The Origin of AIDA: Who Invented and

Formulated the AIDA model?

Akinori Iwamoto
Faculty of Business and Commerce,
Kansai University, Osaka, Japan

ABSTRACT

Research Purpose: Almost all advertising researchers have believed that E. St. Elmo Lewis
invented AIDA in 1898 based on Edward K. Strong Jr.’s studies in 1925. However, this is a big
misunderstanding caused by inaccurate and insufficient historical research. This paper aims to
research the origin of the AIDA model by reviewing previous studies and some literature newly
discovered in this study.
Design/method: This study is based on the method of the historical study of advertising theory
that encompasses an extensive range of primary sources, including several previously unknown.
We searched the literature by accessing several digital archives and websites on the origin of
AIDA.
Findings: The dominant hypothesis that E. St. Elmo Lewis invented and formulated AIDA is
unsupported or based on weak evidence. There is no evidence indicating that Lewis invented
the prototype of AIDA in or around 1898.
Research implications/limitations: Arthur Frederick Sheldon recognized the importance of the
fourth word and the necessity of AIDA’s theorization much earlier than Lewis or any other
researchers. Sheldon—not Lewis—can be regarded as the originator of AIDA. Frank H.
Dukesmith and Arthur Frederick Sheldon—not Lewis—contributed decisively to the
formulation of AIDA.
Originality/value: Our critical finding has not been almost unknown in previous studies and
provides a more accurate history of the representative advertising theory. Accurate history is
essential for the proper development of the discipline, and advertising theory is no exception.
Keywords: AIDA, E. St. Elmo Lewis, Frank H. Dukesmith, Arthur Frederick Sheldon, AIDA’s
formulation
Paper Type: Research Paper

INTRODUCTION

AIDA (Attention, Interest, Desire, Action) is probably the most widely quoted model in the
world of marketing, advertising, and selling, which explains consumers’ mental process when
faced with advertisements or sales promotions (Moore, 2005). The model has developed since
the early twentieth century, diverging subsequently into several types of models, such as (1)
hierarchy models supporting the traditional cognitive-affective-conative ordering (Lavidge and
Steiner, 1961; Colley, 1961; McGuire, 1978), (2) the “Association model” (ARF, 1961; Preston,
1982; Preston and Thorson, 1984), (3) “Dissonance-Attribution” hierarchy of information
processing (Krugman, 1965; DeBruicker, 1979; Ray, 1982; Solomon, 2013), and (4)
Innovation-Adaption model that originated with Wilkening (1953) and Rogers (1958).
Furthermore, even in this century, the AIDA model has been developed independently into
EACYR (Hofacker, 2001), AISDALSL (Wijaya, 2012), AICDASSL (Iwamoto, 2017), and
similar models. Thus, the AIDA model still has enormous influence over advertising and
consumer behavior theories.

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 Concerning the origin of AIDA, Strong (1925a) stated the following: “E. St. Elmo Lewis
formulated the slogan, ‘Attract attention, maintain interest, create desire,’ in 1898. Later he
added the fourth term, ‘get action’” (Strong, 1925a, p.76). Although this description had no
citation by Strong (1925a), he did not conduct any revision and kept the same unchanged
description (Strong, 1925b; Strong, 1938). Moreover, this argument has become a dominant
view since being uncritically accepted by two representative review articles on AIDA theories.
Barry (1987) stated: “Circa 1900, E. St. Elmo Lewis Added Get Action a few years later” (Barry,
1987, p.253) and Barry and Howard (1990) stated: “this model originated with E. St. Elmo
Lewis in the late 1800s and early 1900s. Lewis theorized that sales people, in order to be
successful, had to attract attention (cognition), maintain interest and create desire (affect), and
then ‘get action’ (conation)” (Barry and Howard, 1990, p.123).
Kotler’s Marketing Management, probably the world’s bestselling marketing textbook,
has included a citation for fifty years (since Kotler, 1972), that could lead readers to believe
that Strong (1925b) was the origin of AIDA. Such explanations are also found in Belch and
Belch (1990) and Fill (1995), which are excellent textbooks about advertising and marketing
communications, and in Baker (1985), a representative dictionary about marketing and
advertising (Moore, 2005).
Curiously, no source indicated the existence of any writings by E. St. Elmo Lewis in 1898
in Strong (1925a; b; 1938) or any other literature on AIDA. This paper aims to research the
origin of AIDA by critically reviewing the hypothesis that Lewis theorized about AIDA in the
late 1800s and early 1900s. The research in the doctrinal history provides accurate knowledge
of the origin and process of the formulation of AIDA and Lewis’s genuine contribution.
Furthermore, it clarifies that two other salesmanship researchers, Frank H. Dukesmith and
Arthur Frederick Sheldon, contributed vitally to the AIDA model’s formulation.
This study is based on the method of the historical study of advertising theory that
encompasses an extensive range of primary sources, including several previously unknown.
We searched the literature by accessing several representative search sites, such as WorldCat
(https://www.worldcat.org/), HathiTrust Digital Library (https://www.hathitrust.org/), Internet
Archive (https://archive.org/) and Google Books (https://books.google.com/), and other
websites on the origin of AIDA, such as “Who created aida?”
(https://www.dragon360.com/blog/who-created-aida/). Therefore, we can access sources
online and offline that previous studies had never discovered. Our new theoretical historical
method can lead us to more accurate conclusions.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Other than Strong (1925a; b; 1938), various researchers have addressed the question: “Who
originated AIDA?” First, Jones (1971) assigned its origin to the science and art of salesmanship
in the late nineteenth century: “In 1889, Frederick Bartlett Goddard believed that the purpose
of any selling agency was to attract attention, interest customers, convince them, and awaken
their desire for goods” (Jones, 1971, p.13). Jones introduced Krebs (1911), where we can find
almost the same sentence on page 29. However, Goddard (1889) provided no clear or concise
integrated explanation about AIDA, and Krebs (1911) considerably overrated Goddard’s
contribution. Goddard only mentioned the following: “Orators say the object of speaking
should be one of four general forms, viz.: either explanation, conviction, excitation or
persuasion. The salesman speaks to explain, convince and persuade, and he should keep his
final aim constantly in mind” (Goddard, 1889, pp.19–20). Krebs selected the incomplete
information in Goddard (1889) and came to a hasty conclusion that Goddard was the origin of
AIDA. Furthermore, Jones accepted the incorrect interpretation in Krebs (1911) without

