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Geomatics Engineering
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Volume - I: Study Material with

Classroom practice
euestions

GATE 'rr civil Engineering

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I 32 All India t"t Ranks in Cnlf
I

I
 o1 {ngs,ic 01-08 o
@

A
{s, 09-20 L--
o
a, Angu*g' .g Compass,,6urvey 2t-29
o
,^ 4)4 \---
Plane Table Survey 30-34
o
@ 35-45
4 Theodo,lite 46-50'/
@ Trigonornetrical'l,evellid g 51-54

@ Traverstng and Omitted Measurements 55-61

at Contourffi 62-66
,/ Areas and,Volumes 67 -72
---tl Tacheometry 73-79
>12 79-aA
y'L3 ErrorsandAdiustments X 89-95 L-'
proi 96-98 !2<

Total Station 99 - tO7

108 - 119 l-'/
YLJ Triangulatlon 120 - t32-
18 L33 - 144
19 Geographic Informatlon System (GIS) 145 - 148.

20 em (GPS) r49 - 156

3_ 5_ 7,, K,
 Basic Concepfs
l. Introduction: measuring distances, and groma for laying
off right angles.
determining the relative positions of In twentieth century, the surveying
various points the instruments and methods were further
surface of the earth. improved. Precise levelling instruments
and modern optical theodolites were
invented.
Elecfronic Distance Measuring (E.D.M.)
and Total Station insffuments were
various surveying instruments. introduced for very accurate
measurements of distances and also ansles
2. Objectives of Surveying: (directions).
(i) To take measurements to determine the 4. Primary Divisions of Surveying:
relative positions of the existing features
on or near the ground.
(ii) To layout or to mark the positions of the
splnglqid._ It
is ellipsoid of revolution,
flattened at the poles and bulging at the
proposed structure on the ground.
(iii) To determine areas, volumes and other
equator* It is taken as a sphere
approximately.
related quantities. --
.12713.168 km and that of the equatorial
3. History of Surveying: axis is about 12756.602 km, as computed
by Clark in 1866. Thus the polar axis is
been usedfor distinguishing one man's shorter than the equatorial axis by about
land from that of another since time 43.434 km. Relative to the diameter of the
immemorial. earth, the difference in the lengths of the
two axes is a very small quantity (about
and Egypt to divide the land for taxation 0.34%).
pulposes even 1400 B.C.

points in the Nile Valley Civilisation.

j3?qk- f"r all calculations.
Surveying is thus primarily divided into
setting out and establishing points and two types:
lines on the ground for the construction of (a) Plane Surveying: It is the type of
pyramids and huge buildings. surveying in which the curvature of the
earth is neglected and it is assumed to be a
surveying during the Roman period. They flat surface.
used measuring wheels (odometers), for
!" ACE
;EngineerinsAcartcqy
Geomatics

Plane Surveying cnrr sHlbly hc ttsod when 5. Classification of SurveYs:

one is conccrnctl wilh l stttrtll portions of (a) Functional Classification of Surveys:
the earth surlucr: ttttd thc trcas involved (D Control SurveY: It consists of
establishing the ho4z94g! and vertical
positions of widely co
usmg
surveymg.
disluttcc is lcss than 10 mm' (iD Land Surv-eY: It is u the
Itt phttrc survcying, the angles of polygons boundaries and areas
u,,il triangles are considered as plane o Surveys are also used to provide data
attglcs. for making a Plan of the area'
It is used for relatively small areas'
A curved line on the surface of the earth is
considered as mathematically straight'
The directions of the plumb lines at
various points are assumed to be parallel
to one another. These are required for
The spherical angles are considered as of laYout of streets,

plane angles buildings, sewers, PiPes, etc'

The'standard of than (rD Topographical Survey: Topography is
defined as the shape. These surveys are
required to establish horizontal locations
(b) Geodetic Surveying: It is the type of of the various points as well as their
surveying in which the curvature of the
vertical locations.
earth is taken into consideration and a
very high standard of accuracy is o It is carried out to delinate
maintained.
ofa
system of widelY points on the
surface of the earth. The point so located transmission lines) etc'
arc used as
llltylilllL_
It is usod for large areas.
It is usotl fbr establishing precise points of
rolbrcnoc or <;ontrol Points.
Tho surfirco o1'the earth is considered as of the earth work.
curvctl. (vD
Thc dircolions ttl
Plumb lines at
variouspoints nt'r: dil'lbrcnt. The earth's
mean sca lcvcl is pcrpcrrdicular to the ound works.
direction ol' grrrvity indicatcd by plumb (vii) Survey: It is carried out
bobs. ' ' Ilydrographic
on o, n.at the bodY of water, such as
The standard of gcqryfyJl-vcrv hig!1 lakes, rivers, bays, harbours' Marine
Verv orecise instrumcnts arc uscd'
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 surveys are special type ofhydrographic
Surveys. These cover a broader areanear
sea for offshore structures, navigations,
and tides, etc.
(viii) Engineering Survey: It is conducted to
roads, bridges, dams, reservoirs, sewers
and water supply lines.
(ix) Astronomic Survey: It is carried out for
e earth by observing
(x) Satel
obtain interconti
i-\$ interisland geodetic ties all the world
over by artificial earth satellites.
(xi) Geological Survey: It
is carried to
obtain information about different strata
of earth's surface for geological sfudies.
(xii) Construction Survey: After the plans
have been prepared and the structures
designed, the construction survey is
conducted.
(xiii) Miscellaneous Su rveys :
) Archaeological Survey: These are
done to unearth relics of antiquity.
> Military Survey: These are
conducted to determine the routes and
points of strategic importance.
> Gravity Survey: These are conducted
to measure the intensity of the
gravitational force at various points.
) General Survey: These are used to
acquire and accumulate qualitative
information and quantitative data for a
specific ].trpose by observing,
counting, classifiiing and recording
according to the need. For example,
soil survey and traffrc survey.
(b) Classification Based on Instruments
Used:
(D Chain Surveying: This is the simplest
fype of surveying in which
are taken with a chain or
tape.
It
is
(ii) c
are measured with the help of a magnetic
compass. The compass survey is not very
accurate.
Levelling: It is used for determination of
relative elevations (Rtg of various
points in the vertical plane.
(ro Plane Table Survey: Map is prepared in
the field while viewing the terrain after
determining the directions of various
lines and taking the linear measurements
with a chain or a tape.
horizontal and vertical anglcs. These
can bc broadly classificd into Traverse
ttncl TriangLr latiorr.
(vi) Tacheometric Survey: Horizontal
angles, horizontal distances and
elevations are measured with a
tacheometer.
These are not very accurate but these are
details.
(vii) Photogrammetric Survey: It is used for
topographic mapping of vast areas.
These are extremely useful for obtaining
topographical details of areas which are
difficult to reach. (Remote Locations)
(viii) EDM Survey: Trilateration is a type of
triangulation in which all the three sides
of each triangle are measured accurately
with EDM instruments. The angles are
computed indirectly from the known
 sides of the triangles. Thus all the sides 9. Scale of a Map: A scale is the ratio of the
and angles are determined.

6. Basic Measurements in Surveying:

draughtsman can plot a length to accuracy
(i) ' Horizontal distances
within 0.25 mm.
(ii) Verticaldistances
(iii) Horizontalangles
medium and small as under:
(iv) Vertical angles ) Large scale: I cm: 10 m or less than l0 m
7. Principles of Surveying: Medium scale: I cm: 10 m to 100 m
:
Small scale:1 cm 100 m or more than 100 m
(i) Location of a point by measurement
from two points of reference: The
relative positions of the points to be
surveyed should be locatedt by
measurement from
(b) Representative Fraction (R.T)l It is

reference, the posi the ratio of the distance on the map to

already been fixed.
the on the
gro cale of 1
(li) Itisvery cm ePresents
lish first a system of 50 m (5000 cm) on the ground (in same
control points and to fix them with units). Therefore, the representative
higher precision. It can be used to fraction (RF;) is 1/5000 or 1;J000.
prevent the accumulation of errors and to
control and localize minor enors.

8. Difference between a Plan and

^
Map:

the features on or near the earth's

surface as projected on a horizontal
plane. As a plan represents the area on
Graphical scale: graphical scale is a
a horizontal plane, the horizontal line drawn on map so that its map
distances are measured between
-6arth's
variouS points on the
lan is drawn on a relati
scale.
cal
is
A
map generally shows some additional
features, such as reliefs, hachures and
contour lines to indicate undulations
on the ground.

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 ACE
ffileffi&g"-,
(c) Suggested Scales for Different Types of (iv) Vernier Scale:
Surveys: It is a device for measunng accurately
the of the Smallest
S.No Purpose of Scale R.F divisionifrTl
Survev lt is divided into,
I Buildins site lcm
1:1000
o Direct Vernier: 'n' divisions on the
= 10m vernier scale are equal in length to
2 Town 1cm
planning, :100m
(n - 1) divisions on the main scale. Thus
l:10,000
reservoir
planning etc.
a
J Route surveys lcm n,v':(fl_ 1)'s'oru:(n-1),
:100m 1:10,000 n
Where.
4 Longitudinal :
n total No. of divisions on vernier scale
sections
(a) Horizontal l:1000
v:length of one division on the vernier
1cm
:10m s :length of one division on the main
scale
scale.
(b) Vertical 1cm l:100
scale :lm The least count (L.C.) is, therefore, given by

5. Cross-sections 1cm 1:100

L.C.:s-v
:1m r^ (n-l) 'S
6 Land Surveys 1cm 1:500
L.L.=S-'
n
:5mto to
50m 1:5000
7 Topographical lcm l:25,000
maps :0.25 to
km to 1:250,000
2.5 km the vernier scale are equal to '(n*1)'
8 Geographical lcm: 1:5,00,000 divisions on the main scale.
maps 5kmto to n ,v, : (n*l) ,s,
150 km 1:150.00.000
Extended Vernier:'n' divisions of the
vernier scale are equal in length to
(d) Types of Measuring Scales: (2n - 1) divisions of the main scale.
Therefore,
n ,v, : (2n _ l)s

(iii) Chord scale: It is used to set

without using a protractor
 Double vernier: Shrunk R.F : Original R.F. x Shrinkage
main scale are Factor
nurnbercd i directions. It rsa
eombination direct and Measured Distance
retrograde verniers. Correct distance =
Shrinkage Factor
. Double folded vernier: Its length is
half of corresponding double verniers Measured area
Correct area =
- economy of space. (Shrinkage Factor)2

Example:,1
:'3
l0 divisions of vemier scale are equal to I 1 parts
of main scale of each 0.1. What is the least count
If a line of 5 cm has shrunk to 4.5 cm, determine:

of the scale? (a) shrinkage factor

Sol: L.C.=S-o'1 = 0.01 (b) correct length corresponding to measured
nl0 length of 90 m
(c) correct area coffesponding to a measured
Example:2
area of 81 m'.
A box sextant has the main scale readings in 10'
: 4'5
Sol: (a) Shrinkage factor :0.g
(Ten minutes) graduations. If the L.C. desired for
an extended vernier is 10", Design an extended
vernier. (b) Correct length
- : + = 100
0.9
Sol: L.C: rs
n (c) Correcrarea :
h=100m2
10 x 60
10,,: (or) n = 6o
n
2n-l: 119
ll.Error Due to Wrong Measuring
Scale:
.'. ll9 spaces of main scale are equal to 60

spaces ofvernier. Correct length

_ R.F.of thewrongscale x measuredlength
R.F. of the correctscale
10 . Error Due to Shrinkage of a MaP:
The ratio of thc shrunk length to the actual As the area is the product of two distances,
length is known as the shrinkage ratio or the Correct area
shrinkage factor. lt is always less than unity.
Shrunk scale = Origintrl scale x Shrinkage
Factor
 ACE
f,'ngineeringAcadcmy 7 Basic Concepts

Eyample:( procedures and by applying corrections

A and adjustments.
surveyor measured the distance between two
points marked on the plan to a scale of lcm: lm (ii) Personal Errors: It occur due to human
:
(RF 1:100) and found it to be 50m. Later be limitations, such as sense of sight and
detected that has used wrong scale of l:50. touch. The effors occur for want of
Determine the correct length perfection of human sight while taking
observations or for want of perfection of
Sol: Correct length:[",,)x 5o = loom touch while manipulating the instrument.

/ usn \2 (iii) Natural Errors: The natural errors are

Correct area: | '' -" I x50:200m2 causedby changes in natural phenomena,
\1/100/ such as temperature, wind, humidity,
l2.Field Book: refraction, magnetic field.

l5.Types of Errors:
(i) Mistakes: Mistakes occur in
commonly used for ordinary survey measurements due to carelessness,
works. inattention, inexperience poor or
judgement of the surveyor. Mistakes are
measurements in chain sun'ey. quite common in a careless work done by
an inexperienced person.
large scale works where more details
(ii) Systematic Errors: Systematic enors
have to be entered.
follow some well-defined mathematical or
l3.Accuracy and Precision: physical law or system.

measurement to its true value. lf the

(iii) Accidental Errors: Accidental emors are
measured value is its true random in nature. Thesc are, therefore,
also known as random errors. These errors
value, it is very accurate.It is degree of
perfection achieved in measurement. do not follow any fixed pattern of law.
These enors can be positive or negative.
ision of a measurement denotes its
to another measurement of the

several times and the values obtained are

very close to one another, the precision is
high.
14.Sources of Errors:
(i) Instrumental Errors: It occur due to
imperfection or mapadjustment of the
instrument used. It can be eliminated or
minimized by adopting suitable

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I
 Geomatrcs
t"#4=4ss plotted t:
05. The plan of a .survev 1.::^11" "f
in such a waY that
1 cm: 100 m
" "do"d
c
a line original$ 100
95 cm. The area of
instrument reading upto
t.
An anglc tttt:nsuring measured as 810 cm-
01.
on the main-scale is of the surveY is
ono-lilurth of a degree 29 mairt
.tt,1r*t with a. vernier having 30 parts' The
(A) 6.875
sculc divisions dtvtded into
rs
(c) s.e7s (D) e'87s
lr:ast count of Instrument
(A) 30" (B) 40'

(c) 20' (D) 10"

02. rhe plan

"r " T1l.I,Tiili.3,ffiJ,',$'ffit
size such a way tn the instrument rn
The original R'F of a
**' correct least count for
;;,;;;r*.' 90
is 'seconds'is
n^#*lJf ,500;The revisedR'F (A) 60 (B) 30
in area is shown (D) 10
03. A rectangular plot.of l6km2 (c) 20
rectangular area of
on a map Uy u "*itut a distance
;';#. R'.F ottr" scale to measure
of 40 km will be
(A)#
(q
zh
into
04. A theodolite circle is divided of 59
-degrees
main
;il;f J.$ees' In the length of vemier'
r..r.'[*rriJts is taken as len$h is
i.rri .""t, of direct vemier in
seconds

(A) to (B) 20

((') 30
(D) 40
 Chain Suruey
l. Introduction: (a) Principle of Chain gunzs)dng;: .
il Methods of making linear measurements: A triangle is the simple figure which can be
(a) Direct methods: plotted from the lengths of the three sides
In the direct methods, the distance is even if the angles are not known. In chain
actually measured in the field using a surveying, the area to be surveyed is divided
These are the into a framework consisting of well
conditioned triangles.

Well-Condltioned Triangle:
(b) Optical methods:
The distance is not actually measured ' ' conditionod if it can be plotted
in the field. accuratoly by the intersection of arcs

(c) E.D.M methods:

(i) Electro-optical instruments which
use light waves for measurement of
distancds;' such as 'Geodimeter, due to site conditions, an attempt should
Meknometer and Range meter.
(ii) Microwave instruments which use
radio waves for meastrement of
distances, such as Electrotape, (b) Basic Definltions:
Deccanavigator, Distameter and
Microchain. (i) Main survey stations: Main survey
stations are prominent points which are
(d) Approximate Methods: connected by survey lines to form the
(D Pacing triangles.
(ii) Passometer
(iii) Pedometer (ll) Survey Lines: The lines joining lhg
(i e called survey
(v) Measuring Wheel lines or chain lines.
(vi) Speedometer
(tit) Check Lines: These are the
2. Chain Surveying: which are run to check the
It is the method of land surveying in which
measurements are made. No
angular measurements are taken. Chain the triangle.
surveying is used for areas of small extent on Check lines are also
open ground having few simple details.

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 (iv) Offsets: Off'scts are the lateral
distances mcasured from the survey
lines, Offsets are taken from the
ine the location o (d) 30 m (150links)
-ThEoTISets are of two tyPes:
l. Perpendicular offsets.
2. Oblique offsets
----
(v) Range Ties: Range ties are the oblique
offsets taken along the line of the wall
of a building.
(vi) Tie Lines: If the distance of the point
of details from the chain line is very-
Iarge, long offsets have to be taken.
The tie lines are the lines run to locate
detailsto avoid long offsets,
(vii) Subsidiary Stations: These are the
stations located on the survey lines
betwccn which the tie lines or
subsidiary lincs are run.
(viii)Base Line: The base line is a long
survey line which is run through the
middle of the area to be surveyed. The
frame work of the triangles is built up
on the base line. The base line is also
called a back - bone line
3. Surveying Chains:
A surveying chain, or simply a chain,
is commonly used for measurement
of distances where a very high
accuracy is not required. The chain
consists of a number of large links
rnade of galvanized mild steel wire
of 4 mm diameter. Each end of the
large links is bent into a loop.
According to lS: 1492-1970, the
surveying chains arc of four different
lengths,
- t
(a)5m(25 links),
(b) 10 m (50links),
(c) 20 m (100 links) and
on both the brass handles.
Types of Chains:
(i) Gunter's Chain: A Gunter's chain,
also called a surveyor's chain, is 66 feet
(= 20.12 m)long consists of 100 links,
each of 0.6 ft(:20.12 cm).
(iD Engineer's Chain: An Engineer's
chain is 100 feet (: 30.48 m) long' It
consists of 100 links each of 1 ft
(:30.48 cm).
(iii) Revenue Chain: The revenue chain is
33 ft (10.06 m) long. It consists of 16
links,each link being Z .I-n$2.87 cm)
t6
The revenue chain was commonly used
for cadastral surveYing.
4. Measuring Tapes:
(a) Linen or Cloth Tapes:
Tapes are made of linen or cloth. The
tape is light and handy but not very
accurate.
(b) Glass-Fibre Tapes: These tapes are
similar to linen and plastic coated tapes
but these are made of glass-fibre.
(c) Metallic Tapes: Metallic tapes are
similar to linen tapes but are made of
water proof fabric or glass fibre in
which metallic wires are interwoven.
(d) Steel Tapes: It is more accurate than
metallic tapes. The steel tapes are
made of steel or stainless steel strip.
 ffiffir""m^-."' : 1l : Linear Measurements and Chain Survey

(e) Invar Tapes: Invar tapes are made of (e) Plasterer's Laths: Instead of
ranging rods, laths used by plasterers
lc coefficient for plastering the walls may be used for
ranging out in a level, open ground.
used lor lmear measurements or very
high precision especially tbr (0 Whites: A white consists of a wooden
triangulation survey. stick, about 0.5 m to I m long, and
having a split at the top for the purpose
5. Instruments for Chaining and of inserting a piece of white paper.
t,
Taping: The whites are useful for marking
rl points on the chain lines, contour lines
I,
and cross-sections.
(a) Arrows: Arrows or chain pins aro

s (g) l'lumb Bob: It indicates the direction

t made of good quality,hardened and ol'thc vcrtical line and used
1 tempered steel wire of 4 mm diameter tlro vcrtictlity of ranging rods etc.
and of a minimum tensile strength of
700 MPa. Generally, 10 affows arc (h) Simple Clinometer
S

f
supplied with a chain. (In American
practice, 11 arrows are supplied).
I
(r. ltanging Out: Ranging is the process of
(b) Pegs: Wooden pegs are cstablishment of intermediate points on line
t sof with survey line..,
The Direct ranging
pegs are also used to mark the
Indirect Ranging
of lines and other such
intersection t{anging

points which are more or less Random line method

permanent, and are required to bc
retained for some time.
(a) Direct Ranging: Direct ranging is
(c) Ranging Rods: These are done when the end stations are
such that The direct ranging can be
these points lie on the straight linr: e or with an instrument
joining the end stations. Ranging Polcs called
are used for ranging very long lines.
(b) Indirect Ranging: When the end
f (d) Offset Rod: It is used for setting out points indirect
I offset lines at right angles to the survoy rangin ondition
line and for measurins small offsets. occurs where there is high intervening
ground between the end points. Indirect
ranging isalso called
 ACE
Ilngineeringecaaeury :12-. Geomatics F,ngineerfury

(c) Random Line Method: If the survey AL

line passes through a thick forest, it is
Where ,=
L
not possible to range out the line by
direct method. The method of indirect
ranging is also not possible, as end
(c) v ="(|)' or V = (r+re)v'

stations are not visible from

intermediate points. In such a case, the
le:1
random line method can be used. The
method can also be used when one of The length of a survoy linc when measure with a
the end stations is in depression. chain of 20 m, nominal length was found to be
841.5 m. When thc chain was compared with a
7. Testing and Adjusting the Chain: standard it was lound to be 0.1 m too long. What
As per IS specifications, the overall length is the actual lcngtlr ol'line?
of the chain when measured with a tension (A) 835.71 m (B) 845.71 m
of and checked against a (C) 837.29 m (D) 822.3s m
certi or tape which has been Ans: (B)
standardised uld be within the Sol:
following tol Corrcction for chain length: 0.1 m
(D20mchain t5mm
(ii) 30 m chain t ti mm
Measured length L: 841.5 m
Nominal length of chain :20 m
8. Error due to incorrect chaln: .'. Correction for chain length

will be less (negative elror, positive T

correction).
C-
"[,=axC

will be more (positive error, negative cu =841.5x !=a.2t

correction). 20
:
Let, L True length of chain, .'. Actual length of line: 841.5 + 4.21
/' = measured length of line, :845.71 m
:
L' Incorrect length of chain,
| : actual or true length of line.
9. Chaining on uneven or sloping
V': Measured volume,
ground:
:
A' Mgasured area.
: To obtain horizontal distances between
V True volume, points for plotting.
A = Acfual or true area.
(a) Direct Method or Method of stepping:
(a) (- l:(I*e)l'
while leader selects any suitable lefrgth
of tape and moves forward. Makes it
(b) [= )r A: (1 + 2e) A' horizontal and then transfers the point on
to ground.
ng :13: Linear Measurements and Chain Survey
-
l5
only suitable method.
- -:i- e: links. where '0' in degree
100

the hill. : ;50,where slope is I in'n'

(b) Indirect Method: n-
) Sloping distance is measured arttl with 30 m chain, (150 links)
horizontal distance is calculated. For tlris AA': 150(sec 0 - 1) links
the angle of slope or difference irr
ra ' elevation between two points is also to bc
: 30 (sec 0 -1) in m
be " measured.
a
Method (i):
'at
Angle measured using clinometers: Nole: A,fter each chain length measured
Horizontal distance(D) ulong the slope of the chain is set
:(distance along slope) x ( cosO)
.fitrwu'tl h.v AA'.
.'. D-/cos0
Where '0'is the angle of slope witlr
horizontal.
Ilxample:2
Method (ii):
Wlrat is the hypotenuse allowance per chain of
Difference in the level measured: (using a
20 rn length if (a) The angle of slope is 12"
leveling instrument)
(b) The slope is 1 in 5.
p=rfu:j
D: horizontal distance; Sol: i: 20 m
:12"
/: distance along slope
(a) The angle of slope, 0
h: difference in the levels Hypotenuse Allowance:20 (sec e - 1)
(t
:201 )
Method (iii): -ll
Hypotenusal allowance: (AA'1 Icos12' )
:0.45 m
(b) The slope is 1 in 5

tanQ=1
1

.'. e:llo.3lr
5
Hypotenuse Allowance

: ^^(
?01 __l
1 ,)
l.- I Chain 1' ) I

-lB I cos 1 1o.3

:0.396 m
with 20m chain, (100links) :0.4 m
AA'- 100(sec 0 - 1) links
:20 (sec 0 -l) in m
: 50 02 links. where '0' in radians

Hydenbad I Delhi I Bhopal I Pue I Bhubmesw I Bengalm ! hcknow ! Patra I Chemai i Vljalamda Vizg j Tirupati I Gmm J Kufapally(Ilyd)
 (i) Incorrect holding and marking of the
10. Errors: affows
(a) Natural errors:
Result from temPerature, refraction,
(ii) Fractional parts of the chain may not be
correct i.e., the chain may not be
obstacles to measurements, declination
calibrated uniformlY
etc
(iiD Plumbing may be incorrect while
lnstrumental errors: chaining bY stePPing on sloPes
Imperfect construction and adjustment of (iv) Incorrect setting chain angles with a
the instruments. cross staff

precision and bY aPPlYing Proper (e) Mistakes / Accidental errors:

corrections
(c) Cumulative errors/Systematic
errors:

direction tends to accumulate. 11. Methods of linear measurements:

and maY be.+ ot -4 | (D Third order: Generally used in chain

be corrected. surveying and other minor surveys'
(i) Errors in length of chain or tape
tor-)
(cumulative (ii) Second order: In the measurement of
(ii) Variation in temPerature( traverse lines in which theodolite is used
for measuring directions.
cumulative + or_)
(iii) Pull correction( cumulative + or-) for
(iv) Bad ranging, Bad straightening, (iii) First order: Triangulation survey
detennination of length of base line'
miss-alignment (cumulative + )
(v) MSL correction ( above GL -ve,
below GL +ve) L2. Tape Corrections:
(vi) Sag correction chainin (a) Correction for Standardization:
(cumulative + ) (+ or _)
(vii) Careless holding and marking Correction Per taPe length (C): l' - I
(comPensating + or -) Where,
/: nominal length of the taPe and
(d) Compensating errors: l,: actual length of the tape
The correction is positive when the
actual length (/') is greater than the
the directions and tend to compensate'
nominal length (I), and vice versa'
Total correction in the measured
distance (L),
' cxI,
,^= 0 -t\xL=_,
,
nature not known clearlY.

Hydenbad I Delhi I Bhopal I Pwc I Bhuboneswar I

 ACE
ng nnginc€ring ecaaemv :15: Linear Measurements and Chain Survey
-
he (b) Correction for Slope (C.): (d) Correction for temperature: (+ or -)
(Always -ve)
be Ct: ct (T- - T") L
be
C,:D-L:L(1 -cos0) Where,
cx,: coefficient of linear expansion,
ile :2L sirf Ol2 (-)
T-: mean temperature of the tape ("C)
Where,
D : horizontal equivalent To: standard temperature ('C)
L: slope distance (e) Correction for sag: (Always -ve)
0 : angle of slope A tapc is supported at two ends, it takes the
shapc ul'a catenary. The correction for sag
Alternatively, C,: L- shoulcl bo applied as the horizontal chord
length is always shorter than the curved
Approximately,
length

(-^ _
lh2 h4
_________;:r rlh'
l_l__
' 2L 8L- "2L same lcvcl.
The sag cot't'cction is given by
h:
Where, difference in elevations of the
end points. ^''s - /,(w/, )' *'ll
lf z4P: 24P2
:d
(c) Correction for Pull: (+ or -) Where,
If the pull applied at the ends of the tape w : weight o1'tapr: per unit length (N/m),
during measurement in the field is
different from the standard tension at P: applied pLrll (N)
which the tape was calibrated, a /1 : length ol'the tape suspended between
correction for pull is required.
thc supports (m)
The correction for pull (Cn) is given by Thc abovc equation can also be written as
(1 _ (p-P")r
-o- AE ..-'s=l,w'
11

Where. 24P2

P: Pull applied during measurement (N); Where,

F W: total weight of the tape between
Po: Standard pull Q'{) supports
L: Measured length, If / is the total length of the tape which is
suspended in'n'bays of equal length'/1'
A: Cross-secitonal area of the tape
E: Young's modulus of material of tape. ...c16-"i',(*',.)t-l
24P',
| l

Hydenbad I Delhi I Bhopal I Prme I Bhubmesw j Bengalm I Lucknow ! Patra I Chemai I Vljalamda I Viag I Tirupati i Guur I Kukatpally(Hyd)
 ACE 16 Geomatics Engineering
nnsinccriogAcracqy

Correction for sag for the three spans

Substituting /1
:3 x 7.6475
:4.94 mm (subtractive)
(
(f) Normal Tension:

c.,
24P:(P^-P")= winn
If the ends of the taPe are not at the
same level, the sag correction is given
( ,r,l \
by cJ, = c,, cos2 el, t t:sine J

0 : angle of sloPe between the end

supPorts (i.e., the angle made bY
the chord with the horizontal)
Cl, = C,, cos' 0
both is zero.
Example:3
(g) Correction for Misalignment:
(alwaYs -ve)

c,o : [(Lr(l - cos 0r) +L2(l - cos 0z)]

Sol: Nt-+
(a' d')
rl
W = wt of the taPe Per sPan length [2L, 2L, )
:78.6x10x(8x10-6)
:6288 x 10-61d'{:6'288 N

[Note: 1 mm2: (0.001)2 m2: I x 10{ m2l

P=100N
L: 10000 mm for each sPan (h) Reduction of llength to Mean Sea
Level (Cusr):
Corrootion lor sag for each sPan
(-
VMSL -Lh
- R+h
=;(#) ,,oooo The value of R is approximately 6370 km
As 'h' is very small compared to R, it can be
=- 1.6475 mm neglected Thus

I lydcrabad I Delhi I Bhopal I Punc I Bhubaneswu

ng ACE
EDgitrccringAfuy zl7 z Linear Measurements and Chain Survey

cn=Lh
The displacement of the point P on the
R drawing sheet in the direction perpendicular
The correction is negative, if the measured to the chain line is given by
distance is above MSL. / /cosa /-/cosa
The correction is positive, if the measured YtPz =
SSS
distance is below MSL. Where,
's': scale of map ( I cm: 's' m)
13. Limiting Length of Offset: /: limiting length of offset
generally determined from
the cr: Angle of error in laying
consideration that the error produced in perpendicular offset
plotting of the detail on the drawing
sheet should not be significant. In other (b) Whcn the error in length and
words, the displacement of the detail on direction both sources may be equal.
the sheet from its correct position should The degroo uf accuracy (1 in r) can be
al
not be more than 0.25 mm or so. A good calculated fiorn
ll
te
draughtsman can distinguish a distance .'. f :cosecc[
on the paper equal to about 0.25 mm.
sl (c) Given thc scale of the plotting
:o
depends upon the I cm : 's' m. The displacement on the
(i) Scale of plotting drawing sheet from both the sources
(ii) Possible error in direction and will not be exceeded by 0.025 cm, then
length the length of offset can be calculated
(iii) Accuracy desired from

(a) Error in Direction of an Offset:

Pr
sr
t-
40Jt

(d) Given the maximum error in the length

of offset (e), the maximum length of
offset (D, scale (s), to find the
maximum value of 'a' so that
/sina maximum displacement on the paper
PP, = =0.025 may not exceed 0.25 mm

l:0.025
s
. .,
I e.zst'
.'.Sln-C[,:l ,l 1
^ -e-lx
1100, ) r
s cosec cr ^

Where /: limiting length of offset

ftderabadlDelhilBhopallPmelBhuburesnarlBengalmllffknowlPahalChennailv{iayamdalvizg lTirupati lGunurl Kukaeally(Hyd)

 ACE Geomatics
noginc€riogAcadcqv

Exn '4 15. Obstacles in chaining:

(a) Obstacle to ranging but not chaining:
What is the maximum length of an offset so that Ex: Forest, Hill.
the displacement of a point on the paper should
not exceed 0.25 mm, gives that maximum error (b) Obstacle to chaining but not ranging :

expected is 2.5o from its true direction and the Ex: Small Pond, small bend in river.
scale is 1:2000. (c) Obstacles to both chaining and ranging :

Sol: s = 2000 Ex: A big building.

Displacement of field: / sin cr
Examplgt,,S
.'. Displacement on the paper: "tlo
s A chain line AB M and N being
crosses a river,
on the near and distant banks respectively. A
lsin2.5
;. U.Z) = point P is measured 105 m at right angles to AB
2000 from M. At P, PA and PN are set out such that
angle APN is 90'. AM is measured as 85 m. the
.'. -
I -o'25x2ooo =ll462mm width of river MN is
2.5 sin

: Sol: B
11.462 m

Instruments for settingout right

angles :

(a) Cross Staff:

(D used to set two
s to each other.
(ii) French cross staff: used to set lines
a45o or 90o.
(iii) oss staff: used to set
any angle. a/'MPN lll A/'MAP
(b) Optical square: More convenient and MN MP
accurate than cross staff for setting out MP AM
right angles. Consists of two mirrors
making an angle of 40o with each other t9t'
... MN=(MP)' = =r29.ro6m
one mirror totally silvered another top AM 85
silvered bottom un-silvered.

