Raghu Institute of Technology BSNL Department of ECE

RAGHU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

(AUTONOMOUS)
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi & Permanently Affiliated to JNTU-GV,VZM)
Accredited by NBA and NAAC with 'A' Grade, Listed u/s 2(f) & 12(B) of UGC Act 1956
Dakamarri (V), Bheemunipatnam (Mandal), Visakhapatnam - 531162, A.P.

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

Internship Report
2022-2023

I
Raghu Institute of Technology BSNL Department of ECE

RAGHU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

(AUTONOMOUS)
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi & Permanently Affiliated to JNTU-GV,VZM)
Accredited by NBA and NAAC with 'A' Grade, Listed u/s 2(f) & 12(B) of UGC Act 1956
Dakamarri (V), Bheemunipatnam (Mandal), Visakhapatnam - 531162, A.P.

DEPARTMENT OF
ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

An Internship Report on
“BSNL TELECOMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY”
Submitted in fulfillment for the award in degree of
Bachelor of Engineering
in
Electronics and Communication Engineering

Submitted by,
PADALA LAKSHMAN (203J1A04A3)
Internship carried out at:

BSNL OFFICE
Domala Mandiram Area, Park
Gate Area, Vizianagaram.

II
Raghu Institute of Technology BSNL Department of ECE

RAGHU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

(AUTONOMOUS)
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi & Permanently Affiliated to JNTU-GV,VZM)
NBA and NAAC 'A' grade accredited Institute.
Dakamarri (Village), Bheemili (Mandal), Visakhapatnam - 531162, A.P

Certificate

Certified that the internship work entitled “BSNL TELECOMMUNICA- TION

TECHNOLOGY” is a bonafide work carried out by PADALA
LAKSHMAN(203J1A04A3) of Raghu Institute of Technology, and this report
is submitted in partial fulfillment for the award of Bachelor of Engineering in
Electronics and Communication Engineering of Raghu Institute of
Technology during the year 2022-2023

Signature of the Incharge Signature of the HOD

Mr.V.Keerthi Kiran Dr.P.Satish Rama Chowdary
Assistant Professor Prof.&HOD,
Dept. of ECE Dept.of ECE

III
Raghu Institute of Technology BSNL Department of ECE

IV
Department of ECE, RIT

INDEX
S.NO CONTENTS PAGE NO
1 List of Figures VI
1.1 Weekly Overview of Internship Activities 1
1.2 Introduction 2
2 Department of Telecommunications 3-4
3 Telecom Regulatory Authority of India (TRAI) 4-5
4 Key International Standardization Bodies for Telecom sector 5

5 Multiplexing Techniques 6

6 Pulse Code Modulation, Sampling, Quantization 7-8

7 Definition and Description of Digital Hierarchies 8

8 Signalling in Telecommunications 9

9 Broadband Networks 10-13

10 Optical Communications 14-17

10.1 Optical Fiber Parameters 18-22

11 OFC Splicing &3GPP Reference model 22-23

12 ERICSSON IMPLEMENTATION 24

12.1 GSM Network Architecture 25-26

13 Mobile Communication 27
14 Core Nodes 28-30
15 Bit Rates 31
16 Telecom Networks 32
17 Concept of Communication 33-35
18 Conclusion 36

V
Department of ECE, RIT

LIST OF FIGURES

S.NO FIGURES PAGE NO

5.1 FDM Principle 6
5.2 Time Division Multiplexing 6
6.1 Sampling Process 7
6.2 Quantizing-Positive Signal 8
9.1 Connection Of CPE At Sub Office 13
9.2 Connection Of Parallel Telephones to Broadband Line 13

10.1 Signal Transmission using Fiber Optical wires 15

10.2 Fig: Propagation of Light Through Fiber 16

10.3 STEP-INDEX MULTIMODE FIBER 17

10.4 GRADED-INDEX MULTIMODE FIBER 17

10.5 SINGLE-MODE FIBER 18

10.1.1 Numerical Aperture of Fiber 19

10.1.2 Tight Buffer Tube Cable 20

10.1.3 Distribution Cable 21

10.1.4 Fig. Loose Tube Cable 21

10.1.5 Aerial Cable/Self-Supporting 21
10.1.6 Fig. Hybrid & Composite Cable 22
10.1.7 Armoured Cable 22
12.1.1 Network Architecture 25
12.1.2 Base Station Subsystem (BSS) 26
13.1 History Of Mobile Communication 27
14.1 Cable Connection Between Antenna And BTS 30
15.1 Instruments For OFC 31
17.1 Terminology Of Telecom 33
17.2 Transmission Facility 34
17.3 Cable Wires 34
17.4 Internal Cable 35

VI
Department of ECE, RIT

1.1 WEEKLY OVERVIEW OF INTERNSHIP ACTIVITIES

DATE DAY NAME OF THE TOPIC/MODULE COMPLETED

2/06/23 Monday Orientation
W
Tuesday Engine Alternator
E 3/06/23
E 4/06/23 Wednesday Types of networks
K 5/06/23 Thursday Copper and fiber networks
1
6/06/23 Friday Detailed fiber connections

DATE DAY 0.2

W 19/06/23 Monday Explained about TIP Networks
E 20/06/23 Tuesday Tower and dimensions
E
21/06/23 Wednesday Generations of BSNL network
K
22/06/23 Thursday Telephone Exchange points
2
23/06/23 Friday Telephone Exchange points
(Continuation.)

DATE DAY NAME OF THE TOPIC/MODULE COMPLETED

W 26/06/23 Monday International Internet Services
E 27/06/23 Tuesday FTTH
E 28/06/23 Wednesday Fiber Jointing using Slicing Machine
K 29/06/23 Thursday Types of Splitters
3 30/06/23 Friday MDF Connections

DATE DAY NAME OF THE TOPIC/MODULE COMPLETED

03/07/23 Monday Traditional telephone exchange
W 04/07/23 Tuesday Automatic Telephone Exchange
E
05/07/23 Wednesday Underground Network System
E
K 06/07/23 Thursday Roles and responsibilities in BSNL
4 07/07/23 Friday Explained How BSNL 4G networks is better
than private 5G Network

1
Department of ECE, RIT

1.2 INTRODUCTION
In our linked society, telecommunications businesses are essential because they enable smooth
communication over great distances. These businesses provide a wide range of services that are now
essential to our everyday lives. Telecommunications firms are at the vanguard of contemporary
connectedness, from traditional voice services that connect us via landlines and mobile phones to high-speed
data services that enable our online activities. Additionally, they offer messaging services that keep us linked
via text, multimedia, and email as well as video services that let us watch television material on a variety of
platforms.

A sophisticated network infrastructure that telecommunications companies have made significant

investments in creating and maintaining sits at the core of these services. This infrastructure consists of both
technological and physical elements. The technological infrastructure entails sophisticated devices like
switches and routers that manage and direct the flow of communication traffic, while the physical
infrastructure includes the building of cell towers, the laying of fiber-optic cables, and the installation of data
centers.