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directly checking the original source, Goddard (1889).
Second, Frank G. Coolsen, one of the most eminent marketing theory history researchers
in the first half of the twentieth century, adopted a more careful attitude (Coolsen, 1947). He
cited Lewis (1908), saying, “Lewis developed his discussion of copy principles on the formula
that good copy should attract attention, awaken interest, and create conviction” (Coolsen, 1947,
p.82). Moreover, he found that the “formula of the sales process” had been expanded to five
steps and used effectively as a structure for an orderly discussion of psychological factors in
ICS (1909), whose editor and the substantial author was S. Roland Hall (Coolsen, 1947). A
similar explanation can be found in ICS (1909): “A complete advertisement, to be most
effective, should be (1) attract favorable attention and awaken interest; (2) create desire; (3)
carry conviction; (4) inspire confidence; and (5) influence the reader to buy” (ICS, 1909, p.23).
Furthermore, ICS (1903) had a similar statement: “An ad, to be effective, must first attract
attention; second, create a desire for the article advertised; third, convince the reader that he
ought to have the article; fourth, make the sale, or, what is the same, make the reader decide to
buy the article” (ICS, 1903, pp.19–20).
Third, Iwamoto (2017) stated the following: “Brown (1904) was the first article to explain
the effect of advertising by describing four words of AIDA in an orderly manner” (Iwamoto,
p.365). Brown (1904) stated the following: “To make advertising which will sell goods requires
development of the human part of writer. He must get away from the seller’s standpoint and
into the buyer’s shoes. He must realize the different forces which command attention, interest,
desire, and then produce action” (Brown, 1904, p.184). Iwamoto (2017) and his discovery
written in Japanese remain unknown in international advertising academia.
Another important question about AIDA’s formulation is, “Who completed AIDA?” Strong
(1925a; b; 1938) recognized the outstanding contributions of Lewis and Sheldon. For instance,
Strong (1925a) stated that Sheldon had added two more words, “Confidence” and “Satisfaction,”
to the fourth and fifth states and said: “this slogan of Lewis and Sheldon has had a very
profound effect upon the selling world” (Strong, 1925a, p.77). In contrast, he offered the
following commentary on Walter D. Scott, a famous contemporary advertising researcher:
“Several writers have more or less stressed mental states without subscribing to the above five-
step formula. Scott’s writing in 1903 and 1908 believed that all mental activities of man were
involved in the process of buying…But, Scott made no attempt to formulate a simple
expression of the selling process” (Strong, 1925a, p.77). Because Scott did not mention AIDA
in his book published in 1907 (Scott, 1907), Lewis might have made a negative evaluation of
him.
Such differences in Strong’s assessment of Lewis, Sheldon, and Scott suggest that he
considered Lewis and Sheldon the originators of AIDA. Moreover, Ralph Starr Butler, a
contemporary representative marketing researcher, mentioned the following: “Mr. A. F.
Sheldon was probably the first to point out the presence of these four steps in every sale” (Butler,
1911, p.420). Sheldon (1910) said: “four of these mental states that must take place in the mind
of the customer’s mind in every sales transaction, namely: First, attention; Second, interest;
Third, desire; Fourth, action” (Sheldon, 1910, pp.28–29). Furthermore, Sheldon (1911) said:
“Every buyer’s mind passes, more or less quickly, through well defined (sic) stages of thought
and feeling in making a purchase, and therefore it is your duty and advantage to adapt your
argument to the law governing those stages. They are: 1. Favorable attention. 2. Interest. 3.
Desire. 4. Decision and Action” (Sheldon, 1911, pp.145–146).
Finally and crucially, the first studies on AIDA’s formulation process (Butler, 1911; Krebs,
1911) did not refer to Lewis or his research. We cannot find any studies that refer to Lewis’s
contribution until Strong (1925a) acknowledged it without providing evidence. Consequently,
the hypothesis first proposed by Strong not only had no solid foundation but was also initially

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 heretical.

INVESTIGATION OF EARLY STUDIES OF AIDA

Lewis’s research through 1910

If the explanation by Strong (1925a; b; 1938) was correct, Lewis formulated the prototype
of AIDA in 1898 and completed it by adding “get action’ by 1910 when Sheldon (1910) was
published.
Table 1 lists all studies by Lewis (including those under his penname “Musgrove”)
published in 1897–1910 that are available and searchable either offline or online. The table
implies two crucial points. First, Lewis had no writings that described “Attract attention,
maintain interest, create desire” in or around 1898. During the same period, Lewis (1899a)
stated: “An advertisement should conform to three general rules in its preparation:1st, to catch
the eye of the reader; 2nd, to inform him; 3rd, to make a customer of him” (Lewis, 1899a, p.66)
and Lewis (1899b) said: “We must present the proposition we have in such a fashion that it will
attract, interest and convince” (Lewis, 1899b, p.70). It might not be impossible to regard his
incomplete statements as the origin or prototype of AIDA. However, it differs entirely from the
quotation by Strong (1925a; b; 1938).
Moreover, Strong (1925b) implies that Lewis mentioned such a slogan in his advertising
course in Philadelphia. Lewis was an instructor in charge of the Peirce School Course in
Advertising in 1902 (Sinberg, 1902). In Lewis (1902), titled “Lewis Correspondence Course
of Individual Instruction in Advertising,” there is no clear explanation of AIDA.
Second, we cannot find any sources in which Lewis added the term “get action” until 1910.
As presented in Table 1, Lewis (1908) was his first work to recognize the possibility of AIDA
formulation, although his explanation only included AID or AIC. The word “Conviction” is the
mental status of consumers as with “Attention” and “Interest,” and some contemporaneous
studies of AIDA frequently used it as a substitute for “Action.” Lewis (1899b) was one of the
earliest studies to use “A (attract),” “I,” and “C” in a line; however, Lewis failed to lay the
foundation of AIDA before adding “Action.”

