation to be done. The audio should also be coherent and understandable.
This evidence needs to be copied into another media from the actual evidence
medium. This copy has to be a true copy without making any minute alterations to
the actual evidence. After confirming its integrity, it can be digitally enhanced for
analysis. While enhancing, there are two details that have to be kept in mind.
• Sampling rate: While converting an analog signal to digital medium, the analog
waves are measured and cut into small packets of data. The rate and measurement
of this is called the sample rate. A proper sample rate is chosen by using the
Nyquist theorem. According to this theorem, the sampling rate has to be approxi-
mately twice the rate of the sample’s frequency. This means for a 5000 Hz analog
signal, the sample rate is 11,000 Hz. The sample rate has to be chosen with careful
consideration because sampling at a higher rate can cause the size of data to
increase unnecessarily. While sampling at a lower rate will cause loss of data.
• Quantization: When converting the sample into a digital signal, the continuous
wave is divided into many different quantized stages. This can be imagined as a
conversion of a small hill into a staircase-like structure of the same dimensions.
Speech signal can be quantized into 12-bit, 16-bit, and higher. Any quantization
below that will cause loss of data. 12-bit quantization means 212 ¼ 4096 levels of
quantization of a single wave.
• Type of channel and format: Different softwares have requirement for different
formats of data. Many softwares use .wav type of files. If the data is in any other
format, it has to be converted before further analysis. Further data can be stored in
mono and stereo channels. For forensic analysis, mono channel is used always.
For forensic analysis, the digitization of analog data is done using Goldwave or
CSL softwares. While saving, the file is saved at 16-bit mono channel with
11,025 Hz sampling rate with a file type of .wav (Waveform) format. The
examiner can enhance the sample by noise reduction, application of filters, and
segregation as required before saving. This concludes the pre-analysis examina-

tion of a sample.
8.7.4 Collection of Control Samples
The sample that is sent from the police station is considered to be the suspect sample.
For comparing with the suspect sample, control samples are required. For this
purpose, all the people whose voice is heard in the suspect audio are called to the
FSL. A script is prepared using the words that are selected from the suspect sample.
The subjects are made to understand the procedure of control sample recording.
They are then taken into the recording room one at a time. The recording room is
sound-proofed properly for ambient recording conditions. The subject is asked to
state the date, time, and place of recording before reciting the script provided. This
recording is done thrice because by the third time the subject becomes more at ease
with the words. So, the words are spoken rather than read.
If the subject appears to be masking their original voice, the recording is paused
till the subject relents. Similarly, if the subject has a throat infection which changes
the quality of their voice, the recording is postponed for another date.
8.8 Procedure for Segregation
Speaker recognition is a step-by-step process that can be explained by the flowchart

in Fig. 8.4.
While this process seems very easy to understand, there are some additional
factors to consider. The procedure of comparison of sample between suspect and
control is a “1 to many” type of comparison. This means that the suspect sample may
be compared with many controls to identify who among the suspects is the guilty
Fig. 8.4 Speaker recognition flowchart