The expansion of wireless and mobile services is one of the most revolutionary changes brought about by
telecommunications businesses. These businesses have transformed how we communicate by offering cell
phone plans and mobile internet bundles that enable us to stay in touch while on the go. Additionally, their
inventiveness is what keeps communication technologies evolving. the current Even faster and more
dependable connectivity is promised through the development and implementation of standards like 5G,
which will change how we communicate and access information.

At the heart of these services is a complex network infrastructure that telecommunications firms have
invested a lot of money in building and maintaining. This infrastructure is made up of both technical and
material components. The physical infrastructure consists of the construction of cell towers, the laying of
fiber-optic cables, and the establishment of data centers. The technological infrastructure consists of complex
devices like switches and routers that manage and direct the flow of communication traffic.

One of the most significant changes brought about by telecommunications companies is the expansion of
wireless and mobile services. By providing cell phone plans and other services, these companies have
revolutionized how we communicate.

2
Department of ECE, RIT

1. DEPARTMENT OF TELECOMMUNICATIONS:
In India, DoT is the nodal agency for taking care of telecom sector on behalf of government. Its basic
functions are:
 Policy Formulation
 Review of performance
 Licensing
 Wireless spectrum management
 Administrative monitoring of PSUs
 Research & Development
 Standardization/Validation of Equipment
 International Relations

Main wings within DoT:

 Telecom Engineering Center (TEC)
 USO Fund
 Wireless Planning & Coordination Wing (WPC)
 Telecom Enforcement, Resource and Monitoring (TERM) Cell
 Telecom Centers of Excellence (TCOE)

Telecom Engineering Center (TEC): It is a technical body representing the interest of Department
of Telecom, Government of India. Its main functions are:
 Specification of common standards with regard to Telecom network equipment, services and
interoperability.
 Generic Requirements (GRs), Interface Requirements (IRs)
 Issuing Interface Approvals and Service Approvals
 Formulation of Standards and Fundamental Technical Plans

Universal Service Obligation Fund (USO):

This fund was created in 2002. This fund is managed by USO administrator. All telecom operators contribute
to this fund as per government policy. The objective of this fund is to bridge the digital divide i.e., ensure
equitable growth of telecom facilities in rural areas. Funds are allocated to operators who bid lowest for
providing telecom facilities in the areas identified by USO administrator.

Wireless Planning & Coordination (WPC): This unit was created in 1952 and is the National
Radio Regulatory Authority responsible for Frequency Spectrum Management, including licensing and
caters for the
3
Department of ECE, RIT

needs of all wireless users (Government and Private) in the country. It exercises the statutory functions of the
Central Government and issues licenses to establish, maintain and operate wireless stations. WPC is divided
into major sections like Licensing and Regulation (LR), New Technology Group (NTG) and Standing
Advisory Committee on Radio Frequency Allocation (SACFA). SACFA makes the recommendations on
major frequency allocation issues, formulation of the frequency allocation plan, making recommendations on
the various issues related to International Telecom Union (ITU), to sort out problems referred to the
committee by various wireless users, Siting clearance of all wireless installations in the country etc.,

Telecom Enforcement, Resource and Monitoring (TERM) Cell: In order to ensure that
service providers adhere to the licenses conditions and for taking care of telecom network security issues,
DoT opened these cells in 2004 and at present 34 cells are operating in various Circles and big districts in
the country. Key functions of these units are Inspection of premises of Telecom and Internet Service
Providers, curbing illegal activities in telecom services, Control over clandestine / illegal operation of
telecom networks by vested interests having no license, to file FIR against culprits, pursue the cases, issue
notices indicating violation of conditions of various Acts in force from time to time, Analysis of
call/subscription/traffic data of various licensees, arrangement for lawful interception /monitoring of all
communications passing through the licensee’s network, disaster management, network performance
monitoring, Registration of OSPs and Telemarketers in License Service Areas etc.,

Telecom Centers of Excellence (TCOE): (www.tcoe.in) The growth of Indian Telecommunications

sector has been astounding, particularly in the last decade. This growth
has been catalyzed by telecommunications sector liberalization and reforms. Some of the areas needing
immediate attention to consolidate and maintain the growth are:
 Capacity building for industry talent pool
 Continuous adaptation of the regulatory environment to facilitate induction/adaptation of high
potential new technologies and business models
 Bridging of high rural - urban tele density/digital divide

2. Telecom Regulatory Authority of India (TRAI):

TRAI was established under TRAI Act 1997 enacted on 28.03.1997. The act was amended in 2000. Its
organization setup consists of One Chairperson, Two full-time members & two part-time members. Its
primary role is to deals with regulatory aspects in Telecom Sector & Broadcasting and Cable services.
TRAI has two types of functions as mentioned below:
 Mandatory Functions
 Tariff policies
 Interconnection policies
 Quality of Service
 Ensure implementation of terms and conditions of license

4
Department of ECE, RIT

 Recommendatory Functions
 New license policies
 Spectrum policies
 Opening of sector

Telecom Dispute Settlement Appellate Tribunal (TDSAT): TDSAT was established in year
2000 by an amendment in TRAI act by transferring the functions of dispute handling to new entity i.e.
TDSAT. The organization setup consists of one Chairperson & two full-time members. Its functions are:
 Adjudicate any dispute between
 licensor and licensee
 two or more licensees
 group of consumers

3. Key International Standardization Bodies for Telecom sector:

ITU is the leading United Nations agency for information and communication technology issues, and the
global focal point for governments and the private sector in developing networks and services. For nearly
145 years, ITU has coordinated the shared global use of the radio spectrum, promoted international
cooperation in assigning satellite orbits, worked to improve telecommunication infrastructure in the
developing world, established the worldwide standards that foster seamless interconnection of a vast range of
communications systems and addressed the global challenges of our times, such as mitigating climate change
and strengthening cyber security. Vast spectrum of its work area includes broadband Internet to latest-
generation wireless technologies, from aeronautical and maritime navigation to radio astronomy and
satellite-based meteorology, from convergence in fixed-mobile phone, Internet access, data, voice and TV
broadcasting to next-generation networks. ITU also organizes worldwide and regional exhibitions and
forums, such as ITU TELECOM WORLD, bringing together the most influential representatives of
government and the telecommunications and ICT industry to exchange ideas, knowledge and technology for
the benefit of the global community, and in particular the developing world. ITU is based in Geneva,
Switzerland, and its membership includes 191 Member States and more than 700 Sector Members and
Associates. On 1 January 2009, ITU employed 702 people from 83 different countries. The staff members
are distributed between the Union's Headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland and eleven field offices located
around the world

5
Department of ECE, RIT

4. MULTIPLEXING TECHNIQUES
There are basically two types of multiplexing techniques
I. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
II. Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

Frequency Division Multiplexing Techniques (FDM):

The FDM techniques are the process of translating individual speech circuits (300-3400 Hz)
into pre-assigned frequency slots within the bandwidth of the transmission medium. The frequency
translation is done by amplitude modulation of the audio frequency with an appropriate carrier frequency. At
the output of the modulator a filter network is connected to select either a lower or an upper side band. Since
the intelligence is carried in either side band, single side band suppressed carrier mode of AM is used. This
results in substantial saving of bandwidth mid also permits the use of low power amplifiers. Please refer Fig.
1.