(c) Prism square: More modern and

precise than optical square.
 19 Linear Measurements and Chain Survey

06. A 30 m steel tape is subjected to a pull of

Classroom Practice Questions 10 kg in three equal spans of 10 m each.
Area of cross section and density of tape are
0.08 sq.cm and 7.86 g/cc respectively. The
01. A 30 m metric chain is found to be 0.2 rn correction for Sag in 'm' is
too short through out the measurement. ll (A) + 0.004e (B) -0.0444
the distance measured is recorded as 450 rn. (c) - 0.0004e (D) - 0.004e
the actual distance measured will be
(A) 547 m (B) 647 m (17.. A 30 m chain was found to be 10 cm too
(C) 89a m (D) 447 m long after chaining a distance of 2500 m. It
^{ was found to be 15 cm too long at the end of
The length of a base line measured orr lhc clay's work after chaining a total
mg ground at an elevation of 200 m abbvr: tlistirrrcc of 4500 m. What is the true
A M.S.L is 2500 m. The required correction lo tlistancc il'the chain was coffect before the
AB reduce to M.S.L is c()nllnoncolnent of the day's work?
hat (Take radius of Earth:6370 km) (A) 4512.5 rn (B) 4675.2m
(C) 5512.5 rn
the (A) -0.07ss m @) 0.078sm
(D) 7512.5 m
(C) - 0.785 m (D) 0.785 m
Ott. An invar tape, 50 m in length, standardized
.03. The length of a survey iin. *u, measured at 20oC temperature and 10 kg pull is used
with a 20m chain and was found to be 1200 to measure a base line. The true length of a
m. as a check, the length was again tape, if at the time of measurement the
temperature was 50" bnd the coefficient of
measured with a 25m chain and was found
to be l2l2m. On comparing the 20m chain linear expansion of the tape was
with the test gauge, it was found to be I I x 10-6 per oC will be
decimeter too long. The actual lepgth of (A) 499.985 m (B) 49.9985 m
25m chain in 'm' is
(C) 50.015 m (D) 50.0015 m
(A) 2s.1lm (B) 2a.89m
(C) 25.08m (D) 24.5 m 09. What is the slope correction for a length of
20 m along a gradient of 1 in 25
04. The required slope correction for a length ol' (A) -0. 16 m (B) 0.16 m
O0 m along a gradient of 1 in 25 is
(C) -0.016 m ' (D) 0.016 m
(A) 38 mm (B) 48 mm
(C) 58 mm (D) 68 mm 10. Which of the following minor instruments
are used for settingout right angles in chain
05. The true length of a line is known to be surveying?
250 m. When.this is. measured with a 20 m 1. Cross staff 2. Optrcal square
tape, the length is 251.4 m. The correct 3. Prism square 4. Auto level
length of the 20 m tape is (A)land2only (B)2and3only
(A) 20.a9 m (C) 1, 2 and3 (D) 2,3 and 4 only
@) 19.89 m
(C) 20.89 m (D) 19.49 m

Hydenbad I Delhi I Bhopal I

hue Bhubmesw Bengalm
I I I
Lucknow I Patn I Chemai I Vljalamda I Vizs Tinpati I Gunr
I I Kuka.paltv(Hvd)

4
 11. The object ofchain and cross-staffsurvey is
to (B) 04. (B) 0s. (B)
01. (D) 02. (A) 03.
1. Locate the boundaries ofan area'
2. Plot the figure to a scale. 06. (D) 07. (A) 08. (D) 09. (C) 10. (C)
3. Find the area of the plot.
4. Find the reduced levels of the plot.
11. (B) n.m
Which of these statement is/are conect?
and4
(A) 1,2,3 (B) 1,2 and 3
(C)1and2 (D)4alone

t2. Offsets are

L, L'r- ,., ol..r!nJ fi ft.a)
c hqf" /uV
(A) Lateral measurements made with respect
to main survey lines X, Lt +- Occ,(sunel di,rlon*,
(B) Perpendicular erected from chain lines car,pcL<l dtsJo,r.,t-.
(C) Taken to avoid unnecessary walking
between stations P e- P= ll a 7yl;eJ
(D)Measurements which are not made at
gles to the chain line.
p, e
s+./",J",nJ nll
lo
T= r' (+) A= A, \/- \r"

Llv p ofo Q't'sctl c, I loc^lc/ %Q , LC Sace- t)

Chqivr -+ Ioo
I
lOrn)1 -) Cq +V{. €,1-\ct"r,
" -\/Q-
vv(

-- .r
Too s)n O,t',* CO -\/e , ZAso) :

+F Co ru,o.chovr s :*
t) (r+o Crn= to' 4
I
AL' cJ) =
f-)
SP'ry
L)
lsrroa)
2) Cs,opu= r(t-(oso) =SU,
.!+" z es+. rofe c[U ln*,)
3) Cr=
6/ tMsL= LhCJ)
A.
4) C ft) R
,,,1 -f Ltlou rnsL
-> oLwo
- -J fnsL
Hydenbad I lhlhi I Bhopol I p1lrc I Dhuburcnmr I lensaluru | Ilcknw I
Pana I Cherurai I Viiapwada I
Vizs Tirupati I Guur
I I ltuLaOalbGtvd)
 Angular Measurements
qnd Compqss Survey
1. Introduction:
Compass survey is a branch of surveying in
which directions of survey lines
determined with a compass and the lengllrs
of the lines are measured with a tape or' :r
chain. In practice, the compass is generally
used to run a traverse.
2. Methods of Traversing:
(a) Chain Traverse: In a chain traversc,
the directions of the traverse lines arc
fixed by taking suitable ties near thr:
traverse stations. A chain traverse is nol
very accurate and is rarely used irr
practice.
(b) Compass Traverse: In
traverse, the directions of the traverse
lines are determined with a magnetic
compass. It is not accurate because thc
bearings of lines will be affected by
local attraction.
(c) Plane Table Traverse: A plane table
can be used for plotting a traverso
directly in the field. The plane tablo
traverse is also not accurate.
(d) Stadia Traverse: In a stadia traversc,
u) the length of the traverse lines, thc
angles between the traverse lines ancl
the elevation of traverse stations arc
measured with a tacheometer.
(e) Theodolite Traverse: In a theodolitc
traverse, the angles are measured with
a theodolite. This is the most accurate
method of traversins.
4 Hydembad I Delhi I Bhopal i Prne I Bhubmesw
3. Types of Traverse:
are (a) Closed traverse: A closed traverse
starts from one traverse station and
closed either on the same station or
another traverse station whose location
is already known.
cirsily clctected and the traverse can be
tcl j rrslctl and balanced.
(b) ()prn irlvcrse: An open traverse starts
lionr ono stalion and closes at another
station wlroso location is neither known
nor establishcd. lt consists of a series of
connected lines . An open traverse is
generally run for surveying of a long
strip of the area for a road, railway line,
compass canal , etc.
checked and adiusted.
4. Types of Meridians:
(a) True Meridian: True meridian at a
point P is the great circle passing
through the point P and the graphical
north and south poles of the earth.
N-pole
S-pole
I Bengalm I Lucknow I Patna I Chemi Vijayamda
I I
Vizag j Tirupati I Gunr j Kukatpally(Hyd)
 rfl
ffi
(b) Magnetic Meridian: Magnetic
1,

at a point is the direction

meridian ^a
indicated bY freelY susPended'
at that point'
balanced magnetic needle
(c) e;il Meriiian: For survey of a
\-/ the true It is also called as Azirnuthal system'
particular state in our country'
Leridian of a
central Place is
sometimes taken as a
reference
Such a
meridian for the whole state'
reference meridian is called
the grid
mericiian'
(d) ,ftUtttotY Meridian: .A:bittttY
is taken
merlidianis the meridian which
l;;ty convenient, arbrttary gttt:lti:
AnY reference line maY be taken
as

arbitrary meridian'

5. TYPes of Bearings:
(b) Quadrantal Bearing (Q'B')
Thc truc bcuring o1'u (Q B)
(a) True Bearing: Sistem: The quadrantal bearing
the
line is the hoiizontal unglc botwccn
thc
oi a tine is the acute angle which
the
true mcritlian tttttl thc lilrc' iirr. tout t with the meridian' Thus
'lrtto North
qnuat*tut bearing is measured from
ift. "ottft point or the south point'
uc llcirl'iltg
*hi.hru., l, o.u"t' The quadrantal
than
U.u.i"g of a line cannot be greater
I'r

-
90".
. ft it also called as Reduced Bearing
sYstem (R.B)
\r" Magnetic Bearing: Th9
(b) magnetic
u..t".g or u fint is ihe horizontal angle
magnetic
which-the line makes with the
north.

of a
\-/ Grid Bearing: The grid bea11e the
(c)
lino is the horizontal angle which
linc makes with the grid meridian'

(d) ArbitrarY 30"E

bearing of a
which the li S

meridian. Quadrantal Bearing

I
) Amdemy Aogulrt Measurements & Compass Suwey

( 'onversion of Bearings:
.8.) (rr) Conversion of Quadrantal Bearing to /. il i r,.,:r. .-: it.t.r . \

Whole Circle Bearing: Note 7.If fore btearing,of a line is give-n as

the
gof the whole circle bearing,
the
Wholc Back bearing : Fore bearing * 180",
Quadrantal ('irck:
t,i n0 Bcaring
if F.B. < 180o and
1. Quadrant
lfr:rrittg :
Back bearing Fore beartng - l\0o,
(Q.r|.)
(w.C.ll.) ,f F.B.> 180'
o N0rE 0r Notc 2. I.f the fore bearing of a line is given as
o] il SOzE 180" -02 I hc quadrantal bearing.

oc II S0rW 180o * 0r llru'k baaring : Numerically equal to

o l) IV N0+W 360o- 0q fore bearing.
,ltt,l t'ltrrtt,qt N .for S, and vice versa E
lor ll/. ttntl vicc versa.
(b) Conversion of Whole Circle Bearins
to Quadrantal Bearing:
9. Included angle betwccn two lines
from bearings:
l.B.)
It can be calculated very easily using a
l.B) on diagram
L the ol] 0 = 90o to 180"
; the (x' (a) Whole circle bearings are given :
0 =180o to270o
iom ( )l) 0:270'to
(i) Bearings of two lines measured from a
360"
oint, common point. Included angle
rntal 0:02-0r
than It. liore Bearing and Back Bearing:
> The bearing of a line in the direction of
Lring the progress ofsurvey is called the fore
bearing (F B).
> The bearing of the line in the direction
opposite to the direction of the progress
E
of survey is called the back bearing
(B.B). (ii) Bearing of two lines not measurcd from a
common point.
: B.B of previous linc - I'-.[] of next line
J g: (190 + 0r) _ 0z

JO'E
 (b) Quadrantal bcarings of two lines are
given:
(i) Measurod litlrn a common point :

11. Magnetic Compass:

It gives directly the magnetic bearings.
l\oB:e2-el
(a) Dip -It is the inclination of the -ugrlt,i.
needle with the horizontal

"Northern hemisphere" while the

southern end is deflected down in the
"southern hemisPhere"
ZAOB=180- (er+e2) ZAOB:(180 - er+ e2)

(c) In a closed clockwise traversing, the will remain horizontal.

included angles are exterior angles and
measured in the clockwise direction 96o West longitude, diP will be 90o.
from previous line towards forward line' This area is called north magnetic
(d) In a closed anticlockwise traversing, the Pole.
included angles are interior angles and
measured in clockwise direction from dip is 90".
previous line towards forward line. (b) Magnetic Declination:
It is the difference between true bearing
and magnetic bearing.
) If the magnetic meridian is to the right
side (or eastem side) of the true
meridian, declination is Eastern or
positive.

l0.Calculation of Bearings from Angles:

side), it is said to be western or
negative.
tlcaring of any one line (generally, the
l'irst lirrc) is also required along with
includod anglcs.
In a closcd travcrse, clock wise angles
will lrc thc intorior angles if the traverse is
run in thc anti-clookwise direction.
Bearing of forward litte : Bearing of
preceding line *lnclutk:d angle. Declination East (+) Declination West (-)
 Affi
nngimiqgeeaaemv :25: Angular Measurements & Compass Survey

(iii) Secular variation: Variation over a

variation. very long period, approximately 250
years.
constant but varies from time to time.
curve) pattern swings like a
points of same declination. pendulum.

points having azero declination. of declination from lloE in 1680 to

22"W in 1820.
(iv) Irregular variations: These are due to
Exomple:1 magnetic storms, earth quakes, and
:tic
solar influcnccs etc.
What is the true bearing of line AB its if
the magnetic bearing is S 25" W and the declination (c) Determination of Truc bearing
the is 7o 30'West.
the Sol: Declination.

Jle

nd
00.
tic

le,

True bearing: (25" - 7'30') Use -ve, for eastern Declination

ng
: S 17o30'W Use *ve, for western Declination

Variations of magnetic declination:

'ht
ue
(i) Durinal variation:
or

rn
or night time.
Exumple:'2

equator.
Ifthe magnetic bearing of a line is 40o30' and
Magnetic declination is 6'30'E. What is the true
winter.
bearing of a line?
Sol:
Magnetic dcclination of a line is 6o30'E.
(ii) Annual variation: variation over a
period ofan year or 365 days. True bearing = 40o30' + 6o30' : 47
o0'
)

:'l Hydenbad I Delhi I Bhopal I Pue I Bhubanesw I Bengalm I Lucknow I Pann I Chennai I Vijayawada Vizg Tirupati j Gunur I Kukapally(Hyd)
U I I
 ACE :
nngrffifiAcad€my :26 Geomatics F,ngineering

tEw :,3 13. Adjustments of Prismatic compass:

(a) Temporary adjustments: are those
If the magnetic bearing of a line is S38o30'W made at every set up of the instrument.
and Magnetic declination is 4o30'W. What is the They are
true bearing of a line?
Sol:
(i) Centering: Process of keeping the
instrument exactly over the station.
If magnetic declination : 4o30'W I)ono by adjusting legs of tripod and

T.B. : S 38'30' W- 4'30' : S 34oW using plumb bob.

( ii) l,cvclling: Generally, tripod is
providcd with ball and socket
12. Comparison between Prismatic lrrangoment with the help of which
Compass and Surveyor's ComPass lr.:vclling is done

Prismatic
Surveyor's (iii) l,'ocusing the prisrn: Prism is moved
S. No Item
compass
compass up or down in its slice till the
gracluations in the ring are seen clear.
Broad type -
fitted to the Edgo bar typc
.also nctr ar
(b) Itcrmanent adjustments: Done only
Needle
bottom of whcrt thc fundamental relations
aluminium an index
between parts of the instrument are
ring (cunnot hc
$ecn l,__ disturbed.
Frcc b l'lortt
llong with thc 14. Local attraction:
Attached to the
2 Scalc broirtl typo
box
magnotic
noedle magnetic materials like heavy steel or
nickel objects, electric poles, transmission
W.C.B 0o at Q.B
0o at North and lines etc.
south 90o at
South 90o at
J Bearing west 180" at East and West.
North 270" at East and west steel buttons, steel pens should be
east
inter chansed ignored.
Inverted If the difference in F.B & B.B of a line is
because we Direct not 180o the stations represented by that
4 Graduations have to see line are affected due to Local attraction.
them through
DNSIn
Sighting is to Method - 1: The correction at each station
be done first is found from the fore bearing and the back
Sighting at
Can be done
and then the bearing of' different lines. Find the line
object and surveyor has to
5
simultaneously whose fore bearing and back bearing differ
taking bearing read the
exactly by 180o. Then there is no local
northem end of
the needle. attraction at both the end stations of that
Tripod Not eqsential Essential line. All the bearings taken at these stations
6
will be free from local attraction and are,
0|J
T therefore. correct.
> Htd"-bt"*{Bh* al I hne I Bhubaneswu I
Bengalm I Ircknow I
Patna I
Chemi Vijayamda lVizg Tirupati Gmnr I KukaOallvG{yd)
I I I
I
:27: Angular Measurements & Compass Survey
SS:
In this wdy, the observed bearings are
;hose corrected by finding out the error at cach
nent.
Classroom Practice Questions
station and applying corrections to all thc
bearings taken at that station. The corrcclion
; the for all the bearings taken at one statiolr is 01. A closed compass traverse PQRS is run
tion. constant. with a prismatic compass in a clock-wise
I and direction
Method - 2: In this method, the includctl
angles are used for determining lhc
iis corrected bearings. At an affected staliun,
Line Fore bearins
rcket PQ 500
local attraction draws the needle a certairr 0
'hich QN 170
amount away from the magnetic meridiarr. RS 2300
As all the bearings taken from that statiorr SP
0
310
rved are affected equally in the same direction,
'l'lrc vnluc ol'lhc included anele S is
the the included angles computed from tho
lear. bearings are not affected by local attraction, (A) 360" (B) 2600
(c) 100" (D) 50"
only
;ions 02 ln a compass traversing, observed bearings
', afe arc as follows.

Line F.B B.B

AB 126"30', 307"45',
:e of
lor BC 49'00' 227"15',
sion
CD 340'15' 161"30'
rins,
DE 258"1s', 78'15',
be
EA 212"15', 31"30'
re is
that
n. The correct F.B. of a line BC will be after
applying the correction due local to
Jion attraction.
rack (A)26"30', (B) 36"30',
line (c) 58"3O', (D) 49"30'
iffer
ocal 03. The magnetic declination at a place if the
that magnetic bearing of the sun at noon is 184o.
ions (A) 4'E (B) 4"W
ate) (c) 176 (D) None
 ACE Geomatics
Fngine€ringAlzdeqY

of of -2o. The true bearing

of a line OA'
04. If the declination is 6o30'W, Which one considering magnetic declination
of 3o30'W
would
the following magnetic bearing will be
represent the true bearing of S32o30'E? (B) 181"30'
(B) 1s6" (A) 178"30'
(A) 154" (D) 179"30'
(D) 160" (c) 180"30'
(c) 1s8"
t2.
05. If the true bearing of a line AB is N45o15'W
The
unJtn. magnetic declination is 4o west'
magnetic bearing of a line is

06. -' AC are

The bearing of lines AB and
30o

and 120" resPectivelY then IBAC:

(A) 90" (B) 150"
(c) 7s " (D) None

is 40" and lino AB will be

07. Which in lABCif FB of line AB \r5"31 '
BB of line BC is 280" (A) 5'E-
Sg4" l (B) N 'E
(B) l20"
(A) 90" (c) s82"05'E (D) N84"15'E
(c) 240" (D) 320"

13. In a closed traverse ABC' following

The quadrantal bcarings of thc linc AB
and
08. readings were take
CA are S 25u30' U and S 50"30' B
is
respcctivcly, the included angle CAB Line Fore Bearing Back Bearing
(A) 195" (B) 205" 20lo
AB 200
(c) 215' (D) 135"
BC 1010 278'

09. ABCD is a square. If bearing of AB is CA x-

500

N30oE, bearing of BC is
w (B) N 60'E Station A is free from local
(A) S 60'E
(D Correct bearing of CB is
(c) E 60"s
W (A)275" (B)276"
The whole circle bearings of lines OP
and (D) 280"
10. (c) 281"
OQ are 20o15' and 337"45' resPectivelY'
Wiat is the value of the included angle The bearing of line AB is 165o and the angle
QOP? ABC is 139o. Bearing of line BC is
(A) 34"30', (B) 32"30'
(A) 124" (B) 139"
(c) 44"30' (D) 42"30'
(c) 129" (D) 149"
The observed magnetic bearing of a
line OA
I 1. that
was found to be fu2o' It was later found
attraction
station 'O' had an enor in a local
: : ': : ,: . *---:rrf,:-. adalvizag lTinrpati lcrmurl ryryryY$tdf
Hydenbad I Delhi I BhoPal I hme I B
 ErgioccriqgAcad€my :29' Angular Measurernents & C,ompass Survey

OA, 15. The magnertic azimtth of one end of a

30'w runway is 80o measured clock wise from the
magnetic north. The other end of the runway 01. (B) 02. (D) 03. (B) 04. (A) 0s.(318"45')
will be (A) 07.,
06. 08. (B) 0e. (A) 10. (D)
(A) 160" (B) 240"
(c)260" lt. (c) 12. ( 13. (D) 14. (A) ls. (c)
(D) 80"
was r6. (rf)
nretic 16. The whole circle bearing of line AB is 70o
f *tt and of line BC is 160o. The deflection angle
lrrect at B from AB to BC is
other
, was
f line
i and
B. of
 Plane Table Sut"tleY
4. Accessories used for plane table
1. Introduction: il survey:
(a) Board:
**.ying by a graphical method in which The drawing board is carefully made of
the field work and plotting'are done well seasoned wood in a
way to
simultaneouslY.' counteract the effect of warping and
tables
damages from weathering' Plane
that the topographic features to be mapped are available in the following different
are in full view. sizes.

Designation Size (mmxmm)

scale-mapping (1:10,000 to 1: 2'50'000)'
Bo 1500 x 1000

2. Advantages: Br 1000 x 700

(D The o-bservations and plotting are done 700 x 500
simultaneously. Hence, there is no risk Bz
of omitting necessary details' B: 500 x 350
(iD The errors and mistakes in plotting can
be checked bY drawing check lines'
\ / Inegular objects
(iii) can - Pt. plotted \-/ TriPod:
(b)
accu:rately as the lay of tand is in view' An'open frame type light tripod is

(iv) It is mosi rapid and useful for filling in usually Provided for fixing the drawing
details. table.
(v) No great skill is required' (c)
t; Alidade:
iull ft isless costly than theodolite survey' It is a wooden or brass ruler of about 50-
iuf; rt is advantageous in. magnetic areas' 60 cm in length. It is also known as
where compass survey is not reliable' sight rule. Two vanes, the 'object vane'
utia tnt hight vane are hinged at its two
I
3. Disadvantages: ends'
(i) It is not suitable for work in a wet
climate and in a denselY wooded parallel to the *ting or fudicial edge of
country. the alidade.
(ii) The ubrrn . of measurements (field
notes) are inconvenient, if the survey
is
sighted, the accuracy and the range
are
to be replotted to some different scale' cJnsiderably increased by providing a
(iii) It is heavy and awkward to carry and the telescoPic alidade'
accessories are likelY to be lost'
(lv) It does not give very accurate results' long inclined sights'

Hyderabad lDelhilBhoprl lhlrc lB

 (d) Trough Compass: 6. Methods of plane table surveying:
Usually it is 15 cm long and is provided
to plot the magnetic meridian (N-S (a) Radiation:
direction) to facilitate orientation of the llr tlris nrcthod the instrument is sefup at
plane table in the magnetic meridian. a stllion and rays are drawn to various
slaliorrs which are to be plotted. The
(e) Spirit level: disllrrrccs arc cut to a suitable scale after
Plane table surveying is that the board aclrrlI nrcusurements
le of
rto should be level. This is
usually
atrca_lo ll
and accomplished with a circular spirit level.
staliorrs
lbles
lrent
(f) Plumbing Fork:
The use of a plumbing fork is justified
only if the scale of plotting is large, the wlrolr llre tlisllrrcos are measured by a
rays being short. However, for small- tachcorr rclcr'.
scale mapping, which is usually done to
with a plane table, the use of plumbing locato llre rletails of the area in
fork is a sheer waste. conjunctiolr with the method of
traversirrg,
(g) Indian Clinometer:
Since a large number of points of (b) Traversing:
observation are required to plot contours This mothotl is sirnilar to compass. or
in plane table survey, the direct or spirit theodolite tnrvcrsilrg. The table is set at
levelling proves to be very slow and thus each of thc slirtiorrs irr succession. A
an Indian pattern clinometer is foresight is lirkcrr lo tlro next station and
employed. This instrument was made by the distanc:c: is t:rrl to a suitably choosen
J.H.Steward.

Temporary Adjustments :
:50- (a) Fixing
1as (b) Centering
ane' (c) Levellins ... ev ftoulh
- -------'---: {L !i)
\- / oil;ion
two compass
i;i (ii) By back sighting I l'lr vcrses.

,is (c) Intcrsection:

eof plane table into some fixed direction so lrr this method two stations arc so
solected that all the other stations to be
lbe
that the line representing certain a plotted are visible from these. The line
direction on the plan is parallel to that
are joining these two stations is called base
direction on the sround.
Ea line. The length of this line is measured
very accurately.
for very commonly used
for plotti ils. It is
when n the stati
is too or the stations are
HvdenbadlDelhilBhopallPunelBhubmeswlBengaluru]LucknowlPatralChemilvijayawdaivizs
lTirupari !cmnrl Kuka4ally(Hy<l)
 Geomatics

7. Trial-and-Error Method or
Lehmann's Method:
This method is very commonly used in field
very convcltiontly plottcd by this measurements as it is very accurate' The
method' position of a plane table is estimated by
judgement. This triangle is reduced to a point
(d) Resection:
by trial and error.
It is a rnethod of orientation employed
whcn the table occupies a position not yet
located on the drawing sheet.
It is defined as the process of locating the
instrument station occupied by the plane
table by drawing rays from the stations
whose positions have already been plotted
on the drawing sheet.

This method is employed when during

x<^
.\

sheet by resection.

(D Resection after orientation bY

compass.
(ii) Resection after orientation by back
sighting
(iiD Resection after orientation bY two
points (two point Problem)
(iv) Resection after orientation bY
three points (three point problem)
Where,
A, B, C are Ground Points.
Tracing paper or mechanical
a,b, c are Points on the Plan
method
T is Plane table station.
Graphical Method

Lehmann's Method Lehmann's Rules:

= The adjustment in orientation is facilitated by
Lehmann's rules for estimating the exact
position of t from the triangle of error'

lvizg lTirupali lcmuul Kuka&allvGlvd)

ffihubmeswlBengalmlhcknwlparnlchenmilvli

-=- 3 rrq
'l
 uffi-m^*.-'
(D The distance of the point 't" to be fixed centering (by shifting) and orientation is
from each of the rays aA, bB, and cC is required to achieve the two simultaneously.
proportional to the respective distances The error caused by faulty centering depends
field of the stations A, B, and C from the upon thc scalc of the plan and the length of
The station T. the ray fiorn the instrument station to the
dbv (ii) station plottcd.
While looking towards the stations the
point point 't" to be fixed, will either be to the n
left or to the right of each of the rays. 4+i z--=-\-
a
a
,t
a,
a,
(iii) When T is outside the great circle ABC, ,,,
t' is always on the same side of the ray \\t \-
t 'a
drawn to the most distant station as the \\\\
intersection of the other two rays. \\\\
\\\\
\\r\
(iv) When T falls within any of the three
segments of the great circle ABC,
formed by the sides of the triangle ABC,
the ray towards the middle station lies
between 't" and the intersection of other
two rays.
in plotted posilion of station
(v) If plane table station T lies on the great
circle (passing through the points A,B, '' : cct: gK
'il' bbt
and C) the correct solution is not
possible, because the three rays will
Where,
always meet at a point even if the table
Displaccrrrcrrt of plotted position
is not oriented.
/ 7: at right angles to the ray
K : Roprcsontative fraction of scale.

8. Error due to inaccurate centering:

Centering of a plane table is defined as that
instrument configuration when the plotted
position of the station on the drawing sheet
dbv lies vertically above the ground point.
xact Usually after orientation; the centering is
disturbed and a lot of effort in repeated

Hyderabad I Delhi I Bhopal I Pme I Bhubanesw I Bensalm ] Lucknow I Patn I Chenmi Viiayewada
I I Vzs Tinpari cuur
I I I KukaOaXvfivd)
;lil." ACE
:fl D; Ensinc€ring ecaacmv : 34: Geomatics Engineering
{w9:

List-II
Classroom Practice Questions 1. Inaccessible points
2. Open country with good intervisibility
01. In setting up the plane table at a station P, 3.Large scale maps
the conesponding point on the plan was not 4. Small scale maps
accurately centered above P. If the 5. Hilly regions
displacement of P was 50 cm in a direction
perpendicular to the ruy, how much on the Codes:
plan would be the consequent displacement P ARS
of a point from its true position, if the scale (A) 3 412
was l cm= 10m? (B) 4 325
(A) 5 mm (B) 1mm (c) 5 4 31
(C) 0.5 mm (D) 0.05 mm (D) 3 | 42
02. In setting up the plane table at a station, the 06. The method of plane tabling commonly used
centering was not done with care and it was for establishing the instrument station the
found the displacement of the plotted point method of
at right angles to the ray was 250 mm. The (A) Radiation (B) Intersection
error in the plotted position if the scale was (C) Resection (D) Traversing
1 mm:2 m is
03. The plotting of inaccessible points in a plane 07. For locating an inaccessible point with the
table survey can be done by the method of help of only aplane table, one should use
(A) interpolation (B) Radiation (A) Traversing (B) Resection
(C) Intersection (D) Traversing (C) Radiation (D) Intersection

04. The method of orienting a plane table with

two inaccessible points is known as
(A) intersection (B) back sighting
(C) resection (D) Two-point problem

05. Match List-I (statement) with List-II

(situation) and select the correct answer
using the codes given below the lists:

List-I
P. Accurate centering in plane table
surveying is necessary for
Q. Exact orientation is more important than
accurate centering for
R. The intersection method of plane table
surveying is particularly employed for
S. Plane table survey is useful for

Hydenbad I
Delhi I Bhopal I Pme I Bhubmesw I Bengalm I
hclnow I
Patra I Chennai I Vllalamda I
Vizg firupati I Guuu I ltuUpdtv(Hva)
I
ri"g

-
Levelling
l. Introduction: (g) Elevation (R.L): Vertical distance
The object of Levelling is above or below an arbitrarily assurncd
level surface or dafum.

with respect to a given or assumed Bench Mark: Relatively permanent

datum. point of reference whose elevations
To establish points at a given elevation with reference to some assume datum
or at different elevations with respect to known. Used either as a starting point
a given or assumed datum. for levelling or as a point upon which
rsed To deal with angular and linear to close as a check .
the measurements in vertical plane.

Mean Sea Level (MSL): It is the

2. Definitions:
(a) Level surface : A curved surface
the
which at each point is perpendicular to
the direction of gravity at the point. The
surface of a still water is a truly level
surface. Any surface parallel to the
mean spheroid surface of the earth is.
therefore, a level surface.
(b) Level line: Normal to the plumb line
at all points.
average height of sea for all the stages
or tides calculated for 19 years. Now
MSL is at Mumbai Airport for which
RL: 0.000m
3. Methods of Levelling:
(a) Barometric Levelling: Makes use of
the phenomenon that difference in
elevations, between two points is
proportional to the difference in
atmospheric pressures at these points.

(c) Horizontal plane: Tangential to the (b) Trigonometric Levelling: (tndirect

level surface at the point.
(d) Horizontal line: Straight line
tangential to the level at a point.
(e) Vertical line: Line normal to the level
line at a point.
Datum: Any surface to which
elevations are referred.
levelling) In a modified fbnn called
Stadia levelling. This method is
commonly used in mapping
(c) Spirit levelling (Direct Levelling):
In this a spirit lcvcl and sighting device
I
)& (tcloscopc) are combined and vertical
clistarrccs are measured by observing an
graduated rods placed on the points. It
is the most precise method.
 ACE Geomatics
EngioeerlogAcaahry

(iii) Reversible level:

4. Levelling Instruments: Combines the features of both the dumpy
(a) Level level and the wYe level'
(b) Levelling staff
(iv) Tilting level:
(a) Level: lt provides a horizontal line of In this the line of sight and the vertical axis
sight' lt consists of FOUR Parts' need not be exactly perpendicular to each
(D A tclescope to provide line of sight' other. It helps in quick levelling'
(ii) A level tube to make the line of A tilting level is mainly designed for precise
sight horizontal levelling work.
(iii) A levelling head to bring the bubble
in its centre of run (v) Auto Level:
It is an accurate than all the levels'
(iv) A tttpod to support the instrument'

Types of levels are b) Levelling Staff:

(if Pumpv (ii) wYe or Y \t;- i) Self reading staff
\to..r
AJ (iii) Reversible and (iv) Tilting' / '\ ii) Target staff
(v) Auto Level
3 forms of self reading staff
(D Dumpy Level: (a) Solid: 3 m
The nu*. originated from the fact that (b) Folding : 4m
formerly this level was equipped with an (c)TelescoPic:4mor5m
inverting eyepiece and hence was shorter than
wye level of the same magniffing power'
Smallest division or L.C:0'005 m or 5 mm
Dumpy level is advantageous than the wye
level because of:
a) Simpler construction with fewer movable
parts.
b) Fewer adjustment to be made
c) Longer life of the adjustments'

' ' Wye level:

(ii)
Th; essential difference between the dumpy
5. SurveYing Telescope:

level and the wye level is that in the former

line which passes through the optical
case the telescope is fixed to the spindle while
in the wye levll, the telescope is carried in / centers ofeYe Pi
Va Parallax: If the
two vertical "wYe" suPPorts'
'/\ objective is not
The wye level has an advantage over the
cross-hairs any
dumpy level in the fact that the adjustments likely to cause an apparent movement of
.un b. tested with greater rapidity and case'
the image with reference to cross hairs'
This is called Parallax'

Hydembad I Delhi I Bhopal I Punc I Bhubanenlar l

*;$*rr€
 ACE
rring nnginceriogAcademy :37 : kvelling
- (iii) Diaphragm: Consists of cross hairs. In
mpy (i) Objective stadia Theodolite, stadia wircs arc also
(ii) Eye piece included.
(iii) Diaphragm
6. Optical defects of lens:
axN (a) Aberrations: It is the deviations of tho
each rays of light.
Flint glas
:cise (i) Spherical aberrations: The rays from
,fr,Kepler's type of telescope is used in a
l.'/ Dumpy level given point are not all collected exactlv at
one point
(i) Objective: It is a compound lens called
achromatic lens. It consists of
double convex (ii) Chromatic aberrations: The violet ray is
lens made of crown glass anda convexo refracted most and the red least. This
concave lens made of flint glass. With this
defect is known as chromatic aberrations,
compound lens both spherical and chromatic
due to which blurred and coloured imase
aberrations are completely eliminated.
is formed.
(ii) Eyepiece:
V> Ramsden's eye piece is the most of the requirements in the design of a
,t'\ commonly used. It is composed of plane telescope.
-
convex lenses of equal focal length,
with a spacing of 213 f. are coma, astigmatism, curvature,
Where, f : focal length of lens distortion etc.
7. Temporary adjustments of a
used telescope:
(a) Setting up the level
(b) Levelling up
(c) Eliminations of parallax

tsa
ical
8. Terms and Abbrcvations:
the (a) Back sight (B.S): Sight taken on a point
rith of known clcvation, to obtain the height of
lis instruments.lt is taken as plus sight.
:of
irs. (b) Fore sight(F.S): Taken on a point of
unknown elevation. It is taken as minus
sight.
 {
E
(b) Rise and fall method:
(c) Height of instruments (H'I): It is the
of
' ' elevition of plano of sight with reference 't
consecutive staff points is calculated rl
to the assumcd datum'

lesser indicates rise

small areas or for LS and CS

station readings are required

(e)
S and F'S to
station
: )Rise - IFall
(f Turning point (T.P): I! a p.o1nt on
1s
which Uotti Uact sight and fore sight are
taken.

Examptle:1
9. Differential Levelling:
It is a direct method in which difference in
less
elevation of two points determined regard
,r of the horizontal positions of points withas
w-'i reference to each cther' This is also known
'' ':Fly Levelling"' 2.42m. The RL of sill is
(A) 9s.62 m @) 96'54 m
10. Booking and Reducing levels: (D) 104.63 m
(C) 103.46 m
(a) Height of instrument method:
Ans: (B)
each set uP of the instrument' Sol:
the RL of line of collimation = 100 - l'04
RLs of other staff stations can be
= 98.96 m
calculated
Generally used for fly levelling, or to RL of sill level:98'96 -2'42:96'54m
establish BMs
Suitable if
there are no intermediate
sights
Cleck tBS-tFS : Last RL - First RL

Hydembad I
Delhi I BhoPal I Pue I B
 t:ffi".m^**
Example:2 (ii) Correction for Refraction (Cp):
Of
Qtositive)
The missing data (X1 and X2 respectively) from
the table given below is co =lc.
rd '
--!-
in
Station
BM
BS FS HI RL ('R td, (+ve) meters
1.17 5 Xr 100.00 7 ZR
A X, 98.975
whcrc'd' is in'km'
(A) 100.1 m, 1.9 m (B) 1001 m,2.2m
(C) 101.175 m,2.2 m (D) 101.175 m, 1.9 m (iii) Combirrcd Correction (C): (Negative)

Ans: (c) g= 6 tlr

( vc)
Sol: X1 : RL +BS : 100 + 1.175 : 101.175m
7 ztr
HI - & :98.975 C:0.06735 tlr rnr:tcrs (-)
Xz: HI -98.975: Xr - 98.975
: l0l .175 - 98.975 :2.2 m where'd'is irr 'krn'
toint
nt so
dbv 11. Balancing Backsights and 0.06735
his Foresights:
When the difference in elevation between any C in 'm'. d in 'km'
two points is to be determined from a single
set-up by backsighting on one point and 13. Distance to the visible horizon:
foresighting on the other, the error due to non Combined correction. C:0.06735 d2
parallelism of line of collimation and axis of
:k
the bubble tube (when the bubble is in the
a
centre of the run) and also the error due to
n.
curyafure and refraction may be eliminated, if C in 'm' . d in 'km'
}S
the lengths of two sights can be made equal.
(both curvature and roliaction are taken into
account )
12. Curvature and Refraction:
(i) Correction for curvature (C"):
Example:3

An observcr standing on the of a ship's deck sees

a light housc. The top of light house is 35m above
the sca level and the height of the observer is 6m
R: radius of earth:6370 km abovc sca level. Distance between observer and
light house is
meters (-ve)
(A)32.235m (B) 20.74krrr
(C)20.74m (D) 32.235 krrl
where 'd' is in km
 Geomatics
Acadcry
is same as of
Ans: @)
ht: 35m curvature error if the line of collimation
Sol: Height of tower =
is inclined uPwards
Height of obscrvcr
: hz:6m €col=O-e"*eP

d,= =22.796 k'nt

dr= =9.439 km

... d: dr f dz 'Bxawple:4

: : 32'235 lrrrt
22.796 + 9.439
In levelling between two points A and B
on the
set up near
opposite sides of a river, the level was
e una the staff readings on A and B were 2'645
then
14. ReciProcal Levelling: m and 2.30 m, r.rp.ti rely' The level was
to the staff
The true difference in elevation is equal moved and set up ne : B, the respective
mean of two apparent differences in t.uaingt on A and B were 1'085 m and
1'665 m'
elevations, obtained by reciprocal fitO tt. true difference of level between A and
observations. B.
/r\
Sol: ho: 2.645 m hu:2'30
H =[ I l{(r'" -tt,)*(t{ -tt',)}
:
\2/" - h" : 1'085 m hu 1'665 m
where hx,h6 &ro staff readings at A & B when

staff is close to A h; ate

and h'u' .'. True difference of levels between
A and B

corresponding readingsr at A and B when : Average of differences in the two sets

staff is close to B.
(h" -h")+(h" -hb)
i=-- l-

following effors can be eliminated by

rocal levelling;
= '2
enor in the line of collimation :m
combined effect of earth's curvature and ol
refraction
a variation in the average refraction lS.Profile Levelling -(L*ongitudinal
Sectioning):
Total Error: e=-(l12) {(f," -f,r)-(tt; -n;)} Profile leveiing is the process of determrrung
the elevations of points at short measured
the centre
intervals along a fixed line such as
line of a railway' highway, canal or sewer'
error, curvature error and refraction error line or
o:ecol*e.-ep The fixed line may be a single straight
it may be comiosed of a succession of

Hyderabadl Delhil BhoPal I Punc I B

-;of straight lines or of a series of straight lines Let tr' '. scnsitivity of the bubble tube
tion connected by curves. It is also known as - angular value of one division is given
longitudinal sectioning. by
(
l6.Cross-Sectioning: .'. (L',= '- radians
R
Cross-sections are run at right angles to the
longitudinal profile and on either side of it for i.e rr' ,E =-!-radians
the purpose of lateral outline of the ground
S
surface. They provide the data for estimating
quantities of
earth work and for other t
=nD t 2.06265seconds
purposes.

(Sirrr:c I r'ttlian :206265seconds: t

the 17. Sensitivity of Bubble Tube: sin 1" ')
leaf
,r'*-
J-
645
--- seconds
nD sin l"
hen tube.
taff D Sorrsitivcness can be increased by
m. is kept as 2mm.
o lnercusing the internal radius of the
and lcvcl lubc.
o lrtcrousing the diameter of the level
more divisions for a given change in the
lubc.
angle.
o lrrorcusing thc length of the bubble
lubc.
o l)cclousing thc roughness of the walls
--<\ D
F r
tnd lovcl tuhr:.
l)corcrsing thc viscosity of the fluid
urcd in lovoltube.
C
R
\cr 18. llypsr)tneter:
ll is uscd to find altitudes of stations on the
o lirct lhat the temperature at which, water

Cf,=
AB n( hoils varics with the atmospheric pressure.

