2.

MODERN INDIAN HISTORY FROM ABOUT THE MIDDLE OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY
UNTIL THE PRESENT- SIGNIFICANT EVENTS, PERSONALITIES, ISSUES; THE FREEDOM
STRUGGLE – ITS VARIOUS STAGES AND IMPORTANT CONTRIBUTORS /CONTRIBUTIONS FROM
DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE COUNTRY.

1. Why did the armies of the British East India Company – mostly comprising of Indian soldiers – win
consistently against the more numerous and better equipped armies of the Indian rulers? Give reasons.
2022

Approach Introduction: Composition of army of British East India Company Body:  Give reasons for the
success of British Army over Indian rulers. Conclusion: Conclude by relevant statements

Introduction: The British East India Company in its initial days in India had European soldiers but with
subsequent political expansion, the majority of company’s army was made up of Indian soldiers mostly from the
present states of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. For example, the army of British India in 1857 numbered 311,400
men, with 265,900 of them being Indians.

Reasons for the success of British army over Indian rulers:

Basis British Indian Rulers
Leadership  Dedicated Governors: Robert Clive, Warren  Lack of second line leadership:
Hastings, Elphinstone, Munro etc. showed high Indian side had brilliant leadership
quality of leadership and fought for glory of their at the top like Haider Ali, Tipu
countrymen. Sultan, Madhu Rao, Sindhia,
 For example: Leadership of Robert Clive in the Jaswant Rao Holkar but lacked by
Battle of Plassey. second line of leadership
 Second line leaders: The British had advantage
of second line of leadership such as Sir Eyre
Coote, Lord Lake, Arthur Wellesley etc. who
fought for the cause their country.
Military training  Training in European methods: British preferred  Lack of systematic training: The
recruitment of martial communities in army such Indian soldiers were poorly
as Gurkhas, Sikhs, Rajputs who had martial skills equipped and systematic training
in their blood. TheBritish trained these martial was not given to them.
communities with European methods of warfare.
Loyalty, Military  A regular system of payment of salaries and a  Most of the Indian rulers did not
Discipline and strict regime of discipline were the means by which have enough money to pay salaries
Regular Salary the English Company ensured that the officers and regularly. For Example: The
the troops were loyal.  They fought under the Marathas at times diverted their
unified command of trained British officers. military campaigns to collect
revenue to pay their troops.
Selection System  Merit based: The Company officers and troops  Personal relations based: The
were given charge on the basis of their reliability military officers were appointed on
and skill and not on hereditary or caste and clan the basis of caste and personal
ties. relations, often disregarding merit
and ability.

Superior Arms Advanced equipment: The European soldiers
and Military were equipped with latest weapons of war like
Strategy Enfield Rifle and modern muskets and cannons.
 Example: Effective suppression of 1857 revolt is
possible because of superior arms.
 Example: At Buxar (1764), 7000 company troops
defeated nearly 40,000 enemy soldiers.
Continuous  Availability of funds: The British had enough
Financial Support funds to pay its shareholders with good dividends
that compelled them to finance the English wars in
India
Transport  Better transportation: The East India company
troops had better transport facility. The troops
 Poor arms and equipment: The
Indian soldiers were poorly
equipped materially, fighting
generally with swords and spears
and very few guns and muskets.
 Lack of regular finance: The Indian
rulers did not focused on the regular
financial support for their armies or
the advancement of their defence.
 Less transport: The Indian soldiers
on the other hand had less transport
 could be easily moved from one place to another.
Feeling of  Belief of Superiority: British believed that they
Superior Race are the superior race and Indians are uncivilized.
and National British believe in material advancement.
Pride
Unity  Strong sense of Unity: An economically thriving
British people believing in material advancement
and proud of their national glory faced the ‘weak,
divided amongst themselves Indians’ bereft of a
sense of unified political nationalism.
facilities for quick mobilization.
 Lack of forward looking plan: The
spirit of fighting for a nation’s cause
was not their motivation. Thus they
often supported the British against
neighbouring rulers. The
consciousness of ‘India’ was
lacking.
 No unity among Indian rulers:
There was constant infighting
among Indian rulers for gain of more
land and power. Moreover, at times
some rulers joined hands with
Britishers also (Marathas helped
Britishers against Mysore in 3rd
Anglo Mysore war).
 Absence of modern nationalism: A
soldier from Bihar or Awadh did not
believe, and could not have
believed, that assisting the
Company in defeating Marathas or
Punjabis was antiIndian.

Conclusion: The Political factions and lack of unity among Indian rulers resulted in consolidation of British
power from trader to ruler. It is not just about the numbers but also the strategy and the leadership. The British
East Indian army developed a mastery over it with time and hence emerged victorious against the armies of
Indian rulers.

2. Why was there a sudden spurt in famines in colonial India since the mid-eighteenth century? Give
reasons. 2022

Approach: Introduction: Contextual introduction. Body:  Discuss the reasons for sudden spurt in famines in
colonial India. Conclusion: Conclude appropriately

Introduction:
From 1760s, the British India was hit by terrible famines on a regular basis due to natural reasons and due to
British apathy and economic and administrative policies. More than 85 million Indians died in these famines
which occurred in present day states of Bihar, Bengal, Jharkhand etc.

Examples: Great Bengal Famine (1770), The Chalisa Famine (1783-84) and Bengal Famine (1943).

Reasons for sudden spurt in famines since the mid-18th century:

 Economic exploitation of Peasants: After obtaining Diwani rights in 1765, the company increased revenue
from 1/10th of produce to 50% of the produce which left peasants with little money to purchase grain seeds for
subsequent crops.
 Commercialization of agriculture: Farmers were forced to grow cash crops such as cotton, opium, indigo. It
reduced the areas under food grains which led to famines.
 Deindustrialization: This had led to increased unemployment and enhanced pressure on land with many
people were dependent on agriculture for their livelihood and this further increased the intensity of famines.
 Misplaced Priorities of Governor-Generals: Lord Lytton conducted Delhi Durbar in midst of famine of 1877,
Lord Linlithgow diverted civil supplies to armies during Bengal Famine of 1943.
 Prohibition of storage of food: The company prohibited storage of food grains by farmers in order to prevent
the tax evasion by the farmers.
 Confiscation of food stocks: British government would confiscate food stocks at the time of revenue
collection due to which the ryots (farmers) had no option but to borrow money at rip off interest rates from money
lenders to release their grain stocks.
 Drain of Wealth: Big drain on India’s finances was the cost of maintenance of Britain’s armed forces and
funding its wars overseas.
Example: Lytton fully utilised Indian revenues to fund his disastrous Afghan war adventure.
 Fraud of “Famine Grant”: Grant, which was supposed to raise enough money to prevent another holocaust
like that of 1876-78 recurring. But, nearly 58% of the seventeen crore rupees spent on “protective railways” and
in paying “interest upon Indian Midland and Bengal Nagpur railways”.
 Failure to provide relief: The famine codes of Britishers were not really implemented to provide relief to
people.
 Attitude of British: Feed the English, Starve the Indian Attitude meaning that there was never anoverall
shortage of food in the country, in fact during the worst famines, surplus food grains were being exported from
India.
 Example: The terrible famine of 1876-79 was spread out across nearly the whole of southern, western and
northern India

3. Trace the rise and growth of socio-religious reform movements with special reference to Young
Bengal and Brahmo Samaj. 2021

Socio-religious reform movements arose in India during 19th century not only facilitated by but also as

a reaction to colonial rule, after the establishment of British political supremacy in India. Young Bengal and
Brahmo Samaj represent two important points of these reformist movements.  

The rise and growth of socio-religious reform movements in India can be traced in following points:  

1. People from elite class who were educated through modern English education provided the
backbone of religious reform movements. For example, Raja Ram Mohan Roy, the founder of
Brahmo Samaj.  

2. Radical intellectual movement inspired by the French revolution emerged under Derozio as Young

Bengal movement. It challenged orthodox restrictions on diet and social interactions and promoted
free thinking, rationality, questioning the authority and ideals of liberty, equality and freedom.  

3. Work of Missionaries was crucial in spreading alternate system of education, which would soon
become mainstream.  

4. Orientalism was pursued to understand local culture, but it soon drew antagonism and disgust for
native traditions in face of superiority of the colonial class and its culture.  

5. Hegemony of ideas like monotheism and cultural backwardness of Indian society paved way

for prescription of new norms in public culture about rituals, conditions of women etc.  

6. Colonial support for individual reformists, common class-interests between the prospering Zamindars

and the British, creation of a public sphere of debate through influence of Derozio’s Young
Bengal completed the rise of socio-religious reform movements of 19th century.  

Socio-religious reforms were a reaction against colonial judgement and native backwardness. The

movement arose and declined, but with lasting impact on society and the public sphere of ideas.

4. To what extent did the role of the moderates prepare a base for the wider freedom movement?
Comment. 2021

Moderates were the early proponents and leaders of Indian national movement associated with the Indian
National Congress. They used methods of petitions, questioning and debate to vocalise India’s national
subjugation and need for its amelioration.  
Role of moderates in widening the base of India’s freedom movement:  

1. Moderates provided ideological base for growth of freedom movement. For example, Dada

Bhai Naoroji’s economic critique of colonial rule created conviction about exploitative nature of the
British rule in India.  

2. Gopal Krishna Gokhale was the political guru of Mahatma Gandhi and inspired him to travel around
India to learn about the condition and needs of the nation. Gandhi would later catalyse biggest mass
movements in the history of the world.  

3. Moderates created an understanding of common political, economic and cultural interests of

Indians across the length and breadth of the country.  

4. Council reforms such as the Indian Council Acts 1892, expanded the scope of political participation
for Indians.  

5. The lack of success of moderates’ methods, unintentionally provoked the rise of extremist

faction, which aroused masses against the British such as during Swadeshi movement.  

However, moderates’ achievement in mobilizing masses was limited as shown below:  

1. Moderates came from homogenous background of professionals like lawyers.   

2. They neither provided substantive nor descriptive representation of masses.  

3. Many of the moderates were convinced about the fundamentally good nature of British
rule, unaware of its stark repercussions for the common poor.  

4. The cause of mass politics was harmed due to moderates’ intransigence which led to Surat split in
congress and years of inactivity in national politics.  

Despite the positive role played by moderates in furthering the cause of India’s independence, their role in
providing a mass base to freedom struggle was limited. It was not until the phenomena called Mahatma
Gandhi happened that Indian masses would find a voice and a face in the freedom struggle. 

5. Bring out the constructive programmes of Mahatma Gandhi during Non-Cooperation Movement and
Civil Disobedience Movement. 2021

Constructive programmes are the social work initiatives of Mahatma Gandhi launched during inactive phase
of freedom struggle. Constructive programmes are said to have played role of keeping moral of congress
workers high, widening the meaning of swaraj, and preparation for the next phase of struggle.  

The constructive programme of Mahatma Gandhi during non-cooperation and civil disobedience

movement, consisted of following work:  

1. Satygraha Sabha made from members of Home Rule Leagues was organized before non-cooperation

movement. Methods of strike were combined with fasting and praying.   
 2. Promotion of Khadi and village industries through use of spinning wheel, khadi bhandars, and
boycott of foreign cloth.  

3. Promotion of Hindu-Muslim unity was emphasised in messaging and symbolism, through network of

Ashrams across villages.  