Fig. 5.1 FDM Principle

Time Division Multiplexing (TDM):

Basically, time division multiplexing involves nothing more than sharing a transmission medium by a
number of circuits in time domain by establishing a sequence of time slots during which individual channels
(circuits) can be transmitted. Thus the entire bandwidth is peri- odically available to each channel. Normally
all time slots are equal in length. Each channel is assigned a time slot with a specific common repetition
period called a frame interval. This is illustrated in Fig. 2. This staggering of channels in time sequence for
transmission over a common medium is called Time Division Multiplexing (TDM).

Fig. 5.2 Time Division Multiplexing

6
Department of ECE, RIT

5. PULSE CODE MODULATION

It was only in 1938; Mr. A.M. Reaves (USA) developed a Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) system to transmit
the spoken word in digital form. Since, then digital speech transmission has become an alternative to the
analogue systems. PCM systems use TDM technique to provide a number of circuits on the same
transmission medium viz open wire or underground cable pair or a channel provided by carrier, co- axial,
microwave or satellite system.
Basic Requirements for PCM System
To develop a PCM signal from several analogue signals, the following processing steps are required
• Filtering

• Sampling

• Quantization

• Encoding

• Line Coding

6.1 FILTERING:
Filters are used to limit the speech signal to the frequency band 300-3400 Hz.
6.2 SAMPLING:
It is the most basic requirement for TDM. Suppose we have an analogue signal Fig. 3 (b), which is applied
across a resistor R through a switch S as shown in Fig. 3(a). Wheneverswitch S is closed, an output appears
across R. The rate at which S is closed is called the sampling frequency because during the make periods of
S, the samples of the analogue modulating signal appear across R. Fig. 3(d) is a stream of samplesof the
input signal which appear across R. The amplitude of the sample is depended upon the amplitude of theinput
signal at theinstant of sampling. The duration of these sampled pulses is equal to the duration for
whichtheswitch S is closed. Minimum number of samples are to be sent for any band limited signal to get a
good approximation of the original analogue signal and the same is defined by the sampling Theorem.

Fig. 6.1: Sampling Process

7
Department of ECE, RIT

6.3 QUANTIZATION

In FDM systems we convey the speech signals in their analogue electrical form. But in PCM, we convey the
speech in discrete form. The sampler selects a number of points on the analogue speech signal (by sampling
process) and measures their instant values. The output of the sampler is a PAM signal as shown in Fig. 3;
The transmission of PAM signal will require linear amplifiers at trans and receive ends to recover distortion
less signals. This type of trans- mission is susceptible to all the disadvantages of AM signal transmission.
Therefore, in PCM systems, PAM signals are converted into digital form by using Quantization Principles.
The discrete level of each sampled signal is quantified with reference to a certain specified level on an
amplitude scale.
The process of measuring the numerical values of the samples and giving them a tablevalue in a suitable
scale is called "Quantizing". Of course, the scales and the number of points should be so chosen that the
signalcould be effectively reconstructed after demodulation.
A sampled signal exists only at discrete times but its amplitude is drawn from a continuous range of
amplitudes of an analogue signal. On this basis, an infinite number of amplitude values is possible. A
suitable finite number of discrete values can be used to get an. approximation of the infinite set. The discrete
value of a sample is measured by comparing itwith a scale having a finite number of intervals and identifying
the interval in which the sample falls. The finite number of amplitude intervals is called the "quantizing
interval".Thus, quantizing means to divide the analogue signal's total amplitude range into a number of
quantizing intervals and assigning a level to each. intervals.

Fig 6.2 Quantizing-Positive Signal

6.4 Encoding:
Conversion of quantized analogue levels to binary signal is called encoding. To represent 256 steps, 8
level code is required. The eight-bit code is also called an eight bit "word".

6. Definition and Description of Digital Hierarchies:

The term “digital hierarchy” has been created when developing digital transmission systems. It was laid
down when by multiplexing a certain number of PCM primary multiplexers were combined to form digital
multiplexers of higher order (e.g., second-order multiplex equipment’s).

8
Department of ECE, RIT

Consequently, a digital hierarchy comprises a number of levels. Each level is assigned a specific bit rate
which is formed by multiplexing digital signals, each having the bit rate of the next lower level. In
CCITT Rec.
G.702, the term “digital multiplex hierarchy” is defined as follows
“A series of digital multiplexes graded according to capability so that multiplexing at one level combines a
defined number of digital signals, each having the digit rate prescribed for the next lower order, into a digital
signal having a prescribed digit rate which is then available for further combination with other digital signals
of the same rate in a digital multiplex of the next higher order”.

7. SIGNALLING IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS
The term signaling, when used in telephony, refers to the exchange of control in- formation associated with
the establishment of a telephone call on a telecommunications circuit. An example of this control
information is the digits dialed by the caller, the caller's billing number, and other call-related information.

When the signaling is performed on the same circuit that will ultimately carry the conversation of the call, it
is termed Channel Associated Signaling (CAS). This is the case for earlier analogue trunks, MF and R2
digital trunks, and DSS1/DASS PBX trunks.

In contrast, SS7 signaling is termed Common Channel Signaling (CCS) in that the path and facility used by
the signaling is separate and distinct from the telecommunications channels that will ultimately carry the
telephone conversation. With CCS, it becomes possible to exchange signaling without first seizing a facility,
leading to significant savings and performance increases in both signaling and facility usage.

Channel Associated Signaling

Channel Associated Signaling (CAS), also known as per-trunk signaling (PTS), is a formof digital
communication signaling. As with most telecommunication signaling methods, it uses routing information
to direct the payload of voice or data to its destination. With CAS signaling, this routing information is
encoded and transmitted in the same channel as the payload itself. This information can be transmitted in the
same band (in-band signaling) or a separate band (out-of-band signaling) to the payload.

Common Channel Signaling:

In telephony, Common Channel Signaling (CCS) is the transmission of signaling information (control
information) on a separate channel from the data, and, more specifically, where that signaling channel
controls multiple data channels

For example, in the public switched telephone network (PSTN) one channel of a communications link is
typically used for the sole purpose of carrying signaling for establishment and Tear down of telephone calls.
The remaining channels are used entirely for the transmission of voice data. In most cases, a single 64kbit/s
channel is sufficient to handle the call setup and call clear-down traffic for numerous voice and data
channels. The logical alternative to CCS is Channel Associated Signaling (CAS), in which each bearer
9
Department of ECE, RIT

channel has a

10
Department of ECE, RIT

signaling channel dedicated to it.