Where,
Altlmoter : It is used to find heights.
lal n: Number of divisions disturbed
R: radius of curvature of the bubble tube 19. Errors in Levelling:
ing /: length of one division on the bubble tube
All levelling measurements are subject to
three principal sources of errors:
red (usually 2mm)
rtre
/er.
R=n/D (a) Instrumental:
)or s:
S

Different in staff readings before and after

(D Error due to imperfect adjustment.
of disturbed
(ii) Error due to sluggish bubble
r1t
 (iii) Enor due to movement of objective
Classroom Practice Ouestions
slide
(iv) Rod not o1'standard length.
01. An observer standing on the deck of a ship
(v) Error duc to defective joint just sees the top of a light house which is
35 m above the sea level. If the height of the
(b) Natural: observers eye is 12 m above the sea level,
(i) Earth's curvature then the distance of the observer from the
(iD Atmospheric refraction light house will be nearly
(iii) Variations in temPerature (A) 361.44 km (B) 36.144 km
(iv) Settlement of tripod or turning (C)36.144m (D) 361.44 m
points.
02. A Bench Mark (BM) of R.L 165.505 m has
(v) Wind vibrations. been established at the roof of the building.
With differential levelling. The back sight of
(c) Personal: 0.745 m (staff held inverted) was observed
(i) Mistakes in maniPulation on B.M and the fore sight of 1.450 m was
(iD Mistake in rod handling taken on the floor of the same building. The
(iii) Mistake in reading the rod R.L (m) of floor will be
(iv) Enors in sighting (A) 167.700 (B) 164.800
(v) Mistakes in recording (c) 163.310 (D) r6s.240

03. The following observations were taken rn

reciprocal levelling, distance AB:1 km
Instrument Staff Readins
'AE
A t.625 2.545
B 0.725 1.405

The collimation error is

(A) + 0.0s27 (B) - 0.0527
(c) 0.80
+ (D) - 0.80

04. In a spirit levelling, It is found that sum of

rise and fall would be2.645m and - 1.245 m
respectively. If the R.L of first station is
150.500m, the R.L of closing station it

05. How high should a helicopter pilot rise- at a

point A just to see the horizon at point B, If
the distance AB is 60 km
(A) 282.86 mm (B) 282.86 m
(C) 2a2.46 mm (D) 242.46 m
 rl

ACE
nngineerlngecaAemv I-evelling
-i:s
06. The following readings were taken with a R.s F.S R.L(m) Rernarks
B.M
L- Dumpy level and a 4 m levelling staff on a ?,(rl!l
.550
200.000

X continuously sloping ground at 30 m

.r,.5 50 1..s00 ?
a ship intervals: 0.680 m, 1.455 m,2.330m, 2.885 0.tJ50 t94.450
rich is m, 3.380 m, 1.055 m. The R.L. of the fourth
of the point was calculated to be 79.100 m. The 'l'hc nrissing ltl, ol''(l'
level,
m the
R.L of the point that was read 0.680 m is
(A) 81.305 m (B) 79.780 m
(A) t()tr.trso (B) 198.580

(C) 78.420 m (D) 77.740 m

((') | fi9.n50 (D) I 89.580

07. A level when set up 25 m from peg A &

ll. 'l'lrc lirlkrwing notes ref'er to the reciprocal
lcvcls lirkcrr with one level:
50 m from peg B reads 2.847 m on staff held
m has on A and 3.462 m on staff held on B, Slul'l'llcadings on
lding. keeping bubble ati reading. If
Ntttr F'urther Remarks
ght of the reduced levels 283.665 m Slullorr
ierved and 284.295 m respectively. What is the Slnlkrt station
n was collimation effor per 100.0 m? Distance
(A) 0.01s m (B) 0.60 m ll | (ll 1.630
5. The PQ:800 m
(C) 0.0as m (D) 0.060 m
( o
R.L. of
(J ),7'1 0.950
08. Consider the following statements r P=450m
\
In surveying operations, the word
'reciprocal' can be associated with 'l'lrc' l{.1,, ol'Q rs

1. Ranging (A)44lt.l{ ttr (t}) 500 m

2. Levelling ((') 5(11,2 rrr (l)) 512.7 m
3. Contouring
Which of these statements is/are correct? 12. l)urirrg u lcvclling work along a rising
(A) l only (B)land2only grntlionl wilh luto level and levelling staff
(C) 2 and 3 only (D) 1,2 and3 ol' 4 rrr h.:ngth, The following successive
t'c,urlitrF,s woro taken 3.425, 2.650, 0.850,
2, | .50, I .780, 2.950,1.250,0.525.
09. If sensitivity of a bubbletube is 30 sec per 2 l'lrc rr:rrtlings 0.850 &2.150 respectively are
mm division, what would be the error in (A) ll.s, t'.s(B) F.s, B.s
mof staff reading on a vertically held staff at a ((') LS, R.S (D) LS, B.S
45m distance of 200 m when the bubble is out of
rn is centre by 2.5divisions? l{.t, of at building is 174.4 m staff
(A) 0.073m (B) 0.73m roading on the floor is I.725 and staff
(C) 7.3 m (D) 73m rcading when it is held inverted with boffom
:ata tcruching the ceiling of a hall is 2.940 m then
B, If 10. In a levelling work, to establish the R.L o1' the height of the ceiling above the floor is
point 'C' with respect to the B.M at A. Thc (A) 4.565 m (B) 4.66sm
staff readings taken are as follows. (C) 3.66s m (D) 3.s6s m

Hydembad I Delhi I Bhopal I Pme I Bhubmcsw I Bengalm I Lucknow I Patna I Chemai i Vljalamda I
Vizs Tinpati I Gmtu I Kukapally(Hyd)
I
,ffi
14. During reciprocal levelling, the following 17. With a dumpy level, when the bubble is at 22

the centre the staff reading of 1'55 m was

observations are taken on two pegs A and B'
observed on station B from Instrument
Were fixed on opposite banks of a 100 m
station 'A' which are 100 m a patt' Whpn
wide river.
Staff readings the bubble is disturbed by 4 divisions out of
Instrument at A B the centre the staff reading on B is l'60 m'
1.350 m 1.550 m What is the sensitivity of bubble tube? Take
Ar
the length of each division on the bubble
Br 0.550m 0.750 m
tube is 2 mm
Notc: Ar 8L Br are close to A & B (A) 2.573 mm (B) 2'578 sec
respcctively .If R.L of Peg B is 100'500 m, (C) 25.78 sec (D) 25'78 mm
thc R.L of (m) of Peg A is
(A) 100.400 m (B) 100.s00 m 18. Staff reading on the floor of a verandah of
(C) 100.600 m (D) 100.700 m school building is 1.815 m and staffreading
stafftouching the
s 2.870 m R.L. of
15. The following observations were taken the floor is 74.500 of the ceiling(m)
during testing of a dumPY level. will be
(A) 7e.185 (B) 78.175
Instrument at Staff reading on (c) 6e.185 (D) 68.18s
P a
r9. The levelling staff held at a distance of
1.525 m m
P 2.32i5
250 mis read at 4.55 m with the bubble out
at 1.545m 2.265m of centre by 2 divisions towards the
a observer. If the sensitivity of the bubble is
30 secs/division and 1 division:2 mm, then
The collimation error in the instrument was
(B) -0.04m actual staff reading must have been
(A) - 0.4 m i$ (B) 4.677 m
(A) 4.317 m
(Q 0.4 m @) 0.04 m (D) 4.477 m
(c) a.s77 m
16. In levelling between two'points A & B on
the reciprocal opposite sides of a river the
20. In a reciprocal levelling across a river of
A width 1500 m, It is found there was a total
level was fust set up near and staff
enor of 0.015 m in the observed readings'
The collimation error(m) is
(A) 0.136s (B) -{.136s
(c) 0.146s (D) -0.146s

respectively. What is the true difference of 21. In a differential levelling the summation of
levelbetweenA&B? all rises and summation of all falls are
(A) A and vel 9.455 m and 8-325 m respectively' If the R'L
(B) B is 0.
(C) B is 0.4525 mbelow A
(D) A is 0.905 mbelow B

Hydenbad l lhlhi l Bhopel l hurc l Bhubercs'rar l

.74
 ecaacmv z 45: Irvelling

eisat 22. Which of the following sights will be 24. In an instrument the bubble tube with
n was applieable for a change point division of I mm and a radius of 1.1 m has
u4ent (A) Back sight ths sonaitivity in radians is
Whpn (B) Intermediate sight and fore sight (A) r/200 (B) 1/700
out of (C) Fore sight (c) r/r00 (D) l/1100
60 m. (D) Back sight and fore sight
'Take
rubble 23. Error due to inclination of line of
collimation in levelline across a river can be (B)
01. 02. (A) 04. (154.3e0 m)
(C) 03,
eliminated by
(A) reversion 0s.(D) 06, (A) 07, (D) 08. (B) 0e. (A)
(B) reciprocal ranging
10, (A) 11, (A) 12, (B) 13. (B) 14. (D)
lah of (C) reciprocal levelling
'ading (D) keeping level in middle ls. (D) 16d (9 17. (C) 18.(A) le.(D)
tg the
20. (B) 21. (A) 22, (D) 23, (C) 24, (D)
.L. of
u(m)

:e of
.e out
the
lle is
then

,n of
are
R.L
. the

Hydenbad I Delhi I Bhopal I Rme I Bhubmeswu I Bengalm I Iacknow I Parra I Chemi Viiayamda
I I Vizs Tirupati I Gutru
I I KukapanVGIVd)
 Theodolite
e) Lower plate or scale plate: Size of a"'
1. Introduction:
Theodolite is represented by the size of "
Theodolitc is thc most precise instrument
used for mcasuring horizontal and vertical scale plate. i.e., 10cm Theodolite etc.
angles. f) A-frame
) I-lorizontal and vertical distances can also g) Upper plate or vernier Plate.
be calculated indirectlY. h) Plate levels two spindles or axes or
centers
(a) Transit Theodolite (or) Transit: r) Tripod
The Theodolite in which line of sight j) Plumb bob
can be reversed bY revolving the k) Compass
telescope through 180" lh the vertical
plane. Transit Theodolite is most
commonly used.

(b) Non Transit Theodolite: Either plain

Theodolite or Y-Theodolite. This can
not be used for most of the works.

2. Essential parts of a transit Theodolite: 3. Definitions and Terms:

a) Telescope: Mounted on a spindle known (a) Centering: The process of setting up
as horizontal axis or trunion axis. Internal
the instrument exactly over the station
focusing telescope is widely used. mark. Plumb bob is made use of.

b) Vertical Circle: It .is a circular

graduated arc attached to the trunion axis
of the telescope. Controlling by a vertical
circle clamp and its corresponding slow
motion or tangent screw.
c) Index frame or T-frame or Vernier
frame: Two verniers are fitted to this to
read the vertical circle. Clip screw is used
for slight adjustment. Altitude bubble is
placed on top of index frame.
d) Levelling head: It consists of two
parallel triangular plates known as
tribrach plates.
(b) Vertical axis: Axis about which the
instrument rotates in the horizontal
Azimuth axis.
plane. Also known as
(c) Horizontal axis (or) Trunion axis:
Axis about which the telescoPe and
vertical circle rotate in vertical plane.
(d) Line of sight (or) line of
collimation: The line passing through
the intersection of horizontal and vertical
cross hairs and optical centre of object
glass and its continution.
 ACE
nnfnnccrlnsAcoddny :47 z 'l'heodolite

(e) Transiting: The process of turning the 4. Functions of clamp and tangent
telescope in vertical plane through 180' screws:
about the trunion axis. It is also known (a) Clamp Screws:
as plunging or reversing.
When the Upper clamp screw is
(f) Axis of level tube (or) Bubble line: tightened but lower clamp screw is
A straight line tangential to the loose, the instrument rotates on outer
longitudinal curve of the level tube at its axis, without any relative motion
)r centre. It is horizontal when the bubble between the plates. The Vernier
is central. readings do not change.
When the lower clamp screw 'is
(e) Swinging the telescope: Process of tightened, but the upper clamp screw
turning the telescope in horizontal plane. is loose, the instrument rotates on the
inner axis with a relative motion
(h) Face left observation (FL): The between the two plates. The
'\,1
observation of the angles (horizontal or vernier readings change.
Vertical), if the face of the vertical
circle is to the left of the observer /
Both the clamps are tightened - the
instrument cannot rotate at aII.
bubble up.
(b) Tangent screws: For small movement
of plates, corresponding tangent screws
,0) Face right observation (FR): If the
are used when corresponding clamp
face of vertical circle is to the rieht of
screws are tightened.
the observer / bubble down.
up 5. Temporary adjustments of
tion
CI) Telescope normal (or Direct): When Theodolite:
the face of the vertical circle is to the left (a) Setting: To fix theodolite to the tripod.
and the "bubble (oftelescope) up"
the (b) Centering: To place the vertical axis
ntal (k) Telescope inverted or reversed: exactly over the station mark.
J' When the face of the vertical circle is (c) Levelling up: It is done using leveling
to the right and the "bubble down". screws of foot screws. To makc thc
ris: vertical axis of instrument truly vertical.
rnd (t) Changing face: Operation of bringing
the face of the telescope from left to d) Eliminaflgn of parallax: Parallax is a
right and vice versa. It is done by condition arising when the irrragc lorrncd
of transitting. by the objective is not in tho planc of
cross hairs.
€h Parallax can be eliminated in two steps:
cal (m) Double sighting or Double (D Focusing the eye pic<;r:: [.'or distinct
ect centering: Measurement of horizontal vision of cross hairs.
angle or vertical angle twice; once with
(iD Focusing the objective: To bring the
the telescope in normal condition and irnagr: of the object in the plane of
once with the telescope in inverted cross hairs. '
condition.
Hvdenbad I Delhi I Bhopal I hme I Bhubmcswar'l Bengalm I Lucknow I Patna I Chemi lViiayawada Vizg Tirupati cmtu I KukapaXyfiyd)
I I I
 :48 : Geomatics Engineering

6. Permanent adjustments of 8. Measurement of horizontal angles:

Theodolite: (a) Method of Repetition: Used to
(a) Adjustment of plate level: To make measure a horizontal angle
finer to a
the axis nl'platr: bubble perpendicular to degree of accuracy than obtainable with
the vcrlicirl axis when the bubble is the least count ofvenrier.
central. Following enors are eliminated by this
method.
(b) Ad.justment of line of sight: The line
ol'sight should coincide with optical axis and centers are eliminated by taking
o1'thc telescope. both venrier readings.
(c) Adjustment of horizontal axis:
Horizontal axis should be perpendicular of collimation and the trunnion axis
to the vertical axis Spire test is done. are eliminated by taking both face
readings.
(d) Adjustment of altitude level and
vertical index frame: Clip and tangent are eliminated by taking the
screws are made use of. readings at different parts of the
7. Fundamental lines: circle.
Five fundamental lines or axis
(a) Vertical axis Note:

(b) Horizontal axis (Trunnion axis)

(c) Line of collimation (Line of sight)
(d) Altitude level axis
(b) Direction Method (or) Reiteration
(e) Plate level axis. Method (or) Method of Series:
When the Theodolite is in proper adjustment, o Suitable for measurement of the angles of
the following four conditions between a group having a common vertex point.
fundamental lines are satisfied. Finally horizon is closed. Sum of angles
must be 360o.
(i) The axis of plate level is peqpendicular
to the vertical axis. 9. Measurement of vertical angles:
(ii) The horizontal axis is perpendicular to
They can be angle of elevations (+ ve) and
the vertical axis.
angle of depression C ve) can be measured
(iii) The line of collimation axis at right
above or below the line of sight respectively.
anglcs to the horizontal axis.
The axis of altitude level is parallel to the
line of collirnation when it is horizontal. 10. Miscellaneous Operationst To measure
and the vertical circle reads zero.
magnetic bearing of a line, deflection angles,
direct angle, to prolong a straight line to run
a straight line between two points, to know

Hydembad I Delhi I Bhopal I Rure I Bhubaneswar I

Bengaluru | Lucknow I Patn I Chemi Viiaramda Vizg Tirupati Gmur I Kuka+ally(Hyd)
I I I I

F+1
:ering
ACE
nngioc€ringecaaemv z 49: Theodolite

)s: the point of intersection between two straight (vi) lirrrrr duo to cccorrtricity of verniers
dto lines, to lay off an angle and used as a level. call lrc clirnirratcd by reading both
vcrrriors and tirking nrean of two.
finer
I with [1. Sources of errors in Theodolite
work: (vii) lirror duc to ccccntricity of inner and
this (a) Instrumental errors: orrlcr axis: Clan bc eliminated by
(i) Index enor: If the vertical circle lirking the mcan ol' the two vernier
lcittlittgs.
rniers verniers do not readzero when the line
aking of sight is horizontal, the vertical (viii) lir.rrrr tltrc to imperfect graduations: by
angles measured will be in correct.
f line This error is known as index error and
trrkirrg nlcitn of several readings
tlislribrrlctl ovor tlifferent portions of the
r axis can be eliminated by applying index
p1t'tttlttttl ctl t: i t'c lc
L face correction (or) by taking both face
observations.
ltions (b) lfcrtorrnl lt)rrrlrs:
the (iD Error due to imperfect adjustment of (l) lt)rrorr ln rnlnl;lulutiolr:
f the plate levels: Can be eliminated only
by careful leveling with respect to > lrtitcctu'tlc lcvclling
altitude bubble if it is in adjustrnent. It
can be eliminated by double sighting.

(iii) Error due to line of collimation not (ii) Errors in sighting and reading:
being perpendicular to the horizontul
axis: observed

rtion Error .e, : g Seccr ;

p : error in collimation
cr,: inclination.
les of This error can be eliminated by taking (c) Natural Errors:
roint. both face observations.
ngles
high temperature.
(iv) Error due to horizontal axis not being
perpendicular to the vertical axis: and circles due to temperature changes.
E:Ftano
) and This error can be eliminated by taking
sured both face observations.
ely.
(v) Error due to non-parallelism of the
asure axis of telescope level and line of
rgles, collimation can be eliminated by
)run taking both face observations.
(now

Hydenbad I Delhi I Bhopal I Prure I Bhubaneswar I Bengaluru | Lucknow I Parn I Chemai lViiayamda lvizg Tirupati
I I Gunnr I Kukatpdly(Hyd)
 ACE : Geomatics Engineering
fadncerlngecadcmv :50

04. For minor adjustments of horizontal angles

Classroom Practice measured using a theodolite, the tangential
I
screrw is adjusted after

01. Which one of thc following is carried out by (A) both the plates are unclamPed I

two theodolitc method?

(B) the lower plate is clamped and the
(A) Circular curve ranging upper Plate is unclamPed
(B) Tachcomctric survey (C) the upper plate is clamped and the
(C) Geodctic surveY lower plate is unclamPed
(D) Astronomical survey (D) both the Plates are clamPed

02. In a transit theodolite, any incidental error 05. Electronic theodolites of various ranges in
<Jue to eccentricity of verniers is primarily
which measured angle are displayed
counteracted bY originally on display board are based on
(A) Reading both the verniers which one of the following
(B) Reading different parts of main scale (A) Special oPtical technologY
(C) Reading right and left faces (B) Introduction of microprocessor
(D) Taking both right swing readings (C) Electro-oPtical technologY
(D) Special gearing
03. In a transit theodolite, erro due to
eccentricity of vernier is eliminated by
reading.
(A) Both verniers 01. (A) 02. (A) 03.(A) 04. (D) 0s. (A)
(B) Both right swing and left swing
(C) Right and left faces
(D) Different Parts of main scale

Patra I ctremi I viiapwada vizg Tirupati Gunnr I Kuka&sllv(Ilvd)

Hydenbad I Delhi I Bhopal I hure I Bhubaneswar I Bengpluru | Ilcknow I I I I

.-{- +
 Trig o nometrical L ev elling
l. Introduction:
I the (a) Ifusc ol'thc Ob.jcct Accessible:
of determining the differences of l,ot it bc nssrrnrctl that the horizontal
I the elevations of stations from observed dislnttc:c hclwccrr llrc instrument and the
vertical angles and known distances, ob.iccl errtt lrc trrcrrsulctl loourately.
which are assumed to be either horizontal
or geodetic lengths at mean sea level
(MSL).

means of an accurate theodolite and the

horizontal distances may either be
measured (in the case of plane sunreying)
or computed (in the case of geodetic
observations).
h' - holglrt ol'lho instrument at P
heads:
(i) Observations for heights and V-QQ'
distances, and
(ii) Geodetical observations. S - rouding of stall'kept at B.M., with line
of'sight horizontal
2. Heights and Distances:
In order to get the difference in elevation a * unglc ul'olcvation from A to Q
between the instrument station and the
object under observation, we shall consider V-l)tuno
the following cases.
ll,l,,ol'Q: R.L. of instrument axis *D tan cr
Case (a): Base of the object accessible
ll'llro l{.L. of P is known
Case (b): Base of the object inaccessible,
Instrument stations in the same vertical It.l,. of Q: R.L. of P + h'+ V
plane as the elevated object (single plane
ll'thc reading on the staff kept at the B.M. is
method).
'S' with the line of sight horizontal.
Case (c): Base of the object inaccessiblc,
Instrument stations not in the same vertical R.L. of Q: R.L. of B.M. + S + V
plane as the elevated object (Double planc
method).

Hydenbad I Delhi I Bhopal I Punc I Bhubancow I

Bcngalm I Lucknow lPatn I Chemi lVijayamrla lVizg lTirupati I Gutru I rnk"tnlly(Ilyd)
 :52: Geomatics

(b) Base of the Object Inaccessible: (ii) Instrument axes at different levels:
Instrument Statlons in the Same
Vertical Plane as the Elevated Object.
(i) Instrument axes at the same level:

tl
P
BM From triangle QAQ',
Vr:Dtancll+(1)
Let V: QQ'
ct1 : &flg10 of elevation from A to Q From triangle BQQ',
a2: angle of elevation from B to Q Vz: (b + D) tan o;z+ (2)
S : staff reading on B.M., taken from
both A and B, the reading being
Subtracting (2) from (1), we get
the same in both the cases.
b: horizontal distance between the
(Vt - Vz ) : D tan ctr - (b + D) tan cr2
instrument stations P and R. Vr - Vz = Difference in level of instrument
axes
D: horizontal distance between P and
:52-Sr:S
a
V: D tan crt + (1) .'. S : D tan crr - b tano,z -D tan oz
From triangle AQQ',
(or)
From triangle BQQ' V: (b +D)tanuz-+ (2)
&2,we get D (tan crr - tan ct2) : S* b tan cr2
By equatingl
D tan ctr : (b + D) tan o2 (or)
S+btana, (b+Scotcrr)tancr,
-
D(tan crr - tan or) : b tano.2 tanct, -tana, tancrt -tano.-
_ btano, Now
O
tanor -tanu, Vr:Dtanor
V = Dtanct,^
btanor tana, r, (b+Scotctr)tancr, tanct,
tanctr -tana, '
f1:-

tan ur-tanu,
_ bsincr,sinct,
sin(o, -0r)
R.L. of Q : R.L of B.M.+ S+ V
 Acad€my :53: 'f i'igonometical Irvelling

(U + S cos ta, )tan a,

^_ if (s2 > sr)
tancr,l -tana2

where the instrument axis at

D is higher, it can be proved that
(b-Scotq t'
) - r- - --- *z /r&11crz if (Sr > S,)
tanc, -tanu,
I ,r'l S )illt'r('lt('(' in lt.vr.l bctween the two
I
(U-Scotor)sincr, sincr,
^-.{ \/'r _
an0V'=- ilx(,s itl A :rrrrl ll Wrllr llrt.slrrrrc symbols as
sin(a, - 0r) cttt ltt't. rvt' lu ,t'

Thus, the general expressions for D and hr Vr l)lirn rt >(t)

can be written as V, (lrlllyt;rrr rr, >(21
(u + Scot cr, )tan cr, Sulrltrrt'lrrrl, ( | ) liorrr (2) wc gr:t
^_ tan cr, - tana, (V: Vr ) S (bll))tancrz-Dtanol
(UtScotcrr)sincr,
^-r \/'r _
ano\,=- sincr, (or)
sin(cr, -0r) l)llrrtr rrl lirnrt,,) btanc[z-S
Use rsign with s coto2 when the instrument lr ltttt tl , S
A is lower and sign when it is .'. tl ' +(3)
axis at - Irut rr, lltn cr.2
higher than at B.
(o tanu' - S)tan ut
R.L. of Q: R.L. of B.M. *S1 + V1 vr l) lrtt tx,
tan cx,1 - tana2
(or)
_ (b - S cot or )sin cr, sin cr,
R.L. of Q: R.L. of B.M. +S2 + V2
n0,z sin(cr, -0r)
(iii) Instrument axes at very different levels:
If (S2 - Sr) or 'S' is too great to be measured llciglrt of station P above the axis at
lQz
on a staff kept at the B.M., the following B:h-r:btano-r
procedure is adopted. llcight of axis at A above the axis at
2 B:S:btancr-r*h'
whe e,
h' is the height of the instrument at P.
v2 Substituting this value of S in equation, we
can get D and Vr
Now
It.L. ofQ : R. L ofA+ Vr : R.L ofB + 5 + Vr
: (R.L of B.M + Backsight taken
from B) + S+ Vr
S:btancr-r+h'

Hyderabad I Delhi I Bhopal I Ptne I llhulmeswr Bcngalm

I
j Lucknow I Patra I Chemai I Vijaramda ! Vizag ! Tirupati ] Gmtu I Kulapallvfiyd)
 and spaced at distance 100 m' staff
a
readings taken from stations A and B on a
Classroom Prncticc Questions levelling staff Placed an B'M of
RL.500.000m are also show in fig.
A Theodolito wits sot up at P and the angles What is the R.L of the top of the tower (m)
01.
of elevatiotts to lhc top of a mobile tower
'T' was 30". 'l'he staff reading held at a
statitrn ul' l{L 180m was 2.225m, the
tclcscopc bcing horizontal. The horizontal
clisluncc between the foot of the tower and
tlrc instru:nent station is 1000 m. The R'L of
thc top of'the tower in (m) is
(A) 659.90s (B) 7se.s7s
(D) 64e.eos BM ofRL
(c)149.e0s 500:00

(A) s80.345 (B) s7e.645

02 In trigonometrical levelling the vertical
angles from P and Q to the top ofa vertical
tower at 'T' are 4o and 6o above horizontal
respectively. The vertical angles fr^om P and
and 0'6o
Q to the base of the tower are 0.4o
below horizontal respectively' Stations P,Q
and T are in the same vertical plane with P
and Q being on the same side of T' If the
horizontal distance between two stations P
and Q is 250 m' Neglecting combined
correction due to curvature and refraction,
the height (m) of the tower is
(A) s7.6464 (B) s6.4666
(c) sl.4266 (D) s6.6464
(c) 581.34s (D) s6e.64s
05. With regard to trigonometrical levelling,
which are of the following statement is
correct at its simplest applications
(A) Determination of the elevations of
stations is based on the observed
vertical angles and horizontal distances'
(B) Determination of the horizontal
distance is based on the observed
vertical angles
(C) Determination of the vertical angles is
based an the observed horizontal
distances

03. The Theodolite was setup at station 'P' and

(D) Determination of the horizontal

a 4 m long staff is held vertically at station

distances is based on the observed
'Q'. A depression angle of 5o 30' was vertical angles and measured
elevations.
observed at staff reading of 2.5m. Height of
instrument at station P is 1.5m and with RL
If
of 750.500m. the horizontal distance
betwecn P and Q is 2500m, bY aPPlYing
combincd correction the R'L of Q is-'
04. The vertical anglcs subtended by the top of
a tower 'C' at two instrument stations set up
at A and B are show in the fig. The two
stations are in same vcrtical plane of tower
lTiropati lGuurl xr*a+anvclvd)
ffiswlBensaftNlLucknowlparnlctrernailvijalamdalvizg
m8
Trqversing &
staff
)na
of
Omitted Meqsurements
(m) [. Introduction: llttr lt:irsl corrnt of a theodolite IS
Traversing is the one in which number of tttott' llrirrr ir c:ompass.
connected survey lines can be plotted to form ii) lfy lnr.tllut't trrrlrls of angles between
a frame work. llrc llltel; I lsirrg lhcodolite the angles
llc:lwr't'rr llrt' lirrt's :rrc clirectly measured
lines can be measured with the help of itttrl li'rrttrcwork is t:onstructed.
any direction measuring instrument such
as compass, theodolite and the length can tt te llror ls,
be with chain or tape.
3. Various clrcclis l;r;llicd to the
2. Types of Traversing: traversc sllrvcy:
a) Chain traversing
b) Chain and compass traversing (loose (a) For closed lr'ltv(,r's(,: ('krscd traverse
needle method) is the onc wlrclc llrr' llirvt:r'sc lincs forms
ing, c) Transit tape traversing a circuit i.c,, llrr' crrrl poirrt of end
:is (i) BV fast needle method traversc liltr: t:oirrt'itlcs witlr llrc starting
(ii) By measurement of angles between
point ol' slru'lirrg lr':tvclsc lirro. In
of the lines measuring ttry lt'rrvt:r'sc linc, lwo kinds
ved d) Plane table traversing of errors [rr: irrvolvctl i.t:., lirroar and
)es.
angular.
ntal (a) Chain traversing: The whole frame
ved work of the survey is done with the help
(b) (lhcck for lincar orror: lf the error
of chain and tape only. lics irr lnctsuring thc length of line, it
SIS shall bc rectified by measuring second
time in the reverse direction on different
rtal (b) Chain and Compass traversing:
dates and by different parties.
Linear measurements are donc wilh hclp
rtal of chain or tape and thc bcarings are
ved measured with compass. Both FB and
(c) Check for angular error:
red BB are observed at each station (i) Traverse by included angles:
Sum ofmeasured interior angles
:
(2N - 4) right angle
(c) Transit type:
l) Fast needle method: In this method, a (ii) Traverse by deflection angles
theodolite fitted with compass and a
Sum of exterior angles : (2N + 4)
tape are used. The magnetic bearings
right angle
of lines are measured with reference to
where,
ic mendran.
magnetrc meridian.
N : Number of sides of the traverse.
q(
"L>

@ Hydenbad I Delhi I Bhopal hue Bhubanesw Benga.lm hcknow

I I I I
Parra I Chemi I
Vijayawada I
Viag Tnpari I cmm j Kukaqally(Hvd)
I
 (iii) Traverse by dircct observation of There are two types of Co-ordinates:
angles
(i) Dependent or consecutive co- ordinates:
Eg: for a squilro
It is defined as the latitude and departure
. co-ordinates of any point with reference
to the preceding point and are equal to the
latitude and departure of the line forming
the preceding point to the point under
consideration.
Squarc intcrnal angle : 90o For example consider the latitude and
Sqrrarc cxternal angle: 27 0o departure of point Q with respect to the
angle: (2x44)90':360o preceding point P will be Lr and D1 and
Surn of the internal
Sunr of the external angle:(2x4+ 4)90": 1080'
with respect to a the latitude and
departure of R are L2andD2 respectively.

Fore bearing of last line : Back bearing of

last line t 180'measured at the initial station.

4. Plotting of traverse survey:

(a) The angle and distance method
(b) The co-ordinate method

(a) The angle and distance method:

The distance between stations are laid
offto scale and angles are Plotted
Where,

method) L: latitude

D: Departure
method)

Hence the Co-ordinates (latitude, departure)

of point Q with the reference to preceding
point 'P'
are called as dependent co-
ordinates.

(b) Co-ordinate method: SurveY (ii) Independent Co-ordinates: These are the
stations are plotted by calculating co-ordinates of traverse stations calculated
their Co-ordinates. with respect to a common origin. The total
> This method is most Practical and latitude and departure of any point with
accurate. It has the advantage that respect to a common origin are known as
the closing error can be eliminated independent or total co-ordinates of the
by balance Prior to Plotting. point.
 ACE
nnsioc€dngecaaemy ;57 : Traversing & Omined Measurements

Closing crror, . = J(* I Ly LJ D)'

es:
larture 'l'urr ..
0 )- tl'
.
)rence Ll;
to the
rming Anglc '0' with N-S axis can be decided
under
For example, if we want the co-ordinates of Itnlod on lho lign oonvension of latitude
e and point R add algebraically the latitudes and
ttttrl rlo;trtrlurc ol'closing line (AA').
to the departure of points P & Q with P as origin.
)1 and Hence they are called total coordinates or I"lrrorof closure
Rolnlivc clrot' ol' ckxurc
) and independent co-ordinates of point R. l)orimeterof traverse
ively.
J. Closing error: ol
If a closed traverse is plotted
according to the ---p / pl\
f
field measurements, the end point of traverse
will not coincide exactly with the starting t;l
point, owing to the erors in the field 6. Brlrnclng thc traverse:
measurements of angles and distances. Such
In r olutsd polygon of traverse survey, if the
an effor is known as closing eror.
algohrnlc ruln ol'lntitudes and departure made
lo zortt by impurting corrections to linear and
llgular mo[suremcnts, the traverse is said to
bo bnlnnccd,

(r) Bowdltch's method (Compass rule):

This mr:thod is used to balance a traverse
whore linear and angular measurements
Closing Enor urc of oqual precision.

rrture) Check for a closed traverse rnoasurements are proportional

eding utJV and the angular measurements
lL:0 & !D: g
' co-
Let LL' : Algebraic sum of latitudes of
are inversely proportionalto^lV .

all lines in a traverse except

traversing.
re the closing line (AA')
rlated ID' : Algebraic sum of departures of where /: length of a line,
l total all lines except closing linc Correction to latitude (Departure) of any
with (AA') side of haverse line
vn as
Latitude of closing error:
: Total error in latitude (Departure) x
f the ->L'
Departures of closing elror: -ID' length of that side
Perimeterof traverse
HydenbadllklhilBhopallPunelBhubanowarlBer4alurulLucknowlPatralChemilvijapwadalVas lTirupali lCiltul Kukahan'/ftIyd)
I

g--t-t ACE :58 Geomatics

:-
:[DJEDgine€dng ecaacmv :

(or) Cp : -ZL' x ll\ (or) Clrr: -XD' x IIP In case of a comPass traverse, the
bearings are adjusted for local
Where p: perirnr.:tor o1-traverse: )i attraction, if any.
(ii) Starting with observed bearings of one
(b) Transit llulc: lt is employed where line, calculate the bearings of all other
angular nlcilsurolncnts are more precise than lines. Reduce all bearings to quadrantal
the lincar mcasurements especially in system.
theodo I ito traversing.
: (iii) Calculate the consecutive co-ordinates
Cr- -XL' xL lLg (i.e. latitudes and departures) of each
Co:-ID'xD/Ds station.
Where,
L,D: Latitude and departure of a line (iv) Calculate IL and ID
respectively (v) Apply necessary corrections to the
Ls, Ds : Arithmetic sum of
latitudes and
latitudes and departures of the lines so
departures of all lines in a traverse
respectively.
thatIL:0andID:0.The
corrections may be applied either by
transit rule or by compass rule
(c) Graphical Method: Used for compass depending upon the type of traverse.
traverse. It is also called as Bowditch's
graphical Method. (vi) Using the corrected consecutive
co-ordinates, calculate the independent
(d) Axis Method: Adopted when angles co-ordinates to the points so that they
are measured very accuratelY. The are all positive, the whole of the
corrections will be applied to length only traverse thus lying in the North East
passing the dissections (angles) will be quadrant.
constant, hence the general shape of the
diagram is pressured. 8. Degree of accuracy in traversing:

o{ t-he side used for the linear and angular

'
closing etror = I'engtlr
Lengthof theaxis measurements and also on purpose of
the survey.
7. . Gales Traverse Table:
Traverse computations are usually done in a
'e' be the linear error of a length i,
tabular form, a more cofilmon form being
Gales Traverse Table. For complete traverse We have, 60:Tan-l (e I t) for equal
computations, the following steps are preclslon.
usually necessary. Where ell:ratio of linear error.
(i) Adjust the interior angles to satisff the
geometrical conditions, i.e. sum of traversing is expressed as C JN where
interior angles to be equal to (2N - 4)
C varies from 15" to 1' and 'N' is the
right angles and exterior angles
number of angles measured.
(2N + 4) right anglcs.
Angular error is proportional to JN
neenng

rrse, the
9. Omitted Measurements: II):0 +78.2 sin 140012,+ 19g.0 sin36024,
local These are the measurements forgotten in the
field due to obstacles or oversight. These -F 37.tt sin 33go4g, + / sin 0:0
of one omitted measurements can be calculated from
ll other latitudes and departure provided. .'. /sin0 , l.5.3,tttt4
rdrantal
IL:O&ID:O Both latitudo nncl dr.:purturc are -ve. Hence.
The maximum no. of omitted measurements the bearing is in 3"1 quutlrunt.
dinates
rf each sinceXL:OUXD:0 ,--------------=__
I = \,1134.531' + I53.titt4 2 =204.399m
'lhere are four general cases:
(D When the length of one side, or bearing of tan
- 153.884
u=-
to the one side or length and bearing of one side -134.s31
ines so is omitted.
). The (ii) Where the length of one side and bearing 0:48.8390 in 3'o quadrant
her by of another side is omitted.
r rule (iii) Where the length of two sides omitted 0 : 190 + 4g.g3g :22g.g3g0
:se. (iv) Where the bearings of two sides omitted
:cutive
endent Example: I Classroom Practice Ouestions
rt they
rf the The following are the lengths and bearings of the
01. The latitude and departure of a line pe
r East sides on a closed traverse ABCD.
*
are 89 m and 49.4 m, respectively. The
Line Length in m Bearing whole circle bearing of line pe is.
g: (A) 50" 40, (B) 330" 58'
AB 78.2 140012, (c) 156" 58' (D) 230" 40'
ments BC 198.0 36024'
rgular CD 37.8 33904g' 02. In a closed traverse of 1500m perimeter, the
rse of DA ?
? closing errors in departure and latitude are
Calculate the length and bearing of DA. 0.4m and 0.5m respectively. The relative
r and precision of the traverse will be
Sol:
(A) 1;s323 (B) 1;3323
let'l' be the length and '0' be the bearing of (c) t;4323 (D) 1"2343
lual line DA. Then
03 . In a closed traverse with six sides, the error
r.
fL =Q -+78.2 cos 140012,+ 198.0 cos36(,24,
lolite
vhere + 37.9 cos 33804g'* / cos 0 = 0
4 fbund from the fore bearing and back
bearing of the last line is -3o. The correction
to the 4th line will be
s the
.'. /cos0:-134.531
04. The following observations made for a
i closed traverse PQRSTP.