4. Removal of untouchability was worked upon through work among lower castes and tribals. For
example, the Bardoli Sayagraha.  

Role played by constructive programme in non-cooperation and civil disobedience movement:  

1. Volunteers promoting use of Khadi provided ground workers and support during civil

disobedience movement.  

2. During non-cooperation movement, constructive programme kept up the spirit of people in wake

of disappointment due to suspension of movement.  

3. Constructive work expanded the reach of the national movement across caste and class barriers  

Constructive programme of Mahatma Gandhi provided the cadre for freedom struggle, created training arena for
them and expanded the social basis of the national movement.  

6. Evaluate the policies of Lord Curzon and their long-term implications on the national movements.
2020
When Lord Curzon became the Viceroy of India in 1899, the national movement wasstill in itsinfancy. The Indian
National Congress has been established in 1885 and was dominated by the moderates who believed in pleading
and petitioning to have their demands met.

Policies adopted by Lord Curzon

 Imperialism: Curzon was a true imperialist and deeply racist, and convinced of Britain’s “civilising
mission”. He was intolerant of Indian political aspirations and his ambition was to strangulate the national
movement. He had famously said, “Congress is tottering to its fall, and one of my greatest ambitions
while in India is to assist it to a peaceful demise.”
 Calcutta Corporation Act, 1899: The Act reduced the number of the elected representative to the
Calcutta Corporation. The aimwasto deprive Indians ofself-governance and serve the interests ofthe
European business community who complained of delay in grants of licences.
 University Act, 1904: On the pretext to raise the standard of education all around, the Act reduced the
number of elected senate members. A countrywide movement against this Act was launched.
 Bengal Partition, 1905: Bengal was divided, on the pretext of administrative convenience, in two
separate provinces. Besidesthe ostensible reason,the real motive wasto check the relentlessly rising
nationalism among the Bengalis. Curzon wanted to create fission based on religious identity.

Implication of Curzon’s policies

 The stepstaken by Curzon to curb political aspirations created resentment and a confrontation with the
educated middle-class nationalists ensued.
 The Swadeshi movement was started in Bengal in 1905 with an appeal to boycott British goods and
promote swadeshi. It was probably the first wide-scale movement after the revolt of 1857. The future
movements by Gandhiji, such Non-Cooperation were considered to be based on Swadeshi movement.
 The movement had started on the conventional moderate lines but later it was taken over by the
extremists and became a nation-wide anti-colonial movement. Leaders like Tilak, Bipin Pal, Aurobindo
Ghose started to dominate the Congress.
  Later, numerousrevolutionary organisation like Jugantar began to emerge. They actively engaged in anti-
colonial activities and instilling nationalism among the youth.

The partition of Bengal and the high-handed behaviour of Curzon fired the national movement. His policies,
contradictory to his beliefs,strengthened and extended the reach of nationalism. He also ended up extending the
clout of extremists and revolutionaries who did not believe in pleading and petitioning.

7. Since the decade of the 1920s, the national movement acquired various ideological strands and
thereby expanded its social base. Discuss. 2020
The 1920s was a watershed decade in the history of Indian National Movement. The events and changes which
manifested in the decade were seminal as they remarkably changed the course of the freedom struggle.

Ideologies that influenced freedom struggle

 Gandhian: Mahatma Gandhi introduced new techniques of Ahimsa (non-violence) and Non-cooperation

to the national movement. The Non-Cooperation Movement in the early 1920s was the first true nation-
wide movement.
 Communism: A powerful left-wing group developed in India in the late 1920s and 1930s. The stream of
the struggle for independence and that of the struggle for social and economic emancipation of the
suppressed began to come together. The establishment of organisations like Communist Party of India
(1925), All India Trade Union Congress (1920) and Workers’ and Peasants’ Parties (1927) extended the
reach of communism throughout India among workers and peasants.
 Communalism: Post-1922, communalism reared its ugly head and the country was repeatedly plunged
into communal riots. Old communal organizations were revived and fresh ones were founded. The
Muslim League and Hindu Mahasabha began to further their vested interests.
 Revolutionary activism: The failure of peaceful mediums had frustrated the youth. They began to
mobilise with secret organisationslikeHindustan Republic Association (1923) andHindustan Socialist
Republic Association (1928). RamPrasad Bismil, Ashfaqulla Khan, Chandrashekhar Azad, Bhagat Singh
among others actively engaged in anti-colonial activities and encouraged youth to join the cause.

Expansion of social base

 Gandhiji for the first time made the national movement a mass movement. People from every
background began to participate in the protests. Peasants (Eka movement), tribals(Alluri Sitaram Raju)
vigorously engaged in challenging the authority of British rule.
 Due to this new awakening,the suppressed social classes asserted theirrightin society. Movementslike
Vaikom Satyagraha of Kerala (1924), Adi-dharma movement of Punjab (1926) were the outcome of the
aspirations of the suppressed and Dalits.
 Women no longerremained confined to the houses and freedom-fighterssuch as Rajkumari Amrit Kaur,
Sucheta Kripalani and Aruna Asaf Ali actively participated and shaped the national movement.

Earlier, the freedom struggle, with a narrow social base, was largely confined to the middle-class and elites. The
1920s witnessed the expansion ofthe social base and people fromevery stratumbegan to associate themselves
with it through different ideological dimensions. The participation of masses made the struggle more vibrant and
inclusive.

8. The 1857 Uprising was the culmination the recurrent big and small local rebellions that had occurred
in the preceding hundred years of British rule. Elucidate. 2019
Introduction

 “The Indian Rebellion was not one movement, … it was many.” C.A. Bayly brings to our notice
what Eric Stokes has written in his book ‘The peasant armed: the Indian Revolt of 1857’.
 During the first century of British rule, there were a series of uprisings which Kathleen Gough has
called “restorative rebellions’’ as they were started by disaffected local rulers, Mughal officials or
dispossessed zamindars.
 The century before 1857 witnessed more than 40 major rebellions apart from hundreds of minor ones.
However, these were local in character and effects & isolated from each other because each rebellion
had a different motive.
Peasant Uprisings

 The Faqir and Sanyasi Rebellions, Bengal & Bihar (1770-1820s): These were widely recurrent
confrontations with almost 50,000 participants involved at the height of insurgency.
 The Revolt of Raja Chait Singh, Awadh (1778-81): Primary goal was to restore the existing agrarian
relations and it kept recurring till 1830s.
 Polygar Rebellions, Andhra Pradesh (1799-1805): Polygars (feudal lords appointed as military chiefs)
were joined by peasants against Company’s tactics and the rebellion reached a big scale before it was
oppressed.
 Paika Rebellion, Odisha (1817): An armed rebellion under the leadership of Bakshi Jagabandhu
against the Company’s rule. 
 Fairazi Movement, Eastern Bengal (1838-1848): First ever no-tax campaign led by Shariatullah Khan
and Dadu Mian. It was local in nature and kept on recurring till 1870s.

Tribal Uprisings

 Bhil Uprisings, Khandesh (present day Maharashtra & Gujarat), (1818-31): Bhils rebelled against
the British occupation of Khandesh but were crushed in 1819 but the situation remained unsettled till
1831.
 Kol Uprising, Chhota Nagpur & Singhbhum region, Bihar & Orissa (1831-32): Plunder and arson
were the chief mode with negligible killings but had a major impact in the region.
 Santhal Uprising, Eastern India (1855-56): The most effective tribal movement which spread rapidly
covering areas of Bihar, Orissa and Bengal against British infiltrating policies.

Conclusion
The century long economic exploitation, political subjugation, discriminatory policies, religious interference and
suppression of uprisings finally culminated in the revolt of 1857 giving a platform to the discontented leaders of
the earlier rebellions to raise voices against the Company.

9. Examine the linkages between 19th centuries ‘Indian Renaissance’ and the emergence of national
identity. 2019

Nineteenth century witnessed significant changes in Indian polity and society consequent to the expansion
and consolidation of British imperialism in India which made Indians realise that their interests were
sacrificed in order to promote the interests of the British authority.

The impact of modern western culture and consciousness of defeat by a foreign power gave birth to a
new awakening. The modern educational systems familiarised the educated classes with the ideas of
equality, liberty and nationalism. They were impressed by modern science and the doctrines of reason and
humanism. Thoughtful Indians who were product of modern education began to look for the strengths and
weaknesses of their society aimed at giving back to the nation its lost identity.

This new cultural project, which partly manifested itself through the social and religious reforms was encoded in
the phrase ‘Indian Renaissance’. It marked a period of transition in values, transformation in social sensibilities
and rebirth in cultural creativity.

A defining feature of the movement was an inquiry into the past and an assessment of the traditions to
overcome contemporary problems. Ram Mohan Roy’s use of Hindu scriptures in his debate with his opponents
on Sati, or Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar’s widow remarriage campaign, or Narayana Guru’s advocacy of
universalism sought to eliminate social obscurantism, religious superstition and irrational rituals. The common
feature that they all shared was the urge to transform the existing social and cultural conditions, ranging
from irrational religious practices and rituals to the oppressive state of women’s lives.

Renaissance ‘purified’ and ‘rediscovered’ an Indian civilisation that was conformant with the European
ideals of rationalism, empiricism, monotheism and individualism. It was meant to show that Indian civilisation
was by no means inferior to that of the West, rather in one sense, in its spiritual accomplishments it was even
superior to it.

Evidence of this search for a superior national culture could be found in the development of patriotic regional
literature, in the evolution of new art forms, in the search for purer forms of classical music and in
the construction of new ideals of womanhood. The literary movement led by Bankim Chandra
Chattopadhyay, Tagore, Iqbal and Subramaniya Bharati provided leadership with imagination and fervor.

The movement, thus, not only talked of beauty and nationalism but also revealed to its followers India in terms of
its spirit, its philosophy, its arts, its poetry, its music and its myriad ways of life. The sense of pride in the spiritual
essence of Indian civilisation, as opposed to the material culture of the West, motivated Indians to confront the
colonial state in a newly emerging public space. This, in other words, provided the ideological foundation of
modern Indian nationalism that developed in the late nineteenth century.

10. Many voices had strengthened and enriched the nationalist movement during the Gandhian phase.
Elaborate. 2019

Gandhian Phase in Indian freedom struggle is undoubtedly remarkable because of the perspective Gandhiji
provided to the masses and the way he guided the freedom fighters with the means of truth and non-violence.

But there were numerous other simultaneous factors which further strengthened Gandhi’s efforts and contributed
to the nationalist movement.