CCS offers the following advantages over CAS, in the context of the PSTN:

 Faster call setup.

 No falling interference between signaling tones by network and speech frequencies.
 Greater trucking efficiency due to the quicker set up and clear down, thereby reducing traffic on the
network.
 No security issues related to the use of in-band signaling with CAS.
 CCS allows the transfer of additional information along with the signaling traffic providing features such
as caller ID.

8. BROADBAND NETWORKS

With the evolution of computer networking and packet switching concept a new era of integrated
communication has emerged in the telecom world. Rapid growth of data communication market and
popularity of Internet, reflect the needs of enhanced infrastructure to optimized the demand of traffic.
Integration of telecom and computer networking technology trend has further amplified the importance of
telecommunications in the field of information communication. A concept of broadband services and the
means of access technologies to bridge the customer and service provider is emerged out throughout the
world. "Broadband" refers to high-speed Internet access. Broadband Solutions represent the convergence of
multiple independent networks including voice, video and data into a single, unified, broadband network

IMPLEMENTATION OF BROADBAND
To Strengthen Broadband Penetration, the Government of India has formulated Broadband Policy whose
main objectives are to: -
 Establish a regulatory framework for the carriage and the content of information in the scenario of
convergence.
 Facilitate development of national infrastructure for an information-based society.
 Make available broadband interactive multimedia services to users in the public net- work.
 Provide high speed data and multimedia capability using new technologies to all towns with a
population greater than 2 lakhs.
 Make available Internet services at panchayat (village) level for access to information to provide
product consultancy and marketing advice.
 Deploy state of art and proven technologies to facilitate introduction of new services.
 Strengthen research and development efforts in the telecom technologies.

11
Department of ECE, RIT

NEED OF BROADBAND
The concept of socio economy has an important role in the field of communication of data, audio, video,
speech or any other kind of application. It is an era of CAPEX and OPEX. Ser- vice providers and customers
both are interested in economy with fastest tool of communication with more throughput. Traditional circuit
switching network are not supporting the effective fast communication for new applications. This has
emerged out with the evolution of packet switching network. Communication of data for various applications
is feasible to carry with different throughput. The service provider converged voice and data network
promises to be implemented as nodes in a neighborhood or remote switches in regional locations.
The Internet, e-mail, web sites, software downloads, file transfers: they are all now part of the fabric of doing
business. But until now, it has not been possible for businesses to fully take advantage of the benefits that
technology can truly deliver.
The reason for this is a simple one - a lack of bandwidth. Even for small businesses, narrowband dial-up
access is no longer sufficient. It simply takes too long to do basic tasks, like downloading a large file, and is
increasingly being recognized as insufficient and inconvenient.

TECHNOLOGY OPTIONS FOR BROADBAND SERVICES

Communication of data with different throughput is feasible by following technologies: -
Narrow Band
2.4 kbps – 128kbps
Broadband
256kbps –
8000kbps
LAN: 1000kbps – 100Mbps / Giga Ethernet Various Access Technologies are used for the delivery of
broadband services. Broadband communications technology can be di- vided broadly in to following
categories: -

 Wire line Technology

 Wireless Technologies
Service providers according to available technology and access provide the broadband ser- vices to
customers. The access technologies that are adopted by the services providers are mainly Optical Fiber
Technologies, DSL on copper loop, Cable TV Network, Satellite Media, cellular and fixed wireless,
Terrestrial Wireless etc. Technology options for broadband services may be classified according to the mode
of access.
Wire line Technologies include: -
 Digital Subscriber Lines (DSL) on copper loop

 Optical Fiber Technologies

12
Department of ECE, RIT

 Cable TV Network

13
Department of ECE, RIT

 PLC (Power Line Communication

Wireless Technologies include
 Satellite Media
 Terrestrial Wireless
 3G Mobile
 Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity)
 WiMAX
 LMDS and MMDS
 FSO (Free Space Optics)

BROADBAND NETWORK
The broadband services reached to customer from the three providers. Basically these are Service Provider,
Network Provider and Access Provider. The role of Network Provider is to provide the services offered to
customer through the access extended by Access Provider. There are various types of networks which are
capable of transmitting and managing the broadband traffic to desired nodes or locations.
Wire line access technology through DSL, Fiber, and Cable etc. are generally adopts:
 IP based Network
 ATM Network
Wireless access technology through Wi-Fi, Wi-Max. 3G mobile etc. provides wireless access to ingress point
of any core network any migrates to Internet world.
BSNL provides High speed broadband internet access under the brand name

DATAONE BROADBAND

“Data one” BSNL’s Broadband service let the customer to transmit large amount of data at high speed. At
the minimum of 256 kbps, it is 4.5 times faster than the dial-up, when connected to the internet such a
connection allow surfing or downloading at much faster speed without the hassle of dialing and
disconnection. The Broadband service is available on DSL technology (on the same copper cable that is used
for connecting telephone), on a country- wide basis spanning more than 200 cities.

14
Department of ECE, RIT

Fig 9.1. Connection of CPE at Sub Office

Fig 9.2. Connection of Parallel telephones to Broadband line

15
Department of ECE, RIT

9. OPTICAL COMMUNICATION

INTRODUCTION:
Optical communication systems date back to the 1790s, to the optical semaphore tele- graph invented by
French inventor Claude Chappe. In 1880, Alexander Graham Bell patent- ed an optical telephone system,
which he called the Photophone. However, his earlier invention, the telephone, was more practical and took
tangible shape.
By 1964, a critical and theoretical specification was identified by Dr. Charles K. Kao for long-range
communication devices, the 10 or 20 dB of light loss per kilometer standard. Dr. Kao also illustrated the
need for a purer form of glass to help reduce light loss. By 1970 Corning Glass invented fiber-optic wire or
"optical waveguide fibers" which was capable of carrying 65,000 times more information than copper wire,
through which information carried by a pattern of light waves could be decoded at a destination even a
thousand miles away. Corning Glass developed an SMF with loss of 17 dB/km at 633 nm by doping titanium
into the fiber core. By June of 1972, multimode germanium-doped fiber had developed with a loss of 4 dB
per kilometer and much greater strength than titanium-doped fiber. Prof. Kao was awarded half of the 2009
for "groundbreaking achievements concerning the transmission of light in fibers for optical communication".
In April 1977, General Telephone and Electronics tested and deployed the world's first live telephone traffic
through a fiber-optic system running at 6 Mbps, in Long Beach, California. They were soon followed by Bell
in May 1977, with an optical telephone communication system installed in the downtown Chicago area,
covering a distance of 1.5 miles (2.4 kilometers). Each optical-fiber pair carried the equivalent of 672 voice
channels and was equivalent to a DS3 circuit. Today more than 80 percent of the world's long-distance voice
and data traffic is carried over optical-fiber cables.

