https://www.geeksforgeeks.

org/difference-between-machine-learning-and-
artificial-intelligence/
https://www.interviewbit.com/blog/artificial-intelligence-and-machine-
learning/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep_learning#/media/File:AI-ML-DL.svg
https://www.simplilearn.com/tutorials/artificial-intelligence-tutorial/ai-vs-
machine-learning-vs-deep-learning
Types of Data :
https://www.mygreatlearning.com/blog/types-of-data/

Types of Training :
https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/ml-types-learning-supervised-learning/?
ref=lbp

Difference between supervised and unsupervised learning.

https://www.javatpoint.com/difference-between-supervised-and-
unsupervised-learning

12/06/23 :Supervised Learning:

https://www.javatpoint.com/supervised-machine-learning

Reference website :
https://www.techtarget.com/whatis/definition/validation-set#:~:text=A
%20validation%20set%20is%20a,a%20corpus%20of%20training
%20data.

A validation set is a set of data used to train artificial intelligence (AI) with
the goal of finding and optimizing the best model to solve a given
problem. Validation sets are also known as dev sets.
A supervised AI is trained on a corpus of training data. Training, tuning,
model selection and testing are performed with three different datasets:
the training set, the validation set and the testing set. Validation sets are
used to select and tune the final AI model.

Training sets make up the majority of the total data, averaging 60

percent. In testing, the models are fit to parameters in a process that is
known as adjusting weights.

The validation set makes up about 20 percent of the bulk of data used.
The validation set contrasts with training and test sets in that it is an
intermediate phase used for choosing the best model and optimizing it.
Validation is sometimes considered a part of the training phase. It is in
this phase that parameter tuning occurs for optimizing the selected
model.  Testing sets make up 20 percent of the bulk of the data. These
sets are ideal data and results with which to verify correct operation of
an AI. The test set is ensured to be the input data grouped together with
verified correct outputs, generally by human verification. This ideal set is
used to test results and assess the performance of the final model.

Reinforcement learning:
https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/what-is-reinforcement-learning/
https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/understanding-reinforcement-learning-in-
depth/

What is Reinforcement Learning?

Reinforcement Learning is a part of machine learning. Here, agents are

self-trained on reward and punishment mechanisms. It’s about taking the
best possible action or path to gain maximum rewards and minimum
punishment through observations in a specific situation. It acts as a signal
to positive and negative behaviors. Essentially an agent (or several) is built
that can perceive and interpret the environment in which is placed,
furthermore, it can take actions and interact with it.

What is Reinforcement Learning?

Reinforcement Learning is a feedback-based Machine learning
technique in which an agent learns to behave in an environment by
performing the actions and seeing the results of actions. For each good
action, the agent gets positive feedback, and for each bad action, the
agent gets negative feedback or penalty.
In Reinforcement Learning, the agent learns automatically using
feedbacks without any labeled data, unlike supervised learning.
Since there is no labeled data, so the agent is bound to learn by its
experience only.
RL solves a specific type of problem where decision making is
sequential, and the goal is long-term, such as game-playing, robotics,
etc.
The agent interacts with the environment and explores it by itself. The
primary goal of an agent in reinforcement learning is to improve the
performance by getting the maximum positive rewards.
The agent learns with the process of hit and trial, and based on the
experience, it learns to perform the task in a better way. Hence, we can
say that "Reinforcement learning is a type of machine learning method
where an intelligent agent (computer program) interacts with the
environment and learns to act within that." How a Robotic dog learns the
movement of his arms is an example of Reinforcement learning.
It is a core part of Artificial intelligence, and all AI agent works on the
concept of reinforcement learning. Here we do not need to pre-program
the agent, as it learns from its own experience without any human
intervention.
Example: Suppose there is an AI agent present within a maze
environment, and his goal is to find the diamond. The agent interacts
with the environment by performing some actions, and based on those
actions, the state of the agent gets changed, and it also receives a
reward or penalty as feedback.
The agent continues doing these three things (take action, change
state/remain in the same state, and get feedback), and by doing these
actions, he learns and explores the environment.
The agent learns that what actions lead to positive feedback or rewards
and what actions lead to negative feedback penalty. As a positive
reward, the agent gets a positive point, and as a penalty, it gets a
negative point.
What is Reinforcement Learning
Terms used in Reinforcement Learning
Agent(): An entity that can perceive/explore the environment and act
upon it.
Environment(): A situation in which an agent is present or surrounded
by. In RL, we assume the stochastic environment, which means it is
random in nature.
Action(): Actions are the moves taken by an agent within the
environment.
State(): State is a situation returned by the environment after each action
taken by the agent.
Reward(): A feedback returned to the agent from the environment to
evaluate the action of the agent.
Policy(): Policy is a strategy applied by the agent for the next action
based on the current state.
Main points in Reinforcement learning – 
 
 Input: The input should be an initial state from which the model will
start
 Output: There are many possible outputs as there are a variety of
solutions to a particular problem
 Training: The training is based upon the input, The model will return
a state and the user will decide to reward or punish the model based
on its output.
 The model keeps continues to learn.
 The best solution is decided based on the maximum reward.
 
Difference between Reinforcement learning and Supervised learning: 

Reinforcement learning Supervised learning

Reinforcement learning is all about

making decisions sequentially. In
In Supervised learning, the
simple words, we can say that the
decision is made on the
output depends on the state of the
initial input or the input
current input and the next input
given at the start
depends on the output of the previous
input

In supervised learning the

In Reinforcement learning decision is
decisions are independent
dependent, So we give labels to
of each other so labels are
sequences of dependent decisions
given to each decision.

Example: Chess game,text Example: Object

summarization recognition,spam detetction

Types of Reinforcement: 
There are two types of Reinforcement:  
1. Positive: Positive Reinforcement is defined as when an event,
occurs due to a particular behavior, increases the strength and the
 frequency of the behavior. In other words, it has a positive effect on
behavior. 
Advantages of reinforcement learning are: 
 Maximizes Performance
 Sustain Change for a long period of time
 Too much Reinforcement can lead to an overload of states which
can diminish the results
2. Negative: Negative Reinforcement is defined as strengthening of
behavior because a negative condition is stopped or avoided. 
Advantages of reinforcement learning: 
 Increases Behavior
 Provide defiance to a minimum standard of performance
 It Only provides enough to meet up the minimum behavior

Elements of Reinforcement Learning

  Reinforcement learning elements are as follows:

1. Policy
2. Reward function
3. Value function
4. Model of the environment
Policy: Policy defines the learning agent behavior for given time
period. It is a mapping from perceived states of the environment to
actions to be taken when in those states.
Reward function: Reward function is used to define a goal in a
reinforcement learning problem.A reward function is a function that
provides a numerical score based on the state of the environment
Value function: Value functions specify what is good in the long run.
The value of a state is the total amount of reward an agent can expect
to accumulate over the future, starting from that state.
Model of the environment: Models are used for planning.

Deep Learning :
Reference: https://www.javatpoint.com/deep-learning
https://www.javatpoint.com/machine-learning-vs-deep-learning
A Perceptron is an Artificial Neuron. It is the simplest possible Neural Network.
Neural Networks are the building blocks of Machine Learning.
Deep learning is a branch of machine learning which is based on artificial
neural networks. It is capable of learning complex patterns and relationships
within data. In deep learning, we don’t need to explicitly program everything.
It has become increasingly popular in recent years due to the advances in
processing power and the availability of large datasets. Because it is based
on artificial neural networks (ANNs) also known as deep neural networks
(DNNs). These neural networks are inspired by the structure and function of
the human brain’s biological neurons, and they are designed to learn from
large amounts of data.

1. Deep Learning is a subfield of Machine Learning that involves the use of

neural networks to model and solve complex problems. Neural networks
are modeled after the structure and function of the human brain and
consist of layers of interconnected nodes that process and transform
data.
2. The key characteristic of Deep Learning is the use of deep neural
networks, which have multiple layers of interconnected nodes. These
networks can learn complex representations of data by discovering
hierarchical patterns and features in the data. Deep Learning algorithms
can automatically learn and improve from data without the need for
manual feature engineering.
3. Deep Learning has achieved significant success in various fields,
including image recognition, natural language processing, speech
recognition, and recommendation systems. Some of the popular Deep
Learning architectures include Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs),
Recurrent Neural Networks (RNNs), and Deep Belief Networks (DBNs).
4. Training deep neural networks typically requires a large amount of data
and computational resources. However, the availability of cloud
computing and the development of specialized hardware, such as
Graphics Processing Units (GPUs), has made it easier to train deep
neural networks.
Here are some examples of Machine Learning /Capabilities of ML:

 Image recognition: Machine learning algorithms are used in image

recognition systems to classify images based on their contents.
These systems are used in a variety of applications, such as self-
driving cars, security systems, and medical imaging.

 Speech recognition: Machine learning algorithms are used in

speech recognition systems to transcribe speech and identify the
words spoken. These systems are used in virtual assistants like Siri
and Alexa, as well as in call centers and other applications.

 Natural language processing (NLP): Machine learning algorithms

are used in NLP systems to understand and generate human
language. These systems are used in chatbots, virtual assistants,
and other applications that involve natural language interactions.

 Recommendation systems: Machine learning algorithms are used

in recommendation systems to analyze user data and recommend
products or services that are likely to be of interest. These systems
are used in e-commerce sites, streaming services, and other
applications.

 Sentiment analysis: Machine learning algorithms are used in

sentiment analysis systems to classify the sentiment of text or
speech as positive, negative, or neutral. These systems are used in
social media monitoring and other applications.

 Predictive maintenance: Machine learning algorithms are used in

predictive maintenance systems to analyze data from sensors and
other sources to predict when equipment is likely to fail, helping to
reduce downtime and maintenance costs.

 Spam filters in email – ML algorithms analyze email content and

metadata to identify and flag messages that are likely to be spam.
 Recommendation systems – ML algorithms are used in e-
commerce websites and streaming services to make personalized
recommendations to users based on their browsing and purchase
history.
 Predictive maintenance – ML algorithms are used in manufacturing
to predict when machinery is likely to fail, allowing for proactive
maintenance and reducing downtime.
 Credit risk assessment – ML algorithms are used by financial
institutions to assess the credit risk of loan applicants, by analyzing
data such as their income, employment history, and credit score.
 Customer segmentation – ML algorithms are used in marketing to
segment customers into different groups based on their
characteristics and behavior, allowing for targeted advertising and
promotions.
 Fraud detection – ML algorithms are used in financial transactions
to detect patterns of behavior that are indicative of fraud, such as
unusual spending patterns or transactions from unfamiliar locations.
 Speech recognition – ML algorithms are used to transcribe spoken
words into text, allowing for voice-controlled interfaces and dictation
software.

Machine Learning cannot do:

Reference: https://www.tutorialspoint.com/7-major-limitations-of-machine-
learning

7 Major Limitations of Machine Learning

Limitations of Machine Learning

Machine learning, a method that enables computers to learn from data and
make predictions or judgments without being explicitly programmed, has
grown in popularity in artificial intelligence (AI). Machine learning has its
limitations, just like any other technology, and these must be considered
before using it in practical situations. The main machine learning restrictions
that every data scientist, researcher, and engineer should be aware of are
covered in this article.
1. Lack of Transparency and Interpretability
One of its main drawbacks is more transparency and interpretability in
machine learning. As they don't reveal how a judgment was made or how it
came to be, machine learning algorithms are frequently called "black boxes."
This makes it challenging to comprehend how a certain model concluded and
might be problematic when explanations are required. For instance,
understanding the reasoning behind a particular diagnosis in healthcare might
be easier with transparency and interpretability.

A critical drawback of machine learning algorithms that might have substantial

ramifications in practical applications is their need for more transparency and
interpretability. As they don't reveal how a judgment was made or how it came
to be, machine learning algorithms are sometimes called "black boxes." This
might make it challenging to comprehend how a certain model concluded and
can pose problems when explanations are required.

Increase transparency and interpretability by providing a more thorough

description of the decision-making process through explanations. Natural
language explanations or decision trees are just two examples of the available
explanation formats. Natural language explanations can offer a description of
the decision-making process that is readable by humans, making it simpler for
non-experts to comprehend. A visual representation of the decision-making
process, such as a decision tree, can increase transparency and interpretability.

2. Bias and Discrimination

The possibility for bias and discrimination is a significant flaw in machine
learning. Large datasets, which may have data biases, are used to train
machine learning systems. If these biases are not addressed, the machine
learning system may reinforce them, producing biased results.

The algorithms used in facial recognition are one instance of bias in machine
learning. According to research, facial recognition software performs worse on
those with darker skin tones, which causes false positive and false negative
rates to be higher for people of races. This bias may have significant
consequences, particularly in law enforcement and security applications,
where false positives may result in unjustified arrests or other undesirable
results.

Finally, it is critical to understand that biases and discrimination in machine

learning algorithms frequently emerge from larger social and cultural biases.
To address these biases, there has to be a larger push for inclusion and
diversity in the design and use of machine learning algorithms.

3. Overfitting and Underfitting

Machine learning algorithms frequently have two limitations: overfitting and
underfitting. Overfitting is a condition where a machine learning model
performs poorly on new, unknown data because it needs to be simplified and
has been trained too successfully on the training data. On the other side,
underfitting happens when a machine learning model is overly simplistic and
unable to recognize the underlying patterns in the data, resulting in subpar
performance on both the training data and fresh data.

Regularization, cross-validation, and ensemble approaches are examples of

techniques that can be used to alleviate overfitting and underfitting. When a
model is regularised, a penalty term is added to the loss function to prevent
the model from growing too complex. Cross-validation includes splitting the
data into training and validation sets so that the model's performance can be
assessed and its hyperparameters can be adjusted. To enhance performance,
ensemble approaches combine several models.

While developing predictive models using machine learning, overfitting, and

underfitting are frequent problems. When a model is overtrained and
excessively sophisticated on a small dataset, overfitting occurs, which results in
a good performance on training data but poor generalization to new data.
Conversely, underfitting occurs when a model needs to be more complex and
adequately represent the underlying relationships in the data, resulting in
subpar performance on training and test data. Using regularisation methods
like L1 and L2 regularisation is one way to prevent overfitting. The objective
function receives a penalty term during regularisation that restricts the
magnitude of the model's parameters. Another method is early stopping, in
which training is halted when a model's performance on a validation set stops
advancing.

A common method for assessing a machine learning model's performance and

fine-tuning its hyperparameters is cross-validation. The dataset is divided into
folds, and the model is trained and tested on each fold. Overfitting can be
prevented, and a more precise estimate of the model's performance can be
obtained.

4. Limited Data Availability

A major challenge for machine learning is the need for more available data.
Machine learning algorithms need a lot of data to learn and produce precise
predictions. However, there might need to be more data available or only
restricted access to it in many fields. Due to privacy considerations, it might be
difficult to get medical data, while data from sporadic events, such as natural
catastrophes, may be of restricted scope.

Researchers are looking into novel techniques for creating synthetic data that
may be used to supplement small datasets to address this constraint. To
expand the amount of data accessible for training machine learning algorithms,
efforts are also being made to enhance data sharing and collaboration across
enterprises.

A major obstacle to machine learning is the need for more available data.
Addressing this restriction will need for a concerted effort across industries and
disciplines to improve data collection, sharing, and reinforcement in order to
ensure that machine learning algorithms can continue to be helpful in a variety
of applications.
5. Computational Resources
Machine learning algorithms can be computationally expensive, and they may
require a lot of resources to be successfully trained. This may be a major
barrier, particularly for people or smaller companies who want access to high-
performance computing resources. Distributed and cloud computing can be
used to get around this restriction, however the project's cost might go up.

For huge datasets and complex models, machine learning approaches can be
computationally expensive. The scalability and feasibility of machine learning
algorithms may be hampered by the need for significant processing resources.
The availability of computational resources like processor speed, memory, and
storage is another limitation on machine learning.

Using cloud computing is one way to overcome the computational resource

barrier. Users can scale up or decrease their use of computer resources
according to their demands using cloud computing platforms like Amazon Web
Services (AWS) and Microsoft Azure, which offer on-demand access to
computing resources. The cost and difficulty of maintaining computational
resources can be greatly decreased.

To lower the computing demands, optimizing the data preprocessing pipelines

and machine learning algorithms is crucial. This may entail the use of more
effective algorithms, a decrease in the data's dimensionality, and the removal
of pointless or redundant information.

6. Lack of Causality
Predictions based on correlations in the data are frequently made using
machine learning algorithms. Machine learning algorithms may not shed light
on the underlying causal links in the data because correlation does not always
imply causation. This may reduce our capacity for precise prediction when
causality is crucial.
The absence of causation is one of machine learning's main drawbacks. The
main purpose of machine learning algorithms is to find patterns and
correlations in data; however, they cannot establish causal links between
different variables. In other words, machine learning models can forecast
future events based on seen data, but they cannot explain why such events
occur.

A major drawback of using machine learning models to judge is the absence of

causality. For instance, if a machine learning model is used to forecast the
likelihood that a consumer would buy a product, it may find factors like age,
income, and gender that are connected with buying behavior. The model,
however, is unable to determine if these variables are the source of the buying
behaviour or whether there are further underlying causes.

To get over this restriction, machine learning may need to be integrated with
other methodologies like experimental design. Researchers can identify causal
relationships by manipulating variables and observing how those changes
impact a result using an experimental design. However, compared to
traditional machine learning techniques, this approach may require more time
and resources.

Machine learning can be a useful tool for predicting outcomes from observable
data, but it's crucial to be aware of its limitations when making decisions based
on these predictions. The lack of causation is a basic flaw in machine learning
systems. To establish causation, it could be necessary to use methods other
than machine learning.

7. Ethical Considerations
Machine learning models can have major social, ethical, and legal
repercussions when used to make judgments that affect people's lives.
Machine learning models, for instance, may have a differential effect on groups
of individuals when used to make employment or lending choices. Privacy,
security, and data ownership must also be addressed when adopting machine
learning models.

The ethical issue of bias and discrimination is a major one. If the training data is
biased or the algorithms are not created in a fair and inclusive manner, biases
and discrimination in society may be perpetuated and even amplified by
machine learning algorithms.

Another important ethical factor is privacy. Machine learning algorithms can

collect and process large amounts of personal data, which raises questions
about how that data is utilized and safeguarded.

Accountability and transparency are also crucial ethical factors. It is essential to

ensure that machine learning algorithms are visible and understandable and
that systems are in place to hold the creators and users of these algorithms
responsible for their actions.

Finally, there are ethical issues around how machine learning will affect
society. More sophisticated machine learning algorithms may have far-
reaching social, economic, and political repercussions that require careful
analysis and regulation