Voices which strengthened and enriched the nationalist movement:

 Khilafat Movement (1919-22) was launched by the Indian Muslims to pressurise the British government
to preserve the authority of Ottoman Sultan as Caliph of Islam. Gandhi and Congress leaders viewed it
as an opportunity for cementing Hindu-Muslim unity and bringing the Muslims in the National
Movement although this event is said to have brought the issue of religion in the freedom struggle.
 The ideological differences between the Swarajists and the No-Changers within the congress led to
serious changes and contribution. No-changers continued their constructive programme of spinning,
temperance, Hindu-Muslim unity, removal of untouchability etc whereas Swarajists won the election of
Central Legislative Assembly in november 1923 filling the political void while the national movement
was regaining its strength.
 Marxism and other socialist ideas spread rapidly in 1927 under J.L. Nehru and S.C. Bose’s
leadership. The left wing did not confine its concern to freedom struggle only but raised the question
of internal class oppression by the capitalists and landlords. It strengthened the voices of the
marginalised and poor of the country and connected them to the movements.
 Revolutionaries like R.P. Bismil, C.S. Azad and Bhagat Singh among others took the responsibilities
of informing people about a necessary revolution to uproot British Empire. The Terrorist Movement in
Bengal led by Surya Sen is notable because of the role of revolutionary women who participated.
 Students and peasant parties got involved and propagated Marxist and communist ideas while
remaining an integral part of the national movement and the Congress. In 1928, Bardoli
Satyagraha occurred under the leadership of Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel bringing forward farmers’
concerns.
 There was rapid growth of trade unionism under the leadership of All India Trade Union
Congress and many strikes took place during 1928 like Kharagpur, Jamshedpur and Bombay Textile
Mill strike is the most important. The traders and workers contributed to the struggle for
independence.
 Women from all over India were not left alone. They came forward and equally contributed to the
national movement. Kasturba Gandhi, VIjay Laxmi Pandit, Aruna Asaf Ali, Bhikaji Cama are some of
the most prominent who assumed leadership at different fronts.

Even the Business class participated by giving financial assistance and rejecting imported goods Every class,
section, age group, political ideology emerged, came forward and contributed to the national movement. Even
though it weakened the movement to some extent by the fragmentation and the internal ideological differences,
it mainly made the movement strong by diversifying it and adding alternative perspectives to it. This
multidimensional nature of the movement is one of the reasons for its success in 1947 when finally all the
unheard voices till then were heard.

11. Assess the role of British imperial power in complicating the process of transfer of power during the
1940s. 2019

Introduction
Britain never wanted to leave India but the promise to the Indian National Congress of independence in return of
Indian resources and army during World War Two; the post war financial and political exhaustion; change in
political power at the centre (Labour Party) whose ideology favoured the Congress party; increasing global
pressure and the inability to crush Indian leaders’ will and efforts finally led to the Indian independence.
However, Britain did succeed in making the process of transfer of power so complicated and hard that India still
suffers from them.

Cabinet Mission

 Sir Stafford Cripps was responsible for drafting the Cabinet Mission Plan, which proposed a
complicated system for India with three tiers- the provinces, provincial groupings and the centre.
The centre’s power was confined to foreign affairs, defence, currency and communication only.
 Three major groups of provinces: Group A, to include the Hindu-majority provinces; Group B,
containing the Muslim-majority provinces (western Pakistan); and Group C, to include the Muslim-
majority Bengal (eastern Pakistan).
 Even though both Nehru and Jinnah eventually refused to accept it, Lord Wavell authorised a cabinet
with Nehru as the Interim Prime Minister which enraged Jinnah who in turn resorted to direct action of
sparking riots and massacres.

Partition

 In July, 1947 the British Parliament passed the Indian Independence Act which provided for
the demarcation of India and Pakistan by midnight of August 14–15, 1947, in just one month. Two
Nations Theory was an important factor here and fuelled communalism.
 The task of demarcating the boundaries was given to a British lawyer, Sir Cyril Radcliffe who had
never visited the country before and was clueless about the social and political consequences of his
decision. Two boundary commissions were set up for it.
 During partition, there was a large-scale communal violence and forced migration of people,
probably the biggest in history.

Autonomy to Princely States

 The British paramountcy on the princely states and all the existing treaties of Britain with the princely
states before the independence ended in 1947.
 As princely states were not a part of the British India, they became independent and had the option to
either merge with India or with Pakistan or to stay independent.
 Even after the efforts of Lord Mountbatten, Nehru and Patel, few princely states like Kashmir,
Junagadh and Hyderabad posed some serious challenges in the already troubled times.

Conclusion
It was hard to let go of the main resource supplier and the market consumer but when the odds were not in
favour of Britain, it gave independence to India but made sure to create some contentious issues while leaving
India. A lot of current day problems like issue of enclaves with Bangladesh (later resolved through The
Constitution 100th Amendment Act, 2015), the migration issue, Kashmir issue between India-Pakistan etc. have
their roots in the complications created by the British imperial power during the 1940s.

12. Throw light on the significance of the thoughts of Mahatma Gandhi in the present times. 2018

Gandhian thoughts underline the most humane way to resolve many of the problems that plague our times, as
can be ascertained from the list given below:

Gandhian
Significance
Thoughts

The ideal of non-violence needs to guide the approach of individuals as well as nations and
Non-violence
world-organizations, as violence initiates a vicious circle of repression and injustice.

Satyagraha The moral framework of resistance which marked satyagraha is especially pertinent in the times
 when to be quiet or to collaborative seem to be the only dominant choice in face of any injustice.

In the age of markets laden with products based on generating and gratifying instinct of social
approval and when public-imagination is becoming increasingly vulnerable to demagogues, the
Swaraj
idea of Swaraj which had economic, social, spiritual and political connotations continues to be
significant.

Eliminating Caste disrimination has still not ceased to be a feature of Indian-public life. Gandhian ideal of
Untouchability social consciousness to eliminate it needs to be taken forward.

Women With glass-ceiling still far from being shattered in the public sphere, the Gandhian thought of
Emancipation women emancipation continues to hold relevance.

Gandhian thoughts about compassion, punctuality and sanitation are the other ideals that continue to hold value
in our times marked by strife, procrastination in public and private lives and casual attitude towards hygiene.

Ultimately, all ideals and thoughts of the Mahatma were reached by him via a process of life long
experimentation with truths and this makes Gandhian thoughts most significant in what is also being called by a
few as post-truth era.

13. Clarify how mid-eighteenth-century India was beset with the spectre of a fragmented polity.
2017

The first half of the eighteenth century witnessed decline and disintegration of the mighty Mughal Empire
and rise of virtually independent regional powers. Lack of strong central authority and emergence of regional
power weakened the political structure that led to rise of foreign power.

Factors that could be considered to play potent role in fragmented polity were–

o The Mughal court saw a host of weak emperors in succession, emperors who were incapable to
command the glorious empire and would rather indulge in wasteful extravagance of pomp and show.
Courtrooms became kingmaker’s ground for treachery and war of succession became recurrent.
o A number of powerful kingdoms such as Bengal, Avadh, Hyderabad and Mysore arose and became
virtually independent from the Mughal Empire. 
o The weakened Mughal Empire was challenged by Marathas time and again. Marathas captured vast
swathes of territory in northern and central India.
o The remaining illusion of continued domination of Mughal power was shattered by Nadir Shah’s (Shah of
Persia) invasion of India in 1739.
o Afghan ruler Ahmad Shah Abdali also made frequent inroads into Punjab and finally took over Delhi in
1756-57. Marathas, who were considered as only contender to fill the power vacuum in Delhi, were
defeated by Abdali's forces in the Third Battle of Panipat (1761). The war didn’t decide who will rule India
but who would not.

After these series of events, the Mughal Empire ceased to exist as an all-India empire in practice. The British
took advantage of the entire situation. They defeated the forces of Bengal in Battle of Plassey and finally
combined forces of Bengal, Awadh and Mughal were crushed in Battle of Buxar.

14. Why did the ‘Moderates’ fail to carry conviction with the nation about their proclaimed ideology and
political goals by the end of the nineteenth century? 2017

The moderates were not against the British rule per se and had strong belief in sense of justice and goodness of
the British rule. They pursued the policy of gradualism and constitutionalism. Constitutional reforms,
administrative re-organisation and protection of civil rights were high on agenda and methods of prayers, petition
and protest were followed.

Moderates met limited success in later stages due to various reasons–

o The political jargons used by the moderates were alien to uneducated masses. There was also lack of
political faith in the masses. Thus people largely remained aloof.
 o It was gradually realised that the British didn’t concede to any of the major demands of the moderates.
o Indian Council Act 1892 was criticised. Moves such as further amplification of repressive laws under IPC
and reduction in number of members in Calcutta Corporation didn’t go down well with progressive
elements in INC.  
o Political ideologies of the moderates were blamed to be inefficient. Methods followed by moderates were
described as political mendicancy. The result was emergence of a more militant school of thought.

However, the role of moderates can also not be negated. They were first to create national awakening among
Indians and prepared a solid ground for mass oriented national movement at later stages that followed.

15. Examine how the decline of traditional artisanal industry in colonial India crippled the rural economy.
2017

When the Britishers took over, traditional Indian artisans ruled the world and supplied about a quarter of all
manufactured goods produced in the world as famously quoted by Peter, the Great that ‘commerce of India was
the commerce of world!’

Nationalist economists proposed that with the beginning of British rule in mid-eighteenth century, the process of
deindustrialization started for the traditional artisanal industry. The various reasons for that were:

o The traditional artisanal industry lost its many patrons, like rulers, zamindars etc. after the coming of
colonial rule.
o The colonial rule flooded Indian market with cheaper manufactured goods against which Indian
handicrafts lost the competition.
o The colonial rule also opened Indian markets with zero import tax which went in favour of British
manufactured goods. Moreover, Indian goods were severely restricted in foreign markets due to
various regulations and taxes leading to loss of market.
o The artisans also suffered at the hands of colonial power by having to agree to exploitative terms. The
English carried on the put-out system of manufacture where the artisan was supplied with the materials
and the finished product was brought at a low price. The English also procured raw cotton from
peasants, at a low price and sold it at exorbitant rates to the artisans. Thus, the artisan suffered both
as a buyer and a seller.
o With the advent of railways in mid-nineteenth century onwards the process of deindustrialization was
further fastened by colonial economic and commercial penetration into the hinterlands of India.

This not only eroded the prosperous income base for millions of Indian artisans but eroded
the labour productivity of Indian agriculture due to crowding and the twin pillars of traditional Indian rural
economy were completely crumbled.

Thus, in a short span of just 200 years (1757-1947) the entire rural economy which was self-sustained and
prosperous for ages was completely crippled.

16. The women’s questions arose in modern India as a part of the 19th century social reform movement.
What were the major issues and debates concerning women in that period? 2017

In the 19th century, the problems of women in India invited the attention of Western humanitarian thinkers,
Christian missionaries and Indian socio-religious philosophers. Many issues related to women prevalent
during 19th century were discussed thoroughly.

o The socio-religious philosophers protested evil practices such as Sati, child marriage, prohibition of
widow remarriage, polygamy, dowry and the Devadasi system.
o Their views were strengthened when Christian missionaries exposed the evils of such social customs.
o Further, some of the enlightened British officials in India and England also initiated measures to remove
these social evils.
o Pandita Rama Bai, Savitribai Phule, Tarabai Shinde, Anandibai Joshi and Sarojini Naidu and many other
enlightened women came forward to liberate the rest of women.
o The practice of Sati was prohibited officially in 1829 in Bengal with the active participation of Raja Ram
Mohan Roy and then in Madras in 1830.
 o Reformers reinterpreted the Sashtras in favor of widow remarriage. In 1855 Ishwar Chandra
Vidhyasagar started a vigorous campaign in favor of widow remarriage.

To summarize, the issues of women in the 19th century are mainly related to the social upliftment of women in
Indian society. Efforts were on to empower women that included social reforms and economic self-reliance.

17. Highlight the importance of the new objectives that got added to the vision of Indian independence
since twenties of the last century. 2017

The ‘twenties of the last century’ was the watershed moment for the Indian national movement.
With emergence of new scenarios and actors the movement became a true mass movement.