@
 ACE :60: Geomatics
lfneinccdngAcadcry

(B) 83.85m, S68o11'E

Observation length (C) 53.85m, 568oll'E
Line Azimuth
from statlon (m) (D) 53.85mN68o11'W

PQ P "l 42.500 07. The coordinates of two points (in m) A

96.450
B are given below. A third Point C
QR a 350
chosen in such a way that the bearings
RS R 455 172.50" AC and CB are 29"30' and 45"
respectively. The lengths of the lines A
ST S 555 252.45"
and CB are
TP T 275 316.2s"
Point Northine (m) Eastins (m)
A 150 200
What is the missing measurement in (m) is
B 1500 1300
(A) s4e.777 (B) s3e.e77
(c) s4e.e77 (D) sse.777 (A)712.714 m and 1045.7m
(9)712.4 m and 678.9 m
(C) 456.0 m and 1046.7m
05. A closed traverse has the following lengths
and bearings
(D) 456.0 m and 678.9m

Bearing 08. In a closed traverse sum of latitudes

Line Length,m (wcB)
departures of the lines were calculated
ROUGHLY
AB 200 1.39m and 2.l7mrespectively. The length
EAST
of bearing of closing elror respectively are
BC 98 178'
NOT
(A)25.77 m,302o29'
CD 2700
OBTAINED (B)2.577 m,122"39'
DA 86.4 lu (C) 50.55 m,122"39'
(D) 5.55 m,302o39'
The length of CD and bearing of the line
AB respectively are 09. If the latitude and departure line of AB is
(A) 204.59m and 86.7o
l0 m, what is the bearing of line with N-S
direction is
(B) 124.9m and 23.8o (A) 60' (B) 30'
(C) 235.9m and 45o (c) 45' (D) 90"
(D) None
10. If latitude and departure of a line is 100 m
06. There are two points A and B located on
and 60 m respectively. The inclination with
map have the following co-ordinates.
departure is
AB (A) se (B) rse
Latitude 40m 20m (c) 62 (D) 7s"
departure -20m 30m
length & bearing of AB is
(A) 33.85m, N68o11'W
 I l. The bearings of two inaccessible stations A Match List I with List - II and select the
(Easting 600 m, Norrhing 600 m) and B corrcct nn$wor using the codes given below
(Easting 500 m, Southing 450 m from a thc lirts:
station C, were observed at 245" and l,lrl - |
)Aand 164o30' respectively. The independent lr, Ad jrlntrnctrl u l' survoyi ng instruments
C was Easting in (m) of station C is Q, lluwtlilch ruh:
ings (A) 5s4.77 m (B) s5.4s7 m ll,'l'rirutgulnliolr
45045', S, llnnncl't rnullrod
(C)2s.a7 m (D) 254.57 m
res A
l,hl II
l, llritrgirrg llrc vnrious lixr:cl parts of the
ll
12. If L is the perimeter of a closed traverse, AD
is the closing effor in departure, the Itnlrurrrctrl irrlo propcr rclation with one
correction for the departure of a traverse urrolltct',
side of length Lr, according to Bowditch 2, liolullorr ol'.1-poirrl problcrn
rule is 3, Monlrlrirrg rrll tlrc nnglcs and the base line
4, Relolrt:ing llrc lntituclos and departures.
(A) G)
^D; ^D4
L
Codor:
(O !L I'aRs
AD
(D)
^DL
L
(A) | 2.r 4
,es and (B) 2143
lted (c) | 432
length ( tl; 12t4
y are

01. (B) 02. (D) 03.('2") 04. (B) 0s. (A)

06. ((:) 07. (A) 08. (B) 0e. (c) 10. (A)

lt.(D) 12. (D) 13. (C)

AB is
th N.S

100 m
n with
 {
6.
Contourtng
3. Ilorizontal E quivalent :
1. Introduction:
the consecutive contours is termed
imaginary line Passin through horizontal equivalent' It is not
a co
elevation' to
Poinls of equal value and varies from Point
a.p*ai"g uPon the steePness of
with ground.
the intersection of a level surface
the surface of the earth'
horizontal equivalent'

"submarine
water, they are termed as 4. Contour Gradient:
(or) Bathymetric
contours, fathoms, A line tYing on the grounda
curves"' throughout, and maintaining^
surface is
l"rii"?ri"" to the horizontal
as contour gradient'
of features such as hills' depressions' Contourlnterval
underwater etc on a two dimensional Contour Gradient = HorizontalEquivalent
paper.
Horizontal Equivalent
: tengtrh
Contourlnterval
2. Contour Interval: =
ContourGradient
The vertical distance between obtain route path
Radius of an arc required to
contours is termed as
consecutive ftori"ontal Equivalent Aqlt"gth
'Contour interval'' ScaleinR.F
It is desirable to have a constant contour
interval throughout the maP' Ghat Tracer: It is an instrument used

Contour interval is inverselY l,ocating points on a given

contour gradient
map'
proportional to the scale of the
i) For Projects such as HighwaYs
& 5. Grade Contours:
Railways :2'0 m

ii) For Earth Works, Building Sites' sloPe are called grade contours'
Dams. etc., CitY SurveY:0'5
m

iii) Geological SurveYs

:6 -15 m
of grade contours. divided ,bI--^'
distaice between them is alwaYs
constant gradient.
 ACE
nogineerinseeaaemy :63: Contouring

6. Characteristics of Contour Lines: 7. Methods of Contouring:

(i) All the points on a contour line have the (lontouru r:un bo drawn, if the horizontal and
same elevation. vcrticul rrronsrrrcmcnts of
the properly
(ii) The elevations of the contours are soloctorl points lrc known.
indicated (or) printed close to the
contour I . ---) Direct Method
(iii) When no value is present, it indicates a Methrxls --l
ned *'-------* | rrdirect Method
flat terrain. A zero meter contour line
loF represents the coastline. a) Direct Mcthrlrl:
of High degree of prcr.:iniorr is rr:quired for large-
(iv) Two contour lines do not intersect (or) scale maps, with smull conlurrr inlorval.
cross each other except in the case ofan
overhanging cliff (or) a cave penetrating
a hillside. reduced levcl ol'vrrrious sr:lcotod points
on a contour linc nrc oblnirrcd and their
(v) Equally spaced contour represent positions are looatcd. 'l'he contours are
uniform slope and contours that are well then drawn by joining thoso points.
apart indicate a gentle slope.
tpdious and time consuming
(vi) A set of close contours with higher
figures inside and lower figures outside (i) By level and Staff: In this n sorics of
al
indicate a hill lock. Whereas in the case points having the samc stall'rctrlings and
rlent thus the same elevations, aro plottc<J and
of depressions, lakes etc., the higher
figures are outside and the lower figure joined by a smooth curvc.
:rval are inside.
lient (ii) By hand leveVAbney lovcl: In this,
(vii) A watershed (or) ridge line (line joining method the instrument mutr stunds over
le path
the highest points of a series of hills) the bench mark and thc stall' man is
and valley line (line joining the lowest moved to a point on tlro corrkrur which has
points of a valley) cross the contours at {o be plotted. As soon iN lhc instrument
right angles. man observes tho rr:qrrirod staff reading
for a particular contour, hc instructs the
(viii) Irregular contours represent uneven staff man to skrp und locates the position
ground. of the point.
(b) Indirect Methods:
(ix) The direction of steepest slope at a point
on a contour is, at right angles to the It is suitablc lbr undulated ground, hilly areas
contour. etc.

points (x) A part of land in from of tongue which random, the positions and elevations
,y the just out from hilly area is known as of which are not necessarilv located
'ays a "spur" on a contour line.
 z 64: Geomatics Engineerhg

(iii) Tacheometric Method:

reduced lcvols tlf' all such points are
then deterntinr:d. and at places where plane tabling is
impractical.

intcrpol al.i on method' calculated from the observed data and

contours are interPolated.

(iv) Plane Table Method:

staff point is reduced by trigonometric

relations.

distance along the plotted line to locate

the point and writes the comPuted
elevation in such a way that the plotted
position of the point coincides with the
decimal point of the elevation value.

(r) Method of Squares:

locating contours.

(or) rectangles forming a grid.

8. Applications of Contour MaPs:
Since a contour map is a three dimensional
and the required contours ate representation of the earths surface, it
interpolated.
furnishes a lot of information. They are
a) Determination of inter-visibility: From
open area where contours are required at a contour map it can be ascertained
a close vertical interval. whether any two points are inter-visible or
not.
maPPing.
b) Drainage area: The extent of a drainage
area may be estimated on a contour may
(ii) Method of cross-sections: be locating the ridgeline around the
watershed.

c) Capacity of reservoir: A contour map is

very useful to study the possible location
and canal survcy. i.e., for route surveys.
of a dam and the volume of water to be
confined.
 ACE
nuginoetngecaaemv :65 : Contouring

The areas Ar,Ae,Ar.........Ao are areas

r areas enclosed in a contour line, determined by a Clrssroom Practice Questions
ing is planimeter, and if 'h' is the contour interval,
the capacity of the reservoir can be estimated 0l . Thc ll.l,'n of'points A and B are + 52.500 m
are 4S,
rrrrtl +74.600 rn respectively Horizontal
a and dintunco bolwccn A and B is 50 m. The
(i) Trapezoidal formula: dinltnco ol'contour of RL 61.70 m cuts the
. f( e',+A- \
V=hil- +A3 +....aA"_,
l lino AIf nl u tlitlnncc (nr) from A is
L\2)-) l*A, i (A) le,tt2 rrr (11) 20.82 m
of the ((') 40,t,|2 rrr (l)) 30.82 m
netric (ii) Prismoidal Formula:
02. ll
in rar;rrirorl lo lor:nk: a routc from P to e at
Lputed m u;rwurd grttlicnt of I in 100. The contour
h A" )+ +(1, +Ao *....* A"-,
Iocate v = i6'.+ )'1, tturp of tlrc uroa is available at a contour
Lputed 3 L* 2(A, + A, *....* An_z ) I iltlcrvnl ol' l0 mcter at a scale of l:10000
lotted whloh in nhown in the figure. The radius of
th the d) Site of structure: The most economical and tho nrc rcquircd to obtain the route path is
suitable site for structures such as buildings,
bridges etc can be found from large-scale
:ed to contour maps.
:e to
ntour c) Earthwork estimates.

f) Route Location.
,;., )1szzo
Example:7.
It is required to set up points on a sloping down (A) 0.lm (B) 0.2m (C) 0.3m (D) 0.4m
;ional
ground of 1 in 50m at every 20m contour interval.
e, it lf the staff reading over first point is 0.55m. The 03. A contour map shown in figure is prepared
staff reading over next point B is witlr a scale of 1:25,000 and with a gradient
From (A) 0.9sm ol' l in 50 for
a road alignment. What should
(B) 0.15m
ained (C) 1.05m bc the radius of arc required to set the route
(D) 0.2sm
rle or
Ans: (A) path?
Sol: Difference between to consecutive points

i, 4"20m :0.4m
50
:
Staff reading at A 0.55m staff reading at
B should be 0.4m lower thanA(staff reading
increases by 0.4m)
i.e. :0.55m + 0.4m:0.95m

(A) 40 m (B)4m
(C) 0.4 m (D) 0.04 m
tffir, ACE
.IDifnOuretingecadcmv :66: Geomatics Engineering
J..;|!|ff9

04. Consider the following figure, which is an 07. Consider the following statements about the
extract from a contour map (scale- 1: characteristics of contours:
alignment of a road at 1. Closed contour lines with higher values
is to be fixed from the inside show a lake
What should be the 2. Contour is an imaginary line joining
points of equal elevations
radius of the arc with O as the centre to get
the point of alignment of the next contour 3. Closely spaced contours indicate steep
on the maP? (GATE 06) slope
(A) 0.025cm (B) 0.25cm 4. Contour lines can cross each other in
(C) 2.5cm (D) 5.0cm case an overhanging cliff'
Which of these statements is /are correct?
(A) 2, 3 and 4
(B) I and 2 onlY
(C) I and 4 (D) 1,2and3

08. What is the angle of intersection of a

contour and a ridge line
(A) 30" (B) 0"
(c) 180" (D) 90"

05. Altimetry may be depicted most accuratelY

by 01. (B) 02. (A) 03. (D) 04. (c) 0s. (D)
(A) hachure's (B) relief shading
(D) contour lines 06. (B) 07. (A) 08. (D)
(C) layer tinting

06. A closed contour line with two or more

higher contours inside it will represent
(A) Dcprcssion (B) Hill
(C) Cave (D) Well

rarna I crrerurai I viialamda vizg Tirupari I Gunur I KuktFanvGvd)

Hyrlenbatl I Delhi I Bhopal I Pune I Bhubaneswar I Bengalu I Irckmw I I I
neermg

bout the
Areas crnd Volumes
r values

l. Introduction for Areas: If tho longthr ol'iho hnse and perpendicular

The method selected for computation of the are known, tho nrou is givcn by
e steep
area depends upon the shape ofthe tract, and I

the accuracy required. When the plan is A - iz bnrcx porporrtliculnr

rther in enclosed by straight boundaries, it can be
subdivided into simple geometrical shapes, (b) Aror of r 'l'rnct wlih Straight
'ect?
such as triangles, trapezoids, rectangles, etc.
Irroguhr lfoundnrles:
If
tho horttttlnt'iol ol'n lrucl urr: irregular, it is
determined from the dimensions given in not portrilrlc lo rutr llrc lruvcrsc along the
the plan using the appropriate formulae. boundurlcr, 'l'ltc lt'rrvcrso is trsunlly run at a
rofa aonvonlCnl dlllrrncc liom thc actual
replaced by short straight boundaries, and
boundrrlon,
the area is determined using approximate
methods.
tho uctuul boundury is dotormined by
tekin3 ol'flscts liom the traverse line. The
2. Calculation of Area of the field: otTnot rtrc tukcrr at a regular interval if the
boundury docs not change the direction
(a) Triangle method: ' nuddenly; otherwise at irregular intervals.
If the tract has straight boundaries, it can bo The area between the traverse line and the
easily divided into a number of triangles. Tho irregular boundary is determined using the
area of each triangle is computed using one of following methods.
the following formulae.
When all the sides are known, the area of the
triangle is given by
A:./s(s-u)(r-u)(s-c)
a+b+c
where, s =

and a, b and care the lengths of the three (i) Mid-ordinate rule: In this method, the tract
sides BC,AC and AB. is divided into segments and the length of the
If the two sides and the included angle are middle ordinate of each segment is measured.
known, the area is given by
A: :absinACB
1

2
I
or A: :bcsinBAC or h1 o2 o3
2 h3

or A: lcasinABC
1

,,
L:Nd

HydenbadlDelhilBhopallPrnelBhubmmlBengalwlhcknowlramlChemilvijayawadalvizg lTirupari lcmtul Kuka@aly(Hyd)

 N: Total no. of equal segments: n -1
is2l3 rectangular area
segment
n = Total no. of ordinates

If all the segments are of the same length(d)' should notbe ignored'
the area can be obtained as
d |.(o, +o")++(o, +oo +.....+o"-,\
A = d[hr * h2 *......... + h"-r]
^
^=J1*z(o,+or+.......+o"-r) )
Wheren,=g*;h,=ry 3. Areas from co-ordinates:
Where Or, Oz. ..... Onare ordinates at e= j(*rv, -yrxz txzYt-Yzxz+""+xnyr -Y"x,)
equal length of 'd'

E(x5, y5)
(ii) Average-ordinate rule: In this method, the
length of average ordinate is determined and
D(x+, y+)
is used to determine the area of the entire
A(xr, Yr
tract.

Average ordinate

O, + O, + 03 +......On
n
C(xl, Yl)
Io, +o" +....+o.l ,
A=r............-l^-
lo".J
L : Nd and N: (1-1) X11 X1

(iii)Trapezoidal rule: In this method, the hact is Vr

divided into a number of trapezoids, and the
area of each hapezoid is determined
separately. 4, Areas by latitude and meridian
Assumes the area in the forms of trapezoids distance:
between the offsets. (r) MD Method or Longitude Method:

.l( o,+o \ l
A =d{l l+O, +O, +.......+O"_, I
t\2) ) westerly station is called as the

(iv) -
Simpson's rule: reference meridian

meridian to the mid point of a line is

assumed to be Parabolic called as meridian distance or
longitude distance.
formula is useful

f-l r+
 ACE
Leering Engine€riugAcademy : (i!) : Areas & Volumes

) Longitude of BC : longitude of AB +% N No. ol'lirrrcs zcro of dial pass is

- departure of AB + lz departtxe of BC itrrk:x rrrrrrk
t
' A-Lm L ( ( 'orrslrurl rrrirrkcd above scale
Where, m: Meridian distance of line: rltvirliolr orr llucing arm.
L: latitude of the line

(ii) Latitudes and double meridian

distances (DMD or Double Longitude)

DMD orBC: ot
"J:ffi:oor'::'"
I
^_ 2 IML
Y+)
6. Introduction tbr volrrrrrt,s:
This chapter dcals witlr tlrt. Mctlrorls of
5. Planimeter: of
computation volrrrrrcs, witlr spocial
reference to the volurnr-r ol'clrr.lhwol,li. ll'llso
can be found by the planimeter on discusses the uses ol' rnlss-l rirrr I tl iir11r ir r rs.
a r

plan or map.
7. Computation of ar(rA t,l' ( lross-
(x:, yl) Amsler polar planimeter Section:
The error involved in the planimeteric (a) Level Section:
-+{ measurements are accidental and are
I principally due to the inability of the
observer to follow exactly the boundary
N,,N
of the figure with the tracing point. n\
t1 A
Zero circle: The circle around the
circumference of which if the tracing (u)

point is moved, it will simply slide,

without rotation, on the paper without
1***1.i@z4;r,l
any change in the reading.

using planimeter.
(b)
Area:M(FR-IR+ 10N+C) wl:wz w
Where,
w =' 0..5b t nlr
M : Multiplying Constant
A-(b+nh)h
FR: Final Reading
IR: Initial Readins
'.ffi;@AcE
"fith\ 270: Geomatics Engineering

(b) Two-Level Section: (b) End area formula or Trapezoidal

formula
u = n{{4rP + A, + A, ----* A.'}
(c) Prismoidal Formula or Simpson's
rule:
A" )+ +(n, +Ao *....* o"-,
'
u = !l(A'.+
3 L*z(e, +A, *....*An_z)
\
J

9. Prismoidal correction :

The diff'erence between the volume calculated

by the trapezoidal formula and Simpson's
*"'[2
=l.!*nn) * formula is called as Prismoidal correction
(Co).
/m+n
= * nr,)(*, . *,)-T] correct volume from end area formula.
^
"[(; (a) Level section:
8. Method for calculation of Volumes:
(a) Volume by Mean-Area Method:
The volume of a prismoid can be determined
., =+[t,-H,T
by the mean-area method. In this method, the The prismoidal correction Co is negative.
mean cross-sectional area Ay of the various
sections is first computed.
@) Two-level section:
n _ A,+A, +.....+Ao
.aM: c":
D,
a(w,
n ' 12'''t\ -Hr)
' -w")(Hr
where /a
: - ( Oifference of total \ryidths) x Difference of heights
"n -n
nnumber of cross-sections fr
-
The v<llumo of the prismoid is given by
V=AyxL
where
L:
length of tho prismoid
(:distance bctwcen end sections)
tA. +A"
Thus V : ; '^t '
- -z+.....A"
.-..'- -n .
lx L
I ffi
Inl Level section

Hydembad Delhi I llhopal I l\urc I Dhubmcsw Bengalm I hcknow I Parn I Chemi I Viiayamda I Vizg I Tmpari Guur
I I I I Kukaeally(Hyd)
 Acad€my :71 z
Areas & Volumes

04. lrr n crorl nlnll' survey, the perpendicular

oll'nclrr uro lnken on right and left of the
clrnllr lhro Al) ns shown in figure - all
,i vnlrron nro itr 'ntelors'. The area enclosed by
nlf('f)lilrA, corrrputcd by trapezoidal
lrrothotl lr
Dnts

Two Level section

l
Classroom Practice Questions
l:.: (90 m)

What is the volume of a 8 m deep tank

having rectangular shaped top l0 mx 4 m
('( t(l rrr)

(A) 3650 nrr (lt) 12(X) rn2

lted (C) 3475 m2 (l)) 1.5(X) nr2
,n'S
ion 02. Following offsets were taken from a survev 05. With thc thr: fbllowing
plnnirrrcier.
line to hedge. observations 6re trrrrtlc oll tlrc map of
the
Distance
(in m)
0 5 t0 t5 20 30 40 :k building
Initial reading - 3461{ vcrrricr rrrrits
a Final reading- 72t14 vorrricr rrlrits
Offsets J 4 5.5 5 6 4 4.5
(in m) Multiplier = l0 rrurr'
No. of times zcro pnrlcrl 'l'wicc
The area between survey line and the hedge utrticlockwise
by trapezoidal method is at
Constrant of mctrc - t0.000 -'1 trl rr\
(A) 185.5 m2 (B) 187.5 m2
Scale of drawing l:l(XX)
(C) 189.5 m2 (D) 289.5 m2 I
What is the arr.:u on llrccp'l 'J 7)()(1-I\d,
03. A certain area was traversed by a planimeter
with the anchor bolt outside the figure and 06. From the contour nlltp of a reservoir the
the index set to natural scale. The initial following contour nrcus were planimetered.
reading was 6.356 and the final reading The top watcr lcvcl is 200m and the lowest
2.640 and the zero passed the fixed index point in the rcsorvoir is 180m. The quantity
mark three times in the clockwise direction. of water in thc storage using prismoidal rule
If multiplying constant is 10, 000 mm2. The is
area (mm') of the figure traced is Contours,
(A) 7s60 (B 262{\ o (m)
200 195 190 185 180
(c) (D) ?62r{ < ,

JC2b4L) Area, (m') 3850 3450 2600 800 450

a,
Hyderabad I Delhi I Bhopal I Pune I Bhubanesw Bcngalm Iacknow
I I I hra I Cbemi I
Viia'-amda I Vizas I T]rupali I
cuuu I Kukapanyfiyd)
 (A) 45789 m3 (B)44166.66n13 Select the correct answer using the codes
given below
(c) 48966.89 m3 (D) 411368.95 m3 (A) 1, 3 and4 (B) 2, 3 and4
figures are equal to (C) 1, 2 and4 (D) All
07. Which of the following
one acre?
1.43560 sq.ft 2.40 gunthas
3. 10 sq Gunter's chain 4. 4850 sq. yds
01. (B) 02. (B) 03. (B) 04. (c) 0s. (38, 160
06. (B) 07. (D)
lng

Tacheometry
l. lntroduction:
It is the surveying in which both horizontal
160 m2) and vertical confiol can be achieved. i.e.,
horizontal and vertical distances of various
points can be determined directly with the use
of instruments.
3. I)lrlnrrce nlrrl l,llcvtlion formulae by
Slnrlln Mellrorl (Fixed hair
Mellrorl):
('nm, (n): l)istrrrrcc rrrrrl t:lcvitlion for
lrorizorrlnl lirrc ol'siglrt.

is generally used in tacheometry.

swift and metry is measurement) or D-L=KS + C

telemetry.
lilovnlion ol"Q' : Elevation of B.M * h- r
Wlrclc.
undulations, water bodies etc r - Axiul huir reading or central hair reading

2. Different systems of Tacheometry: ('rrc(b): I)istance and Elevation for inclined

(a) Stadia system sight
(i) fixed hair method
(l) Whcn staff held vertical:
(ii) movable hair ( subtense ) method
(b) Tangential method L: KS Cos0 + C
(c) Special instruments D: L Cos0: KS Cos20 + C Cos0

v : L Sino : KSSin2e
+ c Sino
2

Or V: D tan0
Elevation of staff station
'Q' : Elevation of B.M + h + V -r
 :74: Geomatics

D:LCos0 -rSin0
V: L Sin0
Elevation of 'Q'
: Elevation of B.M +h - V - r Cos0
Where,
i: Interval between the stadia hairs
-s Staff intercept
-f Focal length of the objective

B'M' d: Distance of the vertical axis of the

L n nr instrument from the optical
centre'O'
D: Horizontal distance of the staff from
L: KS Cos0 + C the vertical axis of the instrument
:
K= fli Multiplying constant (or) Stadia
D: L Cos0 interval factor
V:LSinO:DtanO
L - Length measured along the line of
sight
Elevation of staff station C,:(f+d)
: Elevation of B.M + h -V - r : Additive constant of the instrument
'Q'
h : Height of the instrument or B.S
(ii) When staff held normal to the line of sight: r - Central hair reading (Axial hair
reading)
L:KS +C
:
V Vertical intercept at 'Q' between
D:LCos0 +rSin0
the line of sight and the
horizontal line
V: L Sin0 P : Instrument Station
Elevation of 'Q' Q: Staff station
: Elevation of 'B.M' + h + V - r Cos0
4. Anallactic lens:
In externally focusing telescope anallactic
lens is a convex lens fitted between the
diaphragm and the objective at a fixed
distance from objective.

alterable or invariable.
By using anallactic lens the multiplying
constant (K):
100 and
additive constant (C) 0 :
B'M' In case of internal focusing modern
F---L--+i telescopes the additive constant is very
For angle of depression:
L:KS+C small and can be taken equal to 0.

F,
 I acher

'l'hcrctbre internal focusing telescope is Case (a): Both the angles are angles of elevation
virtually anallactic.
> Commonly used are extemally focusing
telescopes

I. 'l'he subtense (movable hair)Method:

mrs > Slow method.
> vertical subtense method is almost
obsolete.
> Only horizontal base subtense method is
in use.
BM
rff from In horizontal base subtense method, a
rent subtense bar of "S : 2 m to 3 m" length is p = -----!--
AOB is
;y =Dtanu,
) Stadia rrsed. The angle measured by a (tancr, -tanar)
tlreodolite, preferably by the method of
Elevation of Q:Elevation of B.M+h + V- r
line

): Both angles are angles ofdepression

ment
S
rl hair

etween
fun F= S
t the 22D
l=! ('F' in radians )
B

(zoozosF S
D -.- - ---- /" (,9,^..in seconds) D= :V=Dtancr,
llactic B (tancr, -tanar)
n the sl Elevation of q : elevation of B.M+h - V- r
fixed D=i:^ ('F'inseconds) Case (c):
B sinl"
One angle of elevation and other of depression:
s un-
6. 'langential Method:
'fhe vertical and horizontal distances are
rlying nreasured by means of observed vertical
angles to the vanes fixed at a constant
distance apart on the staff.
rdern > This method is used when the theodolite is
very not fitted with stadia wires.
o0.
@
 ACE
lnneineeringAcadenry
D_
V = Dtanqz
(tancr, +tanar)'
Elevation of Q: elevation of B.M + hV
7. Special Methods:
(a) Stadia Tables:
After the field work is corrrplctctl, llrc
distances and elevations ol'vuliorrs points
can be computcd usirrg lhc lirrrnulno
already given. llowcvor, wlrcr.c u largo
number o1' obsr;r.vtliults itro lnadc. tho
process ol' corrrputation bccomcs time_
consuming.
(b) Stadia Diagrams:
Stadia diagrams or stadia charts are used
to determine the horizontal distance and
the vertical intercept graphically. The
stadia diagrams are also called reduction
diagrams. There are separate diagrams for
the horizontal distance and the vertical
intercept.
(c) Stadia Slide Rules:
The stadia slide rule is a mechanical
device in the form of a ruler about 250
mm long. It is used to reduce the vertical
angles into the horizontal distance (D) and
the vertical intercept (V).
(d) Beaman Stadia Arc:
A Beaman stadia arc is same as the
stadia circle except that the horizontal
scale H gives the values of the percentage
correction 100sin'0 ihat should be
subtracted from 100:. It is more
convenient than a str.,ra circle. The
vertical scale V is same as on a stadia
circle. Beaman stadia arc fitted on the
vertical circle.
Yl ,1f
:76 : Geomatics Engineering
(e) Direct-Reading Tacheometers
:
Direct reading tacheomcters give
r directly the values of
the horizontal
distance (D) and the vertical intercept (V)
on the diaphragm. Thus the computation
work is eliminated, and the values are
read on the diaphragm when the stadia rod
is hcing sighted.
,lclfbot Direct-Reading Tacheometer
Height
Pointer
Central
Pointer
(fixed)
8. Uses of Tacheometrv:
The uses of tacheom.t j .un be summarised
as follows:
(i) Tacheometry can be used for traverses
of low accuracy, where only horizontal
angles and distances are required and
the tacheometric method is more rapid
than taping.
(iD Tacheometry is extremely useful for
topographic surveying because the
relative location of points in the
horizontal plane and the elevations of
the points can be determined
simultaneously.
(iiD In conjunction with a plane table, stadia
observations are made with a telescopic
alidade which is a modified form of a
tacheometer. Horizontal distances and
difference in elevations are computed in
the field and the points are plotted
directlv.
lvi_s l.nrupali I cunurl KukapaXy(Hyd)
 ,'L[*.,
:f
AGE
I;Enginoerins ecaaemv r77 t Tacheomeffy

(iv) Tacheometer is useful for

field ('lurlroortt Prrtclicc Questions
give completion surveys required for
zontal photographic mapping.
)t (V) (v) In differential levelling by a 01. ln nrr cxlcrttrtl lirettssing ltcheometer, the
tation tacheometer, the backsight distance and f,rxcd irrlorvttl hclweclt slrttlia hairs is 5mm,
s are the foresight distance can be easily the fbcal lcrrglh ol'llre ohjcclrvc is 25cm, and
a rod balanced by keeping the staff intercepts the distancc ol' lltc vt't'lit:trl itxis of the
equal. instrument liortr tlte opliertl rrcttlrc of the
(vi) In profile levelling by a tacheometer, objective is l.5ctn, Wlrie lr ono of the
the distances from the instrument to following is thc scl rtl' t'ottslttttls ol' the
various points can be easily found. tacheometer
(vii) For indirect, trigonometric levelling, (A) 30,0.15 (lf ) .10, 0,40
the tacheometric method is more rapid (c) 50,0.25 (l)) 50,0.,10
than any other method.
02. To determine the distalruc ltclwt'ctt lwo
9. Errors in Tacheometric Survey: 74 points A and P, a tacheomotct' wits scl ttlt itl
rC€
(a) Instrumental Errors:
v P and the following obscrvulions wot'c)
r
(i) Errors due to imperfect recorded. Staff readings at A = 2.225,2.605,
adjustments of the tacheometer. 2.985 (m) Vertical angle : t 7"54'. I)istrtttcc
(ii) Error due to staff (or stadia rod). betweenAandPis
(iii) Error due to instrument (A) 74.564 m (B) 45.895 m
constants.
(O a5.988 m (D) s4.33s m

(b) Errors Due to Manipulation and 03. A tacheometer was placed at station P ancl
ies Sighting: staff readings taken on station B are 0.65,
tal (i) Errors due to inaccurate centering, 1.65, 2.65m at top, central and bottom
nd levelling and bisection. station cross hairs respectively when the line
,id (ii) Error due to non-verticality of the If
of sight is horizontal. the constants of
staff. tacheometers are 95 and 0.5m, what is the
or (iii) Enor due to incorrect estimation of horizontal distance between A and B?
le the staffintercept. (A) 1.90sm (B) 19.05m
IE (iv) Enor due to inaccurate reading of the (C) 1905m (D) 190.sm
rf vertical angle.
d 04. Following observations were taken with a
(c) Errors Due to Natural Causes: transit fitted with stadia wires. The line of
a
(i) Refraction sight was horizontal and the staff was held
(ii) Sun
vertical
(iii) wind Reading on staff (m)
I
(iv) Poor visibility
Too hair t.825
I
I Middle hair 2.275
l Bottom hair 2.83s

Hvdenbad lDelhi lBhopallPme lBhubmeswlBengalm lLucknowlPatra lChemai lVijalamdalViz;{a l'l'inrlxlti l(lurrlrrr I Krrhlltully(l lvrl)
 ffiru The tacheometric constant K and C are
100
: 78:

(A) 60.s4m
Geomatics Engineering

(B) 50.54m
and 0.5m respectively. The horizontal (C) 30.5am
distance between staff and insfrument is
(D) 40.s4m
(A) l01.sm (B) l0lsm 09. F'ind up to which vertical angle, in stadia
(C) 10.1sm (D) 100.5m work, a sloping distance may bi assumed to
bc horizontal so that the error may not
05. cxcccd I in 300. The tacheometer is fitted
wilh an anallactic and the staff is held
vcrtictl.
(n ) 4"lft'14' (B) 3"18',14"
0.250m respcctivcly .'l'ltc,/llA(t is rnoasurc (c) 2"19',1'4, (D) 1"19,14'
to be 51"30'30". ll'rrrultiplying constant
and
additivo constants rro l00m and 0.20m, the 10. In a subtense bar method, a micrometer
horizontll bolwcon tho points B and C screw had to be moved for a staff intercept
is of 2.0m, with the staff held vertical at a
distance of l00m from the instrument.
The
06. In the tangential method of tacheometry two vertical angle was 6o0' and tacheometric
vanes were fitted 2 m apart, the loweivane constants are 1000 and 0.5. The total
number
being 0.5 m above the foot of the staff
held. of twins made by
micrometer screw
vertical at station A. The vertical angles are_.
measured were +lo72' and -1o30,. The (A) 16.88 (B) 17.88
horizontal distance and RL at A, if the height (c) 18.88 (D) 1e.88
of the line of collimation is l00m is
I l. Refraction error is the least in case of
(A) a2.42m. 100.6m (B) 42.a2m, 98.4m
(A) stadia tacheometrv
(C) 67.78m, 100.6m (D) 67.78m,98.4m (B) tangential tacheometrv
(C) subtense bar tacheo..t u
07. In a subtense bar Tacheoryedry. the angle (D) omnimeters
i
I
wires is 30,15,, and the 12. The subtense tacheometry method
is adopted
+VK 1.25m. The horizonral when the ground is
(A) Flat , (B) Inclined
(A)la2.06m @) 152.06m (C) Undulating (D) A water bodv
(Q A20.6m (D) 1520.6m

08. In a tangential method of Tacheometry, a 01. (D) 02. (A) 03. (D) 04. (A) 05. Q7.75m\
tacheometer was kept at station ,p,
and (B)
vertical angles to a station .e, were 06. 07. (A) 0s. (c) 0e. (B) 10. (D)
observed as +2o30, and _lol5' at
top and 11. (c) 12. (A)
bottom vanes of target levelling staff
respectively which were fixed at2mdistance
apart. The horizontal distance .pe,
is

t
 Horizontal and Vertical Curves
ia
o
rt l. Introduction:
d Curves are defined as arcs, with some finito
d radius, provided between intersecting
straights to gradually negotiate a change in
direction. For example, when two straights of
a highway or railway are at some angle to
each other, a curve is introduced between
them to avoid an abrupt change in direction
and to make the vehicle move safely,
smoothly and comfortably.
may be in a horizontal or a vertical plane,
resulting in the provision of a horizontal
or a vertical curve, respectively.
2. Classification:
Curves are basically classified as horizontal
or vertical curves.
classified as simple circular, compound,
reverse, transition, combined, and broken-
back curves.
(c) l{cvcrse curvc:
Wlrcrt two simplc circulnr curves of equal
ot' rlil'lcront rutlii. lrnving opposite
rlit'ocliott ul' curvulttrc .joitt togother, the
t'ctttllrtrtl e ulvc is kttowrt as a reverse
culve,
(tl)'l'r'urtrllklrt curvc:
ll irr rr eulvc rtsrrirlly irrtroduocd between a
rrirrrplc r:it'uulitt' curvo and a straight, or
lrclwr,:ctt lwo sintple circular curves. It is
ttlrtrl ktttlwn ets a easement curve. A
lrrtnsition ourvc has a radius, gradually
clurrrgirrg liurn a finite to inhnite value or
vicc vr:rsu. lt is widely used on highways
rurd ruilwitys, since its radius increases or
tlocrcuscs in a very gradual manner.
(e) Combined Curve:
('utnbined curves are a combination of
siruple circular curves and transition
ourvos and are preferred in railwayS and
lrighways.

are classified as summit and saq vertioal

(f) Broken-back Curve :
curve.
ln the past, sometimes, two circular
curves having their centers on the same
3. Horizontal Curves: side and connected with a short tangent
(a) Simple circular curve: length were used for railroad traffic.
A curve, connecting two intersocting Since these are not suitable for high
straights having a constant radius ull speeds, they are not in use nowadays.
through is known as a simple circulur
curye. It is tangential to the two strtrights
4. Vertical Curve:
These are curves, in a vertical plane, used to
at the joining ends.
join two intersecting grade lines. The reduced
(b) Coh-pound curve: level of these curves change from point to
When two or more simple circular curvos, point in a gradual and systematic manner. A
of different radii, turning in thc sumo vertical summit curve is provided when a
direction join two intersecting straights, rising grade joins a falling grade and a
the resultant curve is known as a vertical sag curve is provided when a falling
compound curye. grade joins a rising grade.

Hydenbad I Delhi I Bhopal I Pme I Bhubmesw I Bengalm I Lucknow I Patna I Chemi i Vijalamda I
Vizg Tirupati j Gunu I Kukapally(Hyd)
I
,!,'-1,'

T ACE
XEngineerinsAcad€nry : 80: Geomatics F,ngineering

5. Simple circular curve: (b) Formula for elements of a simple

(a) Designation of a Curve: circular curve:
The curvature of a circular arc is perlbctly
defined by its radius. However, wherc tlrc
Point of intersectionfl Deflection angle (A)
radius is long (highways) the centre ol' thc e (deviation angle)
curve is inaccessible or remote. Tangent
gle of intersection (0)

lbintol' Point of
either be designated hy rldius (irr lbcl,
cUt'vc tangency
metres or chains) or hy dugrcc ol' thc ( 1,,(') D (P.T)
curye. The filrnrcl' systcrnr is ado;ltcd ilr
UK and Auslrllilr. wlre:r.cits thc lattcr is in Radiu
use in LJ.S.A., (-'urrirrln, ljrancc and India.

either on thc basis ol'an a.rc or a chord. Central an

According to tho arc definition, the degree
of a curve is the central angle subtended
by an arc of 30 or 20 m length. Elements of a circular curve

(i) Length of the curve:

(i) Relation between Degree and Radius of Let the length of the curye Tr CTz be / and
curYe
let R be its radius.
Arc Definition/ Chord Definition:
Hence /=RA+'A'radians
If R is the radius of a curve and D is its
degree for a 30 m
RxDxn/180'=30
a.rc
= RA x ft +A is in deerees
lg0'
30 x 180" If a 30 m arc or chord definition is used, then
R_
Dxn
" I7I9
l/=_vny_
ft 304
D 17lg.g
I(=-.=..-X_
rTtg D 190" D
DD If a20 m arc or chord definition is used, then
IfD is the degree of a curve for a 20 m arc,
" 1146 n 20L
then D 190" D
RxDxn/180'=20 (ii) Tangent length:
20 x 180" Tangent length, T = ITr =Il2= R x tan (A/2)
R_
Dxn (iii) Long Chord Length:
Long chord length, L = TrDTz = 2TrD
R_
1145.9 tt46
=_ D From triangle OTrD
D
Sin (A/2) = T'D/R

TrD-Rsin(A/2)
L=2Rsin(A/2)
Hvderabad I Dclhi I Bhopal I Pune I Bhubmes*ar Bengaluru Imknow Panra Chermai Vljayamda vizg lTinpati Gmou I Kulatpally(rry6)
I I I I I I I
 f \r

-_
---'am--

ffi-rm;""* :81 : Horizontal & Vertical Curves

(lv) Apex distance: iv) By offretr from thc chords produced

: A (l' ( i'
n[r..A-r]
- CO: Rsec " 2R-
IC IO
ttll-R = 0, =(1,
L\!./ 21t
:A)
(1
) (v) Mid-ordinate:
on (0)
Oo: CD: CO - DO
- ).1 (t,, r t:, )
or=
2tt'
nt of (,
gency
:R-R.o, o"" =:_l (t',, , I t',, )
f)
|=*(t-."r+) 2tr'
Where Cn: last suh clrortl
Oo: R u.., A
/-
(b) Angular Methods:
l) Rankine's method of dotloctlon angle:
6. Setting out a simple circular curve: This method is uselirl lbr sctting out a
r) Linear Methods: circular curve of long lcngth und of large
l) Offsets from long chord: radius. It yields good results exccpt when the
o. = JR' -x' -(n-o") chords are long as compared to the radius, so
@xact)
that the variation between the length of an
arc and its chord becomes considcrable. It is
- oo -f tenr.* I quite accurate and is frequently used on
highways and railways.
a
6r = 1718.91 minutes
Where Oo =R-
where 6: Tangential anglc
li) Perpendicular offsets from tangents: C: chord length
This method is suitable for small values of
the radius, length of curve and deflection
angle.
ii) Two-theodolitemethod:
The method is most convenient when the
O*: R- (Exact) ground is undulating, rough and not suitable
O*: x"l2R(Approx.) for linear mcasuremcnts.
>In this method, two theodolites are used
and lincar measuroments are completely
iii) Radial offsets from tangent: eliminated. Hence this the most is
O* is the radial offset PP' at any distance x accurate method.
along the tangent from T1.
r-j----l---l-
)lt is based on the principle that the angle
O. = {(R' +x')-R (Exact) between the tangent and the chord is equal
to the angle subtended by the chord in the
o*:x2l2L(Approx.) opposite segment.

