Introduction to Biochemistry I

Vitamins
Dr. Amir M. Elbasiouny
 Vitamins were discovered at the
beginning of the twentieth
century.

The
Nature An essential, non-caloric,
organic nutrient needed in tiny
amounts in the diet for normal
of function, growth and
maintenance.

Vitamins
They are not a source of
calories.

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The Nature
of Vitamins
Vitamins may be
considered as organic
compounds required in
the diet in small amounts
to perform specific
biological functions for
normal maintenance of
optimum growth and
health of the organism.
The Nature of Vitamins
 There are about 15 vitamins, essential for humans.
 They are classified as fat soluble and water soluble
vitamins.
 Fat soluble: A, D, E and K
 Water soluble: C and B group.
 The B complex vitamins may be sub divided into (B1,
B2, B6, biotin etc) and hematopoietic (folic acid and
B12).
 Classification of Vitamins
‫نها تذوب فيها‬4 ‫لييهدي الفيتامينات تحتاج دهون‬
Vitamin A

Vitamin D
Fat Soluble
Vitamin E

Vitamin K
Vitamins

Non B-Complex Vitamin C

Thiamine (B1)

Riboflavin (B2)

Water Soluble
Niacin (B3)
Energy-releasing
Pyrridoxine (B6)

Biotin (B7)
B-Complex
Pantothenic acid (B5)

Folic acid
5 (B9)
Hematopoietic
Cyanocobalamin (B12)
 Fat Soluble Vitamins

▪ Vitamins A, D, E and K
▪ Require bile for absorption, dissolve in fat before they are absorbed in the
blood stream to carry out their functions.
▪ Excesses of these vitamins are stored in the liver.
▪ Because they are stored, they are not needed every day in the diet.

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Vitamin A

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Vitamin A
▪ In plants, vitamin A only exists in its precursor form.
▪ Beta-carotene, the most abundant of these carotenoid
precursors, has the highest vitamin A activity.
▪ Retinol (active form stored in the liver) converted by cells
into its other two active forms, retinal and retinoic acid, as
needed
▪ Important for sight
▪ Deficiency causes ~500,000 cases of “night blindness”
worldwide
▪ Genetically engineered rice with high Vitamin A can
prevent night blindness
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 Vitamin A

▪ Vitamin A plays a role in

▪ Gene expression
▪ Vision
▪ Maintenance of body linings and skin
▪ Immune defenses
▪ Growth of bones and of the body
▪ Normal development of cells
▪ Reproduction
 Vitamin A and Eyesight

 Vitamin A is part of the rhodopsin molecule, “a pigment

within the cells of the retina”.
▪ When light falls on the eye, it bleaches rhodopsin, which
breaks off the vitamin A, initiating a signal that conveys the
sensation of sight to the optic center of the brain.

Vitamin A and Skin

 If vitamin A is deficient, cells fail to make mucus and
secrete keratin, the same protein found in hair and nails
 Vitamin A and Immunity & Growth

 Vitamin A has a reputation as an “anti-infective” vitamin.

 Body’s defenses depend on an adequate supply.
▪ Vitamin A assists in growth of bone (and teeth).
▪ In children, failure to grow is one of the first signs of
poor vitamin A status.
Vitamin A Sources
 Animal Sources  Plant Sources
 Eggs  Most are orange or yellow in color
 Meat  Carrots
 Cheese  Sweet Potatoes
 Milk  Cantaloupe
 Liver  Pink Grapefruit
 Kidney  Apricots
 Cod  Broccoli
 Fish oil  Spinach
Vitamin D

 Also known as Calciferol due to its role in calcium

absorption
 Main role is to maintain calcium and potassium levels
 It is the only fat soluble vitamin that can be synthesized
with the presence of sunlight
 Can be made from cholesterol

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 Role of Vitamin D
 Vitamin D functions as a hormone to:
 Regulate blood calcium and phosphorus levels, thereby maintaining bone integrity
 To replenish blood calcium,
 Vitamin D Works in three ways:

Increases Calcium Absorption from the G.I. tract

“Gastrointestinal”
Helps to withdraw calcium from bone
Increases calcium retention in the kidney.
 Role of Vitamin D
 Vitamin D stimulates maturation of cells, including immune
cells that defend against disease
 Vitamin D acts on genes, affecting how cells grow, multiply,
and specialize
 Deficiencies may include

 High blood pressure

 Some common cancers
 Rheumatoid arthritis
 Multiple sclerosis
 Psoriasis
Vitamin D Deficiencies
 In children: Rickets (malformed bones, bow legs)

 In adults: Poor mineralization of bone results in

osteomalacia.
 Vitamin E
⚫ Alpha Tocopherol
⚫ Tocopherol
⚫ Tocopheryl (Acetate, Succinate)
Vitamin E is an antioxidant.