FIBER OPTIC APPLICATIONS

FIBER OPTICS: The use and demand for optical fiber has grown tremendously and optical-fiber
applications are numerous. Telecommunication applications are widespread, ranging from global networks
to desktop computers. These involve the transmission of
voice, data, or video over distances of less than a meter to hundreds of kilometers, using one of a few
standard fiber designs in one of several cable designs.
Carriers use optical fiber to carry plain old telephone service (POTS) across their nationwide networks.
Local exchange carriers (LECs) use fiber to carry this same service be- tween central office switches at local
levels, and sometimes as far as the neighborhood or in- dividual home (fiber to the home [FTTH]).
Optical fiber is also used extensively for transmission of data. Multinational firms need secure, reliable
systems to transfer data and financial information between buildings to the desktop terminals or computers
and to transfer data around the world. Cable television companies also use fiber for delivery of digital video
and data services. The high bandwidth provided by fiber makes it the perfect choice for transmitting
broadband signals, such as high-definition television (HDTV) telecasts. Intelligent transportation systems,
such as smart highways with intelligent traffic lights, automated tollbooths, and changeable message signs,
also use fiber-optic-based telemetry systems.
Another important application for optical fiber is the biomedical industry. Fiber-optic systems are used in
most
16
Department of ECE, RIT

modern telemedicine devices for transmission of digital diagnostic im- ages. Other applications for optical
fiber include space, military, automotive, and the industrial sector.

ADVANTAGES OF FIBER OPTICS: -

Fiber Optics has the following advantages
 SPEED: Fiber optic networks operate at high speeds - up into the gigabits
 BANDWIDTH: large carrying capacity
 DISTANCE: Signals can be transmitted further without needing to be "refreshed" or strengthened.
 RESISTANCE: Greater resistance to electromagnetic noise such as radios, motors or other nearby cables.
 MAINTENANCE: Fiber optic cables costs much less to maintain.

FIBER OPTIC SYSTEM

Optical Fiber is new medium, in which information (voice, Data or Video) is transmitted through a glass
or plastic fiber, in the form of light, following the transmission sequence give below:
 Information is encoded into Electrical Signals.
 Electrical Signals are converted into light Signals.
 Light Travels down the Fiber.
 A Detector Changes the Light Signals into Electrical Signals.
 Electrical Signals are decoded into
Information. Inexpensive light sources available.
Repeater spacing increases along with operating speeds because low loss fibers are used at high data rates.

Fig 10.1 Signal Transmission using Fiber Optical wires

17
Department of ECE, RIT

PROPAGATION OF LIGHT THROUGH FIBER

The optical fiber has two concentric layers called the core and the cladding. The inner core is the light
carrying part. The surrounding cladding provides the difference refractive index that allows total internal
reflection of light through the core. The index of the cladding is less than 1%, lower than that of the core.
Typical values for example are a core refractive index of 1.47 and a cladding index of 1.46. Fiber
manufacturers control this difference to obtain desired optical fiber characteristics. Most fibers have an
additional coating around the cladding. This buffer coating is a shock absorber and has no optical properties
affecting the propagation of light within the fiber. Figure shows the idea of light travelling through a fiber.
Light injected into the fiber and striking core to cladding interface at greater than the critical angle, reflects
back into core, since the angle of incidence and reflection are equal, the reflected light will again be
reflected. The light will continue zigzagging down the length of the fiber. Light striking the interface at less
than the critical angle passes into the cladding, where it is lost over distance. The cladding is usually
inefficient as a light carrier, and light in the cladding becomes attenuated fairly. Propagation of light through
fiber is governed by the indices of the core and cladding by Snell's law.
Such total internal reflection forms the basis of light propagation through a optical fiber. This analysis
considers only meridional rays- those that pass through the fiber axis each time, they are reflected. Other
rays called Skew rays travel down the fiber without passing through the axis. The path of a skew ray is
typically helical wrapping around and around the central axis. Fortunately, skew rays are ignored in most
fiber optics analysis. The specific characteristics of light propagation through a fiber depends on many
factors, including
 The size of the fiber.
 The composition of the fiber.
 The light injected into the fiber.

Fig:10.2 Propagation of light through fiber

18
Department of ECE, RIT

FIBER TYPES
The refractive Index profile describes the relation between the indices of the core and clad- ding. Two main
relationships exist:
(I) Step Index
(II)Graded Index
The step index fiber has a core with uniform index throughout. The profile shows a sharp step at the junction
of the core and cladding. In contrast, the graded index has a non-uniform core. The Index is highest at the
center and gradually decreases until it matches with that of the cladding. There is no sharp break in indices
between the core and the cladding.
By this classification there are three types of fibers:

STEP-INDEX MULTIMODE FIBER has a large core, up to 100 microns in diameter. As a

result, some of the light rays that make up the digital pulse may travel a direct route, whereas others zigzag
as they bounce off the cladding. These alternative pathways cause the different groupings of light rays,
referred to as modes, to arrive separately at a receiving point. The pulse, an aggregate of different modes,
begins to spread out, losing its Well- defined shape. The need to leave spacing between pulses to prevent
overlapping limits bandwidth that is, the amount of information that can be sent. Consequently, this type of
fiber is best suited for transmission over short distances, in an endoscope, for instance.

Fig:10.3 Step-Index Multimode Fiber

GRADED-INDEX MULTIMODE Fiber contains a core in which the refractive index diminishes gradually
from the center axis out toward the cladding. The higher refractive index at the center makes the light rays
moving down the axis advance more slowly than those near the cladding.

Fig.10.4 Graded-Index Multimode Fiber

Also, rather than zigzagging off the cladding, light in the core curves helically because of the graded index,
reducing its travel distance. The shortened path and the higher speed allow light at the periphery to arrive at
a receiver at about the same time as the slow but straight rays in the core axis. The result: a digital pulse
suffers less dispersion.

19
Department of ECE, RIT

SINGLE-MODE FIBER has a narrow core (eight microns or less), and the index of refraction between the
core and the cladding changes less than it does for multimode fibers. Light thus travels parallel to the axis,
creating little pulse dispersion. Telephone and cable television networks install millions of kilometers of this
fiber every year

Fig.10.5 Single-Mode Fiber

10.1 OPTICAL FIBER PARAMETERS

Optical fiber systems have the following parameters.

(I) Wavelength.
(II) Frequency.
(III) Window.
(IV) Attenuation.
(V) Dispersion.
(VI) Bandwidth.