This decade started on the backdrop of Russian Revolution and emergence of communism as an alternative to

Imperialism which presented a new ray of hope for the colonies undergoing struggle for independence. With the
rise of socialists and communists in India, the issues of peasants and workers became an important objective of
Indian independence.

Mahatma Gandhi returned to India in 1915 and with some initial experiments on limited scale in Champaran,
Kheda and Ahmedabad, finally in the early twenties he was all set to take the leadership of Indian National
Movement and this changed the vision of Indian independence.

o Starting with Non Cooperation Movement in the early twenties, he led Civil Disobedience Movement
in early thirties and finally Quit India in early forties. In these years, Indian national movement
transformed from the movement of few middle class elites, to a mass movement.
o The objectives of Independence became Swaraj and Sarvodaya where the fruit of independence was to
be tasted by the last man standing in the row and not mere the transfer of power from one set of white
elites to another Indian elites.
o After twenties the goal of political independence was gradually broadened by the constructive
programmes where the issues of untouchability and Hindu- Muslim unity were also considered as
important goals.
o Fundamental Rights and Economic Policy was shaped during Karachi resolution of 1931.

Hence the vision of Indian independence was broadened in scale and scope after the twenties of last century.

18. Explain how the Uprising of 1857 constitutes an important watershed in the evolution of British
policies towards colonial India. 2016

The Revolt of 1857 gave a severe jolt to the British administration in India and made its re-organization
inevitable. The Government of India’s structure and policies underwent significant changes after the Revolt.

Changes in Administration: By the Act of Parliament of 1858, the power to govern India was transferred from
the East India Company to the British Crown. The authority over India was now to be exercised by a Secretary of
State for India aided by a Council.

The Indian Council Act of 1861 enlarged the Governor’s Council for the purpose of making laws, which was
known as the Imperial Legislative Council.

Provincial Administration: The British had divided India for administrative convenience into provinces, three of
which- Bengal, Bombay and Madras-were known as Presidencies. The Presidencies were administered by a
Governor and his Executive Council of three, who were appointed by the Crown.

Changes in the army: The domination of the army by its European branch was carefully guaranteed. The
proportion of Europeans to Indians in the army was raised. The crucial branches of artillery, tanks and armored
corps were put exclusively in European hands. The Indians were strictly excluded from the higher posts.

Divide and Rule: Immediately after the revolt they suppressed Muslims, confiscated their lands and property on
a large scale, and declared Hindus to be their favorite. After 1870, this policy was reversed and an attempt was
made to turn Muslims against the nationalist movement. The Government cleverly used the attraction of
government service to create a split between the educated Hindus and Muslims.
Relations with Princely States: Loyalty of Princely States was now rewarded with the announcement that
their right to adopt heirs would be respected and the integrity of their territories guaranteed against future
annexation.

The officials became hostile to the educated Indians when the latter began to organise a nationalist movement
among the people and founded the Indian National Congress.

The lands of most of the talukdars of Awadh were restored to them. The zamindars and landlords were now
hailed as the traditional and ‘natural’ leaders of the Indian people. Their interest and privilege were protected and
they, in turn, became the firm supporters of British rule in India.

Hence, in essence, uprising in 1857 was an important mark from which the British government started
consolidating its hold over India, with an aim of having long lasting empire.

19. Discuss the role of women in the freedom struggle especially during the Gandhian phase. 2016

The freedom struggle in India symbolized a cauldron in which various sections of society contributed according
to their potential to create a flavor of nationalism. In this context the role of women is very significant. The role of
women in national movement evolved through various stages during which they were awarded different roles.
Initially stages, the literati portrayed Indian women as ‘Mother’ and linked it to ‘Bharat Mata’ (in Bankim
Chandra Chattopadhyaya’s Anand Nath). The reform movements of 19 th century presented the image of Ideal
mother, Ideal wife and Ideal sister.

Women’s active participation in mass movements began with the Swadeshi Movement in 1905 and only grew in
later movements. Gandhiji accorded special role to women in NCM and CDM. He glorified their strength despite
accepting their biological and social limitations. During Gandhian struggles the image of women changed
from motherhood to sisterhood. To inspire confidence in them, Gandhiji presented examples
of Sita and Damayanti. Some of women leaders during Gandhian struggle are as follows:

 Anusuya Ben — Accompanied gandhiji in his tours and actively participated in 1918 Ahmedabad Textile
milk strikes.
 Sarojini Naidu — Led the raid on Dharasana salt works during civil movement following gandhiji arrest
along with his son Manilal.
 Mridula Sarabai — A Gandhian who worked with Vanara Sena (Organised by Indira Gandhi).
 Besant — Helped Gandhiji organised Rowlatt Satyagrahs through Home Rule Leagues.

In addition to these Gandhian leaders, women also participated in freedom struggle in other capacities:

 Revolutionary Extremists — Kalpana Dutta (Chittagong Armoury raid), Bina Das/shot Bengal governor
point blank, Durga Bhabhi/member of HSRA) etc.
 Women during Quit India Movement — Usha Mehta (Congress Radio), Sucheta Kriplani/Underground
movement) etc.
 Indian National Army’s Rani Jhansi regiment led by Lakshmi Swaminadhan (Sehgal).

20. Highlight the differences in the approach of Subhash Chandra Bose and Mahatma Gandhi in the
struggle for freedom. 2016
Mahatma Gandhi and Subhash Chandra Bose were both legendary personalities, gigantic in their political moral
and ethical stature. Both played crucial roles in the freedom movement. They were both internationalists and
humanists as well as secular in their approach and anti-social in their outlook. In spite of their common thought
process, there were glaring differences in their approach. They are as follows:

 Subhash Chandra Bose was a radical socialist meaning that he wanted to change the existing socio-
economic situation whereas Gandhi was a conservative.
 The young members, of INC including Bose demanded complete self-rule without any compromise while
the senior members were okay with dominion status for India within British rule.
 Bose had a strong revolutionary urge to achieve freedom while Gandhi believed in passive resistance.
  Bose proposed the idea of complete Independence from the British rule. He wanted Swaraj based on all
out struggle. Gandhi on the other hand believed in the concept of Struggle-Truce-Struggle. Gandhi was
in favour of trusteeship theory and aspired village to be self-sustained economy.
 Bose was a strong supporter of Fascism which was obvious in his strong belief that India needed a
political system which was a mix of fascism and communism. Gandhi on the other hand was an anti
fascist who did not propagate any such extreme political system.
 Bose was open to the idea of taking foreign assistance to achieve freedom as seen in the formation of
Indian national Association while Gandhi was completely against any such idea.

Despite their ideological defferences both Gandhi and Bose spoke highly of each other. There were occasions
when Bose praised Gandhi for his success in involvement of women in freedom struggle. Even Gandhi while
differing from Bose’s extreme methods had utmost admiration for his unique effort for India’s freedom, mainly his
struggle for freedom from outside India. Cue must be taken from these two great leaders’ tolerance and respect
towards each other even after serious difference of opinion.

21. How different would have been the achievement of Indian independence without Mahatma Gandhi?
Discuss. 2015

Introduction: Briefly start by stating the importance of Gandhiji in India’s freedom struggle
Body:
● Briefly mention the role played by Mahatma Gandhi in India’s freedom struggle by stating the core values of
Gandhiji.
● Mention how the course of independence would have been different if the freedom struggle was devoid of
Mahatma Gandhi’s ideals and values.
Conclusion: Restate the role played by Gandhiji while acknowledging the fact that Indian Independence was a
team effort

Introduction:
Mahatma Gandhi has been the central pillar upon which edifice of the Indian freedom movement was based. He,
with other freedom fighters, forced the Britishers to leave India. His action, words are the source of inspiration for
millions, without which India's tryst with destiny can’t be imagined.

Importance of Mahatma Gandhi in Freedom Struggle:

 Non-Violence:
o For Gandhiji Non-violence was an article of faith. This made the Indian freedom struggle largely a peace
movement.
 Satyagraha:
o Satyagraha was the political tool of Gandhiji based on the idea of Truth and Nonviolence. It became the major
reason behind the success of the Indian freedom struggle.
 Inclusiveness:
o Gandhi's idea of Satyagraha based on Non-violence made sure the participation of people from all the rungs of
society. It gave a character of the All India movement to the freedom struggle.
 Example: Women, Peasants, Workers, Industrialists etc.
 Political Leader:
o In the words of Bipin Chandra, he understood mass psychology.
o His Methodology of Struggle-Truce-Struggle was based on the above understanding.
 Champions of Human Rights:
o He worked for the upliftment of downtrodden Dalits via his Organisation like Harijan Sevak Sangh. This made
the movement more inclusive.

Indian Independence without Mahatma Gandhi:

 Fragmented Polity:
o Gandhiji provided a united front against the might of the British. He made sure that the movement remained
inclusive and also checked the rise of provincial leaders challenging the unity and integrity of the nation.
 Armed Revolution:
o Without Gandhiji”s thrust over the values of Love and Non-violence, the movement would have been more
revolutionary and radical in nature.
 Threat to Integrity:
o Gandhiji weaned the people with the thread of solidarity. Without him the communitarian interests would have
become the threat to the integrity.
 Division in classes:
o All the classes of the people united under one banner or leader i.e Mahatma Gandhi. In absence of which
there would have been not just the division on the basis of caste but also on the basis of class.
 Communal Polity:
o The communal forces could have dominated the political scene of the country and things could have been
different now. Swadeshi and boycott movements wouldn’t have been more successful without Gandhi.

Conclusion:
There is no doubt that India would have achieved Independence without Gandhi but the role of Gandhi was very
significant in achieving as well as preserving the Independence of India. The contribution of Gandhi ji in the
achievement of Indian independence needs to be cherished and remembered.

22. It would have been difficult for the Constituent Assembly to complete its historic task of drafting the
Constitution for Independent India in just three years but for the experience gained with the Government
of India Act, 1935. Discuss. 2015

Introduction:
Briefly mention about the context of Constituent Assembly and its significance in formulating the Constitution
of India.
Body:
● Mention about the challenges faced by constituent assembly in brief.
● Mention how the Government of India Act, 1935 helped in the formulation while stating the provisions taken
from it.
● Also try to mention other important developments that helped constitutional forefathers to frame the
constitution. Conclusion:
Briefly restate the importance of GOI Act, 1935 in constitution making.

Introduction:
Government of India act, 1935 is argued as an important milestone in the Indian constitution as it introduced
various vital provisions. It became the most go to piece of legislation for the constituent assembly while
formulating the Constitution of the free India.

Why framing a constitution of India was a challenging task:

 Partition:
o The Constituent Assembly of India sat for the first time on December 9, 1946, when the clouds of partition
were at full swing.
 Non-Cooperation:
o Muslim League: Made the Resolution of ‘Direct Action’ to carve an independent country of Pakistan.
o Socialists: Unwillingly to join initially as they believed the Constituent Assembly was a creation of the British,
and therefore incapable of being truly autonomous.
 Diversity:
o Indian constitution is the lengthiest written constitutions. This was necessary to accommodate all the diverse
characteristics of the Indian society and to ensure the territorial integrity of the nation.

The Indian constitution had numerous provisions borrowed from other constitutions and legislations. In this
context, the GOI Act, 1935 played an important role by providing a basic framework to the constitution.

Features of GOI Act, 1935 that were incorporated to fasten the constitution making process.