 Oxidative damage occurs when highly unstable

molecules known as free radicals, formed normally
during cell metabolism, run amok and disrupt cellular
structures.
 Antioxidant
 Reduce the energy of the free radical
 Stop the free radical from forming in the first place
 Interrupt an oxidizing chain reaction to minimize the damage of free radicals
Vitamin E
▪ Protects cell membranes and other fat-soluble parts of the
body (LDL cholesterol) from oxidation
▪ Prevent oxidation of LDL
▪ ↓ Atherosclerosis
▪ ↓ Risk of mortality from Ischemic Heart Disease.

▪ Promotes normal growth and development

▪ Promotes normal red blood cell formation
▪ Acts as anti-blood clotting agent
▪ Plays some role in the body’s ability to process glucose
▪ Also been known to aid the process of wound healing
Vitamin E Deficiency
• Deficiencies are almost never seen in healthy humans.
• A classic vitamin E deficiency occurs in premature babies
born before the transfer of the vitamin from mother to the
infant, which takes place in the last weeks of pregnancy.
• Infant’s RBC lyse and infant becomes anemic

• Suppresses the immune system because vitamin E

protects White Blood Cells
• Lack of vitality
• Lethargy
• Apathy
• Inability to concentrate
• Muscle weakness
Vitamin K
 Roles of Vitamin K

▪ Contributes to synthesis of seven blood clotting factors

▪ Main function of vitamin K is to help synthesize proteins
that involved in blood clotting.
▪ Contributes to the modification of prothrombin to thrombin
▪ Thrombin is required in the clotting process to
convert fibrinogen, to fibrin which is the clotting
material.
▪ Works as a cofactor for the synthesis an enzyme that
makes key bone proteins.
Vitamin K Deficiency
▪ Who is at risk for deficiency?
▪ newborns, people on long-term antibiotics
▪ Deficiency results in tendency for bleeding.

Water-Soluble Vitamins
Vitamin C and the B Complex
B Complex Vitamins

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Vitamin B Complex
Scientific Names Common Names
▪ Thiamin B1
▪ Riboflavin B2
▪ Niacin Nicotinic acid
▪ B6 Pyridoxine
▪ Folacin Folate, Folic acid
▪ B12 Cobalamin
▪ pantothenic acid
▪ Biotin
 The B Vitamins

▪ B vitamins act as coenzymes

▪ Coenzyme function (coenzymes help enzymes do their
jobs)
▪ Prosthetic Group: physically become part of an enzyme complex
▪ Others are more loosely attached
▪ May be part of the active site in the enzyme.
B Vitamin Roles in Metabolism
 Thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, pantothenic acid, and biotin –
participate in the release of energy from the energy
nutrients
 Folate and vitamin B12 help cells multiply
 Vitamin B6 helps the body use amino acids to synthesize
proteins
B Vitamin Deficiencies
▪ In a B vitamin deficiency, every cell is affected. Symptoms
include
▪ Nausea
▪ Severe exhaustion
▪ Irritability
▪ Depression
▪ Forgetfulness
▪ Loss of appetite and weight
▪ Impairment of immune response

▪ Abnormal heart action

▪ Teary, red eyes
▪ Pain in muscles
 B1 Thiamin
 Important in:
 Producing energy from carbohydrates
 Plays a critical role in the energy metabolism of all cells.
 Occupies a site on nerve cell membranes.
 Proper nerve function
 Stabilizing the appetite
 Promoting growth and good muscle tone
 ATP production
Thiamin Deficiency

 Beri-Beri
 anorexia, fatigue, depression
 effects on
 cardiovascular system
 nervous system
B-2 Riboflavin
 Important in:
 Energy production
 Carbohydrate, fat, and protein metabolism
 Formation of antibodies and red blood cells
 Cell respiration
 Maintenance of good vision, skin, nails, and hair
 It is the central component of the cofactors ( flavin mononucleotide = FMN and
flavin adenine dinucleotide = FAD) and is therefore required by all respiratory
flavoproteins.
B-2 Deficiency
 Itching and burning eyes
 Bloodshot eyes
 Dermatitis
 Oily skin
 Digestive disturbances (stomatitis)
B-3, Niacinamide, Niacin,
Nicotinic Acid

▪ Participates in energy metabolism of every cell.

▪ Important in:
▪ energy production
▪ maintenance of skin and tongue
▪ improves circulation
▪ maintenance of nervous system
▪ health of the digestive track
Cofactor Forms of Niacin

▪ It is converted into nicotiamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) or nicotinamide

adenine dinucleotide phosphat (NADP) which have vital role in metabolism.
▪ It involved in detoxification of xenochemicals, DNA repair, and the production
of steroid hormones in the adrenal gland.
Biochemical Functions of B-3

▪ Oxidation-Reduction Reactions (NAD/NADH)

▪ Dehydrogenases
▪ Electron Transport System
▪ Involved in energy production

▪ Synthetic Pathways (NADPH)