WAVE LENGTH: It is a characteristic of light that is emitted from the light source and is measures in
nanometers (nm). In the visible spectrum, wavelength can be described as the color of the light. For
example, Red Light has longer wavelength than Blue Light, Typical wavelength for fiber use is 850nm,
1300nm and 1550nm all of which are invisible.
FREQUENCY: It is number of pulses per second emitted from a light source. Frequency is measured in
units of hertz (Hz). In terms of optical pulse 1Hz = 1 pulse/ sec.
WINDOW: A narrow window is defined as the range of wavelengths at which a fiber best operates. Typical
windows are given below:

Operational Wave-length
Window
800nm - 900nm 850nm
1250nm - 1350nm 1300nm
1500nm - 1600nm 1550nm

20
Department of ECE, RIT

ATTENUATION: Attenuation is defined as the loss of optical power over a set distance, a fiber with lower
attenuation will allow more power to reach a receiver than fiber with higher attenuation. Attenuation may be
categorized as intrinsic or extrinsic.
BANDWIDTH: It is defined as the amount of information that a system can carry such that each pulse of
light is distinguishable by the receiver. System bandwidth is measured in MHz or GHz. In general, when we
say that a system has bandwidth of 20 MHz, means that 20 mil-lion pulses of light per second will travel
down the fiber and each will be distinguishable by the receiver.
NUMBERICAL APERTURE
Numerical aperture (NA) is the "light - gathering ability" of a fiber. Light injected into the fiber at angles
greater than the critical angle will be propagated. The material NA relates to therefractive indices of the core
and cladding.

NA = n 12 - n 22

Where n1 and n2 are refractive indices of core and cladding

respectively

NA is unitless dimension. We can also define as the angles at which rays will be propagated by the fiber. These angles
form a cone called the acceptance cone, which gives the maximum angle of light acceptance. The acceptance cone is
related to the NA

Æ = arc sing (NA) or

NA = sin Æ
where Æ is the half angle of acceptance
The NA of a fiber is important because it gives an indication of how the fiber accepts and propagates light. A
fiber with a large NA accepts light well, a fiber with a low NA requires highly directional light

Fig:10.1.1 Numerical aperture of fiber

In general, fibers with a high bandwidth have a lower NA. They thus allow fewer modes means less
dispersion and hence greater bandwidth. A large NA promotes more modal dispersion, since more paths

21
Department of ECE, RIT

for the rays are provided NA, although it can be defined for a single mode fiber, is essentially
meaningless as a practical characteristic. NA in a multimode fiber is important to system performance and
to calculate anticipated performance.

CABLE CONSTRUCTION
There are two basic cable designs are:
1. Tight Buffer Tube Cable

2. Loose Buffer Tube Cable

Loose-tube cable, used in the majority of outside-plant installations and tight-buffered cable, primarily used
inside buildings.

Tight-Buffered Cable
With tight-buffered cable designs, the buffering material is in direct contact with the fiber.
This design is suited for "jumper cables" which connect outside plant cables to terminal equipment, and also
for linking various devices in a premises network. Single-fiber tight- buffered cables are used as pigtails,
patch cords and jumpers to terminate loose-tube cables directly into opto-electronic transmitters, receivers
and other active and passive components. Multifiber tight-buffered cables also are available and are used
primarily for alternative routing and handling flexibility and ease within buildings. The tight-buffered design
pro- vides a rugged cable structure to protect individual fibers during handling, routing and connectorization.
Yarn strength members keep the tensile load away from the fiber.

Fig. 10.1.2 Tight Buffer Tube Cable

Loose-Tube Cable:
The modular design of loose-tube cables typically holds 6, 12, 24, 48, 96 or even more than 400 fibers per
cable. Loose-tube cables can be all-dielectric or optionally armored. The loose-tube design also helps in the
identification and administration of fibers in the system. In a loose-tube cable design, color-coded plastic
buffer tubes house and protect optical fibers. A gel filling compound impedes water penetration. Excess
fiberlength (relative to buffer tube length) insulates fibers from stresses of installation and environmental
loading.Buffer tubes are stranded around a dielectric or steel central member, which serves as an anti-
buckling element.The cable core, typically uses aramid yarn, as the primary tensile strength member. The
outer polyethylene jacket is extruded over the core. If armoring is required, a corrugated steel tape is
formed around a single

22
Department of ECE, RIT

jacketed cable with an additional jacket extruded over the armor.

Loose-tube cables typically are used for outside-plant installation in aerial, duct and direct-buried
applications. Here are some common fiber cables types are given below:
1. Distribution Cable
Distribution Cable (compact building cable) packages individual 900µm buffered fiber reducing size and
cost. The connectors may be installed directly on the 900µm buffered fiber at the breakout box location.

Fig 10.1.3 Distribution Cable

2. Loose Tube Cable

Loose tube cable is designed to endure outside temperatures and high moisture conditions. The fibers are
loosely packaged in gel filled buffer tubes to repel water. Recommended for use between buildings that are
unprotected from outside elements. Loose tube cable is restricted from inside building use.

Fig.10.1.4 Loose Tube Cable

3. Aerial Cable/Self-Supporting
Aerial cable provides ease of installation and reduces time and cost. Figure 8 cable can easily be separated
between the fiber and the messenger. Temperature range (-55ºC to +85ºC)

Fig.10.1.5 Aerial Cable/Self-Supporting

23
Department of ECE, RIT

4. Hybrid & Composite Cable

Hybrid cables offer the same great benefits as our standard indoor/outdoor cables, with the convenience of
installing multimode and single mode fibers all in one pull. Our composite cables offer optical fiber along
with solid 14-gauge wires suitable for a variety of uses including power, grounding and other electronic

controls.
Fig.10.1.6 Hybrid & Composite Cable

1. Armored Cable
Armored cable can be used for rodent protection in direct burial if required. This cable is non-gel filled and can also be
used in aerial applications. The armor can be removed leaving the inner cable suitable for any indoor/outdoor use.
(Temperature rating -40ºC to +85ºC)

Fig.10.1.7 Armored Cable

11. OFC SPLICING

Splices are permanent connection between two fibers. The splicing involves cutting of the edges of the two
fibers to be spliced.

Splicing Methods
The following three types are widely used:
 Adhesive bonding or Glue splicing.
 Mechanical splicing.
 Fusion splicing.

1. Adhesive Bonding or Glue Splicing

This is the oldest splicing technique used in fiber splicing. After fiber end preparation, it is axially aligned in
a precision V–groove. Cylindrical rods or another kind of reference surfaces are used for alignment. During
the alignment of fiber end, a small amount of adhesive or glue of same refractive index as the core material
is set between and around the fiber ends. A two-component epoxy or an UV curable adhesive is used as
24
Department of ECE, RIT

the

25
Department of ECE, RIT

bonding agent. The splice loss of this type of joint is same or less than fusion splices. But fusion splicing
technique is more reliable, so at present this technique is very rarely used.

2. Mechanical Splicing
This technique is mainly used for temporary splicing in case of emergency repairing. This method is also
convenient to connect measuring instruments to bare fibers for taking various measurements.
The mechanical splices consist of 4 basic components:
(i) An alignment surface for mating fiber ends.

(ii) A retainer

(iii) An index matching material.