228 A. Basu
person. But if it was designed for a biometric system, the comparison would have
been a “1 to 1” type of comparison. This is because the individual’s voice will be
compared to their own for biometric match. If the guilty individual is chosen with a
predecided suspect pool of few people, it is a closed set identification. If the speaker
has to be identified among a vast majority of unknown speakers, it is called an open
set identification.
The process of compassion used in FSL is a text-dependent type of comparison
where the experts compare the same word segregated from the suspect sample with
the word in the control sample. However, many automated speaker identification
softwares do no need verbatims for comparison. Rather they use algorithms to
combine the high- and low-level features to identify the individual. These are called
text-independent identification systems.
So while preprocessing samples before analysis, the type of sampling require-
ment of the software needs to be kept in mind. CSL requires text to be predecided
and segregated into verbatims for spectrographic analysis.
8.8.1 Segregation for Feature Extraction
It is the process of cutting the voice of interest from the conversation of two or more
people in a questioned sample. It is done using Goldwave software. It shows a
frequency time graph of the speech sample as shown in Fig. 8.5. The software can be
used to reduce noise, trim parts, or add filters to the samples.
Procedure
1. Launch the Goldwave Software.
2. Click on “File” option. Click on “Open” option.
3. Listen to the questioned sample completely to know the number of speakers and
to identify the voice of interest.
4. Click on “New” option to open a new file. Set the parameters as: Number of
channels–1 (mono), sampling rate as 11,025 Hz.
5. Select the part of questioned sample that consists of voice sample “Q1.”
6. Press Ctrl + C to copy the first segment.
7. Select the new window and press Ctrl + V to paste the first segment.
8. Open an Excel Sheet. Enter Case no., source file name, and segregated file name.
9. Note the starting and ending time of the segments from the questioned file. Note
the ending time of the segment from the new window. Press Ctrl + F to paste the
remaining segments copied from the questioned file. Simultaneously, maintain
the Excel Sheet for the segments (as depicted in form no. 6 of Annexure).
10. Once the voice of interest is segregated from the questioned file, save as “SEG
Q1.”
Fig. 8.5 Figure showing the frequency time graph of a speech sample on Goldwave
8.8.2 Verbatim Collection
After the different speaker speech samples have been segregated, 25 clue words are
chosen from the samples that can be heard clearly, for comparison. These clue words
are included in the script for the control sample. The verbatim segregation from the
original sample is shown in Fig. 8.6.
Procedure
1. Launch the Goldwave Software.
2. Click on “Open” option from the menu bar.
3. Select the wave file having segregated voice sample “Q1” and open it.
4. Click on “New” option in the menu bar.
5. Set the channel as 1 (mono) and sampling rate as 11,025 Hz.
6. A new window opens on the top of the previous audio file.
7. Open an Excel Sheet and enter the new file name as “Clue Words Q1.”
8. Listen to the segregated voice sample Q1 and choose 20 words that are clear
enough to hear properly.
9. Select the segments from the sample to copy the words separately.
10. Press Ctrl + C to copy and Ctrl + V to paste the first segment and Ctrl + F to paste
the remaining segments. For every segment copied, note the starting and the
ending time of the segment and record in the Excel Sheet, respectively.
11. Note the end time of clue words pasted in the new window.
12. After segregation of about 20 words, save the file as “Clue Words Q1” in the
source folder.
230 A. Basu
Fig. 8.6 Representation of verbatim segregation from sample. The window on top is the
segregated part
8.9 Approaches for Comparison of Voice Samples
8.9.1 Auditory Approach
Also called the Listener’s approach, this approach is the oldest among the rest. The
segregated voices are heard repeatedly by the analyst. They look for a match
between phonatory and linguistic features of the questioned and control voice
samples. Features involved:
• quality of speech
• articulation rate
• flow of speech or rhythm
• degree of formation of vowel and consonants
• pauses or stops
• pronunciation
• speech time (s/t) rate
• dynamic loudness
• delivery of speech
• nasality
• voice impairment, etc.
Observation Sheet
1. Spoken words in the beginning
Questioned sample Specimen sample
2. Medium of recording
3. Recording mode
4. Nature of offence
5. Quality of sample
6. Linguistic features–quality of speech, articulation rate, pauses or stops, dynamic loudness, voice
impairment etc.
7. Voice impairment
8. Sample duration and speaking rate
9. Pauses
10. Spectrographic analysis
Advantages
1. Human ears can recognize the similarity in voice quality even in degraded
samples.
2. It does not have instrumental limitations like signal-to-noise ratio, specific
required amount of speech material, transmission system variations, etc.
Limitations
1. The decision taken by the analyst regarding match or no match is totally
subjective.
2. The approach is nonscientific.
Procedure
1. The speech samples in questioned and control are repeatedly heard.
2. An observation sheet is maintained for the similarities and dissimilarities in the
voice characteristics.
8.9.2 Spectrographic Approach
Spectrograph is a 3D representation of the vocal tract during speech. It was devel-

oped with an idea to convert sound into pictures hence also called Voiceprint
Approach. It gives the measurement of energy distribution in a frequency time
graph. It is a semiautomatic technique of comparison. The analyst compares the
following features in a speech sample using spectrograph:
• Fundamental frequency
• Formant frequency
• Formant patterns
232 A. Basu
• Pitch
• Amplitude
• Energy or intensity
• Tones and noises
• Transitional characteristics, etc.
The Spectrographic method is performed using Computerized Speech Lab