More than 50 % of the provisions of the Indian constitution had been adopted from the Government of India Act
1935.
 All India Federation:
o It became the basis of federal polity of contemporary times as it also provided for the representation of princely
states in the federal setup..
 Preamble:
o It was the first act with a definite preamble and became the source of influence for the present Preamble.
 Division of Power:
o The division of subjects into Federal, Provincial and Concurrent list can also be attributed to GOI Act 1935
which provided the division of power.
 Institutions:
o Like Post of Governor, Public Service Commission, Reserve bank of India, emergency provisions , Federal
Court were taken from this act.
 Adult franchise:
o This act extended the limited franchise based on certain criteria laying the foundation for adult franchise after
independence.
 Administrative setup:
o This act from the bedrock of the regulatory setup which is referenced in our current constitution. These
subtleties assisted the forefathers of the constitution with making a smooth progress from the frontier framework
to the Indian framework with next to no major difficulty.

Some of the other Sources that Helped Framing Constitution are as Follows:
 Nehru Report:
o The Nehru Report of 1929 was like a mini constitution which provided a lot of essential features whose
experiences later helped in the constitution formation.
 Regulating Acts:
o The various Regulating Acts, Government of India Acts paved the way for political enlightenment of the
Indians.

Borrowed provision from other countries constitutions

 Australia:
o Concurrent list, Joint-sitting of the two Houses of Parliament, Freedom of trade, commerce and intercourse.
 Canada:
o Federation with a strong Centre, Vesting of residuary powers in the Centre etc.
 Ireland:
o Directive Principles of State Policy, Method of election of the president etc.
 Russia:
o Fundamental duties, Ideals of justice (social, economic and political) in the Preamble
 UK:
o Rule of law, Parliamentary government, single citizenship etc
 US:
o Fundamental rights, Rule of law, Judicial review etc

Conclusion
Hence it tends to be securely said that the GOI Act 1935 gave the establishment and the experience to the
Indians to foster a lovely constitution that could cater and react to the necessities and prerequisites of the
assorted idea of the nation like India. It was for sure a turning point in Indian established history.

23. The third battle of Panipat was fought in 1761. Why were so many empire-shaking battles fought at
Panipat? 2014

Introduction:
The third battle of Panipat was fought in 1761 between Afghans and the Marathas which resulted in the defeat of
Marathas and their subsequent decline as power in India. Apart from this battle, the first battle of Panipat was
fought between Babur and Ibrahim Lodi, through which Babur established Mughal dynasty in India and the
second battle was fought between Akbar and Hemu for supremacy in India.

There were so many empire-shaking wars fought in Panipat, here are the following reasons:
● Strategic location: One of the parties of the war generally came from the north/northwest through the Khyber
Pass to get hold over Delhi, and to move a military through rough terrains, deserts of Rajasthan or the other
northern areas infested with dense forests was very risky and difficult. On the other hand, the rulers at Delhi
considered Panipat as a confront able strategic ground
● Close to Delhi: Panipat is close to Delhi and Delhi has been the capital of India since medieval times. Hence,
to capture India, one has to capture Delhi.
● Terrain: Panipat's surrounding region has a flat ground which was suitable for cavalry movement—the main
mode of warfare at the time.
● GT road make it easier to travel: India faced so many invaders from North especially from North-West and
Panipat fell on the G.T. Road made by Sher Shah Suri was a preferred battleground for such invaders.
● Climate: The duration of monsoon rainfall in the region is short in comparison to other areas making it easier
to fight.
● Presence of artisans: Panipat and its surrounding regions is famous for artisans such as blacksmith,
carpenters, and others that were very important for making weapons and instruments for battle. Easy availability
of such resource made Panipat a good option for staging battles.
Conclusion
Hence all the above factors combined has made the Panipat a battle ground made to enter India. Also, the
Indian rulers prefers Panipat because they also wanted to fight outside Delhi as it would perhaps disturb the
normal lifestyle of the civilians.

24. Examine critically the various facets of economic policies of the British in India from mid- eighteenth
century till independence. 2014

Introduction:
The economic policies pursued by the British in India had for the most part negative effects on the Indian
economy. It changed the nature of the rural and agrarian economy in India, and adversely affected various
sections of society such as artisans, farmers, handicraftsmen etc.

British economic policy can be divided into 3 phases

 Phase 1: mercantile policy (1757 to 1813)
● Led to drain of wealth
● Land revenue settlement put use burden on peasants. Example: Permanent settlement
● Craft men were forced to sell products and raw material at cheaper price
 Phase 2: imperialism and industrial capitalism (1813 to 1858)
● Industrial revolution in Britain required raw material
● Imposition of one-way free trade, British goods were dumped in India while Indian goods face High tariff . For
example: 85% duty on Muslin
● Commercialization of agriculture for raw material like cotton, Indigo, oil seeds. It also led to widespread famine.
● Indian handicraft industries were destroyed due to machine made goods by British
 Phase 3: financial capitalism (1858 killed freedom)
● Emphasize on infrastructure to suit imperial need. Example: Telegraph, Postal Services
● Foreign capital earned from India itself were reinvested. For example, Railway offered 5% return
● The burden was put on Indian tax payers
● Other institutions structures education court room police stations legitimizing British rule

Impact of British policies– Positive Aspects

● New Job Opportunities: The British introduce new job opportunities that were especially beneficial to the
members of the lower caste. With these opportunities, there was a better chance of upward social mobility for
them
● Rise of the modern middle class in India: British rule led to the rise of an influential middle-class who would
become pioneers of Indian industrialization in the post-independent era.
● Development of Infrastructure: The British authorities built many important infrastructures such as hospital
schools and the most important of all, railways. Of course, this was done not to enhance the lives of the local
Indians but rather to facilitate their exploitation. Regardless these infrastructures laid the foundation of India
becoming a major economic powerhouse
● Introduction of new technology and ideas: The introduction of new technology like steamships, telegraphs
and trains completely changed the economic landscape of the Indian subcontinent. Impact of British policies –
Negative Aspects
● Destruction of Indian Industry: When Britain took over, they forced the governments to import goods from
the British Isles rather than create their own products. This led to the local cloth, metal and carpentry industries
to fall into disarray. It made India a virtual hostage of Britains economic machinations which meant breaking
away from it would destroy India’s economy.
● British mismanagement led to famines: The British rule placed more emphasis on the cultivation of cash
crops rather than growing crops that would feed India’s huge population. They imported food from other parts of
the empire to feed its citizens. This policy, combined with the unequal distribution of food, led to 24 famines
killing millions between 1850 and 1899 alone. The first and if not the worst of this lot was the Bengal Famine of
1770
● Britain plundered the Indian Economy: Due in no small part to the unethical business practices of the East
India Company it can be estimated that trillions were siphoned off by Britain. Such practices even destroyed the
Indian industries and ensured that money flowing through the Indian economy ended up in the hands of London.

Conclusion
British rule and economic policy are normally intended towards economic exploitation though it created basic
infrastructure and unified India politically it was considered as a blessing in disguise.
25. In what ways did the naval mutiny prove to be the last nail in the coffin of British colonial aspirations in India?
2014

Introduction:
The Royal Indian Naval Ratings or Naval mutiny was a revolt of Indian Naval servicemen against British higher
officials. The earliest revolt was against racial discrimination by British officials but soon it turned into a rebellion
and spread across India.

Causes of Royal Indian Navy Rebellion

 Firstly, the rating of HMIS Talwar was subjected to racial discrimination by the British forces. The Indian and
the British troops were paid unequal salaries even for the identical designation, which created much resentment
among the Indian soldiers.
 Secondly, the ratings were provided with unpleasant food and working conditions, which were hard for
them to bear for even a day. It is said that this became the primary reason for the naval mutiny.
 Thirdly, the reason for the RIN strike was the arrest of BC Dutt, who wrote in HMIS Talwar, “Get out of
India.” The day after the strike began, the qualifiers traveled to Bombay by truck, flew Congress flags, and
European and police officers tried to resist them.
 Fourthly, the primary demand of the protesting sailors demanded the release of all political prisoners
arrested over the INA trials, including Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose. They even wanted the release of Indian
Troops held in Indonesia by the British forces.

Revolt proved final nail in the coffin

● This revolt was different from the other revolts in the sense that, after 1857 it was the first time that the British
realized that the Royal Indian forces were no more obedient to the British commands and were in
concurrence with the overall defiant nationalist sentiments prevailing in the entire country.
● Mutinies are usually confined to a particular station, establishment or ship. However, this was the first instance
when the entire service joined the revolt.
● Most striking feature was that it was directed against the British government and not against superior
officers – not a single officer, British or Indian, was harmed.
● Fearless action by the masses was an expression of militancy in the popular mind. Revolt in the armed forces
had a great liberating effect on the minds of people.
● It displayed that the armed forces no longer obeyed the British authority rather it was the nationalist
leaders who held sway over them. The RIN revolt was seen as an event marking the end of British rule.

Conclusion
The RIN mutiny proved to be a final nail on the coffin of British rule. Many reasons contributed to the hastened
end of the British rule in India, and RIN Mutiny was one of them. It is one of the most important events in India’s
struggle for freedom, convincing the British government that it could no longer hold on to India.

26. Defying the barriers of age, gender and religion, the Indian women became the torch bearer during
the struggle for freedom in India. Discuss. 2013

For the first struggle in 1857 to the last struggle in 1942, Women have played an instrumental role in India‟s
struggle for independence.

 They played critical role during Swadeshi movement where they picked up the liquor shops and burnt
the foreign cloths in street.
 A nationalistic cult around Bharat Mata (mother India) started to emerge which further necessitated the
role of women.
 Independent bodies of women such as RashtriyaStreeSanghaswere fused with District Congress
Committees.
 They provided leadership to movements like Sarojini Naidu played critical role in dharsana Satyagraha
during civil disobedience movement.
 Revolutionary leaders like KalpanaDutt, Rani Gadililu took arms in their hands, faced police brutalism
but stood their way.
 SarojiniNaidu , Annie Bessant headed the congress session and were critical in organizing the protest.
 Anni Besant was critical in home rule movement which made people aware about concept of Swarjya.
 Usha Mehta, Aruna Asif Ali provided critical support during Quit India Mission.
 CaptailLaxmi Sehgal was critical in INA mutiny.
 There were numerous women who stayed in home but provided moral, material support to freedom
 fighters. They even sold their jewellery to arrange the necessary material means to continue the fight.

Thus, women played a critical role in freedom movement and made it more inclusive, wide based support. It also
boosted the morale of other freedom fighters.

27. Several foreigners made India their homeland and participated in various movements. Analyze their
role in the Indian struggle for freedom. 2013

Many foreigners had participated in freedom movement in their different capacity and provided it necessary
support.

 James Hicky and Henry Derozio showed appreciation for Indian culture and criticised british rule of
oppression.
 Members of Asiatic society, who were largely foreigners, focussed on spreading the vernacular
language. Mass literacy could enable freedom fighters to dissipate idea of freedom because of their
efforts.
 Annie Besant provided leadership to the Congress. She conceptualized and spreaded the home rule
movement which became foundation for Gandhiji to spread his movement.
 CharlessDinBandhu Andrews criticized british for their oppressive rule. He advocated for the rights of
Indian in Other colonies. He worked for the upliftment of lower class. Gandhiji had given him the title of
Dinbhandhu.
 A.O.Hume had founded the Congress to spearhead the freedom struggle movement. He
conceptualised it as umbrella of all the ongoing freedom movements.
But the role of foreigners was limited in the Freedom Struggle.
 They couldn‟t connect to the masses due to language constraint.
 They also believed in British philosophy of bringing civilization to uncivilized population.
 Most foreigners were part of the British administration and didn‟t want to take action against their
peers.
 Concept of Non violent protest was alien to them.
 They believed in the supremacy of western education and western civilization.
 There were not enough means of transportation to support the struggle for well meaningforeigners as it
exists today.