HyderabadlDelhilBhopallPunelBhubanesrnrlBengaluulLucknowlPatnlChemilviiayamdalvizg lTnpati lGunuul fr*aealtvfilya)

 :82 z Geomatics

7, Transition Curves:

which the curves are circular arcs, an

abrupt change from a straight path to a
circular path is required at the point of
curvatue .

change instantaneously. Smooth and safe

rail, road operations will require a gradual
iii) Tacheometric method: transition between the uniform operating
This method is similar to the Rankine's condition on tangents and the different
method of deflection angles. The theodolite operating conditions on the circular
at T1 may be used as a tacheometer and the curves.
tacheometric observations are made. This is a
less accurate method than Rankine's but the curvature, introduced between the tangent
advantage is that chaining is completely length and a circular curve or between two
dispensed. branches of
a compound curve or a
reverse curve to provide such a transition
(c) Field procedure: is known as a transition or an easement
(i) Locate P.C. (Tr), P'T .(T, and P.I (I) curve.
(ii) Set up the theodolite exactly at Tr and
make its temporary adjustments. following advantages:
(iii) Set the vernier A to zero and bisect the (i) It allows a gradual transition of
P.L Clamp the lower Plate' curvature from the tangent to the circular
(iv) Release the upper plate and set the curve or from the circular curve to the
:
vernier A to read Ar 6t. The line of tangent.
sight is thus directed along T1a. (ii) The radius of curvature increases or
(v) Hold the zero of the tape at T1, take a decreases graduallY.
distance CrGr a) and swing the taPe
(iii) It is provided for the gradual change in
with an affow till it is bisected by the superelevation in a convenient manner.
theodolite. This establishes the first (iv) It eliminates the danger of derailment,
point a on the curve. overturning or side-slipping of vehicles,
(vi) Sct the second deflection angle and discomfort to Passengers'
A2 : A1*62 on the scale so that the line
ol'sight is set along T1b. 8. Superelevation or cant :
(vii) With thc zero of the tape held at a and Superelevation on curves is defined as the
an ltarrow at the other end (chord raising of the outer end of a road or the outer
distancc ab), swing the tape about a' rail over the inner one.
till tlrc arr()w is bisected bY the h: superelevation (in m)
theodolite at b. This establishes the :
B width of pavement (in m)
second point b on tltc curve. 0: angle of superelevation
(viii) The same steps arc rcpcated till the last W = weight of the vehicle
point T2 is reached. P: centrifugal force
neering :88: Horitontal & Vertical Curves

v: speed of the vehicle (in m/s) |(1. Illrrrls oll' \'r.krr.ilr, (lrlt.:rl Speed):
ent on g: acceleration due to gravity: 9.81 m/s2
ll tsi por;:;rlrlr. rr rllr lltc absence of
cs, an R: radius of the curve (in m)
G: gauge distance between rails fi'icliorrrrl l,rr. .'
rtoa
int of Wv2 tanO = "
P_ gl{
gR
r this
P_u' f^
I safe v = {gR l:rrr (l
adual wgR
ating lt = P
=u' 11. Length of Transitiorr ( 'rrr vt.:
brent BWgR (a) By rate of superclcvut iorr :
cular
h=u' If the rate o1' rrpplrt.rrlrorr ol'
ying BgR superelevation is '1 in n' ol tlrt' lcrrl,tlr ol'
the curve and 'h' is thc srrpt.rlr.vrrlion,
gent Bvt
,Il=-orn-_ Gv2
the length of the transiliorr (.urv(. rs
two gR Rg given by:
,ra
tion Gu' llu
L = nh,whereh = o, h:
rent
h=Gx x 100
gR ltg
9.81x R (b) By time rate:
,
Il=-
Gv' Gv2 Let the time rate of applicatiorr ol'
1.27137R t.27R \ /
lmcml superelevation be x cm./s, length ol'
of transition curve be L mctrc,
rlar
Centrifugal Ratio: superelevation be 'h' cm, and speed of
the
The ratio of the centrifugal force and the vehicle be v m/s.
weight is called the centrifugal ratio. As 'x' cm cant is applied in ls, full cant

Thus, centrifugal ratio: + == of 'h' cm will be applied in ! seconds

wgR
: t (say)
P Distance travelled: speed x time : vt
Thus, for roads,
w L=v!
x
(or;

..plv2-:- L=f "+=q (inm)

-.W = -8= gR
and for railwavs. x gR xgR
- (or)
u= 1GR/8 Bv3 (in
L: m)
xRs

Hvdenbad I Delhi I Bhopal I Pme I Bhubmem I

Bengalm I Lucknow I Patn Chennai Viiayawda Vizg Tirupati I Gutru I Kulrtp,illy(Hyd)
I I I I
ffiryffi^-"-t : 84: Geomatics Engineering

(c) By rate of change of radial 12. Elements of a Transition Curve:

acceleration: ZBOD denoted by A. , is the spiral angle of
It is the most scientific method for the tangent at D.
finding the length of a transition curve
by considering rate ofchange ofradial .'.RxAr:R L =!=l'-s =!
acceleration. According to L. Short, if 2R 2 2R
the rate of change ofradial acceleration
s-
I?
- -2Rx
u
=
tt 12
t
(o) = 0.3 mls2 per second (l ft/s2 per 6R 4Rz x4 6R 8R 24P(
second), it gives the comfort condition Total tangent length,
for the passengers.
= (R+S) tan + (* - RsinA.)
If the speed of the vehicle is ,v' m/s on a {L
curvedpath of radius R, then
, : x+ytan5
Radial acceleration : fl 2
R Where,
Rate of change of radial acceleration x and y are coordinates ofjunction ofcurve.
vt /R
cf,=- *=r.ir-l-]u={[,- L''l
t
v'
L
40R',J.- 6R L 56R' _l

t=-
crR 13. Vertical Curve:
If the length of the transition curye is L and It is a curye used to connect two different
speed of the vehicle is v, then time taken
grade lines of railways or highways. Such a
L
t-- curye is introduced to round off the angle and
V to obtain a gradual change in the gradient so
vtL that the vehicles passing over ii may not
aR V experience a shock or a suddenjerk.

V"
L =- within certain limits and provides a
crR
minimum sight distance.
If the velocity of vehicle is .V' knph parabolic.
anda:0.3m/s2ls; I- -f'
14R used because of the following reasons:
(D It is flatter at the top and henie provides
a longer sight distance. Greater the sight
distance, lesser is the possibility of
accident. "oy
(ii) Rate of change of grade is uniform
throughout and hence produces best
riding qualities.
(iii) It has simplicity in computation work.

Hyderalud I Delhi I Bhopl I hrne Bhubaneswl Bengalml

I

^*"rt"
 ACE
Engin€€ringAeadcmy :85t I l rt rzontal & Vertical Curves

14. Types of vertical curve: ll, ltt'or,nrlrn'r, fot,tr,lllrrg out a vertical

There are two types of vertical curves:
trllf'v$!
1. Summit curve 2.
Sag curve
lll | 'tlr.rrluk, llre h'rrptlr ol'vertical curve from
R (a) Total change of Grade: ,tt lH' H'l
=-
t It is the algebraic difference of two lrl I

24R grades.
For example: if a +9ro6 (upgrade) is
llll lrlrrIt, llrlf rrl llrr' h.rrlitlr of vertical curve
lulrl rrr,l rrtr lrrrllt airlr,'r r.r;rlrllywith ,n,
followed by a -g2o/o (downgrade) the Itiltrrlrr.r ll r lturrlr, rrl r.rrr.lr lcngth ,/'.
total change ofgrade is IlllI I ulr rrlrrlr, llrr.r lrllrrrrIr,ol Duint of
lrltltr'lr V (( tl r lrrrrrtrrpr' ol Apex (A)_n/
[+gr - (-ez)]%: (g + g2)yo
Ilt I t rtllttlrrlr. llrr, r.lrrrrtrrrllr, ol poirrt of
Similarly, if a -gflo grade is followed lrtttF,r'rrrV(ll) r'lrrrrrrrrp.r, rrl A rn/
by a +g2o/o grade the total change of (v I N tturvrrrpl llrt. virlrrt.s ol ;"11 ,t ;i., grades,
grade is [-g, - +g2)]%: a,lr,\,nltorr ol Apcx (A), t'rrlcrrl;rlc the
{gr + g2)%, rk,vrrltorr ol' '( )' & 'll' irs lirlluws
(b) Length of Vertical curye:
erent The length of a vertical curve is lih,r,rrliolr ol''O' lilcvuliorr ol'A r ne r

cha determined by the permissible rate of llr

change of grade or from centrifugal
llrrlc' x()
and l()()
rt so consideration as appropriate.
I lst. vc, if 'ef is rise
not Based on permissible rate of change of
grade (r) I vc. if 'er, is fall
rads Length of curve,
la Total change of grade lilevrrlion of 'B' : Elevation of A *
L: ner
Permissible rate of change of grade
But e" E'
(g'
' = 100 ,1,
- -gr)
tly r llsc
if e2 is rise
F ve,

(c) Based on Centrifugal ratio: -ve, if e2 is fall

les
(vi) 'l'aking'O' as datum, calculate the
ht It has akeady been pointed out that the
parabolas in vertical curves can hc olevation of 'F'.
ly
approximated to circular curvcH. Elevation of 'A' : nel
1l Therefore, rate of change of gradc will Elevation of 'B' : elevation of A * ner
It equal curvature. Thus, for a lenglh ol'
Elevation of 'E'
curye 2l andradius R.
: l.lElevation of ' O'+Elevation of ' B']
iL
100f
 Elevation of 'F' Case(ii): If the sight distance (S) greater than
: 1.
alElevationof 'A'+ Elevationof 'E'] the length of curve (L).
L
: Elevation of A- Tangent correction (h) ;.L-rr- zoo(6+fi;)'z
.'. h: kN2 (gt -gr)
/\
t/ --
K:- constant: (er
'' -ezl

N:2n: total *o chords, each of ( llussroom Practice Questions

"llnuur
length '/'on each side of Apex.

C 0| . lior n clrorcl ol' 100 m the mid-ordinate for a

circulur ourvo of 80m radius will be
(A) 20m (B) 12.5m
D ((l) 17.5 rn (D) 18.75m

02. of a simple curve R, then the

11'thr; radius
h''Al.'
length of the chord for calculating the
''litngcnt oorrcotiorr
$- offsets by the method of chords produced
should not exceed.

(A)EG)\ (c)! (D)I

5 "10 "20 '2s
--+1+- n/
L:2nl___4-_-4 03. For a chord of 60 m, the mid - ordinate for
a circular curve of 50 m radius will be
(A) l0 m (B) 12.5 m
(C) ls m (D) 18.75 m

04. Two straight lines deviate at an angle of 60

degrees. The radius of a curve joining the
two straight lines is 600 m. The length of
long chord and mid ordinates in meters of
the curve are.
16. Sight Distance:
It is the minimum distance between two (A) 80.4 and 600 (B) 600 and 80.4
vehicles moving along a curve, when (C) 600.0 and 39.89 (D) 49.89 and 300.0
the driver of one vehicle can just see the
other vehicle on the roads.
Case(i): If
sight distance (S) less than the
05. The tangent distance for a simple curve of
radius 200 mjoining two straights meeting
length of curve (L)
.r St(g, -gr)
at a deflection angle of 60' is _
.l
(A) 1s.47m (B) 10.47m
2oo(/r, +
^,[41'z (C) 115.47m (D) 110.47m
 :87 z Horizontal & Verlit:al (lurvcs

lter than 116, A sirnplc ourvc of radius 500m connecting 12. In a parabolic vertical curve, thr.: rising
the two straight lines at a deviation angle of grade gr : +0.80 Yo and, the falling gradc 92
45'. Thc length of long chord and mid : -0.70o/o. The rate of change of grado is
ordinates of the curve are 0.05 per chain. The length of the vertical
curve is
(A) 382.6m,38.06m
(A) 30 chains (B) 40 chains
(B) 38.26m,38.06m (C) 50 chains (D) 60 chains
(C) 3286m,380.6m
(D) 4055m,20.45m 13. If the rate of super elevation of transition
curve is I in 400 and maximum
superelevation is 100mm, length of curve
(17. A simple curve of radius 600m connecting
Lte for a is
the two straight lines at an intersection (A) aOm (B) 30m
angles of 120'. What is the Apex distance (C) 20m (D) lOm
of a curve

0t{ The lengths of long chord and tangent of a t4. If superelevation of 40 mm is provided an
ren the circular curve are equal for the deflection the distance curved by vehicle in one
ng the angle of * second and maximum superleelvation is
oduced (A) 30' (B) 60' restricted to 100 mm and speed of vehicle is
(c) 90" (D) 120' 20 m/sec.
The length of transition curve is
l)(). If the chainage of point of intersection of (A) 100 m (B) 200 m
two straights is 1650m. The deflection (C) s0 m (D) 300 m
angle is 30o and the radius of curve is
600m. The chainages of point of curve and /
15. The speed of vehicle is 20 m/sec, rate of
point of Tangency respectively are chang^e of radial acceleration 0.3 is
(A) 1489.23m, 1803.39m m/sec'lsec and radius of curve is 300 m.
Then the length of curve is
(B) 1803.39m,1489.23m
of 60 (C) 1650m, 1540m
rg the (D) 1540m, 1650m 16. If the speed of a vehicle is 50 kmph on the
transition curve, the minimum radius of the
gth of -5' curve for the vehicle to pass safely on
ers of 10. A simple curye of 3o, deflects at 60o. If a
highways is
chord of 30m is considered, the length of
(A) 68.67 m (B) 78.67 m
curve is
(C) 88.67 m (D) 98.67 m
(A) 300m (B) 400m
).0 (C) s00m (D) 600m
17. If the speed of a vehicle is 50 knph on the
transition curve, the minimum radius of thc
ve of I l. If two grades of +l.2Yo and -0.9Yo meet to
curve for a traip to pass safely on railway
:eting form a vertical curve, with rate of change of
track is
grade is 0.1% per 30m, the length of (A) 157.34 m (B) 78.67 m
vertical curve is
(C) 178.67 m (D) 17.867 m
(A) s60m (B) 660m
(C) 360m (D) 630m
HydenbadlDelhilBhopallPrnelBhubmewlBengalunrlLucknowlPannlChemilVliryawadalVuag lTinrpati lGrurturl Kuhnqrrrlly(llyrl)

-__,-,.'.....-
 ACE
nngineerlngAeadcmy :88: Geomatics Engineering

18. A transition curve is required for a circular List - II

curve of radius 300 m. The maximum l. An autogenous curye of an automobile
superelevation is restricted to 100 mm for a 2. Radius of curvature at any point varies
gauge of 1.0 m. Design speed is inversely as the distance from the
beginning of the curve
19. What is the length of transition curve if the sin$: $
speed of vehicle is 60 kmph, rate of change x:lcos$:1
:
of radial acceleration (cr) 0.3 m/s2ls and Codcs:
the radius of curve is 300 m. Pa RS
(A) 51 .43 m @) 61.43 m (A) 23 41
(C) 71 .43 m (D) 81.43 m (B) 32 14
(c) 23 l4
20. Match List-I (Type of transition curves) (D) 32 41
with List-II (Characteristics) and select the
correct answer using the codes given below for CRPO
the lists 01. (c) 02. (c)
(A) 04. (B) 0s. (c)
03.
List - I
P. Glover's spiral 06. (A) 07. (e2.82m) 08. (D) 0e. (A)

Q. Cubic spiral 10. (D) 11. (D) 12. (A) 13. (A) 14. (c)
R. Froude's transition curve
S. Bernoulli's lemniscates ls. (88.88 m) 16. (B) 17. (A)
8. (61.758 kmph) le.(A) 20. (A)

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)nng

- Errors snd Adjustments

rile
lries
the
l.Introduction: 2, Dcllnllkrnr:
Errors of measurement are of three kinds: (l) Ohrorvod vuluc of Quantity: An
(i) Mistakes oltrorvorl vnluc ol'u quantity is the value
(ii) Systematic effors obluirrorl whorr it is corrected for all the
(iii) Accidental errors kttrtwtt orlorl.

(i) Mistakes: Mistakes are enors that arise (ll) 'l'Fuo vuluo of Quantity: The true
from inattention, inexperience, vnhro ol'u clunntity is the value which is
carelessness and poor judgernent or rbrolutcly lioo from all the errors. The
confusion in the mind of the observer. lruo vnluc o1'a quantity is indeterminate
1l11go of lruc error is never known.
)l (ii) Systematic error: A systematic error is

)l
an error that under the same conditions,
will always be of the same size and sign.
A systematic error always follows some
definite mathematical or physical law and
correction can be determined and applied.
(iii) Accidental error: Accidental errors or
compensating erors are those which
remain after mistakes and systematio
errors have been eliminated and aro
caused by a combination of reasons
beyond the ability of the observer to
control. They tend sometimes in onc
direction and some times in the other, i.0.,
they are equally likely to make
apparent result too large or too small.
An accidental eror of a singlc
determination is the difference betwcon
the true value of the quantity and u
determination that is free from mistakcs
and systematic errors. Accidental crrttrs
represent the limit of precision in thr:
determination of a value. They oboy thc
laws of chance and, therefore, must bc
handled according to the mathemuticul
laws of probability.
(lll) Molt Probable Value: The most
probublc value of a quantity is the one
which hus more chances of being true than
hnn uny other. It is deduced from the
rovsrul measurements on which is it
hrwod, lt is the mean value of observations
nrnrlc.
(lv) 'l'ruo Error: A true effor is the
dillbrcnce between the true value of a
qutntity and its observed value.
(v) Most Probable Error: most The
probable error is defined as that quantrty
thc
which added to subtracted from, the most
probable value fixes the limits within
which it is an even chance the true value
ol'the measured quantity must lie.
(vl) Residual Error: A residual error is the
difference between the most probable
value of a quantity and its observed value.
(vii) Observation Equation: An observation
equation is the relation between the
observed quantity and its numerical value.

Hvdenbad I Delhi I Bhopal I Puno I Dhubcnorwu I Bongduru | Lucknow I Pana I

Chmi i
VijaFmda I
Vze I
Tlrupati I
Gunr I Kuka$en$Iyd)
 IlEngincecingecaaemv
ACE
:90: Geomatics Engineering ii

(viii) Conditioned Equation: A conditioned Where, En': probable error of the mean.
equation is the equation expressing the (iii) Probable Error of a sum of measurements:
relation existing between the
dependent quantities.
several
Er,o:ffi
Where,
(ix) Normal Equation: A normal equation
n: No. of observations
Et,82,.....En : Probable enors of several
is the one which is formed by multiplying
observation.
each equation by the coefficient of the
unknown whose normal equation is to be
is the same as the number of unknowns,
the most probable values of the unknown
can be found from these equations.

3. Probable Errors:
(i) Probable error of a single measurement is Example: I
given bY
tr-,
: t 0.67 45^l!- In carrying a line of levels across a river, the
E. = +0.674-5o fbllowing eiglrt readings were taken with a level
!n-l undcr identical conditions:
Where,
:
E, Probable error of single obscrvation or
2.322, 2.3 46, 2.3 52, 2.306, 2.3 12, 2.300, 2.306,
most probable error.
2.326
v: Difference between any single
observation and the mean of the series.
Calculate
n: number of observations in the series.
(i) The probable error of single observation
u'.
o : Standard deviation : *- /,I
(ii) The probable error of the mean
V(n-t)
Sol:
(ii) Probable Error of an Average: Since the The computations for v and v' ate ar"range in the
average of n measurements is the sum of tabular form below:
the measurements divided by n, the
probable error of the average of n Rod reading v(m) v'
measurements is ' J;.
:^ 'times the probable 2.322 0.001 0.000001
2.346 0.025 0.000625
error of one measurement. Thus, probable 2.325 0.031 0.000961
error of an average or mean is given by 2.306 0.015 0.000225
r:
E,.:1110.6745.1-
tr;t 2.312 0.009 0.000081
2.300 0.02r 0.000441
n ! n-l 2.306 0.015 0.000225
2.326 0.005 0.000025

HvdenbedlDelhilBhopallPunclBhubanesnarlBengalurulllcknowlPaoalClrennailviiayaqadal\azag lTtrupati lCuntul lfukanan:Glyd).

 From equation (v) 'l'hc computed quarrlity is a function
of more
E. : t 0.6745rW-: +0.01295 metro
tlrirn onc observccl t;uarrlily.
x
v 8-l a.b

E,: E'
= +0'01295 = +0.o0458metre
(", /rlx)r ., /,)x'\ ,,
[,,,,,J"i '[,,,,,l.,'
r/n ../8

4. Computed Quantities: 5. l,nwlr ol' wr,lglrls:

(i) The computed quantity is the sum of the (l) lltt' tt,r'tp,ltl ol llrr' trrilltrrrctic mean of
difference of an observed quantity and a llrr' iltr,tlirutr.trrt.rrls ol' rrrril wCight is
constant. ('(
ltlll I lrr I lrt. r rr rr r rlrr.r' ol' obsor.virl ions.
.'. x:*aa K (ll) llrc n,r.rglrt ol tlrc wcightccl arithmetic
0x: oa lt('nn tr t rlrrrrl lo thc sultl of the
Where, llttltv rrlttrrl rvr'i1ilrts.
, the x: computed quantity (ilr) I ltt, wcrFilrt ol' irlgcbraic sum of two or
level ntot1. 111si1111ilics is oqual to the reciprocal
a = observed quantity
: ol llrc riuln ol' r'cciprocals of individual
e* Probable error in measurement of ,a,
wcrpllrls.
6, eu: probable error
1lr ) ll rr t;rrirrrtit_y ul' given weight is
rrrrrlliplic:tl hy a I'irctor, the weight of the
( ii) The computed quantity is the product of an rcsrrll is obtrrirrod by dividing its given
observed quantity and a constant. wciglrl by llrc square of the factor.
Ka x: (v) ll rr rprirntily of given weight is divided
e*: K.e" hy l lhctor, the weight of the result is
oblirirrcd multiplying its given weight by
tiii) The computed quantity is the algebraic sum
lhc stluarc of the factor.
of two or more independent observed
quantities. (vl; ll' irn cquation is multiplied by its own
x:*a*b*c woight, the weight of the resulting
r:rluation is equal to the reciprocal of the
weight of the equation.
(vii) 'fhe weight of an equation remains
Where a,b,c: observed quantities
unchanged, if all the signs of the
€a, €b, e": Respective probable orrrlr.s equation are changed or if the equation

(iv) The computed quantity is a function ol'ir

is added to or subtracted form a
constant.
single observed quantity.
f(a) x:
/a \
td(l
.'.e-=l-le^
\oa )
tfit-#^-** 292: Geomatics fl
Examulai''i'
6. Standard Formulae:
i) Probable error of single observation of
Let an angle A be measured six times,
unit weight following being the values:

= Er* = +0.6745 IA Weisht IA Weisht

2 3
30020'8" 3oo2o't0"
3 4
30020'10" 30o20'9"
2 2
30o20'7" 30020'10"
Sol:
Sum of the individual weights
:2 * 3 +2 +3+4+2
iiD Probable error of single observation of
:16
:E-swi =_ E'*
weight'wr'
1fi Weighted arithmetic mean

x 3) + (6" x 2)
iv) Standard error of weighted observation = 30020' * [ts" x2)+(10"
f
: (o-)* = + (10" x 3) + (9'x4)+ (10" x 2)]

:30"20'9"

Weight of the weighted arithmetic mean: 16

Let an angle A be measured six times, the
following being the values:

ZA Weight IA Weight
The following are the observed values of an
I 1 angle:
30020'8" 30020'10"
Anele Weieht
I I 40020'20" 2
30020'10" 30o20'9"
40020'18" 2
I I
30020'7" 30o20'10" 3
40o20'19"
Find
Sol: (A) p.e. of single observation of unit weight'
Airthmetic mean
1
(B) p.e of weighted arithmetic mean
= 30o20'* I(g" + lon + 7' +lo' + 9" + 10") (C) p.t of single observation of weight 3'
6' Sol:
:30o20'9" The computations are affanged in the tat
below. Since the error is in seconds only,
Weight of arithmetic mean degrees and minutes of the quantities have
: Number of observations : 6. been included in the tabulation:
 :94: C'eomatics

07. The most probable value of an area of a

Classroom Practice Questions circle of radius 12.25 + 0.03 m is

' If 2l m with a
01. If the weight of ' an angle 08. the radius of a circle is
A(: 40'24'24'say) is 2, then the weight of probable error * 0.21 m. The probable error
of its circumference is
the angle N31:13"r8'08".!tui.ll be
(A) 4 (B) r.6 09. If the horizontal angles of a triangle area
(c) e (D) 18 lA :20o10' 0.2; I B : 100o 40' + 0.1;
t
02. An angle was measured by there observers lC = 59ol0o t 0.2. The probable error of
and they are 40"20',40o30' & 40'45' with its summation is
Weights 2,3,4 respectively. The most (A) r 0.2 (B) r 0.1
probable value of angle is (c) r 0.4 (D) 10.3
(A) 40'34',30', (B) 40"34t26.67'
(c) 40"24',30', (D) 40"34'34' 10. If the sides of a rectangle area
f
a=100 0.02 m. b :
150 + 0.01 m. The
03. The most probable values of two angles A most probable error of the area is
and B are given as lA
= 47012'30" 12",
lB:24" 16'40"*3". The probable error of I l. What is the most probable value of the area
the angle (A+B) is of a rectangle with sides are
(A) r 3.60s', (B) 13.6es', a: 100 + 0.02 m; b:
150 + 0.01 m.
(c) + 3.sos" (D) +l.ozs'
12. A base line was measured under certain
04. Ifeveryone of the three angles of a triangle conditions and was found to be 250 + 0.04
has a probable error of * 1o then what will m. If another base line of length 1000 m
be the probable error in the sum of the so was measured under the same conditions.
measured internal angles of the triangles? The probable error of second line in (m) is
(A) rl" (B) r 3" (A) t 0.05 (B) r 0.06
(c) t 0.07 (D) t 0.08
(c) 19" (D) t"F
05. Ifthe radius of a circle is 12.25 + 0.03 m.
r3. If the sides of a box are 3 + 0.02 m,
+
4 0.01 m, 3 + 0.02 m. The probable error
The most probable error of an area in (m2)
of the volume of box in (m') is
is
(A) r 0.2s (B) 10.30
(A)!2.34 (B)L2.24
(c) r 0.3s (D) r 0.40
(c) r 2.30e (D) 12.34s

06. The measured radius of a circle is 80m with

14. Two angles of triangle area A: 42"32'40"
a possible error of 0.05m in its diameter. (weight -3) and B : 5lo 29'29'(weight -2)
The error in the computed area will nearly are measured. The weight of third angle is
be
(A) +6.5m2
(C)tr2.6t#
(B) -0.65m2
(D) 18.2m2
(A)
; r'); (.) I (D)
f
Hyderabed I Dclhi I Bhopel I hrne I Bhubanemr I Bengaluru | Incknow I Fatn I Chermai I Viiayamda I VrzaS Ilrupari t Cutnrtt XulaOattl'(IIO
|
 Map Projections
1. Introduction:
the map of the area. The earth is round,
whereas maps are flat. However, the
roundness of the earth is neglected in plane
surveying as it involves only a very small
portion of the earth.
a small area is
The preparation of plan is relatively easy as
it involves a simple rectangular grid, and
the usual orthographic projections are
applicable.
Tho
purposes af,e
of the earth presents the rnain difficultv in
the preparation of maps of very large arlas.
For a beginner, the problem can be easily
visualised by considering a large piece of
orange peel.
earth is generally considered as a sphere.
Map projections considering the earth as a
sphere are relatively less involved.
2. Basis of Map Projections:
cannot be developed into a plane surface
without some distortion. Therefore, if
a (ii) Finiteness '
very large area of earth's surface is to be
shown on a map, the dimensions will be
distorted in one way or the other.
the earth's surface are projected upon
plane or a cone or a cylinder which can be
developed into a plane.
have been projected on a suitable plane, the
points on that plane, which is a map, will
represent the correct relative positions of
the corresponding points on the earth,
surface with a minimum of distortion.
) In map projection, the position of any poi
on the surface of earth in terms of its
latitude and longitude is transformed into
corresponding linear dimensions on the
map.
representcd on a map, the map projection
usually consists of the following two
transformations.
(a) Scale Reduction: As the surface area
the eanh is very large, some sort of scale
reduction is required to accommodate the
map on a sheet. The full-size sphere
representing the earth is reduced in size to
form a globe of suitable size.
(b) Deformation: As itis impossible to
develop the spherical surface of the globe
into a plane surface without deformation,
some systeniatic way of deforming the
round surface to aflat surface is required.
functions must
following conditions.
(i) Uniqueness '
(iii) Continuous,
3. Ideal map Projection:
An ideal map projection is that in which there
a is no distortion and all the lines and angles
are represented correctly.
the following conditions.
 <-. *- .rr*--r{l

,rffu"
ilI"'
ACE
EnginccrinS ecaaemY

(i) All distances and af,eas on the map 4. Scalo: Tho ncalo is generally expressed as
should have correct relative n rutio or roptciontative fraction (R.F). In
w magnitude as those on the surface of tho cuo of map pro.ioctions,
the earth.
rth's (ii) A11 angles and azimuths on the map (lltodistance
- should be same as those on the surface
R,1", -
lhrthdistatDe
point of the earth.
rf its (iii) All great circles on the earth should
into appear as straight lines on the map. 5. Scrlo frctor:
'['lto rculo litr;tor in elcfined as the ratio of
L the (iv) Longitudes and latitudes of all the
points should be shown correctly on lho rrrnp rlinltncc trl the globe distance
.o be the map.
ction Mapdistarre
llorlo litclor -=
two Globedistarre
following four categories.
ll'lcortain line becomes double when
(a) Conformal Projections: In this projcctcd from the globe to the map,
type of projections, the angle between tho soale factor is 2.0.
any pair of short lines is represented Standard lines are those which donot
correctly. Thus small areas appear in undcrgo any change in length when
correct shape. However, this condition projected from the globe to the map.
can be ensured only for small areas. Standard lines have a scale factor of
The shapes of large areas maY bo unity,
distorted because the scale varies from
point.to point.

called orthomorphic proj ections.

(b) Equal Area Projections: In thir

type of projections, the areas aro
represented correctly and the relative
areas remain same. However, tho
shapes may not remain the same.

(c) Equidistant Projections: In thir

type of projections, distances arc
represented correctly from one centrul
point to other points on the maP,

(d) Azimuthal Projections: In this type

of projections, the azimuth or dircction
of any point relative to one ccntral
point is represented correctlY.
 05. Scale factor for standard lines is
Classroom Practice Questions (A) 1.0 (B) 2.0
(c) 3.0 (D) 4.0

01. The stereo plotting instruments are 06. Map projections are prepared if shape of
generally manufactured on the principle of the earth is
(A) optical projection (A) circle (B) oblate spheroid
(B) optical mechanism Projection (C) sphere (D) Rectangle
(C) mechanical Proj ection
(D) all the above 07. Conformal projections are called as
(A) Azimuthal Projection
02. Perspective centre relates to (B) Equal area Projections
(A) parallel projection (C) OrthomorPhic Projection
(B) orthogonal projection (D) Unique Projections
(C) central projection
(D) none of these

03. The movement of the Projector in

y-direction, introduces in the model a 01. (D) 02.(c) 03. (D) 04.(A) 0s.(A)
y-parallax 06. (c) 07. (c)
(A) maximum at Position I
(B) maximum at Position 2
(C) maximum at Position 5 and 6
(D) equally throughout the model

04. The map projection in which the angle

between any Pair of short lines is
represented correctlY is called
(A) conformal projection
(B) equidistant Proj ection
(C) azimuthal Projection
(D) equal arca Pro.icotion
leenna
:
Total Station
of l.Introduction:
based instruments is now so widespread
that it would be difficult to imagine any
contemporary site surveying without it.
The recent applications of electronics in
the surveying instruments has enabled the
surveyors to collect and process the field
data much more easily and to a higher
precision than is possible using routine
instruments.
Electronic theodolite is combined and
interfaced with EDMs and electronic data
collectors, they become total stations or
electronic tacheometers (ET).
These total stations can read and record
horizontal and vertical angles, together
with slope distances.
These are operated using a multi-function
keyboard which is connected
microprocessor built into the instrument.
The microprocessor in the total station
cannot only perform a variety of
mathematical operations - for example
averaging multiple angle measurements,
averagmg multiple distance
measurements, calculation of rectangular
coordinates, calculation of
slope
corrections, distances between remote
points, remote object
elevations,
atmospheric and instrumental corrections,
but in some cases, can also store
observations directly using an intemal
memory.
manufacturing total stations, like Leica
TCA 1800 and Nikon C-100 total stations
but some of their technical specifications
are summarized inTable 1.
HydenbadlDelhilBhopallPunelBhubaneswarlBengalurullffknowlParnalChemilviiaFmdalvizag
) However, the lbrrlrrral (,ulnuol lu llrc
majority of total stnliorrrllr. rlnr ltrr,ur;lrrrrrlctl
in the same table.
2. Features of Total Statlon:
(a) Angle Measurement:
station is used to measurc urrglc,l, All
the features of electronic theodolitcN nrc
same as total station.
resolution between l" and 20". All thc
instruments incorporate either singlc-
axis or dual-axis compensator, the latter
being expensive.
(b) Distance Measurement:
slope distance and the microprocessor
to a uses the vertical angle recorded by the
theodolite along the line of sight to
calculate the horizontal distance. In
addition, the height distance between the
trunion axis and the prism center is also
calculated and displayed.
in which the EDM transmitter and
receiver are combined with the
theodolite telescope.
distance measurement.
(i) Standard or coarse mode:
It hasa resolution of 1 mm and a
measurement time of 1 - 2s
(ii) Precise or fine mode:
It has a resolution of I" but a
measurement time of 8 - 4s. This is more
iTiruperi lcunurl Kukapally(Hyd)
)
 accurate than the standard mode, since the
instrument refines the arithmetic mean
value by making repeatedmeasurements.
(iii) Tracking or fast mode:
The distance measurement is repeated
automatically at intervals of less than 1,,.
Normally, this mode has a resolution of
l0 mm.

Table: I
Technical specifications of Total Stations TCA 1800 and C - 100
800
Absolute, continuous,
Reading System lncremental encoder
diametric
Unit of readins De gree/Gon/ 6400 mill v% Degree/Gon/6400 mil
Least count 5 or 10" (360"), I or 2 mgon
Angle l"/0.1mgon
I (400G). 0.02 or 0.05 mil
measurement
Accuracy (6400 mil)
Tile sensor 6"119 cccl0.03 Mil
Workine ranse Liquid tvDe
+3'
Range
With circular prism 2500 m With sinele prism 700 m
Distance With 3600 reflector 1300 m With tripple prism 1000 m
2
measurement
Accuracy 1to5mm+2ppm t (5+5) ppm xD) mm
-
(at 1050"C)
Measuring time 3s 4s
Ambient Measuring -20 50"c -20 50"c
3 temperature 70
Storage -40 60"c
range
-40"c
Magnification 30x 2x
Clear objective
4 Telescope 42 mm 36 mm
oDerator
Shortest focusing
1.7 m 1.0 m
distance
Sensitivity of
2" (electronic) 30" l2mm
level vial
5 Level Vial
Sensitivity of
4'l2mm l0'12 mm
circular level vial
Magnification 2x 2.2 x
Field of view 50
6 Optical plummet Image Erect Erect
At 1.5 m instrument height: 1
Accuracy
0.8 mm
 LCD: 11 trttr-. ,'l Dot matrix LCD
peated t[,ltllptl,t1', \r | !t,rtr, lo:rrlttl'llc
L Display
an I". Keyboard atttl r,tt tl, lt,rl'1, I , \ lro;lltJ irt l6 characters x4 lines
on of lrnlll l g, '
8. Weight
Without tribrach u'r l l, Main unit: 6
Without battery il rll, llatterv: 0.4 k
9. Battery Ni-cd, 12V11.2Ah Ni cd,7.2v

lllltttl,' I ,1 11, 1, 1 | r l lr(|,rrrlr; Witlf fgatUfe

to a single prism assuming good visibility. ,,,,1, ,1, .tl l rr.ttltl'|,
ler
/
=
;rr I 5 mm.
lrllltmtr+r'.rrppl1
'r*l
ril
D ll,,lr rrr., rl'1, nr' l, | ,;rrlnrrurr lrltllct'ics arc

:l
ill
I corrected for atmospheric effects such
pressure and temperature.
as 11 ,,1 l,'t lrr\\r | ,rrppli, Ilrt. ttsltgc lirnc is

'lltll
D 'rlltr lrrl,ll .l,rltrrlr,, lr:rr t' lrn ttttlt) power save
(c) Control Panel: lltltlt, rr ltt, lt ,tt tlt ltr'rt llrC ittstfUment Off Of

l;l
m
=l
control panel. It consists of keyboard arrtl
multiple line liquid crystal display (LCI))
The LCD is moisture-proof, can lrt.
ltlrr ,rrtrrr ,l.lt'llrV rrrorlt. lrlict'it has not been
rt',, rl l,rt ,t ,lr, rlr,-,1 lrtttt.

lr'f \r r lt\or k's:

l
---1 illuminated and some LCDs incorpor.irtc (l) | r rrr lt ll;ihl ot. |,rrrtri-guide:
contrast controls to accommodate diffbrcrrt ) lr r', ,r r r,,rlrlr. lrlilrt which enables a pole-
_ll )
viewing angles.
Some of the total stations have two conlrol
rrrrrurrlr
,rl
,l pr rrrrr lo bc set directly on the line
.,11'lrt llrt' tlcvice flashes three colour

lltl
-1 |
)
panels, one of each face the eleclrorrrr
theodolite, to make them easier to use.
The keyboard enables the user to selcct irrrrl
implement different measurement n)orlt.r;,
lrl,lrl',
> ll tlrr lrrr;rrr is to the left of the line of sight,
,r l'r('('n lrlilrt llashes, if the prism is to the
rr1'lrt, ,r rt'tl light is seen: and if the prism is
ll enables instrument parameters to be cllrrrli.,rl ,,rr lurr., ;r wlrite light flashes, the frequency
/i' and allows special software functions kr lr,. ol rvlrt'lt tloubles when it strikes the prism,
used. Some keyboards incorporatc rrrrrltr r orrlr rrrirrg that the prism is in the correct
function keys to carry out specific: lir:rl,r;,
1rol;tIton.
whereas others use keys to activirlt.iur(l

/l display menu systems (similar to cornprrtt.r,;

electronically in a digital form as tl:rr;r lt ;r

code is entered from the keyboartl to rlt.lrrrr-
; (ii)
)
( Jr.ol ronics Unicom:
lt is a communication system which allows
spccch to be transmitted from the
instrument to the prism.
the feature being observed, thc d:rtir r';rn l,t. ) 'l'his consists of a small microphone
on the
processed much more rlrrit'lily I'y control panel which is activated by pressing
downloading it into appropriatr: soliurrrrt. ( )rr a key and a receiver with small loudspeaker
numeric keyboards, codes at'o rcl)l('ri(.rrlt.tl lry mounted on the prism pole.