TABLE 1
LEWIS’S WORKS UNTIL 1910 (this author’s underlining)
Year Title/ Magazine or Publisher/ Statements that reference AIDA
Pages
1897 “Printing and Publicity Problems,” Nothing
The Inland Printer, 19(1–4), Apr.–
July. & 20(1–2), Oct.–Nov., pp.58–
60; 195–196; 326–328; 430–432 &
66–69; 193–194
1897 “Printing and Publicity Problems,” The first law of ad. composition should be, as in the making of a picture:
The Inland Printer, 19(5), Aug., Have a point on which the attention is to be concentrated and render
p.558 every other portion of the ad. display subordinate to that. [A]
1897 “Printing and Publicity Problems,” We have found handsome or odd circulars, set up and printed to attract
The Inland Printer, 19(6), Sep., attention and yet be in good taste, our best advertising medium, usually
p.687 addressing the contents of these to some special trade or class of business
men. [A]
1897 “Printing and Publicity Problems,” WHENEVER you do anything that attracts attention favorably from a
The Inland Printer, 20(3), Dec., customer, get out a reproduction of it and send it around with a short note
p.350 from yourselves calling attention to the food words. [A]
1897–8 “Printing and Publicity Problems,” Nothing

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 The Inland Printer, 20(4), Jan.,
pp.484–486
1897–8 “The Struggle for Publicity,” The Nothing
Spatula, 4(1–4), Oct.–Jan., pp.17–
20; 69–72; 123–126; 177–178
1898 “The Struggle for Publicity,” The ・His (the city druggist’s) limited capital will not permit of anything but
Spatula, 4(5), Feb., p.229 a small outlay for creating confidence and interest…How can he reach
each house and arouse the interest of each inmate? [I]
1898 “The Struggle for Publicity,” The Nothing
Spatula, 4(7–10), Apr.–July, pp.331–
334; 389–390; 447–449; 497–501
1899 “Side Talks about Advertising,” The ・ An advertisement should conform to three general rules in its
Western Druggist, 21(2), Feb., p.66 preparation:1st, to catch the eye of the reader; 2nd, to inform him; 3rd,
to make a customer of him.
1899 “Side Talks about Advertising,” The Nothing
Western Druggist, 21(3, 5–7, 10),
Mar., May–July, Oct., pp.141–142;
238–239; 290–291; 351–352; 527–
528
1899 Publicity for Printers, The Enterprise ・The average first advertisement never creates more than the slightest
Printing Co., pp.16; 70 comment–and we shall treat here of the average advertisement only. The
second one but adds a little to the impression of the first. The third creates
attention, while the fourth is looked for, and so the impression grows and
deepens that the advertiser really has something to say, has the faith born of
conviction. [AC]
・What is a good ad? To me a food ad is a piece of news about your business
plainly and simply told, displayed so as to present it’s (sic) strong points at a
glance and of about a thing of such interest to the people to whom it is
addressed, that it is likely to procure their co–operation. First: To obtain a
successful ad, we must have something to sell that somebody wants. Second:
We must have a medium that will reach the people who have the most use for
the article we wish sell. Thirdly: We must present the proposition we have in
such a fashion that it will attract, interest and convince. [A (Attract) IC
(Convinve)]
1900 “Publicity for Printers,” The Nothing
American Printer, 30(1–3, 6), Mar.–
May, Aug., pp.42–44; 86–88; 152–
153; 354–355
1900 “Publicity for Printers,” The JUDICIOUS ADVERTISING DOES PAY, and that is the kind you
American Printer, 30(5), July, should use. The whole secret of advertising is to call the attention of the
pp.284–286 general public towards you. [A]
1901 “Advertising It,” The Spatula, 7(10), Get the benefit of all the general advertising that is done in your town
July, p.610 for the goods you sell, by directing people’s attention to the fact that you
sell the goods advertised. [A]
1901 “Advertising It,” The Spatula, 7(12), Nothing
Sep., pp.733–734
1902 Lewis Correspondence Course of Advertisers are constantly on the lookout for new and striking
Individual Instruction in Advertising, combination of thought, type, ink and paper, in order to attract attention,
E. St. Elmo Lewis Incorporated, p.10 so that the possible buyer may listen to their offerings. [A]
1903 “Catch–Line and Argument,” The The mission of an advertisement is to attract a reader, so that he will look
Book–Keeper, 15(8), Feb., p.124 at the advertisement and start to read it; then to interest him, so that he
will continue to read it; then to convince him, so that when he has read
it he will believe it. If an advertisement contains these three qualities of

5
 success, it is a successful advertisement. [A (Attract) IC (Convince)]
1904 The credit Man and his Work, The Nothing
Book-keeper Pub. Co., Ltd.
1908 Financial Advertising for ・ CHAPTER IV: ESSENTIALS OF GOOD ADVERTISING;
Commercial Banks, Trusts, Title ATTRACTING THE ATTENTION, CHAPTER V: ESSENTIALS OF
Insurance, and Safe Deposit GOOD ADVERTISING THE INTEREST, CHAPTER VI:
Companies, pp.125; 247; 298 ESSENTIALS OF GOOD ADVERTISING; CREATING THE
CONVICTION (Chapter Structure) [AIC]
・Interest, the authorities tell us, is the continued attention of the mind
to some particular thing or thought. We take an interest in a thing,
because we want to and the act itself expresses a desire to do
something. [AID]
・The problems of attracting the attention, making it interesting and
persuading to action is the same. [AIA]
・The matter of attracting attention is just as important in car card
advertising as elsewhere; so are the points of awakening interest and
persuading to some action [AIA]
1910 “Platitudes,” The Caxton, 2(2), Nov., Nothing
pp.38–39
1910 “Honor or Honesty-Which?,” The Nothing
Caxton, 2(3), Dec., pp.48–49