Thus, Foreigners participation was there but limited in the struggle.

28. In many ways, Lord Dalhousie was the founder of modern India. Elaborate. 2013

Lord Dalhousie is referred as founder of modern India beacause of political, administrative and social reforms
carried out by him to develop a modern India.
Political:
 He brought doctrine of lapse to acquire the princely states. He acquired Satara, Nagpur, Jhansi
through this doctrine. It helped in creating a more holistic map of India.
Administrative:
 He brought Railways to India for transporation. First Railway between Bombay to Thane was run
during his time period. It completely transformed the transportation in the country and plays a critical role
in economy even today.
 He established telegraph line from Agra to Calcutta. It enable faster communication between distant
cities and brought part of Industrial revolution to India.
 He established postal department and brought postal stamp for post. Modern India‟s communication
hinged on this two innovation brought by him before arrival of internet and mobile phone.
 Charter act during his tenure brought competitive exams for selection of IAS. It increased chances of
Indians getting selected in the IAS and paved way for indigenisation of services.

4. HISTORY OF THE WORLD WILL INCLUDE EVENTS FROM 18TH CENTURY SUCH AS
INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION, WORLD WARS, REDRAW OF NATIONAL BOUNDARIES,
COLONIZATION, DECOLONIZATION, POLITICAL PHILOSOPHIES LIKE COMMUNISM, CAPITALISM,
SOCIALISM ETC.- THEIR FORMS AND EFFECT ON THE SOCIETY.

1. “There arose a serious challenge to the Democratic State System between the two World Wars.”
Evaluate the statement. 2021
The period between two world wars was relatively short, yet featured many significant social, political, and
economic changes throughout the world. Politically, the era coincided with the rise of communism, starting in
Russia with the October Revolution and Russian Civil War, at the end of World War I.

Challenges to democratic system:

 The conditions of economic hardship caused by the Great Depression brought about significant social
unrest around the world, leading to a major surge of fascism and in many cases, the collapse of
democratic governments.
 In the 1930s the breakdown of the League of Nations, the rise of aggressive dictatorships posed a
serious threat to democracy throughout the world.
 After the Nazis took power and implemented their anti-semitic ideology and policies, the Jewish
community was increasingly persecuted. In 1936, Jews were banned from all professional jobs,
effectively preventing them from participating in education, politics, higher education and industry.
 The Spanish Civil War, (1936–39) was a military revolt against the Republican government of Spain,
supported by conservative elements within the country. When an initial military coup failed to win control
of the entire country, a bloody civil war ensued.
 The name most commonly given to a far-right movement and political party in Romania in the period
from 1927 into the early part of World War II. It was ultra-nationalist, anti-semitic, anti-communist, anti-
capitalist, and promoted the Orthodox Christian faith. Its members were called “Greenshirts’’ because of
the predominantly green uniforms they wore.
 Fascism also expanded its influence outside Europe, especially in East Asia, the Middle East, and South
America. In China, Wang Jingwei’s Kai-tsu p’ai (Reorganization) faction of the Kuomintang (Nationalist
Party of China) supported Nazism in the late 1930s.

The efforts of the League of Nations failed to maintain peace after the first world war. Eventually, Hitler’s
invasion of Poland in September 1939 drove Great Britain and France to declare war on Germany, marking the
beginning of World War II.

2. Explain how the foundations of the modern world were laid by the American and French
revolution.2019

The American Revolution and the French Revolution are considered as a cardinal epoch in world history. It gave
a death blow to the old orthodox system of governance and installed modern ideals for governing nations.

American Revolution’s contribution to Modern World

 Principles of liberty and democracy: The declaration of independence proclaimed that “all men are
equal”. It provided an impetus to the people of the world to demand liberty and freedom.
 Constitutionalism: The revolution led to the first written constitution in the world which served as an
inspiration for many nations who borrowed many ideas from the American constitution.
 The American war of independence gave birth to a novel system of government, viz, Federalism. In the
course of time, the federal form of government got popularity. This provided a nice template for power
sharing in diverse countries that needed complex polities.
 Promotion of Human Rights: The American war of independence laid stress on the rights of the human
being. The “Declaration of Rights” of Thomas Jefferson awakened the people about their rights.

French Revolution’s contribution to Modern World

 The democratisation of society: The French Revolution was a pan-European revolution. It hacked the
roots of the ancient system in Europe and ended the centuries-old feudal system. Before the revolution,
the society was based on inequality, disparity, privileges and concessions. The revolution attacked the
roots of this disparity. It initiated a new social organization.
 Ideals of modernity: liberty, equality and fraternity brought political awakening in Europe.
 Secularism: The revolution ended the sovereignty, despotism and corruption of the Church. The
importance of the worship of intellect and reason became more prominent.
 The people demanded not only political freedom but also right to property and freedom of expression.
They also demanded voting rights. Women claimed equal rights with men.
  The Revolution aroused the spirit of nationalism. It paved the way for the unification of Italy and
Germany. It also popularized the concept of democracy.
 Colonised peoples reworked the idea of freedom from bondage into their movements to create a
sovereign nation-state.
 Tipu Sultan and Rammohan Roy are two examples of individuals who responded to the ideas coming
from revolutionary France.

French and American revolution not only laid the edifice for a newly emerging egalitarian society and a new way
of polity in their respective countries but they also acted as the philosophical basis and aspiration of the people
of other nations. The revolutions highlighted the fundamentals of a civilised world which continues to shape the
global aspirations of today’s time.

3. Why indentured labour was taken by the British from India to other colonies? Have they been able to
preserve their cultural identity over there? 2018

Indentured labour was a system of bonded labour that was instituted following the abolition of slavery throughout
British Empire in 1833 as newly free men and women refused to work for low wages on sugar, tea plantations
and rail construction projects in British colonies of West Indies, Fiji, Mauritius and Ceylon.

In 19th century people were recruited as indentured labor from regions like Eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Central
India and dry districts of Tamil Nadu as these regions experienced many changes such as -
Decline of cottage industries, rising land rents and clearing of land for mines and plantations.
All this affected lives of poor as they failed to pay their rents and became deeply indebted – forcing them to
migrate in search of work to escape poverty and famine.
India’s large population provided the British Empire with a steady source of work force. Thus, British exploited
both the vulnerability and readily available large population.
Once placed in British colonies, festivals such as Muharram, Holi served as a placental link to preserve their
cultural Identity.

In Trinidad, the annual Muharram procession was transformed in to carnival ‘Hosay’ for Imam Hossain drawing a
large crowd.
The protest religion of RASTAFARIANISM popularized by Bob Marley reflects social and cultural links with
Indian migrants to Carribean.
Chutney music became popular in Trinidad.
Bollywood kept alive the cultural identity among indentured labor.
A rigid caste system of Indian society melted as indentured people identified more with ‘Indianness’, promoting
fraternal feeling.
Initiatives such as ’Know India Programme’ are conscious efforts by Government of India to ensure a continuum
of new generations with Indian ethos.
However, the Sri Lankan 13th Amendment to constitution is reminder that the quest to preserve their culture
continues in some places. By and large, indentured labour have been able to retain their cultural heritage and
renew their links with India both as potent act of resistance and a powerful affirmation of their distinctness.

4. What problems were germane to the decolonization process of Malay Peninsula. 2017

Malay Peninsula was under the British influence since they first came in the late 18 th century looking towards
Southeast Asia for new resources. Since then the British East India Company traded and partly controlled the
region. The growth of their China trade further increased the company’s desire for bases in the region near it.

The decolonization of Malaya Peninsula was an extension of the series of decolonization movements going
across the Asia and Africa and was influenced from this process which speeded-up after the World War-II.

o Malay Peninsula was a multi-racial, multi-cultural society with Malay Chinese and Indians forming major
ethnic and interest groups which was a suitable condition for colonial powers to consolidate their regime.
o Fall of Singapore and Japanese advances in Malay Peninsula during the World War–II forced the British
to consider reassessment of its non-interventionist policies in favour of ethnic cooperation and multiracial
government in this region. But with the presence of diverse interest of different groups reaching to a
consensus was a tough task.
 o Cold War ideological rivalry was prevalent in Malayan Peninsula too where with the rise
of commintern aligned communist parties like Malayan Communist Party and Chinese Communist
Organization, the fear of Malayan Peninsula falling to the Communists emerged.  It was a nightmare for
the liberal democracies/ colonial powers (i.e. British) which ensured transfer of power to ideologically
friendly regimes.

The decolonization of Malayan Peninsula was largely a result of long reconciliation process between the
Malayan nationalist and the European colonial powers.  Their mutual compromise gave the British the
confidence to speed up the process of decolonization through a smooth decolonization process.

5. The anti-colonial struggles in West Africa were led by the new elite of Western-educated Africans. Examine.
2016

The anti colonial struggles in West Africa as response to European imperialism assumed both violent and non-
violent form of resistance and spanned from late nineteenth century to mid twentieth century. The form of
resistance depended upon number of factors - influence of religion, nature of the colony, degree of imperialism
etc.

The role of intellectuals in the freedom struggle in various phases stood out as beacon of hope for later
movements (apartheid in South Africa in second half of twentieth century). One of the outstanding figures in
West Africa colonial struggle was Samouri Toure. He created large Mandinka Empire in West Africa and his
struggle is a significant example of pragmatic resistance against French. He manufactured firearms, relocated
his kingdom and engaged in diplomacy with both French and British.

Another form of resistance continued alongside violent resistance i.e. , the use of propaganda through press and
literature by intellectuals. J.T. Jabavu established the press ‘Native opinion’ (Imvozaba NTsundu) through which
Black south Africans expressed their opinions. The ‘Lagos weakly Record’ was founded by John Payne Jackson,
an America-Liberian journalist who was influential in Lagos, Nigeria in 19th–20th Century.

Besides press, the African intelligentsia also used societies, clubs and associations as vehicles for arising
consciousness and disseminating information. The Gold Coast Aborigines Rights Protection Society (APRS)
was one was one such associations formed in 1880s. In 1898 the ARPS successfully sent a petition to London
to address issues with land Bill, and later for repealing the Town council ordinance. Another important
organization founded in twentieth century was the ‘National Congress of British west Africa’ located in the gold
cost which consisted of mostly African intellectual.

6. Why did the industrial revolution first occur in England? Discuss the quality of life of the people there during
the industrialization. How does it compare with that in India at present? 2015

Introduction: Briefly contextualise the Industrial revolution in time and space.

Body:
● Mention the reason for the Industrial revolution occurring in England first.
● Mention the quality of life of the people there during the Industrial Revolution.
● Compare then England with contemporary India in context of quality of life of people with regards to the
Industrial Revolution.
Conclusion: Briefly mention about the irreversible nature of Industrialisation and its importance

Introduction:
The Industrial Revolution is the process of change from an agrarian and handicraft economy to one dominated
by industry and machine manufacturing. The first Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain after 1750.