Model-4500. It has a software and a key for each system. It shows a 3D model of
the speech using frequency domain graph where energy is seen as dark or light
bands. The dots seen on a spectrogram are the different formant frequencies. The
first two formants are not reliable for matching as they are language-based. The last
formants are also not very reliable as they are tone-based. Formant 3 and 4 are
reliable, even in disguised samples. For matching of the samples, the maximum
difference in frequencies allowed in F1 and F2 is 10 Hz, in F3 and F4 is 15 Hz,
and in F5 and F6 is 20 Hz. The bandwidths are also checked such that they should
be ideally within 10% of the value of the corresponding frequency. If minimum of
two formant frequencies seem to be matching, the sample is given a Match status.
Advantages
1. The spectrograph keeps a permanent record of the energy frequency distribution.
2. It is scientific; hence, it is admissible in the court of law.
3. The three- dimensional views are always unique in individuals.
Limitations
1. The samples of the same individual can show intra-speaker variation. Therefore,
at least three controls are taken for each individual.
2. This technique does not prove objectivity of the result. It only provides a visual
representation.
3. The reliability and validity of the method are questioned.
Procedure
1. Launch the CSL software with the key and open 6 small windows.
2. In Window A, open the questioned speech sample and on Window B the control
sample.
3. Select the same clue word on both Win A and B to compare them. Make
Window A as Source by clicking on the icon in the Menubar. Now click on
Window C and choose the following options from the Menubar:
• Analysis »»» Spectrogram »»» Selected data.
• Analysis »»» Formant Frequency »»» Selected data.
4. Follow the same steps for Window B in Window D. This gives the frequency vs
time graph with energy distribution for the particular word.
5. To link the speech samples with their spectrograms using the link option, make
the Window A as Source, click on Window C and click the Link icon ».
6. Follow the same steps for Window B and D to link them.
Fig. 8.7 CSL windows showing frequency time graph, energy diagram, and LPC graph of control
and sample speech
7. For ease of matching of frequencies, turn on the Gridlines options in the

spectrograms by right clicking on it.
8. Now choose a frequency point in the Win C and Win D such that the points
should show similar X- and Y-axis characters in both the spectrograms.
9. Now make Win C as Source and click on Win E. Then choose Analysis »»»
LPC. LPC stands for Linear Productive Coding and it will give an Energy vs
Frequency graph for that point. Follow similar steps for Win D and F.
10. Now click on Windows E and F alternatively and choose option for* Numerical
Value. Compare their frequency bandwidth values. If 3 or 4 seem to match, then
take a screenshot of the whole analysis window of CSL and make Plates.
The screenshot should look like the one shown in Fig. 8.7. The plates with the
bandwidth comparison should look like Fig. 8.8. Also, store a .txt file of the
frequency values for making a comparison chart.
234 A. Basu
Fig. 8.8 Representation of how the results of spectrographic analysis are presented
8.9.3 Automatic Approach
It is an automatic speaker recognition application designed to allow the biometric

identification of speakers in an investigation comparing voice models to a set of
audios added in the system. It is a language-independent method of analysis. This
approach utilizes the software “Voice Net” for finding similarity within samples. It
uses different algorithms like Pitch Stats Method, Spectral Formant method, Gauss-
ian Mixture Model, etc., for calculating the similarity. The software is supplied with
all the control samples and questioned samples. One of the questioned sample is
selected and the software compares it to all the controls to give a likelihood ratio.
Likelihood ratio is a result given in form of probability.
Probability that two samples are of same person

Likelihood Ratio ¼
Probability that two samples are from different speakers
If the likelihood ratio is above 0.90, it can be concluded as a match. The higher
the ratio, the higher will be the probability of match. The result can also be seen as
color codes as follows:
1. Green—Best match—95% and higher