Contemporaneous Studies of AIDA

Table 2 presents the early development of the AIDA model from the end of the nineteenth
century to 1910, when Sheldon (1910) completed AIDA. The list includes essential writings
described in previous studies and some literature newly discovered in this study.
Table 2 reveals two important things. First, it is very difficult to determine who originally
invented AIDA. It might be possible to regard short essays (Herzberg and Dougan, 1898; Sears,
1898), whose authors are not necessarily determinable, as the original articles on AIDA;
however, their descriptions are relatively obscure. It might also be possible that Lewis was the
first author to invent AIDA. However, his descriptions associated with AIDA not only differ
entirely from the one quoted by Strong (1925a; b; 1938) but also lack two elements of AIDA:
“Desire” and “Action.” Second, compared with Lewis’s studies from 1898 to 1903, Dukesmith
and Sheldon were more likely to formalize AIDA as a theory of salesmanship and advertising
in the same period. The next section traces the descent of AIDA formalization, led
predominantly by Dukesmith and Sheldon.

TABLE 2
AIDA’S EARLY DEVELOPMENT PHASE
Author/Year/ Statements that reference AIDA
Page(s)
Goddard ・Orators say the object of speaking should be one of four general forms, viz.: either explanation,
(1889), conviction, excitation or persuasion. The salesman speaks to explain, convince and persuade, and he
pp.19–20; 38 should keep his final aim constantly in mind.
・An advertisement which is all display lines is not conspicuous; it loses the effect of contrast.
There should be only enough of them to attract attention and emphasize the force of the candid and
clearly stated announcement. [A]
Herzberg & ・The mission of an advertisement is to sell goods. To do this, it must attract attention, of course; but
Dougan attracting attention is only an auxiliary detail. The announcement should contain matter which will
(1898), p.50 interest and convince after the attention has been attracted. [AIC (Convince)]

6
Sears (1898), ・The first thing an advertisement should do is to attract. Unless it effects this it is useless, as it will
p.51 not even be looked at. The second thing it ought to do is to convince. If, after attracting attention, it
fails in this particular, its attractiveness will go for nothing. [AC (Convince)]
Lewis (1898), See the details in Table 1 [I]
p.229
Lewis See the details in Table 1
(1899), p.66
Lewis See the details in Table 1 [A (Attract) IC (Convince)]
(Musgrove)
(1899), p.70
Lewis (1899), See the details in Table 1 [A (Attract) IC (Convince)]
p.70
Gale ・Advertisements seem to have two aims, viz: 1. To attract attention. 2. To induce to buy. [A]
(1900), p.39
Scott (1902), ・…the purpose of advertising is to attract attention to the goods and to create such a favorable
pp.7, 9 & impression for them that the reader will desire to possess them. [AD]
(1903), pp.2–3 ・Although feeling is an element in attention. It is in such close relation to interest and desire that it
cannot be properly discussed till these two, in their application to advertising, have been analyzed.
[AID]
・Ordinary the business man does not realize that he means psychology when he says that he “must
know his customers’ wants–what will catch their attention, what will impress them and lead them to
buy,” etc. [A]
Dukesmith ・…there are four distinct conditions to be brought about by the salesman every time a sale is made,
(1903a), p.2 namely: “securing attention,” “arousing the interest,” “creating desire,” and “closing the sale.” [AID]
Lewis (1903), See the details in Table 1【IC】
p.124
ICS (1903), ・An ad, to be effective, must first attract attention; second, create a desire for the article advertised;
pp.19–20 third, convince the reader that he ought to have the article; fourth, make the sale, or, what is the
same, make the reader decide to buy the article. [ADCM (Make the sale)]
Dukesmith ・The last and fourth element of every sale is conviction and in order for a sale to follow the reading
(1904a), p.7 of an advertisement it is necessary that the entire chain of attention, interest, desire and conviction
shall be carried through in an unbroken sequence. [AIDC]
Sheldon (1904), ・…advertising serves to secure attention of customers, i.e., to attract their attention to the article
Vol.8, pp.13–14 being advertised. It also in thousands of cases arouses interest, and in very many cases also creates
desire for the thing being advertised. In some instance, it even goes so far as to change desire into
resolve to buy and thus, of course, the sale is already made.
・…four processes–attention, interest, desire and resolve… [AIDR (Resolve)]
・The advertising man, in writing the ads, does his best not only to attract attention and
arouse interest and create desire, but in the advertisement tries to bring about resolve
to buy. [AIDR]
・Remember that a lead is evidence of the fact that the customer’s attention has been secured and his
interest aroused; otherwise, he would never have made the inquiry. It is then simply up to you to
change interest into desire and desire into resolve to buy. [AIDR]
Brown ・He (the writer) must realize the different forces which command attention, interest, desire, and
(1904), p.184 then produce action. [AIDA]
Sheldon (1905), ・It is by the effective use of these agents of expression, in conveying the subject–matter of thought
Vol.12, p.34 by means of language, with all its accompaniments and figures of rhetoric, that the speaker is to
affect the hearer in entertaining him, convincing him and persuading him to decision and action,–the
resolve to buy, the target aimed at with our mental arrows. [AIDR (A)]
Dukesmith & ・We find that the four steps, or states of mind, in every sale are Attention, Interest, Desire and
Michell (1905), Conviction, because the mind is first Imaginative (forming the idea), second, Emotional
pp.30; 63; 70 (appreciating that which will benefit self), third, Volitional (willing to own) and fourth, Enthusiastic
(having an anxiety to acquire). When we find these facts in every sale we are induced to believe that

7
 these principles must be contained in the science of salesmanship, and that a knowledge of that
which will cause attention, interest, desire and conviction is the system, or process of the “Mental
Law of Sale,” or the Science of Salesmanship.
・…every sale is made up of the four parts of “attention,” “interest,” “desire” and “conviction,” and
these must follow in logical order, or the sale itself will die in the making if any of these elements are
missing, …
・ELEMENTS OF A SALE–CONVICTION. In this fourth and last step of sale it is necessary for
the salesman to be able to show the absolute need of his goods in preference to any other, and that
the customer has the ability to pay, or make agreeable terms, and can afford it.
Frederick ・The same things are necessary to successful advertising that are necessary to successful
(1906), p.64 salesmanship–attention must be attracted, turned quickly to interest, and then to conviction and
desire to buy; and the one thing that will do all these things as nothing else has power to do, is to
attractively present the selling points of the goods, and to lime–light in the beginning the main
advantages, so that he who runs may read. [AICD]
Sheldon ・…the advertising writer must indeed be a master of salesmanship in order to get attention, arouse
(1906), pp.333, interest, and create desire–just three of the steps up the hill. [AID]
336 ・At first the possibility of my buying one was very remote but gradually attention developed into
an interest in bicycles. I observed the kinds of bicycles and mentally conceived the pleasures of
bicycling and almost unconsciously interest changed into desire. The desire finally became so
intense that by force of natural law it changed into a resolve to buy and I paid out the $75 I could not
spare, for a wheel I could not afford. [AIDI (Intense)]
・If we bear in mind these fundamental things in writing advertisements, oh, what a chance a man
has in the handling of a large advertising appropriation to get the attention of the public, to change
attention into interest, interest into desire, and desire into a resolve to buy. [AIDR (Resolve)]
Sheldon …the customer moves from attention to the article to interest in it; from interest to desire for it, and
(1907), pp.41– from desire to resolve to buy it, the clinching act; and the sale is over and done. [AIDR(A)]
42
Youngman The order in advertising is: 1. Attract attention. 2. Hold interest. 3. Convince. 4. Get readers to act
(1907), p.725 promptly and favorably. [AICA]
Lewis (1908), See the details in Table 1 [AIC] [AID][AIA]
pp.125; 247
Appel (1908), ・Now, in retailing you must first have the goods that people want–that they have an appetite for.
pp.429–230 You must, secondly, get the people to give attention to those goods. You must, thirdly, get their faith
and confidence. You must, fourthly, arouse a desire for the goods–in a word, there must be a demand.
Lastly, you must make the Sale and leave the customer satisfied. [AD]
・This, you will see, follows somewhat the Sheldon Mental Law of Sale, although it has these
important additions: the mental state of Faith or Confidence coming between interest and desire to
buy; and the mental state of satisfaction following the Sale. [ID]
・I claim that Interest, however intensified, will never change into Desire to Buy without the mind
passing through the stage of Faith or Confidence–faith that the article to be purchased will bring
either pleasure or profit to the purchaser. [ID]
Sheldon (1910), ・Six Mental States of Customer in Sales Transaction: Attention. Interest. Desire. Decision and
pp.2; 28–29 Action. CONFIDENCE: Satisfaction【AIDA&S】
・…four of these mental states are necessarily present in the customer’s mind in every sales
transaction, namely: First, attention; Second, interest; Third, desire; Fourth, action.【AIDA】

Dukesmith’s contribution
The journal Salesmanship: A Monthly Magazine contributed considerably to AIDA’s
formulation. Dukesmith was both editor and a primary writer for the magazine and published
11 short articles on AIDA from 1903 to 1904. Six articles written in 1903 did not link to
previous studies; they indicate that he already had an intense interest in the AIDA model when
the journal first appeared.

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 TABLE 3
DUKESMITH’S STUDIES ON SALESMANSHIP (this author’s underlining)
Article/ Statements that reference AIDA
Year/ Pages
Dukesmith See the details in Table 2 [AIDC (Closing the sale)]
(1903a), p.2
Dukesmith As in the making of every sale the point of “arousing interest” must be thoroughly established
(1903b), p.6 before trying to “create desire,” it is many times necessary to keep the mind of the customer
in an unresisting state until the salesman is assured positively that he has the customer truly
interested. [ID]
Dukesmith ・The first element, or part, is “securing attention;” the second is “arousing the interest;” the
(1903c), third is “creating desire;” and the fourth is “closing the sale.” There are a great many men who
p.12–13 can build a sale up to the “third degree” but fall down when it comes to the fourth and last
degree of “closing the sale.” [AIDC (Closing the sale)]
・When attention, interest and desire have been properly secured and established the final and
vital part of “closing the sale” must be created by the salesman in such a manner that to the
customer’s mind it appears perfectly logical for him to buy what is offered by the salesman.
[AIDC (Closing the sale)]
Dukesmith The “professional points” are those things which enable a salesman to approach a customer,
(1903d), judge of his nature, secure attention, arouse interest, create desire and sell the goods at a profit.
p.52 [AID]
Dukesmith …it is necessary that you be able to properly approach a customer, in order to secure his
(1903e), attention, arouse his interest and create within his mind a desire for your goods before you can
p.82 hope to close the sale. [AIDC (Close the sale)]
Dukesmith ・…as the separation of a sale into its four elementary parts cannot be too forcibly impressed
(1903f), on the mind of every salesman, I will again mention them as being attention, interest, desire
pp.118–120 and conviction. [AIDC (Conviction)]
・Conviction, which is the element of the sale, will follow as a logical consequence.
・…you will realize the necessity of cultivating your personal faculties to the extent that you
can, by your individuality, secure attention, arouse interest, create desire, and carry conviction
to your customer’s mind. (AIDC (Conviction))
Dukesmith See the details in Table 2 [AIDC (Conviction)]
(1904a), p.7
Dukesmith The first diagram, marked “A,” will show you that every sale must be offset by attention,
(1904b), interest, desire, and conviction. [AIDC (Conviction)]
p.14
Dukesmith Now in making a selling talk you must always keep in mind the four natural divisions of a
(1904c), sale: attention, interest, desire and conviction, and build your talk accordingly. [AIDC
p.58 (Conviction)]
Dukesmith What a Successful Salesperson Actually Does: I. Secure Attention of Customer By–1.
(1904d), Personal appearance. 2. Manner of approach. 3. Power of speech. II. Arouse Interest of
p.101 Customer By–1. Appeal to emotions; that is, beauty, grace of garment, etc. 2. Appeal to
reason; that is, why price is right, quality of goods, etc. III. Create Desire to Have the Goods
By–1. Enthusiasm in pointing out details of garment. 2. Concentrated interest. 3. Sympathetic
attitude. IV. Convince Customer Into Taking Garment By–Following above directions
carefully. [AIDC (Conviction)]
Dukesmith THE SALESMAN. THE PROSPECTIVE CUSTOMER. Study of the tastes and disposition of
(1904e), the prospect. Introduction, by self or intermediate person, or by letter. ATTENTION. Make
p.167 your presentation not too strong, going back without a break if necessary, showing the purpose
of your article, its utility and why your customer should have it, and try to arouse his
INTEREST. Having done this, you develop it by judicious argument, the showing of

9
 testimonials and references to the special merits of your subject and citing good opinions of
others, until your customer has a DESIRE to purchase, from which, by satisfying him as to
price in relation to value, governed by his ability to purchase, you produce CONVICTION
and the sale is closed. [AIDC (Conviction)]

Dukesmith initially adopted “closing the sale” as the “final and vital part” that “must be
created by the salesman in such a manner that to the customer’s mind it appears perfectly
logical for him to buy what is offered by the salesman” (Dukesmith, 1903c, p. 13).
Subsequently, he replaced this concept with “Conviction” and determined what “will follow as
a logical consequence” (Dukesmith, 1903f, p.119). Furthermore, he consistently maintained
AIDC starting with Dukesmith (1903f). He integrated it into “a process through which the mind
of the customer must pass in order to produce the sale,” primarily “Mental Law of Sale”
(Dukesmith and Michell, 1905). He tried to systematize the framework of AIDC by illustrating
the brief diagram in Table 4.

TABLE 4
MENTAL LAW OF SALE DIAGRAM (Dukesmith and Michael 1905)
SALESMAN CUSTOMER GOODS SALE
Personality Observation Attractiveness Attention
Conception Appreciation General Utility Interest
Judgment Application Specific Merits Desire
Industry Enthusiasm Adaptability Conviction

The Contribution of Sheldon and The Sheldon School

Sheldon was the founder and director of The Sheldon School of Scientific Salesmanship
(whose name changed to The Sheldon School in February 1905), which had published more
than 40 pocket-sized textbooks about salesmanship by 1906 (Knutson, 1955). He consistently
urged that business and salesmanship should have a basis in scientific knowledge as certain as
nature’s laws (Sheldon, 1903). Thus, the theorization of AIDA naturally attracted his interest.
Sheldon repeatedly referred to the four mental stages of “Attention,” “Interest,” “Desire,” and
“Resolve (to buy)” and emphasized the importance of the law of selling in his textbooks (Table
5).
TABLE 5
EXPLANATION OF AIDA IN SHELDON’S TEXTBOOK, THE SCIENCE OF
SUCCESSFUL SALESMANSHIP (this author’s underlining)
Article/ Year/ Pages Statements that reference AIDA
“Supplement D: ・ATTENTION, real attention, is the first great step in the practical art, the real
Suggestion in work of selling. [A]
Salesmanship: A Side– ・ Here you have to consider the mind of the customer and the successive
Light,” in Sheldon conditions to be produced in it according to our “law of sale.” Theses are
(1903), pp.45–47 attention, interest, desire and resolve.
・Now, you take these guiding principles into account; if you confront them with
the four states of attention, interest, desire and resolve;…you have a pretty clear
idea of the use that may be made of suggestion in the progress of sale. [AIDR
(Resolve)]
“Lesson 3: Building You have here arrived at a truth–a new piece of knowledge by means of reasoning.

10
Material, Intellect, To reason this out presupposes knowledge on your part, as to how a circular
Memory, Imagination, should be written in order to secure attention and arouse interest; which
Will,” in Sheldon knowledge you must have gained by apprehension or judgement, or by another
(1904), Vol.3, p.11 act of reasoning from more primitive judgement. [AI]

“Supplement D: ・Same as Sheldon (1903)

Suggestion in ・There are attention, interest, desire and resolve, and judging from his character
Salesmanship: A Side– and other circumstances you at once have before you the material to work with.
Light,” pp.45–47, in [AIDR (Resolve)]
Sheldon (1904) ・Same as Sheldon (1903)
“Lesson 8: Finding the See the detail in Table 2 [AIDR]
Customer and Building
Business,” in Sheldon
(1904), Vol.8, pp.13–14;
20
“Lesson 10: General ・A great many salesmen seem to have the power to secure a customer’s attention,
Laws of Success,” in to make him considerably interested in the goods he has to sell, even making the
Sheldon (1904), Vol.10, customer desire them, but they do not succeed in closing the order. This is but
pp.26–27; 32 another way of saying that they are weak in bringing about decision and action.
・And unless you are very skillful in securing attention and arousing interest, the
prospects are that you will have to overcome this mental resistance or antagonism
from the very beginning of your conversation.
“Introductory: Note––– ・What we aim to do through advertisements we write is to attract attention,
Road Carefully before arouse interest, create desire and bring about the conclusion to buy. From a
Taking up the Study of practical standpoint, unless a very large space is to accomplish the first two, attract
This Lesson” in Col. W attention and arouse interest. Then, through either a follow–up system or special
M.C. Hunter correspondence, or through personal salesmanship, desire must be created, and
“Advertising: Its conclusion to buy brought about. The merchant who advertises goods for sale
Relation to Scientific secures the attention of the public, arouses interest and oftentimes his large
Salesmanship,” Sheldon advertisements create a desire in the mind of the customer, and the customers
(1904), pp. i–ii; vi flock to the store with their mind already made up to buy a given article or articles.
・… but if you have the mental law of sale clearly in mind you will realize that
in a small ad you can do but little more than attract attention and arouse interest;
while, in large space, you can often make interest change to desire, and often
desire change into resolve to buy.
Hoyt, H. H. “Lecture: However, by a different process you may secure attention and awaken an interest
The Making of a Life which leads to a quick reposal (sic) of confidence that your manner and
Insurance Salesman earnestness constantly cements.
(Lecture Supplement
No.10),” in Sheldon
(1904), p.12
“Lesson 12: Polishing See the detail in Table 2 [AIDR(A)]
the Points,” in Sheldon
(1905), Vol.12, p.34
“Introductory: Note––– The mental path along which the mind of the customer must travel before the sale
Road Carefully before is made is a very interesting one. Attention, Interest, Desire and Resolve, are great
Taking up the Study of words when you see them in their true light.
This Lesson” in Sheldon
(1905), Vol.13, p.i

11
 “Lesson 13: Strategy of ・I have known many salesmen who were able to get attention, arouse interest
the Sale,” in Sheldon and even create desire, that is, it really seemed that the person to whom they were
(1905), Vol.13, pp.40– speaking desired the article, but they were “weak closers,” they didn’t seem to
42; 48; 52 know how to “clinch the deal.”
・The salesman–especially one that has often called upon his customer–who
succeeds in attracting the customer’s attention to his goods, and in arousing his
interest concerning them, can also create a desire for them, and if by his tact,
courtesy, character and personality he continues to hold the good will of that
customer, is going to win his trade sooner or later.
・But what is resolve? In the Lexicons the term is defined as “A fixed and firm
determination or purpose.” Hence it is an act of the will, a choice or decision to
do something, and in this sense differs by its nature from the mental trio that
precede it. Attention, interest and desire might be called merely states or attitudes
of thought, while this is a positive mental action. In order to resolve or will a
thing, the mind must “get busy.” It makes a choice, it decides, it resolves, and then
it acts, and in this case the resolution and action is what virtually complete the
sale.
・You also can see what I meant by the homely idiom, “only more so.” The
intellect has been duly informed through its work of attention and interest–even
some feeling may have crept in at the latter stage. The sensibilities have been
awakened to the extent of desire.
・The salesman may not perceive the march of attention, interest, desire and
resolve.
“Lesson 14: Synthesis in ・As we have noted in Lesson XIII, the object of the introduction is to secure
the Selling Talk,” in attention. The object of the first selling talk is to arouse interest. The object of the
Sheldon (1905), Vol.14, second selling talk is to create desire. The object of the third selling talk is to
pp.6; 9; 11; 28; 35 inspire resolve, or prompt the customer’s will to decision and action.
・It is true that by this first selling talk you may likewise secure attention and
even go so far as to arouse interest, create desire and bring about the resolve to
buy.
・Again we take it for granted that you have secured attention by means of your
introduction and also aroused interest by your first selling talk. You had hoped by
the synthetic description in the latter talk to capture the fortress of resolve and
action.
・To return to our military figure, you realize that you have now captured the forts
of attention, interest and desire. Usually when this is done, the fort of resolve to
buy, of decision and action, will surrender peacefully.
“Introductory: Note––– ・Attention, interest, desire and resolve to buy, these four mental conditions must
Road Carefully before and do exit in the mind of each purchaser. Often the advertising, or necessity, has
Taking up the Study of created these four mental stages and the customer comes to the store with his or
This Lesson” in Sheldon her mind fully made up to purchase this or that or the other thing.
(1905), Vol.17, pp.i–ii ・I called, simply by attracting my attention to them, getting me interested in one,
making me desire it and causing me to conclude to buy it.
“Lesson 17. The Retail In the case of customers calling into a store it may be presumed, as a general thing,
Salesman,” in Sheldon that most, if not all the mental conditions set down, i. e., attention, interest, desire
(1905), Vol.17, p.18 and resolve, have already found place in their minds.

Sheldon considered the fourth element, “Resolve (to buy),” approximately equivalent to
“Decision and Action.” In the section “RESOLVE, DECISION AND ACTION” (Sheldon,

12
1905), he stated: “…in many instances, the salesman never visits a customer more than once
or twice. Hence it becomes a duty…to make a desire so strong that it shall lead to decision and
action and also get the customer to ‘do it now’” (Sheldon, 1905, Vol.13, p.41).
His statement implies that it is vital that salespeople make their customers buy their
products and complete the sale. Customers’ final “action” is crucial for success in salesmanship.
Even if the salesperson can attract attention, arouse interest and create desire, it is not
meaningful if customers do not take action.
Finally, The Sheldon School promoted Sheldon’s AIDA model. Sheldon (1912) said that
10,000 students were scattered over the United States and abroad three years after being
founded in 1902. The fact that the textbooks published for the foundation of The Sheldon
School included the concept of AIDA has been unknown in previous studies. This indicates
that all previous studies including Strong (1925a; b; 1938) overlooked the contribution of
Sheldon and The Sheldon School.

HISTORICAL ANALYSIS OF TWO MAIN QUESTIONS ABOUT THE ORIGINS OF

AIDA
This section considers two main questions about the origin of AIDA based on bibliographical
evidence.

Did Lewis formulate AIDA in 1898?

We must consider the validity of the description by Strong (1925a; b; 1938). We can draw the
following tentative conclusion through our analysis in the previous sections: It is unlikely that
Lewis invented the simple AIDA slogan around 1898 and in the decade from 1900 to 1909.
Otherwise, the possibility that Lewis orally taught the slogan in his lesson at the Pierce School
remains. However, his lesson was so practical about advertising writing that he even discussed
his lesson in interviews as follows: “No text-books (sic) are required” (Sinberg, 1902, p.46).
His comment symbolically reveals that Lewis, unlike Sheldon, was little interested in scientific
knowledge and the theorization of AIDA, at least around 1902, when the AIDA model was
about to be developed.
Strong (1925a) referred to various sources in the main text or footnotes. If Strong had some
evidence indicating that Lewis had described the slogan in 1898, he would have cited its source
in his articles. The fact that Strong (1925b; 1938) left the defects found in his first study, Strong
(1925), without mentioning Lewis's 1898 source, indirectly indicates that he did not have the
evidence. Therefore, it is reasonable to believe that he did not grasp any authentic source for
the slogan.
Consequently, on what source did Strong base his repeated insistence that Lewis formulated
AIDA in 1898? Redfield (1910) offers a clue to the question in the following comment by
Lewis: “I [Lewis] can remember with what a feeling of resigned and kindly tolerance some of
the old advertising men hear a writer say, ‘All advertising must attract attention, maintain
interest, arouse desire, get action’” (Redfield, 1910, p.7). The comment only indicates that he
had heard about the slogan of AIDA before 1910. Nevertheless, it is the only source that
indicates that Lewis uttered the phrase. It is unknown whether Strong had read Redfield (1910).
Nevertheless, it is reasonable to believe that Strong relied on such an uncertain source, believed
that two short essays—Herzberg and Dougan (1898) or Sears (1898) in Printers’ Ink—were
written by Lewis, and convinced himself that Lewis had invented AIDA.

Who added “Action” to AID?

As described earlier, Iwamoto (2017) found that Brown (1904) was the first article to arrange
AIDA orderly. There had been no studies by Lewis or any other authors in which A–I–D–A

13
stood in line before Brown (1904). Moreover, as presented in Table 1, Lewis referred only to
“Attention” and “Interest” in AIDA until 1904. Therefore, Lewis never completed AIDA, even
if he added “get action” in his undiscovered research. Concerning the “Action” in AIDA, Lewis
(1908) only stated: “The problems of attracting the attention, making it interesting and
persuading to action is the same” (Lewis, 1908, p.298). This statement has much less intention
to complete or formulate AIDA than Sheldon (1903) or Dukesmith (1903a; b; c; d; e; f).
Dukesmith constantly selected “Conviction” as the final word of AIDA since Dukesmith
(1903f). “Conviction” is defined as a mental state of consumers, similar to “Attention,”
“Interest,” and “Desire.” Salespeople are required to convince consumers to buy their offerings
and close the sales; therefore, it is no wonder that he considered “Conviction” the most suitable
final word above all others, including “Action,” which refers to consumer behavior.
In contrast, Sheldon (1904) selected “resolve to buy” as the fourth word, explaining that
the “sale is already made” (Sheldon, 1904, Vol.8, p.13). Furthermore, Sheldon considered the
final element of AIDA more crucial than AID, unlike other contemporaneous authors.
“Decision and Action” accompanied “Resolve to buy” in several of Sheldon’s studies. Thus,
we can conclude that Sheldon provided a groundbreaking contribution to AIDA formulation.
If AIDA is simply a model explaining advertising effectiveness, we might not need to dwell
on the fourth letter. As we have seen, however, AIDA was a key concept that integrated separate
contexts of advertising theory and salesmanship. At the same time, it also has a position as a
primitive model concerning consumer decision-making processes. Therefore, the final word of
the model should be “action,” not “conviction,” and Sheldon, who recognized the importance
of this, is the most qualified to be the originator of the AIDA model.

CONCLUSION

With the dominant hypothesis proposed by Strong (1925a; b; 1938) as a milestone, we

investigated the origin of AIDA by accessing numerous contemporary studies, including
several previously unknown. Thus, we reach three conclusions. First, the hypothesis that Lewis
formulated AIDA in 1898 is unsupported or based on weak evidence. Moreover, the possibility
that some undiscovered evidence could appear is extremely low. We should not adopt such an
untenable hypothesis without new evidence.
Second, Dukesmith and Sheldon—not Lewis—contributed decisively to the formulation of
AIDA. The AIDA model has two origins: salesmanship and advertising. Strong (1925a; b;
1938) overlooked the studies on AIDA accumulated in the field of salesmanship around 1903,
which was a crucial and fruitful period for AIDA’s formulation. Thus, he overvalued the
contribution by Lewis, an advertising researcher who first noticed AIDA’s potential in the field
of advertising. It is uncertain whether Sheldon and/or Dukesmith formed the idea of AIDA by
referencing Lewis’s research. If so, Lewis is one of the originators of AIDA. However, Lewis’s
explanation about AIDA until 1903 was far from the model’s foundation and inferior to
Dukesmith’s AIDC and Sheldon’s AIDR.
Third, concerning the question, “who first invented AIDA?” Brown (1904) was a highly
likely candidate compared with Lewis. However, Dukesmith and Sheldon had already
established the prototype in their studies. Sheldon recognized the importance of the fourth word
and the necessity of the theorization much earlier than Lewis or any other researchers. The
difference may stem from the fact that Sheldon ran “Sheldon School” founded to educate
salespeople. This is because persuading consumers to take action is a more critical concern for
salesmanship and salespeople than for advertising and the writers, which Lewis was concerned
about. According to Strong (1925a; b; 1938), Sheldon’s contribution to AIDA’s formulation
was to add “Confidence” and “Satisfaction” to the fourth and fifth states. However, his most

14
important contribution was to complete AIDA by adding “Action” to the fourth or final element.
Sheldon—not Lewis—can be regarded as the originator of AIDA.
The academic contribution of this paper is that it provides a more accurate history of the
representative advertising theory. Even if it were recognized that David Hume—not Adam
Smith—was the founder of modern economics, current economic theory would not be affected;
however, accurate history is essential for the proper development of the discipline, and
advertising theory is no exception. Theories and disciplines that do not have an accurate history
lose credibility.
This study examined the validity of the dominant hypothesis regarding the history of AIDA.
Furthermore, it confirmed that the dominant hypothesis is highly inaccurate and that Sheldon—
not Lewis—made a vital contribution to the AIDA’s formulation. This fact has been neglected
for more than a century and warrants acknowledgment by those involved in advertising
research.

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