(iv) A protective housing

A very good mechanical splice for M.M. fibers can have an optical performance as good as fusion spliced
fiber or glue spliced. But in case of single mode fiber, this type of splice cannot have stability of loss.

3.Fusion Splicing
The fusion splicing technique is the most popular technique used for achieving very low splice losses. The
fusion can be achieved either through electrical arc or through gas flame.
The process involves cutting of the fibers and fixing them in micro–positioners on the fusion splicing
machine. The fibers are then aligned either manually or automatically core aligning (in case of S.M. fiber)
process. Afterwards the operation that takes place involve withdrawal of the fibers to a specified distance,
preheating of the fiber ends through electric arc and bringing together of the fiber ends in a position and
splicing through high temperature fusion. If proper care taken and splicing is done strictly as per schedule,
then the splic- ing loss can be minimized as low as 0.01 dB/joint. After fusion splicing, the splicing joint
should be provided with a proper protector to have following protections:
(a) Mechanical protection
(b)Protection from moisture.

The splicing machines imported by BSNL begins to the core profile alignment system, the main functions of
which are:
(1)Auto active alignment of the

core. (2)Auto arc fusion.

(3)Video display of the entire process.

(4)Indication of the estimated splice

loss.

26
Department of ECE, RIT

12. ERICSSON IMPLEMENTATION

 Based on 3GPP standards, Vendors have designed, developed & implemented WCDMA Networks.
 As a Vendor, Ericsson has its own way of realization of 3G Network covering both GSM & WCDMA
Technologies.
 Two major components of WCDMA Network are -
 WCDMA Radio Access Network
 WCDMA/GSM Core Network

WCDMA RADIO ACCESS NETWORKS

WCDMA Radio Access Network (RAN) consists of – RBS & RNC which together constitute RNS (Radio
Network System).
RBS (Radio Base Station)-
 Also Known as Node B within 3GPP
 RBS provides the physical Radio resources
 Converts data flow between UE & RNC
RNC (Radio Network Controller)-
 RNC controls the RBS & the Radio Resources
 RNC is the access point for getting into WCDMA Core Network

WCDMA/GSM CORE NETWORKS

The Core Network architecture is based on an evolved GSM Core Network and consists of the following
Nodes-

1. MSC Server (Soft switch)

2. MSC(GSM)

3. Gateway MSC Server (GMSC Server)

4. Mobile Media Gateway (M-MGW)

5. Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN)

6. Home Location Register (HLR)

27
Department of ECE, RIT

7. Authentication Centre (AUC)

8. Equipment Identity Register (EIR)

9. Flexible Number Register (FNR)

10. IP Multimedia Sub-System (IMS)

12.1 GSM NETWORK ARCHITECTURE

Fig 12.1.1 Network Architecture

Architecture broadly divided into six parts:

 Mobile Station.

 Base Station Subsystem (BSS).

 Network Switching Subsystem (NSS).

 Operation and Maintenance Subsystem.

 Enhanced Services System

 Billing and Customer Care System

28
Department of ECE, RIT

Mobile Station:
 Mobile Station is really two distinct entities.

 Mobile equipment or Mobile terminal.

 SIM Card

 Mobile equipment, which is the actual Hardware, is almost anonymous. SIM card, implemented as
a smart card holds the subscriber information

 Base Station Subsystem (BSS)

 BSS connects the MS and the NSS.
 Composed of three parts:
 The Base Transceiver Station (BTS) also called Base Station (BS)
 Transcoder
 Base Station Controller (BSC).
 BSS provides the radio interface functions. Completely digital

Fig 12.1.2 Base Station Subsystem (BSS)

26
Department of ECE, RIT

13. MOBILE COMMUNICATION

Mobile communication is the interchange of information between mobile devices such as smartphones,
tablets, and other portable devices via wireless technology. It has transformed the way people communicate
by enabling voice calls, text messaging, internet access, and a variety of applications and services. Here are
some of the most important characteristics of mobile communication:

Wireless Networks: Wireless networks are used for mobile communication and are made up of cell towers
(base stations) that broadcast and receive signals to and from mobile devices. GSM (Global System for
Mobile Communications) and CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) are the two basic types of
networks.

Generations of Cellular Technology:

1G: The initial generation of cellular networks introduced analogue networks for basic voice
conversations.
2G: The second generation introduced digital networks, which enabled text messaging (SMS) and basic
datatransmission.
3G: The third generation introduced better data speeds, allowing for mobile internet access, video calling,
and advanced data services.
4G LTE: The fourth generation dramatically increased data rates, allowing for high-definition
video streaming,VoIP (Voice over IP) calls, and mobile apps.
5G: The fifth generation provides significantly faster data speeds, ultra-low latency, and the capacity to
connect an enormous number of devices at the same time. It makes augmented reality (AR), virtual reality
(VR), and IoT (Internet of Things) applications possible.

13.1 History of Mobile Communication:

27
Department of ECE, RIT

14. CORE NODES (CONTD.)

MSC Server-

 Handles control functions within Mobile Soft-switch environment

 Plays major role in circuit-mode working

 Works in conjunction with M-MGW

MSC (GSM)-

 Its roles are within a classical MSC architecture

 Roles are related to circuit-mode working

Gateway MSC Server-

 Main function is related to routing of I/C calls to Mobile Subscribers

 GMSC obtains routing information from Subscribers’ HLR

Mobile Media Gateway-

 It works in conjunction with MSC Server

 M-MGW connects Core Network with- Radio Access Network of WCDMA &GSM, PSTN, ISDN & other
Mobile Networks.

Serving GPRS Support Node-

 Main role lies in session and mobility management related to packet-switched network

 SGSN is an interface between GGSN on one side and RNC/BSC on the other side
Gateway GPRS Support Node-

 Activities are related to transfer of highspeed data with external IP based data network

28
Department of ECE, RIT

Home Location Register-

 Serves as the primary database of subscriber information

 Provides information related to control and intelligence within GSM & WCD-MA network
Authentication Centre-

 Contains functions for secure storage of individual subscriber identifiers and keys.

 Also includes algorithms necessary for generating Authentication & Ciphering databased subscriber keys.

 Works as interface between SGSN & external data networks.

Equipment Identity Register-

 Validates Mobile Sub Equipment Identity

 MSC may request to check if the Mobile Sub Equipment belongs to black list, grey list or white list

Flexible Number Register-

 FNR offers Mobile Number Portability (MNP)

 Flexible allocation of MSISDN for GSM & WCDMA networks.

IP Multimedia Sub-system-

 Its roles are related to NGN applications like Multimedia Conferencing, Multi-player Gaming etc.