2. Yellow—Still good—85–90%
3. Pink—Similarities present—75–80%
4. White—No match
Advantages
1. The method is scientific and admissible in court.
2. The results are objective. There is no subjectivity.
Limitations
1. The sample has to be devoid of any noise. If there are noises, they give wrong
result.
2. The calibration of the instrument has to be done frequently to check the Equal
Error Rate of the instrument.
Procedure
1. Launch the VoiceNet software.
2. The case file may be already added to the database of the software or may have to
be added at the time of examination.
3. Select the questioned sample to be compared, enter the details like gender, etc.,
and run the software.
4. Likelihood ratios will be generated.
8.10 Report Presentation
Expression of results is a very subjective process that is based on an expert’s

opinion. Results can be expressed based on spectrographic and auditory analysis
of the chosen word segments:
Positive identification If there is more than 90% match of words by both auditory and
spectrographic method
Identification with high If 90% of the words are matching with ten matching words
probability
Probable identification If 80% of the words are similar in both auditory and spectral analysis
Possible identification If between 70 and 80% of words are similar with limited matching of
words
No opinion If the percentage of matching is less than 70% for either identification
or elimination
Possible elimination If between 70 and 80% of words are similar with limited matching of
words
Probable elimination If 80% of the words are similar with limited number of words that do
not match
Elimination with high If 90% of the words are similar with ten words not matching after
probability auditory and spectral analysis.
Positive elimination If 90% of the words are matching with 15 words that do not match
236 A. Basu
Although results can be expressed as such, experts sometimes make their own
statements based on their professional opinion. This opinion is always such that it is
easily understood at the court of law during the proceedings.
8.11 Case Studies
8.11.1 McKeever Case
In 1958, Thomas McKeever and Lawrence Morrison were arrested on charges of

extortion under the Hobbs Anti-racketeering Act of 1951. These individuals had
committed 42 acts of extortion and had been caught during their 43rd attempt. The
victim of their latest attempt of extortion were Jack Bal and George Ball. Even after
being accused of the crime, the suspects kept in touch with the complainants.
McKeever even attempted to make a secret recording of their conversation.
When this tape recording was presented to the court to undermine the validity of
complainant’s accusation, the court was stumped. Although the tape could prove
perjury by the complainant, tape recordings had never been admitted as evidence to
any court. Further, the recording of the guilty statements by the suspect after
accusation from the victims, questioned the trial itself. When George Ball was
questioned about the recording, he denied any recollection of such conversation.
So, the court allowed him to listen to the recording using earphones for a memory
refresher. Since it was not an admissible evidence, the jury was not allowed to listen.
George Ball then proclaimed that the recording was indeed of a conversation
between him and the accused on another occasion. However, he claimed that this
recording did not affect the credibility of his statement during the trial. So, to prove
the context of the recording, he requested the court to allow the jury to listen to the
recording.
Due to this issue of the case, the forensics acoustics community then set up the
“Seven Tenets of Audio Authenticity.” The exact wordings of this new ruling for
admissibility of voice recording as evidence was “. . .before a sound recording is
admitted into evidence, a foundation must be established by showing the following
facts: (1) that the recording device was capable of taking the conversation now
offered in evidence; (2) that the operator of the device was competent to operate the
device; (3) that the recording is authentic and correct; (4) that changes, additions or
deletions have not been made in the recording; (5) that the recording has been
preserved in a manner that is shown to the court; (6) that the speakers are identified;
and (7) that the conversation elicited was made voluntarily and in good faith, without
any kind of inducement.”
After this case, the FBI developed various technology for proving the authenticity
of forensic audio recording from 1960 onwards.
8.11.2 Watergate Audio Tapes
In the June of 1972, due to a failed burglary attempt at Democratic National