,trn. j lllrrrlrrrr rtr:' know ' Panu I Cherurai ' Vljayamda I Viag i Tirupati I Gmtru i KukatpaXy(Hyd)
 (iii) Refroreflector: (b) Horizontal Circle Orientatiqn:
) ,The horizontal circle of a total station
corner cube prism, urwh,ich is pole- can be set to read a known bearing
mounted, is used as a targi"nt, by entering the coordinates of the
station occupied followed by the
or blocks, and they retum a beam along coordinates of the reference station.
a path exactly parallel,tOilhe incident
path over a range of angles of incidence The orientation program is activated
of about 20" to the normal of the front calculate the bearing from the
face of the prism. occupied station to the reference
station and to set the horizontal circle
and is quickly set when making to display this bearing.
observations.
for further coordinate measurements
a prism constant. This is the distance or for setting out.
between the effective centre of the
prism and the plumbing and pivot point (c) Co-ordlnate Measurements:
of the prism. For determining the co-ordinates of new
points, first horizontal circle of a total
normally well behind the physical station is oriented. The new point is
center or vertex. sighted and the distance and circle
reading axe taken. The instrument
or- 40 mm. displays co-ordinates of the new point, if
the co,ordinate measurement programme
3. Onboard Software: is actiyated.
In addition to controlling the angle and
distance functions of a total station, the (d) Traverse Measurements: Traversing
microprocessor is also programmed to consists of measurements, of a series of
perform calculations of slope corrections, distances and angles, between successive
coordinates, etc. and are described below. points that'enable the calculation of the
coordinates of those points.
(a) Reduced Levels:
(e) Resection: This is also known as free
angle, a total station calculates and stationing. Many-a-times some additi-
displays the horizontal and vertical onal control points called minor control
distances. points are fxed in surveying.

of the instrument
station, the height be entered in the total station.
and the height of the prism are
entered, the reduced level of the distances and circle readings are
prism station can be calbulated and measured.
displayed.
coordinates of these stations.
 (f) Remote Elevation Measurement (REM): Whcn tlro coortlirrutos of the point to be
ation sct out nrc klrowlt, thcso coordinates are
aring heights of in aecessible points where it is cnlcrcd iltlo llrc tottl station after
: the not possible to locate the prism. oriotrlnlion.
the 'l'ltc rollirrg orrl rnotlc is sr:lcotcd and the
)n. extended plumb line through the prism, tlillbrcrroe helwccrr llrc culculated and
rted. and to achieve this, the prism is positioned tttctrnurotl,bcnlirrgs is rlispltyccl.
ated vertically above/below the point under 'l'lrc lolotcopc is rolalctl until the
the consideration. dillbrcrrr:s iH zrrtlr, srrclr llrlt it points in the
)nce rorlttit'trrl rli t'crrl iorr.
rcle instrument and the horizontal distance to Allcr' llrc rrlignnrcnl, tlrc prism-mounted
the prism is determined. polo in rrxetl rurtl nurvcd in a way similar to
ady lltc lltcvious clsc lirr horizontal distance
:nts display the height from the ground at the Iu tol tttrl llrc poinl.
prism to any point along the vertical 4. lCloclrorrle l)utt llecording:
through the prism.

(g) Setting Out Functions: drttto tnurrrrrrlly. Later, with the advent of
ew
cutttpulcrs. lhc practice was to key in the
tal
out if the horizontal angles and distances tlttln rccorclcd ilr the field books into the
is
or the coordinates are known. corrrpulcr lirr plotting details.
;le
'l'lto ttccd tilr u better method of getting
rnt
ittlirtrnution fiom field to computer was
if reference station.
nho ucocntuatod with the introduction of
1e
and distances are known, these are entercd tolttl stntion.
into the total station. Ar u rosult, the conventional method of
g
recordirtg surveyings was overtaken by
pressing the appropriate key. dcvckrpmcnts in computer mapping and
rf
$urvL'y instrumentation which made
e
measured horizontal angle values (dFlA) ofcctronic data recording and transfer
e
is displayed. cssontial. It consists of

(u) Data Loggers:

of zero is displayed. Following this. u
pole-mounted prism is located on thc linc
data loggers. But major advances were
of sight as near to the required distancg rs made when it became possible to connect
possible.
small portable computers to total stations.

and the distance to it is measured by tlrc programmed to ask the surveyor for
total station. information, to record data from an
instrument in a suitable format and, if
entered distances is displayed. By moving necessary, to perform calculations using
the prism, this difference is reducod to data transmitted to them.
zero to locate the point.

Hydembad I Delhi I Bhopl l\rrc | llhuburtrw I llcnpluru | hcknow Patn Chemi

I I I lviiayawada I Vrzag I Tirupali I Gunnr I Kukatrally(Hyd)
 Academv
ed to a Particular
sta1,'9',,.Td Process
) The data logger and portable computers
ons.
rred to as electronic
e techn6logy enabling
amounts of data in a
f a pocket calculator.
stance readings are
total station to data
are stored together with
erated bY the recorder
s which are entered
(e) Internal Mcmorics:
normallY stored as
es, called raw data, but
convert these to three-
inates Prior to transfbr
r.
rs have some rcsident
lect and Prooess data'
or during the surveY,
s^--f^*o'l ftnm q deta
Geomatics il
data is magnetically included by a total 5.
station.
may be thought to be of disadvantage
as
which
these are extra pieces of instrument
alternatives like
may fail by some way' So
n't.ioury oards have been developed'
using a ntln-contact magnetic coupling
systtirn which eliminates the need to
aitaoh sockots or Pins to the card'
of about 5(X) to 4000 suitably coded
points.
A total statiott can bc fitted with an internal
mcmory caPablo o1' storing from 900 to
10,(XX) poittts.
> Thi; cnablcs data to be collected without
tho necd fbr a memory card or data
recorder.
edited in the field using the instrument's
disPlaY.

d comPuters adaPted to
on. ComParing with a
offer a more flexible
llection since theY can
r many forms of data

afirt'
caPacitY maY be uP to 4 MB of
, ir*,g.
pM.

(d) R,',*1',T.T[3:li;d memory cards which

t form of plug-in cards onto which
#n;,n.

I
t
ng
-
tal
5. Summary of Total Statlon 7. l"lold Proceduret lbr Total
Characteristics: Stations
rs ln'l'opogrrphlc Surveys:
ls
;h
(i) Angle units degree or gon
pt,olltrtirlrry sut.voy, r.:ontrul survcy, or
:e
(ii) Distance units ft orm Inyorrl flut.vcy.
(iii) Pressure units in. Hg or mm of Hg
J (iv) Temperature units oF
or oC nl'veyn in'which thc surveyor can find the
I
(v) Prism constant x, y:r, (custing, northing, elevation)
) -30 or -40 mm pullliorrs ol' a large number
(vi) Offset distance of points
(vii) Face I or Face 2 selection
(nlrout Z-l times of those using
trultvcnl iotrrr I tcchniques) per day.
(viii)Height of instrument (HI)
(ix) Height of reflector (HR) (r) Inltltl Dttr lrlntrv:
'l'lrc Inltirrl tlrtu orrtiy could
(x) Automatic point number incrementation. be all or some of
tho lirllowirrg:
(xi) Point numbers and code numbers for
occupied and sighted stations
(l) Pr.trjcct tloscription

(xii) Date and time setting (ll) Dltn nnd crew

(lll) Tomporature

6. Capabilities of a Total Station: (lv) Prouurc

(i) Monitors: battery status,

(v) Prlrm constant
signal (Vl) Cuvature and refraction setting
attenuation, horizontal and vertical axor
status, collimation factors. (vll) $cn-lovel correction
(ii) Computes coordinates (vlll) Number of measurement repetitions
(iiD Traverse closure and adjustment (lx1 Choice of Face I and Face 2 positions
(iv) Topography reductions (x) Automatic point number incrementation
(v) Remote object elevation (xl1 (lhoice of units
(vi) Distance between remote points
(vii) Inversing (b) Survcy station Descriptors:
(viii) Resection must be
described with respect to surveying
(ix) Horizontal and vertical collimatiorr activity, station identification. and other
corrections
athibute data.
(x) Setting out
(xi) Vertical circle indexing data entry and then automatically issign
(xii) Records, search and review appropriate labels.
(xiii) On-board software
alpha (for example, back sight as BS) or
(xiv)Transfer of data to the-computcr
numeric (for example, back sight as 20)
(xD Transfer of computer files to thc data codes.

Hyderabqd lDcthi
lBhopel lhne lBhubonc
 (c) Survey Station Entries: will prompt for the station point
board
(D Code: say 20 (BS), 30 (IS), 40 (FS) number (e.9., I20), and the station
(ii) Height of insrrument identification code.
(iii) Station number (say) ilO (viii) For next sights, repeat steps 4-7 using
(iv) appropriate data.
Station identification code
(v) Coordinates of occupied station
Classroom Practice euestions
(vi) Coordinates of backsight station

, (d) Sighted point Entries: 01. The resolution of coarse mode for distance
' (i) Operation code measurement by total station is
(iD Height of prism
(A) 8-as (B) a-8s
(C) 1-2s (D) 1-ss
(iii) Station number 120 (BS) ,,:

(iv) Station identificationtcode , .1,1:, ;:, 02. Control Panel of total station will be
(e) Procedure: consistingof
(FS) (A) EDM (B) Keyboard
(C) LCD (D) Kcyboard and LCD
120 (BS)

(IS)
(IS) 03. Which of the following are used as
rechargeable batteries in total station
(A) Nickel Cadmium (B) Nippo
(rs) I I l0 (Instrument station) (C) Every day (D) FOSKO

Surveying with total station

04. What is the use of Geotronics unicom is
(D Enter the initial data and occupied used in total station
station data. (A) Power supply
(ii) Sight at station 120; press the zero set (B) Reflection
button to
set the horizontal circle at (C) Communication between Instrument
zero and prism
(iii) Enter code 20 (BS) (D) For power converter
(iv) Measure and enter the height of the
prism. 0s. Remote elevation measurement (REM)
function is used
(v) Press the appropriate measure button
e.g., slope distance, etc.
(A) To determine the heiehts of
inaccessible points where it is not
(vi) Press the record button after each possible to located tlre prism
measurement. In the automatic mode, (B) To determine the RL of a accessible
all the three x, y, and z measurements point
are made after pressing just one button. (C) To measure the gradient of an
(vii) After the station measurements have accessible point
been recorded, the data recorder on (D) To calculate the Horizontal distance of
inaccessible point
HyderabadlDelhilBhopal pune Bengahmlllcknowtp"r.lCl".rri
l lBhubaneswarl
 lr--t, ACE
.f,]Endn€erinsAcademy
r----L: :107 :
Total Station
Wldch of the following device is used lirr. 0() Wlnt rs tlrt. lilrrction of Electronic Note
tlrrnsferring data from total station to llrc lkrol' rrr loltrl sllrlion
portable computer (A ) lo:rtorc tlrc cletails of points
(A) Data cable (B) Data Loggers (ll) lo rt.trit'vc tlre details of points
((')Data Reflectors (D) Data Recorders (( ) |o :rtort., r-ctrieve and to calculate linear
||tr';tiitn ctIt0ntS
Iotal station is capable to store the clirtrr (l )) lo rlt'lclc the files from total station
pcrtaining to maximum points is
(A) 10O0 (B) 100 l0 r'1, sllrlion Descriptors
(C) 10000 (D) 100000
,'ittr r in the total
',lrtlron lrrc trscd for
(,,\ ) | )r.:t.ribing the point about any datum
rli Which of the following is the disadvantagc (llt lrlt.ntilying the station
ol'total station (( I I rrr rrilr.ibuting data
(A) Resection (B) Inversing (lt1 ,1ll ol tlrr: above
(( l) REM (D) Elevation of a point

for CRPQ

lll.1t ) 02.(t)) 03. (A) 04. (c) 0s. (A)

ll(r. ( | ,) tf7. ((') 08. (D) 0e. (c) 10. (D)

Hydembad|Dc|lrijl|h4rr|i|,rrrrr.j|llrrrln|||csw;ltlIl(:t|[r||||.,1tnuu.,.,*
 Photogrqmmetry

1. Introduction:
bc orionted at any angle to the base,
photogrammetry is the science and art of but usually from an acute angle
obtaining accurate measurements by use with llrc latter.
ofphotographs, for various purposes such
as the construction of planimetric and idcntil'icatiorrs of image points in a
topographic maps, classification of pair oI' pllrtogr:rphs.
soils, interpretation of geology,
acquisition of military intelligence and sand or gnrss. itlcntification becomes
the preparation of composite pictures of impossiblo.
the ground.
rn nrctry, however,
stcrctlpl rottlgra
the air or from station on the ground. prorlucctl tlrc rcmcdy.

of photogrammetry whcrc in (h) In tcrrostrial stereophotogrammetry, due

photographs are taken liom a fixed to considcrablc improvement of accuracy
position on or near the ground. obtained by the stereoscopic measurement
of pairs of photographs, the camera base
photogrammetry where in the photographs and the angles of intersection of the datum
are taken by a camera mounted in an rays to the points to be measured can be
aircraft flying over the area. considerably reduced since the camera
axes at the two stations exhibit great
best mapping procedure yet developed similarity to each other.
for large projects, and are
invaluable for
military intelligence. displaced relative to teach other in the two
photographs are fused to a single spatial
methods are thecivilian and military image by the stereoscopic measurement.
mapping agencies of the Govemment.
3. Definitions:
2. Terrestrial Photo grammetry:
The tenestrial photogra,nmetry can be (a) Camera Axis: Camera axis is the line
divided into two branches r.e., Plane - table
and
stereophotogrammetry.
The optical axis coincides
(a) The plane table photograrrrnetry consists with the camera axis in a camera free
essentially in taking a phi-, -rgraph of the from manufacturing imperfections.
area to be mapped from er..h of the two
or three stations.

HydmbadlDelhilBhopallPrmelBhubaneswlBangalmllmknowlPatralChennailvijayanadalvizc lTtrupati lGunn:tl KukaOatVGIyd)

 (b) Picture Plane: Picture plane is the plano
perpendicular to the camera axis at thc
focal distance in front of the lens. It is
represented by the positive contact prinl
v or photograph taken from a plate or film.
.,
(c) Principal Point: Principal point (k or k')
is defined by the intersection of the
camera axis with either the picture plano
(positive) or the camera plate (negative).
(d) Focal Length: Focal length (f) is thc
perpendicular distance from the centre ol,
the camera lens to either the picture plane
or the camera plate. It satisfies thc
following relation
f-
u+v
Where u and v are conjugate object and
image distances.
(e)Focal Plane (Image Plane): Focal
plane is the plane (perpendicular to thc
axis of the lens) in which images of points
in the object space of the lens are focused,
(0 Nodal Point: Nodal point is eight of two
points on the optical axis of a lens (or tr
system of lenses) so located that when ull
object distances are measured from rxrc
point and all image distances nrc
measured from the other, they satisty llrc
simple lens relation
111
uvf -_
-r-
Also a ray emergent from the second poirrl
is parallel to the ray incident at thc l'irst.
(g) Porspcctivc (lentrc: Perspective centre is
llro poilrl ol'oligirr or lorrnination of bundles
ol' prrl'sprrt:livc rlys, 'l'lro two such points
rrsrrrrll.y rrssot:iirlcrrl wilh l survcy photograph
rrrc llrtr irrlcrior' llcl'spcclivc ccntrc and the
exlt t'tot' pe lsperclive ccrrlr.o. ln a
tlirrlotlirrrrle ss lr:rrs c:illot.il systcnr, one
p('rNlxtrltvc ccrrlrc ctrclosos thc sarne angles
rrl llrr.ollrcrr', untl irr a porl,:ctly adjusted lens
clu nr.t rr syslcrrr. thc interior and exterior
t'crrll'c. colrcspurrtl to thc rear and front nodal
prrrrrls, r'cs;rrrcl i vcly.
(lr) l'r'llrrlpll l)islance: When the contact
prirrls lirrrrr ol'iginal negatives are enlarged
(ol'r'erlrrt:rrtl) bclirre their use
in
the
corrrgrilrrliorr ol' subscquent maps, the value
ol' llre lircrrl lcrrgth (f) of the camera is not
npplicrrblc lo lhc revised prints. The
cltttttgetl vlrlrro ol' f, holding the same
georrrclritrul rclations, is known as the
prirrciprrl tlistlncc. In other words, it is the
pcr'perrtlicular distance from the internal
pelrrpcclivc ccntre to the plane of a
pullicullr finished negative or print.
(l) Prlnclpal Plane: Principal plane is plane
whioh contains principal line and the optical
rrxis. lt is, therefore, perpendicular to the
llicluro plane and the camera plate.
E.rample : I
'l'lrrcc points A, B and C were photographed and
lltcir co-ordinates with respect to the lines joining
tlro oollimation marks on the photograph are.
Point X v
a -35.52 mm +2L43 mm
b + 8.48 mm - 16.38 mm
c + 48.26 mm + 36.72 mm
The focal length of the lens is 120.80 mm
Determine the azimuths of the lines OB and
 of O+ is 354'30'. The axis of the the same elevations, such as shown in
OC. if that
"---^"
'n at the time of the exposure
-^:l^1 w&r level figure.
camera
at the statioll
u'
Sol:

tano,. = tr= -35.52 J' Cf,a: 16o 23'

f 120.80

L - . =1
tanab
ry= 11'11 ... crb: + 4o o,
120.90

49.26
Idtr0"" =
"
D9=------:-
/, .'. Cf,c: +21o 47'
120.80

axis :0:0. - cru

Azimuth of camera

)54o 34', - (-16o 23',):10o 53',

+ cru +10o 53'+ 4o

r_,o ___,_ mapdistance
Let S=SCale=-
Azimuth o{B:0 grounddistance
: l4o 53' kaOkf
From (A) S =
Azimuth sfC= $+
cr" rl0o 53' + 2Io 47' KA OK H_h
=32o 40' Where,
H : height of the exposure station (or the air
plane) above the mean sea level
4. Aerial photogrammetry: f.- height of the camera (focal length of
camera)
h: height of the ground above mean sea
level
Let us now take the case when the points are
not having the same elevation, as represented
in figure.

Let A and B be two point having elevations h.

and hu respectively above mean sea level.
They are represented by a and b respectively
on the map. K is the principal point of the
vertical photograph at height H above mean
sea level.

The scale of the photograph at the elevation hn

is evidently equal to the ru6o A.

AKU
 From similar triangles, (r,l At,trt [gt, iitlk, (Su,,): 'l'he average scale of a
aKOkf r,prtlr rrl lrlrrrlrrprrrgrlt is that which would be
AK, OK" H_h" r'llrr llt ri l\'r't llrr r,lrlrrc photograph if all the
Hence the scale of the photograph at the ptlttttrl lrrtll" \\,(.t(' prujccted vertically
1 rlrWilrilrrrl rrt illr\\,rilrl oil it ltlane repreSenting
elevation hu is equal to
-H-h-. llrr- rrr+.trtprr. r'lr \rtltiltt 0l lltc terrain befOre
;rltllrrplrtpll rl
bk
,l
'r'rt
From similar triangl
tt' = rr rr,,,
BKo H-h, \f'lt,.t, 1t.,. rt\ r.titl,r' r'lt't,;rltotr ol lltc lcrrain.
Hence the scale of the photograph at thr: lrl) |u l,ltrrl lhr, licrrk.ol'rr l'ltologl.:r;lh:
height h5 is equal to_
f ll lltr lllrtl'r', lo 1'roulttl porrrls ol' cqual
H-ho r,lt,r rtllllt rlrrl hlrorvrr lror.izttnlal clistance
Aplterl rrtr llrr. lrlrolollrlrplr, llrc scalc of the
Str =
H-h ltlrllrrprrtlrlr r rnr lrt' tlt.lt.r'nrirrccl by comparing
Where Sn: scile at the elevation h. llr+t glulrr(l lr.rrlillr irrrtl thc corresponding
letrpllr ntr llrr. lrlrololinrplr, 'fhus, if ./' is the
The scale of the photograph can also rllrlrtttr r, rrrr llrr' plrologr.irph, between the two
be
designated by the representative fraction (R1,), plltrlr A nrrrl ll lrrvirrg [he same elevation h
i.e. rulrl lltr, lrrrrrzorrltrl rlisllnce (ground) between
llrr,rrr lrr lrt' | . llre serrlc a[ the height h is given
Rt= lrv
(
|i
L
I ltr, rlrrlrrnt'c l, rncasured on the ground either
-
Where (H h) and 'f are expressed in llrc rlltt'r'lly ut' b_ylho triangulation, or it can be
same unit (i.e metres)
Inhr'rr lrorrr lhc cxisting maps, if available. To
lrrrrl llrr. irvcrilgo or fairly representative scale
(b)Datum Scales (Sj: The datum scalc ol'rr ul plrologrirph several known lines on the
photograph is that scale which woukl lx,
plrololinrph should be measured and
effective over the entire photograph il'tll llrr. ('rrnrf)iflc(l and the averuge scale should be
ground points were projected vcr.lit,rrlly rrthrplctl. In case a reliable map of the area is
downward on the mean sea level befirrc hcrrrp
irvrrilirblc, the photographic scale can be found
photographed.
lr.y c:ornparing the photo distance and the map

.'. Dafum scale = S,= jk ko

- l' tlisllrrce between two well - defined points at
"KAOKII
= lhc same elevation.
Where K and ,4.6 are the projectiolrs ol'k rurrl
A on the datum plane Photo scale Photo distance
Mapscale Map distance

,',,,r';r** Kukatpally(IIyd)
 If the focal length of the lens(f) and the When,
flying height (H) above M.S.L. is known, the h: 80 m, we have;
scale can be found from the relation.
^ 15x10-2
D'=@oo-8b)=
I
Sn=
H-h 7467

Similarly, at h = 300 m,
Hence, we have x. = .*,
\!o
6000
Y"f=H-hu.u^

H-ho.**... Example:3
x",f=
A camera having focal length of 20 cm is used to
H-h^ take a vertical photograph to a terrain having an
Yo: 'Yu average elevation of 1500 metres. What is the
,. height above sea lcvcl at which an air-craft must
fly in order to gct tho scale of l: tt000?
In general, the co-ordinates X and Y of any
point at an elevation are. Sol: The scale expressed as R.F. is given by
x=H-h*, v=!-hn. f
ff S=
H-h
The iength L between the two points A and B
Substituting the values,
is then given by

r = J(x" -Xo)'*(v" -\)'

^ -,( v"" -v"" )
0=tan-'l I

[X" -Xo /
20x-8-ooo
or H-1500- =1600
100
Example:2
-
A vertical photograph was taken at an altitude of
H: 1600+1500:3100 m above MSL
1200 metres above mean sea level. Determine
the scale of the photograph for terrain lying at
elevation of 80 metres and 300 metres if the focal
3. Retief Displacement on a vertical
length of the camera is 15 cm. photograph:

Sol: The scale at any height h is given by ground is horizontal, and if other sources
^f = of errors are neglected, the scale of the
tn
H-h photograph will be uniform. Such a
photograph represents a true orthographic
 projection and hence the true map of thc
terrain. ,': t . 1i..,,'' whict,i,-"= T: """
.......(2)
In actual practice, however, ll ll ll
such
conditions are never fulfilled. When thc
ground is not horizontal, the scale of the lletrca llre rclicl'tlisplucornont (D) is given by
photograph varies from point to point and ,
0l'l'
lll' Rl'
is not constant. " ll-h Il
Since the photograph is the perspective
view, the ground relief is shown in (r. l{ llr
.......(3)
perspective on the photograph. ll(lt tr)
Every point on the photograph
is
therefore, displaced from their
truo ltrt l( t(ll lr) l,H
orthographic position. This displacement t'f
is called relief displacement.
lilutu ( l) nrrtl (2)
To calculate the amount of relief
displacement, consider figure which lluhtlitrrlirrg tlrc vulucs of R in (3), we get
shows a vertical section through tho
photograph. d, r(ll. 't,,H(H-h) ...@a)
f =T ==+
.
H""\
o

Aho d.4.*,-. .. =+-

f H(H-h) H_h ""\(4b)
....

wc conclude the following from the above:

(l) Tho rclief displacement increases as the
dintance from the principle point
incrcases.
(li) 'l'ho relief displacement decreases with
lho increase in the flying height
(iiil Iior point above datum, the relief
displacement is positive being radially
Fig. Calculation of Relief Dlsphcemonl
outward.
Let r: radial distance a from k ( iv) For point below datum (h having
ro: radial distance of ao from k negative value), relief displacement is
negative, being radially inward.
R: IQA. (v) The relief displacement of the point
Then, from similar triangles, vertically below the exposure station is
zero. In the above expressions, H and h
frr Rf must be measured above the same
H_h=*,fiomwhichr= H-h (l)
datum.
Also
 ACE
nodocerlngecaaemy : 114: Geomatics Eneineering

6. Height of Object from Relief

Displacement: bottomof tower exposed to MSL
If the scale of the photograph is known (or from principal point.
computed by the method discussed earlier), .'. Relief displacement: d
equation (4a) can be used to determine the -fo-f1Off2-fs
height of any object, such as a tower AzAo
shown in figure. )- f,h, a- trhz
,. rr=- ur rf,=
Let 'hz' be the height of the tower above its H-h, H-h,
base, and 'H' be the height (unknown) of the
.,, Height-of tower above ground level
exposure station above MSL passing through
the base of the tower. o(H-tr')
Let 'a2' and 'ao' be the top and bottom can be calculated from h^ -
t2
positions of the tower on the photograph
above datum. Let 'a1' be the bottom of the
tower exposed to M.S.L. :, Exaryile:4
A towor AB 80 m high appears in a vertical
If the scale 'S' of the photograph is known, photograph. The flying height of the aircraft
the height 'H' can be calculated from the
abovo MSL is 3000 m. The distance of the
relation
image of the top of the tower from the
s:! principal point is 7.25 cm. If the elevation
oH of the bottom of the tower is 1150 m, the
displacement of the top of the tower with
,respect to the impellor its bottom is
(A) 1.1 mm (B) 2.1 mm
(Q 4.1 mm (D) 3.1 mm

Sol: Ans: @)
rh
d=
I
1{ - huue

T 7.25x80
h, d- x 10-2 : 0.313 x10-2 m
3000 - I 150
I :3.1 mm

7. Selection of Flying Altitude:

Fig: Height of a Tower from Relief displacement
depends upon the accuracy ofthe process
Kar : 11iKa2 -- 12 ; Ka": ro to be used and the contour interval
desired.
the top and bottom of tower on the
photograph from principal point the selection of flying height, such as
respectively. desired scale, relief displacement, and tilt,
have alreadv been discussed.
I
HydenbadlDelhilBhopallhmelBhubmeswlBengalmlLucknowlPatnlChemilviiayamdalvizag lTirupati lcrmurl
h
lng
,'lft ,tcE
'iff,;t4nceoogecaaemy
altr.lrr-J---Y- ^
: --9 : ll5 :

the Since vertical accuracy in a topographic P* = side lap or Lap perpcndicular to End
rsL map is the limiting factor in - the lup
photogrammetric process, the flying
height is often related to the ,ooto*
interval of the finished map. Note: Generall-v lortlliltttlitrttl ot,crlap or
The process is rated by its C-factor which endlap (lr) i:t ttlntttt 60,,, ttni side
is the number by which the contour overlat (P,,)i:t rtluntl .J()uo.
interval is multiplied to
obtain the
maximum height about the ground.
.'. Flying height = (Contour interval)x(C
factor) Case (i) : Wlthouf ovr,rlnp
a'ry(w
(i) a=l.W='x' ,

N Ii H'

Totnl No, ol' plrotogrrrptrs

NA
{l

8. Number of photographs Necessary to

Cover a Given Ground Area:
In the preliminary estimate, the number of
photographs required is calculated by
dividing
the total area to be photographed by the net L: (l-P, ! ...... rrl
area covered by a single photograph. s
Let A: total area to be photographed Similarly, the actual ground width (W)
/ : length of the photograph in the covered by each photograph is given by
direction of flight
w: width of the photograph normal to the w:(1
direction of flight
-P*)I S
(ii)
s = scale ofphotograph Hence the ground area 'a' covered by each
f(cm) photograph
=;* .
(converted into RF)
H(m)
a: L.W = (t_yS ! (1-r*; I
L: net ground distance corresponding to / S S

W: net ground distance to corresponding

_ L.w
tow (1-rr) (1-P*)
,z
a: net ground area covered by each
photograph: LxW The number of the photographs (N) required
is given by
P7: Percentage overlap between successive
photographs in the direction of flieht
N: A/a
If however, instead of the total area.A,, the
longitudinal lap or End lap
rectangular dimensions (i.e. length (L1) and
width (Wr)) of the ground ur. giu.o, tt,
Hyderabad lDelhi jBhopal lhme lBhubane
 ACE
nnginc€ringecaaemy : 116:

number of the photographs

required are Example:-5
computed by calculating the number of strips
and the number of photographs required in It is required to do photogrammetric survey
each strip and multiplying the two. over an area of 500 sq. km, scale of
photograph I in 10, 000 and photograph
Let
: dimension of the areaparallel format is 230 x 230 mm. Taking longitudinal
Lr to the
overlap 60%o and side overlap 30%. Number
direction of flight ofphotographs required are _
Wr : dimension of the area nofinal to the (A) 238 (B) 138
direction of flight
: rlufiIber of photographs in each strip (c) 438 (D) 338
Nr
Nz : riuffiber of strips required Sol: Ans: @)
N : total number of photographs to cover the S_
I
whole area. 10,000
Now net length covered by each photograph
:L:(1 _p,);
.'. Number of photographs in each strip is
given by : 1481200 m2 = 1.48l2knf
N,' =11a1:--Lr-..,.1
L N
A 500
=:a =1.4812 ;> 338 No's
o-Yuy!
s

Similarly, net width covered by each 9. Interval Between Exposures:

photograph:'W': (l - f*; I The time interval between the exposures can
s be calculated if
the ground speed of the
Hence the number of the strips required are airplane and the ground distance (along the
given by direction of flight between exposures are

N"=W+1= W known.
" w (1-r*;ll
+1 Let

s
V: ground speed of the airplane (km/trour)
L : ground distance covered by each
Thus, the number of photographs required is photograph in the direction of flight

: (l_PD ;I
J
T : time interval between the exposures
3600L
Then,T =
Note: Make the value o,f N1 or Nz to a
integer without decirnal point

Hydenbad I Delhi I Bhopal I Prme I Bhubaneswar I Bengalun I hcknow I Patra I Chemi I Viiayawada I Vizag I Tirupati I Gunnu I Kukaeany(IlyQ
 Classroom Practice euestions the chirnncy wits 250 rn, thc height of the
chirnrrcy rrhovo tho haso in .m' is

An image of the top of the hill is g6 mm

(A) 112.4 (B) t35.18
01.
((') 10.24
1 (D) t37.18
!9m lhe principal point of the photograph. 06. A vcltictl
The elevation of the top of the hill is OOO- photograph was taken at afl
and the flying height is 4500m above the nltltudu ot' 2.500 2m above MSL. If the
datum. The relief displacement will be lircrrl lcngtlt ol'thc camerais 25cm. the scale
(A) 14.467mm (B) 13.467mm ol' plrologruph fbr a terrain lying at an
(C) I2.a67mm (D) I t.467mm cle vrrlion ol'1000m is
(A) | irr 500p (B) 1 in 60'-F-
02. A vertical photograph is taken over a flat ((') I irr 60P
terrain from an altitude of lg00 m above (D) 1 in s@

$atum
(MSL). If the elevation of the ground 07. l low nlnny numbers of photographs are
is 300 m and focal length of camerals 152 rotluir,cd tu cuvcr an area of 25 km x 20 km.
mm. The scale of photograph is l
ll'llrc sr,:ulc is in 10,000 and the format is
(A) 1 in 8888 (B) 1 in 9878 2.10 x 210 mm. Take longitudinal overlap
(C) I in 9868 (D) I in 9888 60'Zr und sidc overlap 30%

03. A map of area plotted at the scale of 1 in 08, A. vcrtiual photograph of a chimney was
20,000 is available. If the length of .l tnkon liorn an elevation of 1500m above
runway on the map is 120 mm, and tbf MSL the elevation of the base of the
photo distance of the nrnway is 1gg mnl, chirnncy was 250m. If the relief
The scale of the photograph is displacement of the top of chimney was
(A) 1 in 12766 (B) I in 12666 151.4 mm and the radial distance of the
(C) 1 in 12s66 (D) I in 12466 image of the top of the chimney was
l90mm, the height of the chimnev is
04. If an overlapping pair of vcrtlort (A) t233.64m (B) ttiz.zm
4 photographs taken with a 120 mm foorl
length c
the elev
rnd
lt ix
09,
(C) 996.Osm (D) 158.41m
A line AB measures l1 cm on a photograph
1000 m d the parailux ol'tho
taken with a camera having focat tenglh of
point is 80mm, then the flying holght (rrr) , 21.5 cm. The same line measure 3 cm on a
above MSL of the stereopair will bo -
(A) 4000 (B) 8000
map drawn to a scale of 1

45,000
(c) 6000 (D) 7000 average altitude is 350 m, the flying
If lhe
height of aircraft is
05. A vertical photograph of a chimncy wns
taken from an elevation of 500 m ubovc lhc
(A) 2988.637 m (B) 2988.737 m
datum. The relief displacement ol' thc
(C) 3800 m (D) 3506.7 m
chimney was measured as 62.40 mm und
the radial distance of the image of thc top of 10, In an aerial photogrammetric survey, if the
the chimney from the photo ccntrc exposure interval is 25 seconds to cover
was
115.40 mm. If fl1e steverion*of the basc of ground distance of 1500m between

Hydenbad I Delhi I Bhopal I pune Bhubmeswu Bengaluru

I I | Luc
 exposures, what would be the ground speed photograph in the width direction
(kmph) of the aircr.aft?
of the
flight will be
(A) 216 (B) 116 (A) 1.9 km (B) 1.7 km
(c) 56 (D) 106 (C) 1.s km (D) 1.6 km
A line 2350 m lone lvins at 15. The distance from the principal point to
5oo m measure tto."so i- -
an image on a photograph is 7.50 cm and
photograph. The focal length of the camera
the elevation of the object above MSL is
is 20 cm. If the on of a point is
.1200 m, the scale raph is 350 m. If the datum scale is I . focal
I' 8000'
(A) I : 1774 (B) 1 : 1884 length of the camera is 250 mm, the relief
(C) I : 18881 (D) 1: 19991 displacement of the point is
(A) 15.9 mm (B) 16.9 mm
12. What is the actual ground area covered by a (C) 17.9 mm (D) 18.9 mm
20 cmx 20 cm size vertical aerial
photograph, at an average scale of 16. A tall tower was photographed from an
lcm : 200m having 60%o forward overlap above the datum. The
and30%o side overlap? the top and bottom of the
(A) 1.92 km2 (B) 4.48 km2 principal points are
(C) 6.72krrt2 (D) 2.88 km2 .40mm respectively. If the
er is at elevation 250m
13. Two points A
and B having elevations of en the height (m) of the
650 m and 250 m respectively, above tower is
datum, appear on a vertical photograph (A) l0s.4m (B) 115.4m
obtained with a camera of focal length of (C) r2s.4m (D) 120.4m
250 mm and flying altitude of 2700 m
above datum. Their correlated photographic
17. A road section of length 1km scales l0cm
co-ordinates are as follows.
on a vertical photograph. The focal length
of the camera is l50mm. If the terrain is
Photographic Co-ordinate
fairly level, rhen the flying height will be
Point (A) l.5km (B) l.ekm
x(cm) v (cm) (C) 1.7km (D) 1.8km
a + 3.65 + 2.54 18. In a tilted aeial photograph, if the swing is
230o, thenthe rotation angle is equal to
b - 2.25 +5.59
(A) 140. (B) 130.
The length of the ground line AB is (c) 50. (D) 25.