ANTENNAS
An antenna is a device that transmits or receives electromagnetic waves in communication systems. It is a
critical component of wireless communication systems used in mobile communication, radio broadcasting,
television broadcasting, satellite communication, and other applications. Antennas are designed to broadcast
or capture electromagnetic energy in the form of radio waves, microwaves, or other frequencies as efficiently
as possible.
• The first Antennas were built in 1888 by German Physicist Heinrich Hertz in his pioneering
experiments to prove the existence of EMF waves predicted by the theory of James clerk
Maxwell.
• The name of the Antenna is dipole Antenna.
• Antennas are our electronic eyes and ears on the world
29
Department of ECE, RIT

14.1 Antenna Aperture:

• Area around antenna where power is derived from the effects of an EMF.
• Gain is large for wider aperture antennas.
• Aperture size helps users know how well an Antenna can capture a signal.

14.2 Basic equation of radiation:

The time changing current radiates and accelerated charge radiates. IL=
Qv I= Time changing current

L= Length of current element Q=

Charge V= acceleration of the charge

• Microstrip Antenna: These antennas have widely been used in Omni Directional Antenna because of
their good characteristics.

Panel Antenna:

• A Panel Antenna is a kind of directional Antenna used in broadcast Engineering

• This antenna used in Telecommunication for cell phone connectivity and wireless internet.
• Under optimum conditions, this antenna provide connectivity up to 16.1Km
• These support wind speed up to 161KMPH

14.1 Cable Connection between Antenna and BTS

30
Department of ECE, RIT

15. BIT RATES:

E2 448 Kbps (8Mb) [120 Chl]

E3 4368 Kbps (34Mb) [480 Chl]

E4 39264 Kbps (140Mb) [1920 Chl]

E5 64992 Kbps (565Mb) [7680 Chl]

MEASURING INSTRUMENTS FOR OFC:

Fig.15.1 Instruments of OFC

15.1 APPLICATIONS OF OPTICAL FIBER:

1. LONG DISTANCE COMMUNICATION BACKBONES

2. INTER-EXCHANGE JUNCTIONS

3. VIDEO TRANSMISSION

4. BROADBAND SERVICES

5. COMPUTER DATA COMMUNICATION (LAN, WAN etc..)

6. HIGH EMI AREAS

7. NON-COMMUNICATION APPLICATIONS (sensors etc…)

31
Department of ECE, RIT

16.TELECOM NETWORK

Telecommunication is the assisted transmission of signals over a distance for the purpose of
communication.
 Traditionally, telephone networks have been provided to carry voice traffic.

 Early analogue networks have been replaced by digital networks.

 More recently, the availability of the Internet and the Voice over Internet Protocol has provided
an entirely new paradigm for data and multimedia services.

 Mobile networks themselves are developing into ubiquitous networks, able to offer a wide range of data
and video, as well as voice services. The Internet, which began as a data network, is now able to support
voice and other real-time services

32
Department of ECE, RIT

17 CONCEPT OF COMMUNICATION

Fig 17.1 Terminology of Telecom

• Switch: a device that establishes, maintains, and changes connections over circuits
• Line: a single physical connection between a user and a switch
• Trunks: the physical connection between switches
• Channel: a channel is a division in a transmission medium so that it can be used to send multiple
streams of information, a circuit can contain multiple channels
• Bit: The binary digit or bit is a unit of information transfer.
• Byte: a collection of 8 bits
• Signal: It is electrical, electronic or optical representation of data, which can be sent over a
communication medium. Stated in mathematical terms, a signal is merely a function of the data.
Signals can be either analogue or digital.
• Symbols: In communications, the analog signal shape, by pre-agreed convention, stands for a
certain number of bits and is called a symbol.
• Baud: Symbols transmitted per second is known as baud.
• Modulation: The shaping of a signal to convey information is known as modulation.
• Network: A network is a collection of transmitters, receivers and transceivers that communicate with each other.
• Multiplexing: combining a defined integral number of input signals (called tributaries).

33
Department of ECE, RIT

• Baud: Symbols transmitted per second is known as baud.

• Modulation: The shaping of a signal to convey information is known as modulation.
• Network: A network is a collection of transmitters, receivers and transceivers that communicate
with each other.
• Multiplexing: combining a defined integral number of input signals (called es).
Network Elements of PSTN:
● A telecommunication network may therefore be considered as a system consisting of four
basic network elements:

Fig 17.2 Transmission Facility

● Station apparatus:
Station Apparatus are the transmitters and receivers:
•Telephones
•Answering Machines
•Facsimile Machines
Most are combined transmitters and receivers

Fig 17.3 Cable Wires

34
Department of ECE, RIT

● Switching:
Switching is the process of establishing, maintaining, and terminating connections or circuits between two or
more communication endpoints in telecommunications. It is essential for voice and data communication in a
variety of networks, including public switched telephone networks (PSTN), mobile networks, and data
networks. Switching is the process of directing information flow between multiple communication pathways
in order to allow efficient and reliable communication.

● Signaling:
The exchange of control information between network elements and devices to assist the setup,
administration, and termination of communication sessions is referred to as signaling in
telecommunications.Signaling is essential for communication services such as making phone calls, sending
text messages, and initiating data transfers. It ensures the smooth and effective operation of the
communication network by coordinating the operations of various network elements and devices.

Fig 17.4. Internal Cable

35
Department of ECE, RIT

18 CONCLUSION
In conclusion, my internship experience at BSNL TELEPHONE EXCHANGE in the field of
telecommunications has been both enlightening and enriching. Over the course of june12th to July 6 th, I have
had the privilege of working alongside a dedicated team of professionals who have generously shared their
expertise and knowledge with me.

During my time at BSNL TELEPHONE EXCHANGE, I was exposed to a wide range of telecom
technologies, including [engine alternator, OFC networks, fiber distribution frames and fire systems], which
provided me with a comprehensive understanding of the industry's dynamics. I actively participated as a
intern, allowing me to apply theoretical concepts from my academic studies in a real-world setting.

One of the most valuable aspects of this internship was the opportunity to collaborate with cross-functional
teams on various projects. This experience not only improved my technical skills but also enhanced my
communication, problem-solving, and teamwork abilities. I witnessed firsthand how effective
communication and coordination are essential for successful project execution in the fast-paced telecom
sector.

I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to Rajesh sir, my mentor during this internship, for their
guidance, patience, and continuous support. Their insights and feedback were instrumental in shaping my
understanding of telecom practices and challenges. I would also like to thank the entire BSNL
TELEPHONEEXCHANGE team for welcoming me into their work environment and fostering an
atmosphere of collaboration and learning.
In conclusion, this internship has been a valuable stepping stone in my journey toward becoming a proficient
telecom professional. The skills I've gained and the experiences I've had will undoubtedly contribute to my
academic and professional growth. I am excited to take what I've learned and apply it to future projects and
opportunities in the telecom industry.

REFERENCES :
1. Wikipedia: - Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited - Wikipedia
2. Internal Training notes (PDF): - https://tinyurl.com/BSNL4A3
3. Fiber Optics: https://tinyurl.com/BSNLfiberoptics

36