Committee in Washington D.C. where the cash found on the perpetrators was
connected to Nixon reelection campaign committee, the US Supreme Court ordered
Nixon to release the Oval Office tapes to the investigators. The assigned six experts
to verify the integrity of the audio tapes.
The experts examined the physical and mechanical aspects of the tape, looking
for any signs of alteration or damage. Next, they documented to total length of the
recording and attempted to verify that the recording was continuous and without
unexplained erasures or start/stop sequences. They used critical listening of the
entire recording and used nondestructive magnetic and electrical observation, plus
signal processing for intelligibility enhancement.
The panel reported in May 1974 that magnetic erasures caused the 181/2 min gap
at some point after the original recording session. The panel identified several
overlapping erasures performed with a specific model of tape recorder that differed
from the device that produced the original recording.
8.11.3 The Howard Hughes Hoax
In 1970, authors Clifford Irving and Richard Suskind came up with a scheme to
forge an autobiography of notoriously eccentric and reclusive billionaire Howard
Hughes. Irving and Suskind believed that the reclusive Howard Hughes would never
come out to denounce their book. Irving contacted the publisher McGraw-Hill and
claimed Hughes had approached him to be the ghostwriter for his life story and that
he was willing to correspond with only the author. As proof, Irving produced forged
letters and claimed they were from Hughes. McGraw-Hill agreed, paying $765,000
for the right to publish the book.
When the representatives of Hughes learned about the book however Hughes
contacted reporters to denounce it as false. Hughes arranged a telephonic conference
with journalists which was televised. Then, a spectrographic analysis measuring
tone, pitch, and volume, was conducted to determine if the speaker was indeed
Howard Hughes. Although a handwriting expert had previously been tricked by the
letters that Irving had forged, the voice analyst correctly identified the speaker as
Hughes. Irving was exposed and confessed before the book was published. He spent
17 months in prison, while Suskind spent five.
8.11.4 State Vs Gurpreet Singh Walia [2018]
Sh. Parshuram filed a complaint in the office of Anti-Corruption Branch stating that
he required a license of electronic contractor from the Labour Department, Delhi
Government in connection with his work related to lift elevators and had submitted
an application for grant of the license on 14.07.2010 with the Electrical Inspector.
238 A. Basu
The accused Gurpreet Singh Walia asked for a bribe from Parshuram. He along with
one of his employees, Amit Kumar, went to Walia’s office a few days later with the
bribe amount where Amit recorded their conversation in a recorder.
The recording was sent along with the recorder to CFSL Chandigarh where the
expert observed the following: “(1) The video recording in CD and spy recorder are
in digital video format and there is no indication of alteration in the identified video
shot on the basis of examination using Non Linear Video Editing Storage System &
Video Analyst System; (2) The recorder is capable of recording video footage.”
On further examination the following opinion was given by the expert: “On
examination the auditory analysis of recorded speech samples of speakers marked
Ex. Q1 and Ex. S1 and subsequent acoustic analysis of speech samples by using CSL
(Computerize Speech Lab) revealed that the voice exhibits of speaker marked
Ex. Q1 are similar to the voice exhibits of speaker marked Ex. S1 in respect of
their acoustic cues and other linguistic and phonetic features. The voice State Vs
Gurpreet Singh Walia. 16 exhibits of speaker marked Ex. Q1 and Ex. S1 are the
voice of same person (i.e. Shri Parshuram).”
Hence, the audio recording proved to be a corroborative evidence and helped
prosecution in succeeding to prove its case the Gurpreet Sing Walia.
8.11.5 N. Sri Rama Reddy Vs Sh. V. V. Giri
Chetan Prakash approached the High Court of Delhi through a criminal writ petition
stating that he videographed several personnel of Delhi Police and Excise Depart-
ment taking money from bootleggers selling liquor illegally. He submitted a VHS
videocassette along with five Hi8 cassettes to the CBI. The cassettes were conse-
quently sent to the CFSL Delhi to seek opinion about the identification of speakers
and the integrity of the contents.
The examination for the integrity of the contents of the cassettes was conducted
using VISAR tool, vectorscope, and wave monitor. The expert concluded that the
video recordings were not tampered with. He conducted the auditory examination of
the specimen voice as well as of the questioned voice and on examination of the
voices, he had found that they were similar in respect of their linguistic features. The
expert subjected the common clue words selected from the questioned as well as
specimen voice samples and found them to be similar in respect of their number of
formants, formants frequency distribution, intonation pattern, and other general
visual features in the voice grams on the consolidated effects of similarities in the
linguistic characters and phonetic features using auditory and voice spectrography
analysis reached the conclusion that the questioned voice belonged to the accused.
8.11.6 Hardik Patel Sedition Case
Hardik Patel, a political leader from Gujarat (India), was charged with charges of
sedition as police intercepted various phone calls from him trying to incite riots on
August 25, 2015. The crime branch sent the recordings of the call to the Forensic
Science Laboratory at Gandhinagar along with the voice samples of Patel to confirm
allegations in the FIR lodged by the Crime Branch. The FSL then reported on the
basis of spectrographic analysis that the voice of the accused indeed matched the
voice in audio clips of the intercepted phone calls provided by the police.
8.11.7 National Security Agency (United States)
In a memo released by the National Security Agency (NSA) of the United States in
2006 revealed that it had developed technologies for “voice identification.” In that
document and other classified documents released by the former NSA contractor
Edward Snowden it is revealed that NSA has developed technologies for transcrib-
ing text from audio as well as identify voices of the person speaking in the audio.
NSA developed various tools, such as RHINEHART, VoiceRT, SPITFIRE, etc., and
has employed these technologies in identifying the voices of Al-Qaida second in
command Aimam Al-Zawahri, Osama Bin Laden, and Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein
among others.

Crime Scene Management Within Forensic Science

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Crime Scene Management Within Forensic Science

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Jaskaran

Crime Scene Management

ISBN 978-981-16-4090-2 ISBN 978-981-16-4091-9 (eBook)

1 Initial Response at Crime Scenes and Prioritization of Efforts . . . . . 1

Reconstruct · Documentation · Investigation

# The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte 1

1.1 The Role and Prioritization of First Respondent

1.1.1 Before Going to the Scene, the Responsible Officer has

1.1.2 On the Scene, the First Responding Officer will

1.1.2.1 The Safety of the Living Persons

Personal Protective Equipments According to the hazard which may be present at

Underwater Scene It is challenging to apply the normal regulations in the under-

1.1.2.3 Avoid Contamination

Anticontamination Measurements Should be Considered as

1.1.2.4 Initiate Survey/Assessment

1.1.2.5 Evaluate Physical Evidence

1.1.2.6 Personal Statements

1.1.2.7 Legal and Ethical Considerations

1.1.2.8 Forensic Medical Examiners

1.1.3 Prepare a Narrative of the Scene

1.1.4 Relinquish Control

1.1.5 Communication with the Media

1.2 The First Responder Responsibilities in Electronic Scene

In Case of Presence of Digital Evidence, the First Responders Should

1.3 The Role and Prioritization of the Investigator at the Scene

1.3.1 Investigator Assessment

1.3.2 Overview the Scene and Initial Documentation

The Walk-Through Should be Conducted by the Investigator and Expert

1.3.3 Log Officer

1.3.4 Team Composition

Team composition is determined by the responsible investigator according to the

1.3.5 Procedure of Evidence Collection

The collection of physical evidence must be processed according to a protocol to

• Select a standard protocol for evidence collection.

• Start with the vulnerable evidence that can be affected by environmental

1.3.6 Contamination Control

It is an essential process that will guarantee the astuteness of evidence. It necessitates

• Establishing an entry/departure path at the scene.

1.3.7 The Final Assessment of the Crime Scene

The autopsy showed the following

Samples were taken for pathology and toxicology labs.

Thorough and complete documentation of observations at the crime scene is

Crime scene documentation is carried out through a well-developed protocol by the

M. Ghanem (*) · H. M. Megahed

# The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte 15

Case number and description Day Month Year Time

Fig. 2.1 Example of a photo log

Some Crucial Points Must be Remembered When Taking Photographs

Take a photograph of a photo placard (a transcribed or organization created a

• Progress from overall to midrange then close-up photos.

Fig. 2.2 Example of a photo placard

2.1.1 Types of Crime Scene Photography

2.1.1.1 Overall (Long-Range) Photography

2.1.1.2 Midrange Photography

2.1.1.3 Close-Up Photography

Fig. 2.4 On the right: Close-

One of the commonly used method of documentation nowadays is videotaping and it

2.2.1 Guidelines for Videotaping a Crime Scene

2.3.1 Sketches Should Include the Following

• Red/Blue ink: for physical evidence.

2.3.2 Types of Sketches and Perspectives

1 5/1 2/201 9- 1 2 elmathaf St., Azzarita , 1 0:30 PM

1-vicm 2-footwear soiled with blood 3-blood pool 4- foot print