Why Industrial Revolution Started in Britain?

 Economic Factor:
o Agricultural revolution: due to technological improvement and consolidation of land increased agricultural
productivity and ensured availability of raw material and labour for the Industrial revolution.
o Mercantilism: British in nature led to an increase in demand for British goods throughout the world. This also
led to the accumulation of wealth and capital.
o Iron and steel mines: Proximity of iron and steel mines too provided necessary impetus because it saved the
transportation cost.
o Financial institutions: Britain had financial institutions in place, such as a central bank, to finance new
factories and provided for the required capital base.
 Political Factors:
o Stability: Political stability in Britain in addition to recognitions of Civil & Political rights provided for the
industrial boom.
o Naval supremacy: allow them to follow “Blue water policy “ and establish their supremacy over trade routes.
o Colonialism: Great Britain's colonial empire created a ready supply of consumers to purchase its
manufactured goods.  Social and Religious factors:
o Enlightenment: Liberal, progressive ideas under the influence of enlightenment led to many breakthrough
inventions like weaving machines, steam engines, etc.
o Protestant Ethics: Protestant ethics led to accumulation of wealth and high savings rate.
 Technological reasons:
o Spinning Jenny: With James Hargreaves' invention of the spinning Jenny in 1764, yarn could be produced in
greater quantities.
o Power Loom: In 1787, Edmund Cartwright's power loom revolutionized the speed of cloth weaving.
o Steam Engine: In the 1760s, the steam engine (developed by James Watt) further transformed the cotton
industry.
o Transportation: England was the 1st country in the world to have a railway.

Quality of life of people during Industrialization in England:

 Positive Developments:
Increasing per capita income:
 It gave rise to working and middle classes and allowed them to overcome longstanding economic oppression
that they had endured for centuries beneath gentry and nobility.
Modern City: During this time, the industrial factory was created, which, in turn, gave rise to the modern city.
Employment: While employment opportunities increased for common people throughout country, members of
middle class were able to become business owners more easily.
Urbanization: Industrial base provided for the migration of people from rural region to urban setup.
 Negative Developments:
o Workers Conditions: Conditions were often dangerous, if not deadly.
 Conditions within these factories were often deplorable and, by today’s standards, unethical.
 Low wages, poor working conditions etc.
Child labour: increase in demand and greed of cheap labour gave rise to the problems of child labour.
Fear of unemployment: The fear of unemployment made workers hostile to the introduction of new technology
Seasonality of work: Seasonality of work in many industries meant prolonged periods without work. After the
busy season was over, the poor were on the streets again.
social institutions: Ethical and moral foundations weakened due to problems of slums, social crimes, etc.
 Family: There was a trend towards nuclear families, increase in social mobility, more emphasis on achieving
status. o Environment: high scale pollution due to industrialization.
o Poor Urbanization: due to lack of proper planning and higher migration of people led to the issues of slums.

Comparison of Industrialisation in England and India:

 Similarities:
o Environment: As India accord for 14 of the 20 most polluted cities.
o Poor urbanization: increase in slums and deteriorating water and sanitation conditions. o Poor working
conditions: high quantum of working hours, occupational diseases etc.
 Dissimilarities:
o Constitution: provided for Right to protection of labor.
o Labor laws: provide for regulation of working conditions, workers safety, regulation of wages etc.
o Labor Union: Article 19 of constitution provides for the fundamental right to form unions and cooperatives.

Conclusion
Industrial Revolution turned into an innovative experience. It additionally accelerated fabric wealth, prolonged
life, and turned into effective pressure for social change. And therefore, there has been extra to Industrial
Revolution than group of machines, it turned into now no longer best technological revolution however social-
financial revolution that modified manner human beings lived afterwards.

7. To what extent can Germany be held responsible for causing the two World Wars? Discuss critically.
2015

Introduction: Briefly introduce by mentioning the common thread regarding the role of Germany in both the
World Wars.
Body:
 ● Show how Germany was responsible for WW1 & WW2 respectively.
● Similarly, mention the other factors and actors involved for WW1 & WW2 respectively.
Conclusion: Clearly present your thoughts with concluding remarks, be it against Germany or for Germany
(balanced view)

Introduction:
The First World War (1914-1919) and World War II (1939-1945) are the most ruthless and damaging conflicts
that the world has seen in its set of experiences. A few nations were associated with the conflicts and its
belongings were felt around the world. While the conflicts were brought about by various variables, one angle
normal to both the conflicts was the support of Germany.

Responsibility of Germany for World War 1:

 Formations of Alliances:
o Bismark policy of alliances led to creation of tension and disturbance in the European balance of power. It
ultimately led to the division of Europe into armed groups Triple alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy)
and Triple Entente(Britain, France and Russia), which created a larger background behind World War I.
 Kaiser William-II:
o New emperor of Germany (in 1890) was a very ambitious and believer in forward policies i.e “Welt-politik”
(Literally ‘world policy’)
o He was an extraordinary radical and had a dream of production of an incredible provincial realm. He needed
German authority over world legislative issues. He also prompted provincial contention in Africa and the Far
East.
 Capitalism:
o Marxist historian points to the theory that the desire for economic mastery of the world caused German
businessmen and capitalists to want war with Britain.
 Schlieffen Plan:
o It was a German plan for mobilization, premised on various false assumptions, was extremely risky and
inflexible and deserved to be seen as the start of disaster both for Germany and Europe.
 Domestic Tensions:
o To ward off domestic tensions, Germany deliberately planned for, and provoked war in order to make
Germany the dominant power in the world, both economically and politically.
o Example: In 1914, the Reichstag passed a vote of no confidence in the Chancellor, Bethmann, but he
remained in office because the Kaiser had the final say.
o A triumphant conflict appeared to be a decent approach to keeping individuals' psyches off the political issues
and empower the public authority to keep power in the possession of the Aristocracy.

Other Factors Responsible for WW1:

 Austria: bitter enmity between the Austria and Serbia in the Balkans became the immediate cause of the war
leading to murder of Archduke Francis.
 Long Drawn process: Great war of 1914 was the culmination of the development that had been going on for
more than a generation  Example: Nationalism and Imperialism.
 Russia: was the first to order a general mobilization, and it was this Russian mobilization which provoked
Germany to mobilize.
 Tragedy of miscalculation:
o Austrians miscalculated by thinking that Russia would not support Serbia.
o Germany made a crucial mistake by promising to support Austria with no conditions attached. Perhaps the
most reasonable end is that Germany, Russia and Austria-Hungary all should share the obligation regarding the
episode of war in 1914.

Responsibility of Germany for WW2:

 Hitler’s Role: he was the major player dominating world politics in that era.
o Hatred for communism: wanted to destroy Russia and control it permanently.
o Treaty of Versailles: signed after WW1 forced Germany to take full responsibility for the war, pay reparations to
the Allied Powers, waive a large part of its territory.
 The main long-term cause of the Second World War was the resentment of Germany to the Versailles Treaty
and its desire for Lebensraum, or “living space.”
o Nazi System: Further, aggressive foreign policy and war was the essence of the Nazi system. Militarism and
Social Darwinism was also inherent.
o Hitler defied the Versailles and Locarno treaties by remilitarising the Rhineland.
 Attack on Russia: Despite the peace pact signed with Russia ,Hitler ,attacked Russia as he wanted to destroy
communism.
 Fascism: Fascism or cult of personality, subjugated the popularly elected government. This government
preached hatred for democracy and communism vehemently.

Other Factors Responsible for WW2:

 Unintentional: Historian, like A.J.P. Taylor accepted that Hitler didn't mean to cause a significant conflict, and
expected and no more, a short conflict with Poland.
o Hitler was simply continuing the policies of leaders like Bismarck, Kaiser Wilhelm II and Stresemann; the only
difference was that Hitler’s methods were more ruthless.
 Versailles Treaties: Some historians also blamed the Versailles treaties for filling the Germans with bitterness
and the desires for revenge.
 Failure of League of Nations: The League of Nations and the Idea of collective security have been criticized
for the requirement of consensus before acting against aggressor, which made the whole process practically
redundant.
 Policy of Appeasement: by Britain and France were largely responsible for the situation deteriorating into
war.
 National interests: British and French policy before 1939 was governed primarily by national self-interest and
only secondarily by moral considerations.
 USSR: has been accused of making war inevitable by signing the non-aggression pact with Germany on 23
August 1939, which also included a secret agreement for Poland to be partitioned between Germany and the
USSR.

Conclusion
Hence, the two universal conflicts were brought about by a few unique elements and numerous nations partook
in it. A few contentions exist concerning who ought to be considered liable for the conflicts. Nonetheless, the
commitment of Germany in the two conflicts establish obvious proof that it should be the fundamental nation
faulted for the conflicts, if any.

8. What were the major political, economic and social developments in the world which motivated the
anti-colonial struggle in India? 2014

Introduction:
India’s Independence changed the world. But it was also shaped by the world; Indian nationalism was a global
product. Most of the iconic leaders of the nationalist movement—Gandhi, Nehru, and others — were formed by
experiences abroad. More importantly, the movements which made India Independent had its objective though
the radical influences from beyond the subcontinent.

The nationalists and the educated intelligentsia looked elsewhere for inspiration and found the preponderance of
struggles all throughout the world.
● American Revolution: American Revolution was the first major event against British Empire. It was the political
up heal, which were refused to take British Monarchy and Aristocracy. The philosophy behind the revolution
was, Liberalism and Theory of Enlighten.
● French Revolution: Rationally, at course of time, revolution happened, it hardly made an impact on India. At
once, when Indian educated middle youth came into picture, the ideas of French revolution got spread and
started to imprint on India’s independence struggle.
● WWI: In the light of First World War, Indian found an opportunity on British difficulty. This opportunity was used
in many ways and by many Indian nationalist and politicians. The Ghadar movement, started during this period.
Lokmanya Tilak and Annie Besant started home Rule league in India, in demand of Swaraj in India.
● Dethroning of King James by the British
● Evolution of the Parliamentary form of Democracy in Britain
● No taxes without Representation
● Liberal Political ideologies of J. S Mill, Locke, Jeremy Bentham, Rousseau enlightened the Indians of the
misrule of the British.

Some events in the 20th century provided lot of inspiration and motivation to the freedom struggle.

● Defeat of Italian army in 1896 by Ethiopia destroyed the myth of European Supremacy and the
undefeatability of West.
● Defeat of Russia by Japan in 1905 enthused the confidence on Indians that an tiny Asian nation could defeat
the mighty Czars.
● Bolshevik Revolution of 1917 inspired the revolutionaries that it was possible to overthrow the government.
It also brought to focus the power of the masses.
● First World War 1914 brought out the ugly face of the Europeans with each party hurling acquisitions against
one another regarding them. The war for colonies brought out the ugly selfish intentions of the Western Nations
● WWII: The Indian nationalist struggle received an impetus post-World War II which marked the emergence of
a new world order. The world at large was disillusioned with imperialism and colonialism, and colonies all around
the globe were calling for freedom.