14. If a vertical aerial photograph 25cm x 25cm

in size, on a R.F of 1 : 10,000 has 60%o
longitudinal overlap and 40o/o side overlap,
the actual ground width covered bv eaCh

ayawada I
Viag T]ntpgd.t-giilf. hr l,Kulaeqlty(Ilyd
I
 Optimal flight planning for I
photogrammetric survey should be carried
out considerins

Jl] l"F sioe Lp-a, weil as end lap 0t, (D) 01. (c) 03. (A) 04. (A) 0s. (B)
(B) Only side lap
(C) Either side lap or end up 0,,(F) 07, (406) 0r. (C) oe. (A) 10. (A)
(D) Only end lap I l, ((') ll. (lf ) lt. (620,87 m)
14. (C)
lf. (A) 16. (l)) t7. (A) ts. (c) 19. (A)
rcal

lief

tn
le
re
e
e
1
 Triangulation
1. Introduction:
using refined instruments.
provide a number of stations, whose
relative and absolute positions are
accurately established. More detailed
location or engineering surveys are then
carried out from these stations.
not only coordinates such as latitude and
longitude, but also the elevation with
respect to a standard datum lik€ the mean
sea level.
curvature ofthe earth eannot be ignored as
in plane surveying.
invariably, geodetic, the distinotion boing
one of the extent of the survoy rathor than
of the operations.
survey in view of the extensive use of
plane and spherical higonometry
horizontal control in large survey than the
technique of precise traversing,
Likewise, vertical control is more
accurately obtained by trigonometric
levelling than by precise levelling.
Geodetic work using triangulation is
usually carried out by government
agencies such as the survey of India, the
Ordnance Survey of Great Britain, and the
U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey.
The technique is based on the sine rule,
according to which, if one side and the
three angles of a triangle are known, the
remaining sides can be computed.
) The individual survey unit or geometric
figure may be a triangle (which is the
simplest), a quadrilateral with interlacing
diagonals (without a station at their
intersection), or a polygon with a central
station imagined to be connected to the
vertices. A series of such units is
interconnectcd systematically to cover a
large area.
called triangulation stations.
large area is called the network of
triangulation.
baseline, is directly measured.
ffiangulation network, or it may be
another line imagined to be connected to
f the network by means a
network called the base
net. ,
More, than one base may also be rneasured
' toserve as a check.
control points in geodetic surveys of large
areas, and in aerial surveying.
accurate location of engineering works
such as tunnels, bridges, and complex
highway interchanges, and measuring the
deformations of large structures such as
dams.
out by Snell, a Dutchman, in 1615.
 ffi
2. Triangulation Systems: Ir | \ llrrr,l,'r,1, r ltr,rrrl,ll;rlion is a framework
It,,,,l ir rllrrrr .1rrl ,,rrrrrt.t.lCCl tO 3 secondary
survey, and consequently on the dcglt.t. ol It t,ttrl,rrl,rltrrn ilr l \\ ilt 11

accuracy desired, triangulation sur.v(.y:, D lt .rrrr tlrr l)rrl)()r;(.ol. lurnishing the

nc can be first order (or primary), stt.orrrl lrrtrr, rlr rtr r lrrltol lirr detailed
he order (or secondary), and third orrlcr, (or I trl'iltr I tiltl,,||trl lr,,,tlt||n ljutvcyq.
ng teritiary). > lt r. .,rrnrt lrrr{,, ,:rllt.tl ,minor
:ir (a) First-order triangulation is uscrl tr r It r.rrrl'rrl,rlrlrr
al determine the shape and size of thc crutlr. > ll Ir r rlrr.tltr)nr, .rlr lr,,lt.rl lrr.ltlW
le
or to cover a vast area like a wlrolc t|| |, rrl,llr r,l :,rrlt.r, I,r lo |0 lrrrr
is
country with control points to whit.lr ,r IrI I r rrl,llr,rl lr:tr;t. 0 \ l1y | 1r11,,
a
secondary triangulation system c:ur lrr
{rr) | rr,ur;,1r. r.losrrl(.. ;tvctitll(:
connected.
tr" ilt,trtrrttilil |),t.
(rr ; \r lrr,rl r.lot ol llrsc: I ilr
indicate the accuracy expected liorrr 75,000.
n |\ ) l,r,lr.rlrlt. (.t r1)t. ol- base: I in
a primary triangulation.
f '',0 0( )(l
Length of sides: 30 to 15 krrr or (\ tl I'rolr.rlrlt. (.rr1)r Of Compgted
more.
(ii) rtr,,t;rrrr,. I ilr 5,000 to I in 20,000.
Length of base: 5 to l5 km or nlrrt.
(iii) Triangle closure: averase 1,, l. llrrrir' li1lrrr.r.s irr lr-i:urgulation:
maximum 3" llr, l',r,,r, lrlirrrt,s rrscd intriangulation
(iv) Actual error of base: I in 300,(XX)
,,\',tr'trr', (|t
rrt.lw()r.ks are the triangle, the
f 'r ,rl1 lrr rJu;rrlril:rlt:r.irl, irnd the polygon
with a
(v) Probable effor of base: I rrr r r rrlr,rl ';l,rlron l'lrcy arc shown
in figure.
1,000,000.
(vi) Probable elror of cottrltrrlt'r I

distance: I in 60.000 to I irr .l\(f,

000.

(b) A second-order triangulation consists ol ;l t,.ig: Basic Triangulation figures

I't'rrt;ugol)s can also be used. polygon

rrr'lwor-ks are preferred for primary work
srr(:c they afford a large number of
.'lrccks and routes for computation.
(i) Length of sides: 30 to 65 km.
llowcver, not may condition and checks
(ii) Length of base: 1.5 to 5 km.
rrrc available, so it is not preferred for
(iii) Triangle closure: average3,, max i rrrr r r r S,, r rrccurate work.
(iv) Actual enorof base: I in 150,0(X). l,'or precision work in primary
(v) Probable error of base: 1 in 500.(XXt lriangulation, chains of eeodetic
(vi) Probable error of computed distrrrrt.t. I quadrilaterals or of polygons with- central
in 20,000 to I in 50.000. stations are prefened since they afford a
large number of checks on the
computation.
Hyderabad I Delhi I Bhopal l\rrr. Irr rl r.rrr.sw.rr
I | | I llcrrgahrr rr I Y{aJd
r---_-rvrler44l
4. Reconnaissance and selection of
stations:
When selecting triangulation station the
surveyor should bear in mind the following
considerations.
localities such as cities and factories, in
order to avoid inegular atmospheric
refraction. In fact, the line of sight
should not be allowed to graze the
ground but should Pass above it at a
minimum height of 2 to 3 metres'
(ii) Well-conditioned triangles should be
formed. That is, the angles should be
neither too acute nor too obtuse.
(iii) The lengths of sides should be
appropriate to the order of triangulation'
Small sights lead to inaccurate centering,
while long ones cause inaccurate
bisection of the signal.
(v) Stations should be easily accessible, with
facilities to carry water and food without
difficulty.
(vi) In wooded country, the cost of clearing
and cutting should be a minimum'
Hydenbad I Delhi I Bhopal I Pue I Bhubme
5. Station Marks, Towers and Signals:
(a) Towers:
support the instrument and the observing
palty when the station or signal, or both'
must be elevated.
character of the terrain and the length of
the line of sight.
> The structure actually consists of two
towers, one inside the other' The inner
tower supports the instrument only, while
the outer one is fbr the observing party
"
and the signal.
braced and guyed, but made completely
independent of each other. They are built
of timber, masonry, or steel' Timber
scaffolds are, in general, economical for
small heights, although they have been
used successfully for heights of about
50 m.
sections, can be assembled and dismantled
with ease.
U.S. Coast and Geodetic SurveY, are
popular for heights ranging from 30 to 40
m.- It takes five persons to erect a 50 kN
Bilby tower in just about five hours' A
schematic of such a tower is shown in
figure.
 (a) Wlrcrr tho obscrvation is made on the
brighl portiolr.
Phusc corrce tiorr to an angle
nto
ving 20626sr.,,*, [0')
roth, \2)
--:-sec
Inner tower l)
(without bracings) (h) Whcrr llre olxervnlion is made
on the
the bright lirrc,
hof Outer tower
lrlune cor,r,ccliorr kr nrr u;;glc
(with bracings) ' :ot,2osr,c.,sl
0 ')
fwo \2i $ce
mer Fig: Elevation of Tower l)
rile
f"ty
7. 'l'ho Intcr-vhlblllly of trlungulation
(b) Signals: statlons:
These are used to define thc cxirt:l posiliorr
ol,
ed, triangulation stations durirrg obscr.v:rl llrat lhcy ilrk:r.-visiltlc. 'l,lrirt
lolr liirrr irr.c: is, t'hc lilro of
:ly other stations. siglrt li.orn ()llo slutlolr [o ollrcr. r.clcvant
Lilt stations should cloar all intervcning
)er exactly over thc station marks. obstructions.
br
)n requirements: ascertained during reconnaissance
ut (i) It should be conspicuous, i.e., clearly by dircct
observation with the aid of powerful
visible against any background; binoculars either at ground level or
.... from the
1t
(ii) It
should be possible to centre it tops of hees.
accurately over the station: h:0.06735 D2.
d
(iii)It should be possible to bisect it The dimensionally correct form
accurately during observation from equation is
of this
other stations; and,
(iv)It should be free from phase
h = (l -zul{
' '2R
(explained later).
Where,
One can have non-luminous (opaque)
signal, R -+ mean radius of the earth
luminious (sun) signals, and trrght signats.
p -+ coefficient of atmospheric refraction.
6. Phase Correction: The average value of the coefficient
of
refraction is taken as 0.07 for sights
The phase of a signal is the error of on land
bisection and 0.08 for sights ovoer large bodi-es
gausef when a cylindrical signal is only partly of water.
lit under lateral illu rination.
i'l

portion. In order to obtain the angle

to the
centre of the signal, a phase conection
must then be applied.
1

s Two stations P and Q, 8l km aPart, are

situated on either side of a sea. The
instrument axis at P is 39 m above Mean Sea
Level (MSL), and the elevation of Q is 207 m
above MSL. Calculate the minimum height of
The elevations of two stations A and B are
92.50 m, and 142 m, and the distance between
them is 50 km. The mean elevation of the
intervening ground may be assumed as 75 m'
Determine the minimum height of the signal
the signal at Q. The coefficient of refraction is required at B in order that the line of sight is
0.08 and the mean radius of the earth is 6370 nowhere less than 2 m above the ground.
km ' ,.,

Sol: Sol: The condition are illustrated in below fig.

-r/Q' The distance Dr to thc point of tangency, P,
on the level line of elevation 77 m, is given by
1q
92.50-77
= l5.l5km
0.0675
,
Therefore ttre distanco D2 firom P to B is
The problem is depicted in above fig. We will
use the formula
(50 - 15.15) km = 34.85 km, so the height of
the line of sight hz, above the level line of
elcvation 77 m,is given bY

With hr = 39 m, R: 6370 km and P = 0.08, hz = 0.0675 x (34.85)2 m: 81.98 m

so that the distance PT to the point of
tangency T is
92.50
2x6370x39
rooo[-(z"o.os)]

Therefore the distance TQ is

Dz:81 -24.32 = 56.68 km, Hence the elevation of the line of sight at B is
(77 + 31.98) m = 158.98 m. This is'greater
and the height h2 corresponding to it is given than the elevation of B, so the height of the
bv signal required at B is 158.98 - 142: 16.98
m, say, 17 m.
(z x o.osXso.os)2 tooo
h2= [r - "
2x6370
8. Measuring horizontal angles:
:211.82m The most important step in a triangulation
survey is the measurement of horizontal
Hence, since the elevation of Q is 207 m,the angles in the network.
height ofthe signal required at Q is

211.82 - 207 : 4.82 =5 m

4
l+ | '.--d.
 measured to a high degree of precision
that depends on the order of triangulation.

9. Satellite stations: NA
Objects such as temple gopurams, churclr (nI liitil;xrritlrorr

spires, tall towers and flag poles flrc

usually selected as triangulation stations
for their conspicuousness, and to hclp
form well-shaped triangles in the network.
It is obviously impossible to set up thc
instrument exactly over or under such rr
station in order to measure the anglcs
there. An auxiliary station can AS
bo
established as near the true station nu
lll loxiliort
lhlrrl (d) Fourthposition

possible, and the angles subtended by lrlg: l{cduction to centre

adjacent stations are measured. Such
ln thix trinnglc, wc know the angles ABC and
subsidiary stations are called satellite or
eccentric stations.
A('ll hy rncasurement at B and C.
rorpectivcly, and the side BC(=a) by
The distance between the true station and
cottrpulutiun of the adjacent triangle. The
its satellite station is called the satellitc or
ttllter lwo sides, AB(: c) and AC 1 : b) are
eccentric distance.
ohluirrctl by the sine rule. Thus, triangle ABS
It must be measured accurately by jivor
traversing, trigonometric leveling, or
another small triangulation.
,
lllll|, '=-rr
dsin(o+d)
c
The angles subtended by adjacont
triangulation stations at the satollito wlrilo wc have from triangle ACS,
station are measured with the same caro
and to the same degree of precision rrrr dsinQ
Nlll |2 =
they would have been at the true station.
To get the angles at the true station lrorrr
lror small values of d compared to a,b and c
those measured at the satellite station, orrc
applies a correction, the procedure bcitrg tlrc angles y1 and Tzwill be small, and we can
called reduction to centre.
writtcn as
sin y, _ dsin(O + O)
'--;;- ^^
For each angle at the true station. orrc lt=_
^, ..,_
additional angle at the satellite stntiolr ^;;='-
sml
SeconOS
csml
must be measured, in addition kr thc
eccentric distance. , sin y, dsin d
i.f nO y2 =- .-i =;--:--; SeCOnds.
Satellite stations are generally avoidr:d irr
sln I Dsm I
primary triangulation.
dsin0
y
' - _____.
Dsinl"
seconds

Hvdembad I Delhi I Bhopal i l\nc I Bhubancrwu Bcrualuru | Iacknow I Pann I Chemi I Vijayawada I l5zas Tirupati Guntu KukapalyGrvd)
I I I |
l0.Signal eccentricity:
When a non-vertical or an eccentric signal is
observed, the correction to the observed
angles are obtained in exactly the same way
as for a satellite station. As shown in Fig. Let
P be the plan position of the tip of the signal
at B. Then the required angle CAB equals
CAP-y, where
dsinZBPA , , Selccting t Rtscline Site:
Y
' =- SeCOnOS
Dsinlo
Here D is the distance AB and d is the
distance BP
1 1. Baseline Measurement:
system depends on that attained in the
measurement of the baseline. The length
of a baseline is generally between one-
third and two-thirds of the average length
of the sides of the network.
It also depends on ther grade .of the
-
triangulation the higher the grade, the
longer the baseline needs to be. More than
one base is used in primary and secondary
triangulation as a check.
In the Great Trigonometrical Survey of
India, ten bases were used, nine varying in
length from 10.8 km to 12.6 km, and the
tenth 2.81 km.
The standard length used to be the
intemational metre, three platinum-
iridium bars kept under standard
conditions. However, the metre is now
standardized in terms of the wavelength of
cadmium light.
cstablished in 1925. It is a silica metre
rnaintained at Dehra Dun by the National
I'hysical Laboratory.
ol'a rnctrc are the decimeter for one-tenth,
llro ccntinreter for one-hundredth, and the
rn i | | i rnctcr lilr one-thousandth.
To enlrancc tltc accuracy of the measurement,
the tilllowilrg pttints are important when
selecting a sitc lor a baseline.
(i) Thc sitc slroulcl bc level or of uniform
slopc wilh gcnllo urndulations if any.
(ii) l'hc gtourtd should be free from
obslrttcliotts.
(iii) 'l'lrr: r:xtrcrrritios ol- the base should be
intcr-visiblc at ground level.
(iv) -fhc cost of clearing the ground should
be a minimum.
(v) The ground should be reasonably firm,
with few water pockets to cross, and
these should be nanower than the length
of a measuring unit.
(vi) Well-shaped triangles should be formed
in the base net, which should be
extendable in the case of primary work.
Directions were observed from a satellite
station 80 m from R, with the following
results. P (0"00'00"), Q (72", 54',32u), and R
(298"18'00"). The approximate lengths of PR
and QR are 18 km and 23.76 km,
respectively. Compute the angle subtended at
stations R.
 The given information is incorporated in
above fig. and the required corrections are
44.5 sin 62o35'20"
l8 km
Yl = :1124.45"
7246.4sinl"
R
itttd
61"42',00, 44.5 sin 10"23'I0"
\2" =244.93"
67 56.1 sin l
"
Referring to above fig. the corrections to be 'l'lrr: gcornctry of the figure shows that correct
applied are vuluo ol'tho required angle is given by
80sin61"42'00u
= 807.16 seconds
/ A('D . ZASB + y2:73" 2I'19.38' yi
Yl=
l8000sinl"
| 2.'l'apc Corrections in a Traingulation:
and Allcr completing the filed work connected
8osin(72o54'32" +6lo42'00,,) with the measurement of a baseline, the total
r: _-
^. longth of the base as observed is noted. But
this rnust then be corrected for standard or
: 494.44 seconds ubsolute length, temperature, pull, gradient or
slope, sag and finally, reduced to sea level.
From the geometryof the figure, we have

IPXQ: lR* yr :72"54'32" *y2. individually, preferably in the order

indicated, and their algebraic sum applied
Therefore the required angle is to the total observed length to get the final
/R : 72" 54' 32" -Tr * Tz
: 72"49' 19.28" corrected length.
(a) Correction for standard or absolute
length:

elongation due to continual tension.

A, B and C are the stations in a minor They can also suffer some deformation
triangulation survey. A satellite station S is due to use on rough ground and handling.
set up near C such thatAC and BC fall within A comparison should therefore be made,
hiangle ASB. It is given that AC :7246.4 m, immediately before and after each day's
BC : 6756.1 m, CS : 44.5 m, IASC fieldwork, with a standard or reference
: 62o35'20" and I.ASB : 72'58'30'. tape whose length is known accurately.
Calculate the angle ACB. The two tapes are laid side by side on a
flat surface and compared under standard
Sol: values of temperature and pull.
7246.4m More often than not, the absolute or actual
6756.1
\t length of the tape is more than the
C
d=CS44.5 m nominal or designated length.

10"23'10' correction is positive.

S
Satellite station near C outside the triangle ABC

Hydenbad I Delhi I Bhopal I

hne Bhubanesw
I I
Bengaluru | hcknow I Patn I Chemi I
Viiayarada I
\I%g Tirupati I Gum I KukaOallvGlvrf)
I
 If the taPe is too short, the sign of (c) Correction for Pull:-
When the fieid pull exceeds the standard
correction is negative
This can be Put in the form
pull, the tape expands, necessitating a
CL
potitiut coniotionlo the measured length'
^Conversely
v^=7 when the field pull is less than
the standard pull, we apply a negative
where, correction.
Cu J
correction for standard of the total
length, of the tape being too long or too short'
c +correction to the measuring unit' L
is the observed length of the base, unaxial stress and sffain, the Pull
and / is the nominal or designated correction is given bY
length of the measuring unit'
The sign of C" follows that of'e'

(b) Correction for temPerature:

Where,
Po: Standard Pull
the normal or standard, the tape elongates'
P: Field pull
Since the distance end-to-end is recorded :
A Arca of cross-scction of the taPe
as the nominal length, one therefore E - Modulus of clasticity tlf the material
underestimates the distance, necessitating
of the tape. The sign of the correction is the
a positive correction to the measurcd satne as that of (P - P")
length. On the other hand, when the
temperature falls below the standard' the
tape contracts and the converse happens'
necessitatin g a negative correction'

analogous to those in which the tape is too

long and too short' The temperature
corresponding horizontal distance'
correction is given bY
From the below fig., we have
Ct: Lct(T - To)
l: (L' sothat the gradient correction
-*)t'',
Where, is given bY
a + coefficient of linear expansion of the
tape material, ce=L-t =L-['-fl
"
To -) standardization temperature, and
T + temperature during measurement'

A good approximate formula is

,r,*,
during measurement.
' "' ndalvizas lTinrpati lcunu'l Kukapallv(Hvd)
ffi-tm^-r-" :129 2 Triangulation

t
.-. t lB
l)r
t\
h
t\

B
(rr)'l'apc in catenary
The sign of this correction is always negative.
If the gradient is specified in terms of angle 0
with horizontal, we have the following l, .
alternative formula for the correction.
Cr:L - L cos e: L (1 -cosO)
: L versin 0
: zL sin2 1el2) )----
4.---+lwl/2
-+P
(e) Correction for sag:
When the tape is stretched on supports abovt: (b) l,)rluilibrium of one half of the
the ground, it hangs in the form of a catenary. Itlg. Slg correction for a tape on supports

by a parabola when the sag is small in

relation to the span. rr prrrtbola, with an equation of the form
The length along the curve is
recordr:tl: *'' cy, where c:
f l4d.
the difference between this and tlrc l)il'l'crcrrtiating this equation, we get
corresponding horizontal projocliotr dy 2x
constitutes the sag correction. Sincc lhe dxc
arc length is always too long, thc rrrrg
correction is negative. Wc can now get the length of arc for the
The tape standardized on tlrc llnt is rrlwnvr t:rrlirc span by integrating.
shorter than the catenary usctl irr llrc lichl.
Referring to below frgtrrc, lt:l lrc llrt' /
horizontal span, rl llrc cerrrlrrrl rlip. l' llrr
applied horizontll prrll. rrrrtl w llrc wcrpllrl
of the tapc pcl trnil lcrrgllr.
I zl,:u''[,.
[#)']"'* =
r!:''1,.\lt *
the half the length. l,c( lhc prrll rrl
and take moments about A.
(' lrt. l',
-,r"[,+[f) *[g)'.
Then, ]0.
pd = fr4)f1) ", d:w(z -+ ( i) : z(**4- I -
\2 )\4) 8P
[ 3.' )-
Substitutin g c: Pl4d, in above equation
Hydenbad I Delhi I Bhopal I Pune I Ilhubaresw I Bcnga.luru | hcknow I Paun I Chenmi lviiapwada lviz:g lTirupati I
Guur I Kuka4allyfiyd)
 C'eomatics {

They are then called geodetic distances'

s

If the corrected horizontal distance is get

8d2 so
L-- t+-----
also
reduced, all computed distances
automaticallY reduced to MSL'
8d2
sag colrection C, =L - (' =T
w(.2
substitute d = in above equation
t-

Since the difference between

L and / is small'
can be written as
z :2
(' =-lLl'w\ From the above fig wc got'
-s -l
24\P )
Where,
W IIETE,
(,=L
w +weight of the tape per span length'
and
R R+h
P + pull applied during measurement'., Which gives,
tape
itris equati* .utt be used even when the ...-l / r^\
is supported in more than one sPan' =Llr+I
t l/
r R] \R/ 'r-l 1-+ I

; ffihen b" takcn as the total observed R' The

length of the base, and
"*iU be the total sag correction for the Since h is much smaller than
C, correction needed to reduce to
MSL is
the
entire length.
-...- that pull and sag can balance negative quantitY
it *o"fa Cms/: l-L:(Lh/R)
tensron rs
each other. In fact, the normal
O.nrr.a as the Pull for which
the guU
correction will neutralize the sag colrecuon' l3.Problems in Base line measurements:
We then have (a) Extending a short base line
r.(P-P")=!fY)' (b) To determine the immeasurable
part of
AE 24\P ) base line
(c) Length from broken base
Which gives,
p=
the length of a
The corrected measurement of
i"tt i. f0453.15346 m' Its mean elevation
(r) tt'J*:" must be VISI- is 874'5 m' The mean radius
of
ances at Mean Sea tft. *tttt at this elevation is 6358982
"ion" m'
to
a;.;i;t the length of the baseline reduced
Level.
MSL.
Sol: From the given radius and elevation, it is 04. Thc sido AII ol' n trianglc eould not be
clear that the mean radius of the earth at MSL mousurcrl litlly rlrru to obstructions. Another
is 6358982-874.5: 6358107.5 m. Using this stution 'li' wns ohosr.:n alrcl thc ansles at E
value for R, the required correction is worc nrcut{ttrcrl its
Lh 16453j5346x874.5 / Alt,( '
2{)", /. (ED = 30o, /. DEB: l5o,
lcngllt A('
lJO ln, DB : 60 m, Length of CD
R 6358107.5
il,l

:2.262982 m (-ve), (A) l0l,67rrr (B)201.67m

((') .l0l .o7rn (D) 401.67m
So that the length of the base reduced to MSL

is 1 6453. 1 53460 - 2.262982

05. 'l'r'irtrrgululiorr station selected
close to the
Itutirr slrrlion lbr avoiding intervening
= 16450.890478 m tthtlluoliorr is oallcd
(A) licuctrllic station(B) Pivot station
((') Srrltrllitc station (D) Tie station
Classroom Practice Questions
06. 'l'lre pllrl'roso ol' a "satellite station" in
01. Observations were made from instrument triungululir)n can be served by
station B to the signal A. The distance AB (A) A 'clrurch spire' in order to secure a
was 10 km and the diameter of the signal was woll shaped triangle
15 cm. If the sun rays make an angle of 60o
with the line AB. The phase correction if the
6 r"l A 'llag pole' in order to secure a well
shaped triangle
observations are made on the bright portion is ((:) A 'steeple' in order to secure a well
(A)2.26" (B) 3.16' shaped triangle
(c) 1.16" (D) 4.16' (l)) An 'Eccentric station' near the true
station where on the instrument
Two stations A and B are 72km a part. The cannot be setup
elevaJion of the stations A and B are 372 m
and 418 m respectively. The intervening 07. 'l'riangulation surveys are carried out for
ground has a uniform elevation of 328 m. Tho Iooating
height of the signal required at B. If the lino (A) control points for surveys of large
of sight has to pass at least 3 m above thc areas
gtound at all points is (f]) control points for photogrammetric
03. In a hiangulation work, the instrument wus surverys
kept at a station A and the signal at B. Tht: (c) engineering works, i.e. terminal points
distance between the stations was 8560 tn, of long funnels, bridge abutments, etc.
The diameter of the signal at B was 140 rnrn. (D) all of the above
The observations were taken with tho sun
made an angle of 50' with the line AB. phuso 0tt. Invar tapes used for measuring base lines, is
correction to angle if the observations nro made of nickel-iron alloy containing nickel
made on bright line is (A) 24% (B) 36%
(A) 2.4" (B) 1.53" (c) 40% (D) 60%
(c) r.43, (D) 1.63',
 Geomatics

The station which is selected close o

the
The correction applied to the measured
base 11.
09.
of len$h L is
in triangulation
mam [nanguratlul station, to avoid
t
rntervenmg obstruction, is not known
as
intervenins
(A) tensron='AE- (A) satellite station
(B) eccentric station
t'w='*t.re w is the weight of (C) false station
(B)
24p" (D) pivot station
tape/m
14
slope : ;+5
h,
(C) where h is height
LL 8U
difference of end suPPorts 01. (c) 02. (63.85 m) 03' (B) 04' (A) 0s' (c)
Lh
(D) Reduction to mean sea level: 06. (D) 07. (D) 0s. (B) 0e. (E) 10' (D) 11' (D)
R
(E) All the above

10. The necessary geometrical condition for

triangulation adjustment is :
around a station
1n; ihe ,u* of th. angles
should be 360"
(B) The sum of the three angles of a plane
triangle should be 180"
-sum
(C) The of the eight angles of a
braced quadrilateral should be 360o
(D) All of the above

;: : :: . 'd ---,rrr adalviug lTirupari lcunurrl K,*rF"!qvd

Hvdembad I Delhi I BhoPal I hme
 Remote Sensing
1. Introduction:
science and, art of collecting information
about objects, area of phenomena from
distance without being in physical contact
, with them.
obtaining information about an object,
terrain or phenomenon through the
analysis of data acquired by a sensor
device without actual physical contact
with that object, terrain or phenomenon.
In the present context, the definition of
remote sensing is restricted to mean the
process of acquiring information about
any object without physically contacting it
in any way regardless of whether iho
observer is immediately adjacent to tho
object or millions of miles away.
Human eye is perhaps the most familiar
example of a remote sensing system. tn
fact, sight, smell and hearing are all
rudimentary forms of remote sensing.
However, the terms remote sensing h
restricted tomethods that ornploy
electromagnetic energy (such Bs light.
heat, microwave) as means of dolcclirrg
and measuring target charactr:rist ic.
Air craft and satcllitcs urc lhc cornrrrorr
platforms used for rcmotc sonsirrg.
Collection of data is usuully enrried oul by
highly sophisticated scnsor (i.o. cnrrrcru.
multispectral scanner, radar ctc.)
The information carricr. or
communication link is the electromagnctic
energy.
Remote sensing data basically consists of
wave length intensity information by
collecting the electromagnetic radiation
lcaving the object at specific wavelength
and measuring its intensity.
Photo interpretation can be considered as
thc primitive form of remote sensing.
Most of the modern remote sensing
mcthods make use ofthe reflected
infrared bands, thermal infrared band and
rnicrowave portion of the electromagnetic
spcctrum.
plutform ernit and reflect electro-magnetic
onorgy from the features of the earth,s
turl'acc to acquire necessary data in
piotorinl urrd or digital form.
vurious viowing and interpreting devices
to oompilc nlaps, tables and or computer
lilos,
ond goological information system so that
tho final information becomes user-
liicndly to facilitate decision making.
2, Classification of remote sensing:
llcmote sensing is broadly classified into two
cutegories. They are Passive remote sensins
and Active remote sensing.
(a) Passive remote sensing: It uses as an
existing source of EM energy and records
the energy that is naturally radiated and
/or reflected from the objects.
Ex: Sun rays
employ arotating system to scan
successive strips of ground along the
track of the aircraft or satellite.
 ACE .ra/.
:ro'i' # GeomaticsEnsineering
nndmrlgAcademy
(b) Active remoYe sensing: It uses its own
form such as visible light, radio waves'
source of EM energy, which is directed
ultra-violet raYs, x-raYs etc'
towards the object and return energy is
measured. This is the essence of RADAR
the radiationviz.
(Radio Detection and Ranging System)'
(i) Wave theory and
3. Idealized Remote Sensing System: (ti; q*ntt* theory or Particle theory'
An idealized remote sensing system consists
of the following stage ) Wave Theory: Electro-magnetic energy is
(1) EnergY source assumed to consist of photons which
have
(ii) Propagation of energy through
particle like properties such-as.energy and
atmosPhere TheY move with the sPeed of
(iii) Energy interaction with earth's surface ing iimPle harmonic motion i'e
features. If c is the velocitY, l' is
(rv) Airborne/space borne sensors receiving
the reflected and emitted energy'
suocessive peaks
(v) Transmission of data to earth station and frequency i.e., the no' of cycles done
per
generation of data Produce.
unii time, wave theory states that
(vD Multiple - data users. (1)
c = f l,
to
4. Basic Principles of Remote Sensing: Since velocity of light is constant equal
(a) Electromagnetic EnergY: 3 x 10s m/s, frequency and wave length
It is a form of energy that moves with the will be inversely proportional to one
another.
velocity of light (3 x 108m/sec) in a harmonic
FrequencY is measured in Heertz, kilo
pattern' consisting of sinusoidal waye' equally
and repetitively spaced in time' It has two
Heertz etc.
fields: lHertz(Hz) : I cycle/second
(i) Electrical field and 1 kilo Hertz (kHz) :103 Hz
:106 Hz
iii) l,tugtt.tic field, both being orthogonal to 1 Mega Hertz (MHz)
: loeHz
each other. 1 Nano Hertz (NHz)
most obvious source of 1 Giga Hertz (GHz)
: lo12 Hz
electro-magnetic radiation for Remote
Sensing. However all matter al According to this theory, Electro-
temperatures above the absolute zeto
magnetic energy consists of photons or
(-273'C) continuallY emits electro- quinta whose energy is proportional to its
magnetic radiation.
frequency.
the total energy emitted by an object
varies as the fourth power of the absolute
Q: h'f ...(2)
Where,
temperature of its surface' in Joules
Q = energY of the quantum
h = Planck's constant
:6.626 x 10-34 Js
absorbs and re-emits all energy incident
and
on it. It is also called a black body' It is a :
f frequency tnHz
hypothetical one
Hyderabad lDelhilBhoPal lhme I
 ACE
BnglnceriogAcad€my : 135: Remote Sensing

g0rntnu ruyrt going upkl radio waves

lengths,
Hence lower levels of energy correspond to
longer wave lengths and vice versa. Thus if
the surface features of the earth emanate
longer wave lengths, it will be more difficult
to read their radiation that in the case of short
wave length radiations.
The dominant wave length or the wave length
at which a black body radiation curve reaches
a maximum, is related to its temperature by
wein's displacement law.
lrnving rnorc llrurr 0, I nr passing along x-
ntytr, ullru violol rays, visible portion,
irrl'ru rctl rnys und rnicro wavos.
'l'lrc visiblc portion of thc spectrum
is an
oxlrcrrrcly snrall band of wave length from
0,4 to 0,7 rrricrometer. In this portion the
tttrtxilnurrr radiation occurs at 0.5
rrricrrrrnctor. This wave length is most
tusclill in photogrammetry.
'l'lto vurious regions of wave lengths of
elcr:trrr nragnetic spectrum are shown in
fl3, 'l'o provide a realistic view, instead of
wuvc lcngths, their logarithms are taken
un tho horizontal axis.

l"-,,,=4
T
Where,
l,r:
wave length or maximum spectral
u trY Visible portion
radiant existence (pm) Wuvc Length in meters +
A:2898 pm k lfll: Rtglons of Electro-magnetic Spectrum
T: Temperature ("k)
Most of the sensing systems operate in
(b) Electromagnetic Spectrum:
onc of the several visible, infrared or
Although visible light is the most obvious rnicrowave portions of the electro-
manifestation of EM radiation, other fornrs mugnctic spectrum.
also exist. ln below figure the expanded portion of
thc spectrum useful in Remote Sensing is
of wave lengths and can be categorizt:tl sltown.
according to its position into discr.ctc
regions which is generally referrctl to
electro-magnetic spectrum.
The electromagnetic spectrum is tho
continuum of energy that ranges from
Vinihlc rcllccted IR Band
Thermal IR Band
Wavelengths in Micrometers
-+
Fig: Regions of Electro-magnetic Spectrum use
The electro vory full in Remote Sensins
wide range fiorn
as smallas sc of
 region, sensing can be made using infra-
- red sensitive films.
meters wave length of thermal infra-red
band, the radiated energy cannot be
sensed by photographic emulsion. Special
sensor devices like crystal detectors have
to be used to detect the signals.
300 mm are used in Radars. Remote
sensing systems which supply theil own
sources of energy ie., man'made sources
to illuminate the features of the earth
interested in sensing are known as 'Active
systems' of Remote sensing.,Eg- Radars;
camera with flash bulbs.
which(sun) make use of naturally
available energy only are oalled 'Passive
systems'. Eg. Camera flash bulbs using
only sun-light, the Portions of the
spectrum which have high transmission of
etectro-magnetic radiations are known as
'atmospheric windows'. Such wave
lengths produce good images in Remote
sensing.
the earth's surface feat'ures occurs at a
wave length of 9.7 micrometers in the
thermal infra-red portion. In this portion,
thermal infra-red systems can function
round the clock.
5. EM radiation and The AtmosPhere:
The water vapour, oxygen, ozone' COz
aerosols, etc. Present in the atmosphere
influences EM radiation through the
mechanism of scattering, and absorption
scattering.
by molecules of the gases, dust and smoke
in the atmosphere.
changes the spectral signatures of ground
objects.
length, more is the scattering. Whatever is
the source of energy, for all radiations the
ensrgy necessarily has to pass through
some length known as 'path length' in the
atmosphere.
upon the following Parameters.
(D Path length in the atmosPhere
(i1) s of the atmosPhere
(iiD of energY and
,,,,,,,,.,(iVi' length of the signal under
sensor.
effects viz., (a) Scattering and
(b) Absorption.
depending upon qize of Particles.
) Selective scatter is caused by particles
whioh have'diameters less than the wave
length of the radiation.
) Gas moieculeb in the upper layers of the
size much less than the
f radiation cause a scatter
known as 'RaYleigh scatter'.
The sky appears blue because of this
scatter, otherwise it should appear black.
of size less than the wave length found in
the upper layers of the atmosphere cause
scatter known as 'Mie scatter'.
wave lengths and becomes significant in
overcast conditions.
bigger in size than the wave lengths' non-
 ACE
nngioccringecaaemy :137: Remote Sensing

selective type of scatter takes place. Eg. Most llcrrrolc Sonsing systems operates in
Water droplets of 5 to 100 micrometers lhc wuvc lcngth in which reflected energy
dia. This is a more bothering is rrruxilnrurr. I ltxce ref'lectance property
phenomenon. in ol' rrlrrrost irnportance.
ll tlupcncls on the surface roughness of the
(b) Absorption: l'crrlrrlc. A perfectly flat surface which
The molecules of carbon dioxide, water ;trovitlos rnirror-like reflections is called a
vapour and ozone in the atmosphere absorb npccrrlrrr rcflcctor.
some portion of the electro-magnetic radiation
"
l(orrgh surt'aces reflect energy in a
in specific wave-length bands. urrilirrlrr nlanner in all directions. Thev are
krrowrt as clifTuse reflectors.
which region of the spectrum can be used
in Remote Sensing. rlil'lirsc,

portion of the spectrum is insignificant. In ilrlcrcstctl in measuring the diffrrse

the regions of 'atmospheric window'. propcr'lics of thc terrain features.
Remote sensing becomes most effrcient.
7, Plrtfornrs In Remote Sensing:
6. Interaction of Electro-magnetic 'l'ltcte nro tho vchicles or carriers for remote
Radiation with Matter: tontirrg ncnsors. They can be air borne or
rpltrJc hornc.
incident on matter, it undergoes changes
in intensity, direction, wavelength, bnlloons.
polarization and phase.
sutollites, radio controlled airplanes and
(i) Surface phenomena like scatter, bnlloons.
reflection and emission and
(ii) Volume phenomena such as sonsing.
transmission and absorption.
lbr ground investigations.

the altitude that determines the ground

resolution and which is also the
instantaneous field of view of the sensor
on board the platform.
) Some typical platforms are:
(i) Land Sat 1, 2 and,3
(ii) Land Sat 4 and 5
(iiD sPor
(iv) IRS - 1A
lbuturc (v)IRA- 1C
Fig: Interaction of Radiatlon wlth Matter
 C'eomaticS
Acad€my

nying at an altitude around 700-900 km

urith-orbital periods around 100 minutes'
They have a temporal resolution between
16 and 26 daYs.