▪ FAs. synthesis
▪ Cholesterol synthesis
▪ Purine & Pyrimidine synthesis
B-3 Deficiency
▪ 4 D’s of Niacin deficiency (called pellegra):
▪ Dermatitis: skin inflammation
▪ Diarrhea: poor absorption, irritation/inflammation of
mucous membranes
▪ Dementia: no energy to think, confused,
disoriented
▪ Death: if untreated
▪ Gastrointestinal disturbance, loss of appetite
▪ Headache, insomnia, mental depression
▪ Fatigue, aches, and pains
▪ Nervousness, irritability
 B-6 Pyridoxine

▪ Vitamin B6 participates in more than 100 reactions in

body tissues.
▪ Important in:
▪ Production of red blood cells
▪ conversion of tryptophan to niacin (B-3)
 B-6 Pyridoxine
▪ It is the precursor of pyridoxal phosphat : cofactor for the
enzyme aromatic amino acid decarboxylase.
▪ Immunity
▪ Nervous system functions
▪ Reducing muscle spasms, cramps, and numbness
▪ Maintaining proper balance of sodium and phosphorous in the body
▪ Plays important roles in the synthesis of hemoglobin and neurotransmitters
▪ Critical to fetal nervous system development
B-6 Deficiency

 Nervousness, insomnia
 Loss of muscle control, muscle weakness
 Convulsions
 Arm and leg cramps
 Water retention
 Skin lesions
B-12 Cobalamin
▪ Important in:
▪ proper nerve function
▪ production of red blood cells
▪ metabolizing fats and proteins
▪ prevention of anemia
▪ DNA reproduction
▪ energy production?

▪ Vitamin B12 and folate are closely related: each depends

on the other for activation.
▪ Main roles: helps maintain nerves and is a part of
coenzymes needed in new blood cell synthesis.
Vitamin B12
▪ Intrinsic factor is a compound made by the stomach
needed for the absorption of B12.
▪ A few people have an inherited defect in the gene for
intrinsic factor, which makes B12 absorption poor.
▪ Vitamin B12 must be injected to bypass the defective
absorptive system.
▪ This anemia of the vitamin B12 deficiency caused by a
lack of intrinsic factor is known as pernicious anemia.
B-12 Deficiency
▪ Pernicious anemia
▪ Megaloblastic anemia
▪ Methyl-folate trap
▪ Delayed or failure of normal cell division due to impaired DNA synthesis

▪ Neuropathy
▪ defective myelination
▪ progressive peripheral weakening
▪ unresponsive to folate
▪ upper limit to folate supplementation/enrichment
 Folate
▪ Folate: naturally occurring form in foods
▪ Folic acid: synthetic form of folate added to foods and supplements
▪ Folic acids or folacin Latin folium leaf is abundantly found in green leafy
vegetables.
▪ Functions:
▪ Vital for DNA synthesis
▪ Maintain new cells, including red blood cells
▪ Help body use amino acids
▪ Reduces risks of some cancers
 Folate requirement

The daily requirement of folic acid is around 200 μg. For

women capable of becoming pregnant, it is recommended
that they consume (400 ug/day) of folate as supplements
or fortified foods in addition to folate containing foods.
Folate Deficiency

▪ Folic acid deficiency is probably the most common

vitamin deficiency
▪ Observed primarily in the pregnant women, in both
developed and developing countries.
▪ The pregnant women, lactating women, and women on
oral contraceptives are also susceptible to folate
deficiency.
Folate Deficiency
▪ Deficiency symptom
▪ Megaloblastic Anemia
▪ decreased DNA synthesis
▪ failure of bone marrow cells to divide
▪ normal protein synthesis
▪ results in large immature RBC’s
▪ contrast with microcytic hypochromic anemia
Folate and Birth Defects
▪ Adequate intakes of folate during pregnancy can reduce
a woman’s chances of having a child with a neural tube
defect (NTD).
▪ World prevalence: 400,000 live births with NTDs/yr
▪ NTD arise in the first days or weeks of pregnancy, long
before most women suspect they are pregnant.
▪ Defects in formation of neural tube (brain & spinal cord)
 Pantothenic Acid
▪ Panthothenic acid (Greek : Pantos-everywhere)
formerly known as chick anti – dermatitis factor. Its
metabolic role as Coenzyme A is also widespread.
▪ The function of pantothenic acid are exerted through
coenzyme A or CoA ( A for acetylation) .
▪ Coenzyme A is a central molecule involved in all the
metabolism (carbohydrate, lipid and protein).
▪ It play a unique role in integrating various metabolism
pathways.
▪ More than 70 enzymes that depend on coenzyme A
are known.
 Vitamin C
(ascorbic acid)
Functions of Vitamin C

▪ Enhances absorption of iron

▪ Collagen Formation
▪ Bile acid synthesis
▪ Antioxidant Activity
Vitamin C Deficiency
▪ Deficiency: called scurvy
▪ Most scurvy symptoms are due to collagen breakdown
▪ Loss of appetite
▪ Growth cessation
▪ Bleeding gums
▪ Swollen ankles and wrists
▪ hemorrhages in the skin, muscle &bone

▪ ↓wound healing

 Anemia
 Red spots on skin
 Weakness
 low resistance to infections