Conclusion
World events and Social and Cultural awakening made educated Indians to fight against imperialism and
colonialism and also influenced the Indian political leaders to make a new way forward for Indian Independence
on that course of time

9. What were the events that led to the Suez Crisis in 1956? How did it deal a final blow to Britain’s self-
image as a world power? 2014

Introduction:
The Suez Canal is an artificial sea-level waterway running north to south across the Isthmus of Suez in Egypt, to
connect the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea. The canal separates the African continent from Asia.
Events which led to crisis
● Nationalization of Suez Canal: International crisis in the Middle East, precipitated in July 1956, when the
Egyptian president, nationalized the Suez Canal. The canal had been owned by the Suez Canal Company,
which was controlled by French and British interests.
● US-UK stop financing of dam: The Suez Crisis was provoked by an American and British decision not to
finance Egypt’s construction of the Aswan High Dam, as they had promised, in response to Egypt’s growing ties
with communist Czechoslovakia and the Soviet Union.
● Egypt declares martial law: Nasser reacted to the American and British decision by declaring martial law in
the canal zone and seizing control of the Suez Canal Company, predicting that the tolls collected from ships
passing through the canal would pay for the dam’s construction within five years.
● Invasion strategy: When diplomatic efforts failed, the British and the French made a plan with the Israelis to
take back the canal from Egyptian control. Along with fighting for the economic value, each country had a
personal score to settle with Egypt, specifically with Nasser.
o France: France was furious at Egypt’s support of Algerian rebels who were fighting against French colonial
authority.
o Britain: Britain was outraged at the loss of its influence following Nasser’s pan Arab policy.
o Israel: While Israel had sporadic border clashes with the Egyptian army from time to time. Plus, the Egyptian
leader’s disdain towards the existence of Israel.
● Mediation: Britain and France, following their plan, demanded that Israeli and Egyptian troops withdraw from
the canal, and they announced that they would intervene to enforce a cease-fire ordered by the United Nations.
● Opposition by UN: In November 1956, British and French forces landed at Port Said and Port Fuad and
began occupying the canal zone. This move was soon met by growing opposition at home and by U.S.-
sponsored resolutions in the UN
● Withdrawal: In December 1956 the UN evacuated British and French troops, and Israeli forces withdrew,
Nasser emerged from the Suez Crisis a victor and a hero for the cause of Arab and Egyptian nationalism.

Significance of event for Britain

● End of Britain and France as superpower: In the eyes of the world, the crisis and its aftermath signaled the
end of Britain and France as superpowers as their influence weakened with the United States and the Soviet
Union taking on a more active role in affairs.
● Hasten decolonization: The crisis may also have hastened decolonization, as many of the remaining British
and French colonies gained independence over the next few years.
● Economic losses: Britain suffered great economic losses in addition to loss of lives while it fought to retain
control over Egypt. The final withdrawal of Britain signaled the defeat of Britain.
● Insult: Due to international pressure, especially from USA and the USSR, Britain and the other countries had
to withdraw their troops. This withdrawal added insult to injury to UK which had just recently withdrawn its troops
from Egypt.

Conclusion
The canal is an important source of revenue for Egypt’s battered economy. Also, in August 2015, Egypt
completed a major expansion of the canal, deepening the main waterway and providing ships with a 22-mile
parallel channel. For the first time, the expansion allows for two-way traffic along a portion of the route, as well
as the passage of larger vessels
10. The New Economic Policy – 1921 of Lenin had influenced the policies adopted by India soon after
independence. Evaluate. 2014

Introduction:
New Economic Policy (NEP), the economic policy of the government of the Soviet Union from 1921 to 1928,
representing a temporary retreat from its previous policy of extreme centralization and doctrinaire socialism.

New Economic Policy

The complete nationalization of industry established during the period of war. Communism, was partially revoked
and a system of mixed economy was introduced. Under the policy measures included the return of most
agriculture, retail trade, and small-scale light industry to private ownership and management while the state
retained control of heavy industry, transport, banking, and foreign trade.
Money was reintroduced into the economy in 1922 (it had been abolished under War Communism). The
peasantry was allowed to own and cultivate their own land, while paying taxes to the state.
Influence on India
 After independence, Prime Minister adopted economic policy which tended towards protectionism, with a
strong emphasis on import substitution, industrialization, economic interventionism, a large government run
public sector, business regulation, and central planning, while trade and foreign investment policies were
relatively liberal
 Five Year Plans of India resembled central planning in the Soviet Union. Steel, mining, machine tools,
telecommunications, insurance and power plants, among other industries, were effectively nationalized in the
mid-1950s.
 The land reform effort in India seems to have been influenced by the distribution of land in USSR but India
being a democratic state could not overhaul and control things the way USSR did. The changes in India were
gradual.
 India expected favorable outcomes from their strategy, involving the rapid development of heavy industry by
both public and private sectors, and based on direct and indirect state interventions, rather than the more
extreme Soviet-style central command system. The policy concentrated simultaneously on capital and
technology intensive heavy industry and subsidizing manual, low, skill cottage industries.

Conclusion
It is no secret that Indian national movement had gained a socialistic hue in the 1930's. Naturally, India looked
upon the Soviet Union which was leading it's way by actualizing the alternate vision. India was not only
captivated by the success of the rapid economic growth of the Soviet Union but embarked on a path to emulate
it through Five Year Plans and envisioned the establishment of "socialistic pattern of society" with the "state
commanding the heights of the economy" through Public Sector Undertakings.

11. “Latecomer” Industrial revolution in Japan involved certain factors that were markedly different from
what west had experience. 2013

Industrial revolution refers to rise in the no of industry, propagation of scientific values and mass means of
production.

Japan industrialized its economy at the end of 1800 century while west had gone for industrialization at the end
1700 century.

Different factors than West:

 West had ample availability of iron and coal mines in its vicinity to fuel the industries. Japan had to
wage a war with China to secure the supply of iron and coal mines.
West had big colonies network to supply its production but Japan had access to very limited market.
Hence, Japan promoted capitalism in its own country, where huge communication lines, railway lines
and infrastructure development was undertaken.
 Philosopher and thinkers had provided the necessary scientific base but Japan lacked such
philosopher at that time. Japan secured the supply of western researchers at very high cost initially to
train its best mind. Japan focused on universal education to promote the scientific values.
 Regular trade provided easy capital for flourishment of research. Japan lacked access to such capital.
Japanese government backed private firms like Mitsubishi to undertake research.
  To improve its technology, Japan imitated technology of west.
 West appealed to universal values while Japan appealed to nationalism to exhort people for better
work.

But there was certain familiarities with the western industrial revolutions:
 Japan had social and political stability after Meiji restoration like the western countries.
 Japan also secured its colonies specially south Korea, Manchuria from China from where it sourced its
raw material.
 Japan like the western countries heavily invested in developing the world class infrastructure and built
world class universities.
 Japan went into alliance with developed countries like USA to strengthen its industry.

Thus, Japan late coming was mitigated by its own unique approach which brought best of culture, education and
society together to build a modern economy.

12. Africa was chopped into states artificially created by accident of European competition. Analyze.
2013

Africa was cut into states by the Europeans in a process which had no African participation or respect for their
tribes and communities. The present African states are largely a result of colonization in which competition and
“accidents‟ played a major role.

West Africa
 By 1878, King Leopold of Belgium had carved out a large sphere of influence for himself in Equatorial Africa on
west coast called Congo. This was rich in mineral resources and timber. He used a combination of treachery,
treaties with local tribal chiefs, battles, missionary activities.
 Naturally the other European powers got alarmed and they met in Berlin and carved out Africa into their
individual spheres of influence. The African customs and tribal areas were given no respect in this and this is the
reason why most African boundaries are straight lines.
 British got Nigeria. France got Morocco, French Congo and large parts of interior Africa.
 US founded Liberia to resettle the slaves liberated from America. But it continued to intervene heavily in the
internal matters of Liberia.
 Portugal got Angola. Southern Africa

South Africa
 The Dutch had settled in Cape of Good Hope first as it was a strategic point where ships on route to India
turned from.
 But after the Dutch lost to Napoleon, the government had to surrender her overseas colonies to English. South
Africa was surrendered too. Even after Napoleon was defeated, South Africa remained under British control.
 The Dutch settlers didn’t like British control, so they moved in to Natal and Transvaal regions fighting and
eliminating the local tribes using treachery and lopsided wars.
Soon the English came here too following the gold rush and whole of South Africa was formed.

Rhodesia
 This is present Zambia (North Rhodesia) and Zimbabwe(South Rhodesia). It was founded by an English
explorer Cecil Rhodes by combining all the territories he could explore and establish his influence on. East Africa
 Here the English got Kenya, Germans got Cameroons, French got Madagascar and Portugal got Mozambique.
 The local ruler of Zanzibar was given a narrow strip along the coast and even that was annexed later by the
British and the Germans.
 After German defeat in the war, her colonies were not made independent, but were given to the victor powers.
 Italy was given Somalia, Eritrea and Ethiopia but was defeated by the Ethiopian king in 1896. So, Ethiopia
could retain her independence for some time.
North Africa
 Here Algeria and sub-Saharan Africa was given to France. England got Egypt and Sudan. British and French
fought over Sudan for a while, but it went to British.
 Italy got Tunisia and Libya. All the boundaries were drawn in the paper map in Berlin.

13. American Revolution was an economic revolt against mercantilism. Substantiate. 2013
The economic policy of England in its colonies in America was the primary cause of resentment among the
American settlers.

Mercantilism is an economic policy where the colonial country is suppressed to provide benefits for the home
country.

 Colonial country becomes raw material supplier for the industry of home country, becomes market for
the home country.
 Its exports are supressed while imports are encouraged through artificial trade barriers.
 Colonial government imposes irrational tax burden on the people to derive benefits.

American revolution was against this mercantilist policy of Britain.

 America was made to bear the charges of 7 years global war between Britain and France.
 Its exports were curbed. It was not allowed to develop an independent economy.
 Taxes on tea led to Boston tea party where labors threw the tea boxes in open sea.
 Unity of all the thirteen colonies took place under the slogan of No taxation without Representation.
 Independent thinkers promoted ideals of Free Market economy, sovereign right of colony to impose
taxes. It arose the consciousness among protestors.
 These exploitative laws further strengthened the unity among colonies where they felt cheated by
British Empire and sought to fight it collectively.
 In 1775, A revolutionary war broke out between united colonies and British Empire.
 In 1776, America declared its independence from Britain with “declaration of independence” and
provided for individual rights which included right to Property .

Thus, American revolution had initiated against the British Mercantilism and right to determine own economic
future.

14. What policy instruments were deployed to contain the great economic depression? 2013

Great Economic depression refers to decline in the GDP in 1929 in America. It happened due to inactivity in the
economy because of World War 1, failure of banks to provide credit to industry and agriculture and non-inclusive
economy which didn’t include blacks in the economy.

The Great depression led to crash of stock market, massive unemployment in the USA economy, spread to
Europe and stagnation in the Economy.

President Franklin Roosevelt came out with New Deal to counter the great depression. It was based on the
philosophy of John Keynes which argued for governmental intervention in order to kick start the economy.

It involved:
 Creation of Tenesse Valley authority to undertake new construction works. The great Hoover dam was
constructed in this period only.
 Banks were bailed out and money provided to infuse credit growth in the economy.
 Local bodies and states were provided with money to undertake works.
 National Industrial recovery act was passed which focussed on lowering the working hours and
increasing the wages of workers to increase consumption in the economy.
 Security and Exchange commission was formed to regulate the stock market.

This new deal brought liquidity in the market. It improved the American economy, restored confidence among
people, increased employment and consumption. But, the real growth of the world took place during World War
II when discretionary spending of the government increased manifolds.