8. Resolution:
This is the ability of the remote .sensmg
,ytt.* to record and display fine details' Four
c'haracteristics of resolution influence
the
detection of type of geographic data'
) These are:
(a) SPatial resolution
(b) SPectral resolution sensitivitY'
i.i nuaio*.tric resolution and sensors have this
(d) TemPoral resolution quality but their spectral resolution is
poor.

characteristic of remote sensing system'

It
derermines the shamness of the image' 10. Ideal and Real Remote Sensing
Systems:

follows:
-sourceare as
Remote Sensing system
it A unifurm of energy: It shall
Provide constant and
high level of
can be determined bY the sensor'
ouPut at all wave lengths without
changing with time and Place'
data collection.
(iD A ion-interfering atmosphere: The
interacting aimosphere shall not modiff
9. Sensors: thc cnergy as it strikes the earth feature
part of a
The sensor forms the most critical or us it gcis reflected or emitted from
the
place'
lbaturc without reference to time'
scrtsing height and wave length'
(iii) A of unique energt/matter
";aries ai the sudace of the earth:
interaction
secure the images'
This shall result in reflection and or
emission of signals which are invariant
active.
and unique.
super-sensor: The sensor shbll
(iv) A be
to
available energy' Active sensors have
simple, reliable, require no power or
provide the required source of energy'
,pur. and economical to oPerate to be
highly sensitive to all wave lengths in
scanning tYPes.
Hvrlenbadl Delhi I BhoPal I Prme I
-ffi ACE,
Engin€cringAcad€my : 139: Remote Sensing

order to provide absolute brightness of (a) Photogrammetry arrtl rrcrial

the image. photogrammetry i nt:I url i ng
(v) A real time data handling system: It interpretation aclil I pholography
shall operate almost instantaneously and (b) Thermal and nrultispt:t:tr.:rl scanning
continuously without need of reference (c) Microwave sonsirrl', rrrrtl
data in the data analysis. (d) Earth resourcc srrtt.llitcs
(vi) Multiple data users; The users have to
possess expert knowledge not only of (a) Photogramnrctr'.y: I lus rnethod will
the Remote Sensing techniques but also
enable in ubtirirrirrli r t'lirrblo Ineasurements
of the related discipline for which and maps ol't.:u llr's li.:rlur-cs.
sensing is carried out.
prol)ar'll,i lopol,,rrrphic sheets besides
Systems can never be realized in practice tltplit.:rlrorr irr lirrcstry, geography,
in a real Remote Sensing System for the gcokrllv. pl;rnrrrrrg, soil science etc.
following reasons:
(i) Source of energy used in all real (h)'l'lrerrrrnl :rrrrl Mutti spectral
systems cannot be uniform as it varies Sclrurltrg: lrr this method, sensing is
with time and place.
tkrrrt. irr tlrt. thcrrrral infra red band of 3-14
(iD The atmosphere usually modifies thc
lntt'totrrt.lcrs wavclength and radiant
intensity and the spectral distribution
It.rrrpt'r'irlul'cs itro rneasured by the sensors.
ofenergy received by the sonsor.
(iii) Energy/matter intcractions rrl tlrr. lltngc of' the spectrum from the
surface of thc carlh :rlwirys iltllrrclrt.t. plrotographic to the thermal band can
the special rcsponsc plllc:r.rrs. bo rnadc use of.
(iv) The scnsrtr'.. ll will lrot hc possrlrk. to
make il tlrirl woultl lrt. scrrsrlllc
sons()r' (e) Microwave sensing: This method of
to all wavo lorrglhs iurtl llrc sr.lrsols sonsing enables securing very valuable
have limitation or) tlro sizr: ol llre onvironmental and mineral resources
object. infbrmation using the microwave band of
(v) The data handling,syst<,trt; rrsuirlly the spectrum.
depends upon the tools usctl :rrrrl
experience and also reference dirtlr. in adverse weather conditions such as
(v1) Multiple data users: The data gcncrirlctl haze,light rain, snow, clouds, smoke
becomes information only if tho uscr. etc.
knows how to interpret and usc lhc
data.
passive sensor.
Note: No single combination and analvsis
will satisff all users.
Ranging) uses laser light.

11. Methods of Remote Sensing: (d) Earth resources Satellites: This is the
The currently used methods of remote latest technique used to study the earth
sensing are as follows: from space. Sensors are borne in the space
to assist in the weather and crop forecast,

M
rffi ACE
T'nginecringAcad€my : 140: Geomatics Engineering

mineral exploration, detection of (iiD Results compiled by Junior staff can

pollution, commercial fishing etc. easily be checked independently by
senior and expired oflicer at any time.
series of India are examples of this kind of (iv) 3-D viewing of overlapping photographs
remote sensing tcchniques. gives more accurate rcsults.
(v) Photographic images are permanent
unbiased representations of the original
12. Visual Image Interpretation:
objects and therefore it is possible to
interpreted cithcr by visual method or check and verifli the results of any time.
digital method. ) Principle of Photographic Interpretation:
(i) Qualitative characteristics: Texture,
data utilizes the principles of photographic pattern, tone (colour) & shape of
interprctation in photogrammetry. photographic images.
(ii) Quantitative characteristics: Areas,
examining the photographic images for Distances, Slopes, Heights etc.
the purpose of identifiing objects and
judging their significance, ) Techniques of photo Interpretation:
(i) Stereoscope for 3 D viewing
reproducible records and they form (ii) Simple plastic or box wood rule as
suitable basis for investigations of various measuring device.
objects. (iii) Colour pencil for marking on
photographs
and illuminating report on the natural and
cultural features of the earth's surface.
interpretation through Aerial
accessible areas for rapid and accurate Photogrammetry:
measurements and to identiff individual
features.
(i) Geological Mapping: Land forms,
rock types & structures

complimentary and are interpreted by (ii) Soil mapping: detailed soil surveys
identical methods. (iiD Land use & land cover mapping.
(iv) Agricultural applications
unique utility (v) ForestryApplications
(i) A large area of earth's surface imaged in
(vi) Water resources Applications
earth photograph enables the photo
interpretor to examine larger areas in (vii) Urban region and planning
great details in shorter time without Applications
visiting the ground. (viii) Wetland mapping
(ii) Aerial photographs are free from human (ix) Wild life ecology
enors and thus results of photographic (x) ArcheologicalApplications
interpretation are more reliable.
(xi) Environmental Assessment
(xii) Geographic Information system.

Hyderabad I lhlhi I Bhopal I

hne Bhubanesw
I I
Bengaluru | Lucknow I Parn I Chennai I Vijayzwada I
Vizg Tirupati Gmnr I Kukapally(Ilyd)
I I
 Acadory : l4,l : Remote Sensing

(vi) Militur), ul4tlit,utiott,s; to monitor

It is the processing and analyzing the data rrrovcrrrclrl ol' vclriclcs military
stored in PC based system using imagc lirnrrirlions arrd lssossirrg tlrc terrain.
processing algorithm. It has the following (viil Ilylntlr4lit'ul qtpli<'ulion,s: for
broad operations. asscssntg wate r resources,
(i) Image rectification and restoration lirlr:casti ng run-off etc.
(ii) Image enhancement
(iii) Image classifi cation
r;l;llic:rtions of remote sensing"
(iv)Data merging.
(' ) Agriculture
( ii) liorostry
13. Applications of Remote Sensing: ( iii ) | ,:urd usc and soils
Remote Sensing pervaded almost all types (rv) ( icology
of modern human activity. Its applications (v) I lrbarr Land us
are not restricted to surveying and ( vi) Wllcr rcsources
engineering but found in various fields. (vii) ('o:rslal linvironment
(D Environmental applications: for ( viii ) ( )ccarr rcsources

weather prediction, pollution control (ix) Wltorslrccl

and management, profiling
atmospheric conditions like pressure,
temperature, content of water vapor,
measurement of wind velocity etc.
(ii) Mineral exploratiou Locating
detailing mineral wealth and providing
basic geological data.
the (x) lilrvironment
(xi) Strcct parcel-based application
(xii) l,lnd parcel-based application
(xiii) Natural resources based applications
( x i v) lracilities management
and (xv) l)isasters
(xvi) I)igital elevation models

(iii) Agricultural applications: for l4.l{cmote Sensing In India:

assessing land use and land covcr, lrxlia is not lagging behind the ieading
forestry of monitor the extent and typr: countries of the developed world in taking
of vegetation cover, its state of health, giarrt steps forward in Remote Sensing.
mapping soil types, forecasting cro;t
yield, erosion of soil etc. Organization, launched numerous
satellites from 1975 till now, the latest
(iv) Applications in
disaster control urul being the PSL V-CI4 (Prithvi Satellite
management: for detection ol' Launching Vehicle) on September 23,
earthquakes, land slides, volcarric 2009 and the Prithvi-Il Satellite in
eruptions, floods and assessing tlrc October 2009.
extent of damage suffered due to thcsc The other satellites worthy of mention are
causes etc.
the IRS series, Bhaskara Series. Rohini
(v) Archaeological applications: l'lr Series etc.
recognizing pre-historic sites ol' All these provided very valuable
civilization etc. information enabled modernizing the
communication and broad castins network
too.
Hydembad I Delhi I Bhopal I Pme I Bhubmesw I
Benpln I Lucknow j Pann I Chemi Ujayamda I
Vi?2g I Tirupari I Gutru I Kukapally(Hvd)
 06. Remote sensing techniques makes use of
Classroom Practice Questions the properties of emitted, reflected or
diffracted by the sensed objects
(A) soundwaves
-
01. If the mean temperature of SUN's surface
(B) electric waves
6000 k and l. m of its radiation is 0'5 pm'
(C) elechomagnetic waves
What is the mean temperature of earth's
(D) wind waves
surface for which l" m is l0'0 Fffi,
according Wien's displacement Law in 07. Match List - I with List - II and select the
Remote sensing concePt? conect answer using the codes given below
(A) 25"C (B) 28"C the lists:
(c)27"C (D) 30"c

02. Consider the following statements is

IRS series satellites are
1. Low orbiting satellites
2. Geostationary satellites
3. Meterological satellites
4. Resource survey satellites
Which of these statements correct? of multi-
(A) 1 and4 (B) 2 and 3
(C) 1, 2 and4 (D)2,3 and4 from

03. A passive sensor uses image

(A) sun as the source of energY
(B) its own source of energY
(C) flash light as a source of energY
(D) None of these
RS
04. For interpolation of satellite data used for
monitoring dynamic changes that occure on
34
the earth surface, the most suitable orbit for (B) 2143
the satellite is
(A) circular orbit (c) l3 24
(B) sun-synchronous orbit (D) L 423
(C) near polar orbit
(D) None of these
08. Statement(I): Scattering is more in lower
Which one of the following is not strictly wavelengths than in higher wavelengths'
method of remote sensing? Statement(Il): Scattering effect decreases
(A) Thermal and multi spectral scanning the signal value
(B) Microwave sensing
(C) Earth resource satellite
(D) StereoscoPY
Patn I chermi I viiaFmda vizs Tirupati I Guntu I Kukapallv(Ilvd)
Hydenbad I Delhi I Bhopal I Pme I Bhubmeswar I Bengalrm I Lucknow I I I

(a) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II)
are individually true and Statement (II)
is the correct explanation of Statement
(D
(b) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II)
are individually true but statement (II)
is not the correct explanation of
statement (I)
(c) Statement (I) is true but Statement (II)
is false
(d) Statement (I) is false but Statement (If
is true
09. Consider the following parameters in
respect of RADAR principle :
1. It is active sensing system
2. Electromagnetic radiation of wavelength
is in centimeter range
3. It operates in visible region
4. It comprises Radio detection and ranging
Which of the above statements are correct?
(A) 1, 2 and3 (B)2,3 and4
(C) 1, 2 and4 (D) 1,2,3 and4
10. The remote sensing techniques applied fur
the earth's surface features, is generally
confined to the following wave lengths : (C) Electromagnetic spectrum
(A) 2.2 to 2.6,3.0 to 3.6,4.2 to 5.0 pm
(B) 0.4 to 1.3, 1.5 to 1.8,2.2 to 2.6 pm
(C) 4.2 to 5.0, 7.0 to 15.0 pm and I <;nr to
30 cm
(D) All the above
11. A perfectly black body :
(A) is a diffi.rse emitter
s (B) absorbs all the radiations of evcrv wavc
lensths
(c) emits power of every wave length
(D) All the above
Remote Sensing
'l'hc ohsclvirlirln rrlrdc ovcr the same
area
on tlil'lc'r'crrl tlllos lo monitor ground
lclrlrrlcs liltc crop growtlr is called
(A ) 'l c:rrrporll rcsolution
( I | ) ltirtliorrrr:tric rosolutron
((') Spirtiirl rosolution
( | )) Spr:ctrul rcsolution
I .'l l'lrc valuc ol'cnergy quantum for radiation
ol'irrry lioquency is proportional to :
(A ) tlrc rcciprocal of the energy
( ll ) thc square of the frequency
, I
"i =- h. t
((') lho squarc root of the frequency
(l)) llro fi'cclucncy
14. 'l'lrc rclloction of solar energy is
clrirlirclcrizod by the water content in the
lcul, in tlrc roflective optical infrared :
(A) visibk: (0.4-0.7 pm)region
(f l) rrclr-llt (0.1
- 1.3 pm) region
((') slrtrrt wave-IR (1.3 - 2.7 pm) region
(l)) Nonc of these
t5. Wlrich one of the following Remote sensing
systoms employs only one detector?
(A)Scanning
(l)) Framing
(D) All of the above
16. The system that uses the sun as a source of
electromagnetic energy and records the
naturally radiated and reflected energy from
the object is called
(A) Geographic Information system
(B) Global Positioning system
(C) Passive Remote sensing
(D) Active Remote sensing
t7. The interaction of the electromagnetic
radiation produced with a specific wave
length to illuminate a target on the terrain
for studying its scattered radiance, is called
l)[
 .}

: I44: Geomatics Engineering

(A) passive remote sensing 22. Critical angle of electromagnetic radiation

(B) neutral remote sensing takes place if
(C) active remote sensing (A) Angle of incidence is cqual to angle of
(D) None of the above refraction
(B) Angle of incidence is grcater than the
18. Which one of the following staternent is
ansle of refraction
incorrect regarding the electromagnetic
(C) Angle of incidence is equal to 90o
radiation?
(A) The changing electric frclds induce the (D) Angle of refraction is equal to 90o
changing magnetic fields in the 41
L). The object of photo-intepretation is :
surrounding medium
(A) Identification
(B) These are produced by the motion of
(B) Recognition of objects
electric charge
(C) Judging the significance of objects
(C) The oscillation of charged particles sets
(D) All of these
up changing electric fields
(D) None of these
24. Which one of the following attributes is not
associated with digital maps
19. Who coined the term, 'Remote sensing'.
(A) Gaspard Felix Tournachon, a French (A) Colour
(B) Symbology
scientist
(C) Legends
(B) Wilbur Wright, an Italian scientist
(C) Evelyn L. Pruitt, a geographer
(D) South affow
(D) None of these

20. The maximum sun's radiation occurs

around: 01. (c) 02. (c)
(A) 04. (B) 0s. (D)
03.
(A) 0.55 p wave length
(B) 0.7 p wave length 06. (c) 08. (B) 0e. (c) 10. (D)
07. (c)
(C) 0.4 pm wave length 11. (D) 12. (A) 13. (D) 14. (c) ls. (A)
(D) None of these
16. (c) 17. (c) 18. (D) re. (c) 20. (A)
2I. Pick up the correct statement from the
following: 21. (D) 22. (D) 23. (D) 24. (D)
(A) The square of the amplitude is
proportional to the energy transported
by the wave
(B) Frequency of a wa\o is measured in
Hertz (Hz)
(C) Amplitude of a wave the height of its
crust from the mid-po
(D) All of these

Hydembad , Delhi , Bhopal Rne I Bhubmesw ; Bengzlm I hcknow I Pauu I Chemai I \/ijayawda I
Vizg iTirupari Gumr I Kukapally(rlyd)
I

d
rtl
 Ge og raphic Informqtion
l. Introduction:
Now a days most of the decisions involving
planning and development arc based on
consideration of the information available
regarding location or geographic information.
Such information regarding location is usually
referred to as Geographic Information.
processing functions of these systems, but
also their analytical capabilities for
deriving spatial knowledge
intelligence as well.
2. Scope of G.I.S:
Geographic information system is
computer based information system of all
forms of geographically referenced
information to perform the following data
tasks.
(i) Capture required information
(ii) Store the information in the form of
digital
data
(iii) Update the data as necessary
(iv) Manipulate the data appropriate to the
task
(v) Analyse the various items of data and to
secure desired ends.
(vi)
Display data and output in appropriate
forrn according to the needs.
universe around us in a better way and to
meet the challenges for a happy living.
computer hardware, software
geographic data designed to carryr out the
above tasks in an efficient wav.
System
3. Klnds of Gcographic Infbrmation:
(ioogrrrphic inlirrrration is ol' thc followins
k rrtls
i
(u) Sputinl inlormation
(h) Ailributo infbrmation and
(i) Regional
(c)'l'irnc irrlirrrnatio
(ii) Thematic
(n)
Spntial Inlbrmation:
and 'l'hc inlirrrnation regarding location and
shapr: o1' the geographic features
cotncs undcr spatial information.
a
kinds viz.
(i) Point features
(ii) Line features and
(iii) Areal features.
size and has a discrete location is
usually represented as a point
feature.
Eg. historical monument located in
the map of a country.
and long shape and not big enough to
be represented by an area comes
under a line feature.
Eg: roadway, rallway, canal, sewer
line, water line etc.
enclosing a homogeneous area is
represented as an area information.
and Eg: reservoir, desert, large water
body, hills, a state or a country etc.
-.ftt ACE
llljfngioccriryacadoY
w
(b) Attribute Information:
This kind of information relatos to
and titative
descriptive,
permit comparison of one with another'
Eg: Ownership details, soil classification,
rainfall details, seismic zones etc'
(c) Time Information:
Geographic information may either become
obsolete or change in nature as time passes'
dimension of geographic information'
(i) Geographic information related to a
particular place or region is known as
regional information.
(iD Geographic information based on any
particular theme of earth feature is
referred to as thematic information.
4. Purpose of G.I.S.:
comprising information technology,
systems engineering, surveying and
: photograrnmetry, remote sensing,
cartogaphy, geography, socio-economic
activity, computer technology etc.
management or map projection but the
ability to handle large multilayered and
heterogeneous data base.
: 146: C'eomatics Egr8ineering
large
the multilayered and heterogeneous data
base.
achieve the purpose mentioned below.
(D Enabling decision making based on
spatial data.
(ii) Supporting researoh and development
(iii) Collecting, manipulating and using
spatial data in data base management'
(iv) Producing standardized andcustomized
cartographic Production.
Input
f,. Sub Systems of GIS.
Management
Processing
Display
6. Hardware of GIS:
It is made up of a configuration of core and
peripheral equipment that is used for
acquisition, storage, analysis and display of
geo graphic information.
Ex: CPU of computer or client/server
7.
,,r.:It:.r directly in the freld bY
ori ored sPecificallY for the
purpose of GIS. It can be topographic maps;
areal photo graphs or other images prepared
by survey of India. Which can be used as
input data for GIS.
8. Data Structures for GIS:
Data for a GIS must be represented in a form
that preserves location and identifies of each
unit of information, so that it is possible to
retrieve data by location and therefore to
depict and analyse geographic patterns.
It can be raster data structures and vector data
strucfures.
 Acad€my :147: Geographic Information System

9. Representation of Features: (c) Emergency Rclicf:

GIS can represent statical data as the data
which have physical dimension on the earth.
Data can be reduced in the form of point,
areas or polygons for effective processing in
computers.
(i) Assessing cxtcnl ancl scalc of magnitude
of disasters caused by earth quakes, fire,
floods, natural causes, blow outs, rioting,
war, terrorist activity etc.
(ii) l-anning for rehabilitation and succor
( iii ) I)rcdiction and waming of likely hazards

10. Integrating Data Map Overlay: arrd evacuation and routing.

The ability to integrate data from two sourccs (rl )'l'r:rnsport Planning:
using map overlay is perhaps the kcy (ilS ( i) l)csigning and constructing highways
analysis function. It can be vector ovcrlir.y
( ii ) Monitoring and navigation of fleet
and Raster overlay.
( iii ) ltlcrrt.ilying accident prone areas
11. Applications of GIS: (iv) Oplirnizing routes based on demand and
GIS has wide application in rlillolcrrl llckls srrpply
of human activity. Sonro ol' lhcsc iu.c (v) ltlcntilying zones r,ulnerable to
enumerated below. flood
tlurnugc ctc.
(a) Environmental Planning:
(c) llrrsirrcss Applications:
(i) Identifying ancl cvaluating (i) Markct research and market survey
envlronmontal hazards
(ii) Asscssing customer preferences and
(ii) Management of shoreline of the countrv
rcquircments.
(iii) Mapping flood zones
(iii) ldontifzing centers to position
(iv) Monitoring airlwater quality clistributors and stockists.
(v) Locating suitable places for disposal of (iv) I{cal estate investment and management
industrial and sanitary wastes. ctc.
(l) l,ocal Administration:
(b) Management of National Mineral and (i) Monitoring land use and growth
Natural Sources:
(ii) Census operations
(D Detecting trends of ecological
(iii) Preparing cadastral maps
imbalance.
(iv) Maintenance and construction of water
(ii) Preparing schemes for protecting flora
supply, sewerage, electric and gas lines
and fauna.
etc.
(iii) Exploring oil and mineral wealth (v) Tax management
(iv) Rehabilitating sites of minimum (vi) Engineering surveys
activity
(v) Monitoring impact of extraction of (g) Socio-economic Development :
natural resources. (D Population analysis and studies
(iD Forecasting socio economic changes
(iii) Assessing impact of population on
envronment.

))'
 : 148: Geomatics Engineering

04. Aspects of a GIS system do NOT include

Classroom Practice Questions (A) Legal representation of a physical
location
(B) Cartography and remote sensing
01 Which of the following is NOT a benefit of (C) Photogrammetry and geography
using GIS in business applications? (D) Land surveying and mathematics
(A) To improve decision making
(B) To increase efficiency 05. What can GIS NOT be used to visualize?
(C) To reduce the productivity (A) Patterns (B) Tables
(D) To increase communication (C) Trends (D) Relationships

02. Who is the leading company for GIS

business applications?
(A) Maplnfo Inc
(B) ESRr
(C) AccuGrade
(D) Google Earth

03. You work for the corporate office of a

popular retail company that has recently
begun using a GIS system. Which of the
following would NOT be a good reason to
use this system?
(A) To track new retail locations
(B) To track competitors
(C) To track existing retail locations
(D) To track store credit card customers
who have since closed their accounts
) To track customers
 Glabal Positioning System
1. Introduction:
The Global Positioning System
system developed by the U.S. Department
of Defence (D.O.D) for military as well as
Civil operations. The D.O.D sustains it.
The G.P.S. provides quickly, accurately
and inexpensively to determine the time,
position and velocity of any object on the
globe at any time with the help of signals
from satellites put in earth ceniered
orbits.
The NAVSTAR Global positionrng
System (GPS) is a satellite-based radio-
positioning and time-transfer svstem
designed, financed, deployed, and.
operated by the U.S. Department of
Defence.
GPS has also demonstrated a significant
benefit to the civilian communiW who are
applying GPS to a rapidly expanding
number of applications.
The major attractions of GpS are:
(i) The relatively high positioning accuracies,
from tens of metres down to thc
millimetre level.
(ii) The capability of determining velocity ancl
time, to an accuracy commensurate with
position.
(iii) The .signals are available to users
anywhere on the globe: in the air, on the
ground, or at sea.
(iv) It is a positioning system with no user
charges, that simply requires the use of
- relatively low cost hardware
(v) It is an all-weather system, available 24
hours a dav.
HvdenbadjDelhilBhopallhmelBhubmes
(vi) The position information is in three
dimensions, that is, vertical as well as
is a horizontal information is prov idcd.
(vii) It is suitable for all classes of platform:
aircraft fiet to helicopter), ship, land
(vehicle-mounted to handheld) and space
(missiles and satellites)
(viii) Able to handle a wide variety of
dynamics.
(ix) Real-time positioning, velocity and time
determination capability to an
appropriate accuracy.
(x) The positioning results were to be
available on a single global geodetic
datum.
(xi) Highest accuracy to be restricted to a
certain class ofuser.
(xii) Resistant to jamming (intentional and
unintentional).
(xiii) (Redundancy provisions to ensure the
survivability of the system.
(xiv) Passive positioning system that does not
require the transmission of signals from
the user to the satellite(s).
(xv) Able to provide the service to an
unlimited number of users.
(xvi) Low cost, low power, therefore as much
complexity as possible should be built
into the satellite segment.
(xvii) Total replacement of the Transit satellite
and other terrestrial navaid systems.
2. Technological Advances:
Rarely have so many seemingly unrelated
technological advances been required to make
a complex system such as GpS work.
They are:
(D Space System Reliabiliry
(iD Atomic Clock Technology
lBengalmlLucknowlparnlcrremilvi:**"a@
)lr
 Acad€my : 150: Geomatics Fngineering

(iii) Quartz Crystal Oscillator Technology

(iv) Precise Satellite Tracking and Orbit
Determination
(v) Spread-SpectrumTechnology
(vi) Large-Scale Integrated Circuit
Technology
3. GPS Elements:
The GPS system consists of three segments
(a) The Space Segment/Satellite
Segment:
The space segment contains the orbiting
satellites which send the signals for ranging
and the data messages to the used equipment.
Comprising the satellites and the transmitted
signals.
The U.S.D.O.D has put in the satellite
constellation 27 satellites with earth in the
center ofeach orbit. The orbits are spaced 60o
apart so as to make six orbits. Each orbit
makes an angle of 55' to the plane of the
equator of the earth.
There will be four satellites in each orbit. The
period of each orbit is
11 hours 58 m,
approximately half of a sidereal day.
At any point of time atleast four satellites will
be electronically visible.
The satellites will be nearly 26,600 km from
the centre of the earth.
The orbits are assigned alpha codes A, B,
C,... and in each or it the satellites in it are
numbered from 1 to 4. Thus a satellite C4
represents the fourth one in the C orbit.
constellation of
spacecraft and the
signals broadcast by them which allow
users to determine position, velocity
and time.
The basic functions of the satellites are to:
(D Receive and store data transmitted by the
Control Segment stations.
(ii) Maintain accurate time by means of several
onboard atomic clocks.
(iii)Transmit information and signals to the
users on two L-band frequencies.
(iv) Provide a stable platform and orbit for the
L-band transmitters.
(v) GPS Satellites orbital period is
approximatety 11 hrs 58mins, so that each
satellite makes two revolutions in one
sidereal day (the period taken for the earth
to complete one rotation about its axis with
respect to the stars)
(vD At the end of a sidereal day (23hrs 56mins
in length) the satellites are again over the
same position on earth.
("iD Reckoned in terms of a solar day (24hrs in
length), the satellites are in the same
position in the sky about four minutes
earlier each day.
(viii) The orbit groundtrack approximately
repeats each day, except that there is a very
small drift of the orbital plane to the west
which is arrested by periodic manoeuvres'
(b) Operation Control Segment:
The ground facilities carrying out the task of
satellite tracking, orbit computations,
telemetry and supervision necessaryfor the
daily control of the space segment.

monitoring the various measurements is

achieved with the help of three distinct
components of the operational control
G.P.S. Satellite Constellation segment (O.C.S).

Hydenbad I Delhi i Bhopal Pue I Bhubmeswu I Bengaluru I hcknow I Parn I Chemi lvijalamda lvizag I Tirupati I Gmur
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 (,lkrlr,tl l'oiitir

They are
) l'lrt'usr.t tr,(.(,t\,ltl' (.rlntllt(.rrl is known as
(i) Master Control Station
Ir ( il'S l't.t,t,ivt.r
(ii) Monitor Stations
(iii) Ground Antennas

Colorado Springs in Colorado of U.S.A.

1,,
Irtpul I l',,,,,,,,''
rlrl lrrv
| llrrrl
|
I
Five monitor stations and three up_link I
( )rrl;lrrl I

stations are located all over the world. I A,I 1r(.,

ttegulated
Power
\ |
and make the measurements. ,\14
I I l,owcr I
surrply
military informations on I I
specific
frequencies with different ranging !rr.[rrrrllic l)itgram of a G.p.S, Receiver Sct
.od.r.

for the receiver to determine the location ) lrrrrtrcsscs thcr sltcllite signals to determine
of the satellite at the time the signal is lhc rrscr' posiIiurr.
hansmitted.

receiver to determine the transit time of

lirrrrr rrs srnirll as a wrist watch to as bi as
slrill holr-d.
rr rrrrvlrl
the signal from which it determines the ) 'l'hc serlcctiorr ol. a G.p.S receiver
user to satellite time. is
rlcpc:rrtlerrl upon thc application for which
il is intcrrtlcd.
and predicted orbital details. These arc > I lre uscr''s rcceiving set consists of
used_ in solving positional solutions by
itnlcrrrrit, rcceiver, processors and control
suitable computer programs.

necessary for satellite hcalth nronikrring,

telemetry, tracking, command antl control,
satellite orbit and clook dala cxirt:l position, velocity and time.
computations, and data uplinking.

dr:liry lirr thc signal from the group of four

Hawaii, Colorado Springs, Ascension satr:llitcs to reach the receiver. This
Island Diego Garcia and Kwajalein. All
are owned and operated by the U.S.
inlirnnation is also called the pseudo
ranging.
Department of Defense.
solve for the three requirements of
(c) User Equipment Segment:
position viz. latitude, longitude and time.
The entire spectrum of
applications
equipment and computational techniques that
are available to the users.

Hydenbadl Delhil Bhopall pune I Bhubmes

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4. Applications and uses of GFS:
(1)^ Land, Sea and Air Navigation and
Tracking: Including enroute as well as
precise navigation, collision avoidance,
iutgo monitoring, vehicle tracking, search
and rescue oPerations, etc.
(iD Surveying and Mapping, on land, at sea
and from the air: Includes geophysical
and resource surveys GIS data capture
surveYs, etc.
(iil) Military Applications: Although these are
largely mirrored by civilian applications,
the military GPS systems are generally
developed to "military specifications' and
a greatet emphasis is placed on system
reliabilitY.
(iv) Recreational Uses: on land at sea and in
the air.
(v) Other specialized uses: such as time
transfer, attitude determination, spacecraft
(vi) ation,
kinds
of automation'
(vii) Easy collection of data on specified
profile and cross sections'
(viii)Plotting of contours from collected data
iix) tocal property mapping and locating
boundaries.
(x) Site surveYs
(xi) TopograPhic surveYs etc'
(*ii; neterming coordinates of photocenters in
aerralmaPPing, laYout works etc'
(xiii) Exploration of mineral wealth'
5. GPS Instrumentation:
The following components of a generic GPS
receiver can be identified.
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z 152: GeomatiosoEngineering
(a) .dntenna and PreamPlifier:
broadbeam characteristics, thus they do
not have to be Pointed to the signal
source like satetlite TV receiving dishes'
of designs are possible. There is a trend
to integrating the antenna assembly with
the receiver electronics.
(b) Radio FrequencY Sectioir and
Computer Frocessor:
processing electronics. Different receiver
types use somewhat different techniques
to Process the signal.
not only to carry out computations such
as extracting the ePhemerides and
determining the elevation/azimuth of the
satellites, etc., but also to control the
tracking and measurement function
within modern digital circuits, and in
some cases to carry out digital signal
Processing.
(c) Controt Unit Interface:
The control unit enables the operator to
interact with the microprocessor' Its size and
type varies greatly for different receivers,
ranging from a handheld unit to soft keys
surrounding an LCD screen fixed to the
receiver "box".
(d) Recording Device:
specialized uses such as the surveying the
measured data must be stored in some way
for later data Processing.
logging of vehicle movement, only the
GPS-derived coordinates and velocity may
be recorded.
lTirupad lGunffil Kut<apanv(Hvd)
 : 153: ( ih rlr,rl llrsitioning System

in the past, including cassette and tape (d) Mcllrorl ol l)rrln lrrr;lor t:
recorders, floppy disks and computer > lirorrr t.irlrl rr,it(l(.r. t ,lrrlrollcr. Back_up
tapes, etc., but these days almost all tlisks, l'( 'M( 'lA pol l
receivers utilise solid state (RAM) > l{lNl,)X ilrrpoll ri o;r111r;1,11
memory or removable memory ,.cards,'.
(e) l)lll lrroccssilrg:
(e) Power Supply: ) Aulolrtalic ittttl ttr;rrrrlrl lll;..lrrrr. st.lrrction
Transportable GpS receivers these days need > lrrlclligclrt lrrulli-ltasclirrc l)ror.r.i,iirrl,,
low voltage DC power. ) Arrlorrrirtic scrccuing urrtl t..yt.lt. r;lrp l.ixing
> Singlc:-point positioning
6. New possibilities for single-frequency
GPS: go, kilrt.rrrirlic
The high-accuracy carrier phase and ultra_
precise code measurements, the SR9400 (f) View rrnrl l,trlit Methods:
opens up many new possibilities for single_
frequency surveying: Itirstrlirrr.,s, slop and go cahins, kinematic
They include clririrrs
(i) Control, detail, topographic and
engineering surveys to centimeter
(g) Nclwork Adjustment in GpS:

adjustment of GpS baselines

(iii) Data recording and post processing
(iv) Real-time GpS surveying. (h) Techniques of Auto program:

processing and output to GIS systems

7. Function of Ski-L I post Rocessing
Software For Fast and Efficient (i) Utilities:
Reliable Production Work:
Controllers
(a) Configuration: Units, headers etc.
8. CR333 And CR344 cps
(b) Planning and Process: Satellite visibility, Controllers:
azimutVelevation, DOps, sky plois, (a) Light Hand-held, Easy to Use:
obstructions.

(c) Techniques of project Management: check tracking determine the

measurement mode, introduce
vrgate. With
results
ric keyboard
Controller is
Hydenbad I Delhi I Bhopal pme Bhubane
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tffi-rffi^-"-" z I54: Geomatics'ErUineering

easy to use and can even be programmed ll.Functioning of Multistation

for fully automatic operation. Reference-station Software :
The SR9400 with a PC and the Multistation
rapid static, reoccupation, stop and go, software form an efficient reference station
and kinematic. Point numbers, heights and for all L I receivers operating in lhe area.
attributes can be input. RTCMV 2.0 corrections can be output.

(b) Function of CR333 and CR344: control, continuous or pre-selected data

logging, automatic recording on time-
routine survey applications when data is pre-programmed Sensor control,
recorderl and post processed. continuous or pre-selected data logging,
automatic recording on time-tagged files
and will run the optional RT-SKI software etc. With a modem and telephone
for real-time applications. connection, users can call in, access the
files, and transfer data.
output of RTCM corrections for 30 to 50
cm DGPS, NMEA sentences can be 12. Advantage of G.P.S:
output. (D Using geodetic receivers, Point
positioning to an accuracy of I cm can
9. 30-50 CM Baseline RMS with
be displayed by the user equipment.
Differential Code: (ii) G.P.S. Survey can be carried out in any
kind of weather-rain fog or Poor
The main need for mapping, GIS, visibility without any hindrance during
hydrographic and precise-navigation day or night.
applications is a robust, real-time technique (iii) There is no need for intervisibility of
providing accuracies of half-a-meter or better. stations or points surveyed and hence
control stations can be located
SKIL1 on the CR344 Controller, meets advantageously.
this requirement perfectly when used in (iv) G.P.S together Geographicalwith
the differential-code mode. Information System is a dynamic and
spatially related information capable of
with real-time differential phase, real-time processing and routing and weapons
differential-code surveying is easy for the aiming.
operator and has many Practical
advantages.
13. Disadvantages of G.P.S:

10. SR9400 System in GIS MapPing: (i) High cost of G.P.S survey comes in the
When used in the differential-code mode, the way of realizing the full potential of this
real-time SR9400 system is the ideal tool for surveying.
GIS mapping, detail surveys, and
(ii) Difficulties in defining datum heights
hydrographic surveys where accuracies of with reference to mean sea levels and
about half-a-meter are required. real time data processing and conhol are
also part ofthe process.
Hyderabad I Delhi ! Bhopal I Pwe I Bhubanesw I nensalu Ircknow
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Vizg Tirupati I Gmnr
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ffi ACE
EDginc€ringAcademy : IJJ: Global Positioning System

images a skewed area. Which one of the

Classroom Practice Questions
following statements is/are correct?
(A) 1,2,3 (B) 1,2
01. What is the minimum number of satellites (c) l,3 (D) 2,3
required from which signals can be
recorded to enable a global positioning 06. To uniquely determine the position of the
system receiver to determine latitude. uscr using GPS, one needs to receive
longitude and altitude? signals from atleast
(A) One (B) Two (A) I satellite (B) 3 satellites
(C) Three (D) Four ((') 2 satellites (D) 4 satellites

02. The most widely used antenna in GpS is 07. l'hc normal altitude of GPS satellite is about
(A) Horn antenna (A) 36,100 km (B) 24,400 km
(B) Parabolid antenna ((l) 2t),200 km (D) 16, 200 km
(C) Microstrip antenna
(D) Slotted antenna 08 In (il'S, rcocivers are used are :
(A) aturnic clocks (B) electronic clocks
03. Which one of the following parameters is ((l) quartz clocks (D) mechanical clocks
accurate for DGPS
(A) Positional accuracies-2 5m if rover
- 09. Tho :rltitudinal distance of a geostationary
is less than 2-5 km from the reference satollitr: liom thc earth is about :
station (A) 44,000 km (B) 36,000 km
(B) Positional accuracies- | - 2m if rover ((') 26,000 km (D) 30,000 km
is less than l-2 km ltom thc rcfcrcncc
station |0 A passivc sensor uses :
(C) Positional accuracics-5 lOrn il'rovcr (A) sun as the source of energy
is less than 5-10 krn lioln rol'crr:rrcr; (l)) its own source of energy
station ((l) llash light as a source of energy
(D) Positional accuraicies-5 |Orn il' ([)) none of these
rover is less than 25km
il. lior interpolation of satellite data used for
04. For air borne application arrtl rnonitoring dynamic changes that occure on
mateialization of GPS receiver and casy thc earth surface, the most suitable orbit for
construction, which is the most frequcncy thc satellite is :
used antenna? (A) circular orbit
(A) Microstrip (B) Micropole (B) sun-synchronous orbit
(C) Spiral helix (D) Choke ring (C) near polar orbit
(D) none of these
05. Consider the following statements regarding
the satellite imaging : 1. The satellite orbit 12. Orbital radius of GPS satellites is
is fixed in the inertial space 2. During approximately:
successive across-track imaging, the earth (A) 15,200 km (B) 36,000 km
rotates beneath the sensor 3. The satellite (c) 18,400 km (D) 26,600 km
Hvdenbad I Delhi ! Bhopal I Prue I Bhubmesw Bengalm hcknow Parra Chemi viialawada
I I I ] ! I vizg Tirupari I Gmur I Kul<arpallv6rvd)

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ACE
ffi] Engine€dngAcademy : 156: Geomatics Engineering

13. The code based GPS receivers are generally

used for
(A) Land navigation 01. (c) (c)
02. (B) 04.(A) 0s. (A)
03.
(B) Vehicle tracking
06. (D) 07. (c) 08. (c) 0e. (B) 10. (A)
(C) Trans movement
(D) All of these 11. (B) 12. (D) 13. (D) 14. (D) ls. (c)

t4. DGPS is based on the concept that bais

elrors in the position of locations in a given
local area, are same if their distance are
within
(A) 7s km (B) 2s km
(C) 50 km (D) 100 km

15. The GPS space segment consists of

Navigation Satellite Timing and Ranging
whose number is
A)8 B) 32

|1

E: