MODULE 6: MEMORY

MEMORY - system that encodes, stores, and retrieves information. APPLICATION TO REAL-LIFE SITUATION
- enables learning.
Automatic Processing
Memory’s three basic 1. ENCODING- modification of information to fit psychological formats (through - if someone asks you what you ate for lunch
tasks visual, acoustic, semantic codes) so that it can be placed in memory. today, more than likely you could recall this
(Processes of Memory) - Elaboration is an attempt to connect a new concept with existing information information quite easily.
in memory. Effortful Processing
- AUTOMATIC PROCESSING- Usually done without any conscious awareness. - we have short-term recall of only 7 letters but
- EFFORTFUL PROCESSING- Requires a lot of work and attention to encode the can remember 5 words.
information. Semantic Encoding
- - thinking of definitions for each word you must
Types of encoding remember.
a. SEMANTIC ENCODING – encoding of words and their meanings. Visual Encoding
- Most effective form of encoding. - When we meet someone for the first time their
- Attaching meaning to information makes it easier to recall later. facial features and expressions. So, the next time
- Involves a deeper level of processing. we meet, we recognize them even if they have
b. VISUAL ENCODING – encoding of images. changed their hairstyle or clothing.
-Words that create a mental image, such as car, dog, and book (concrete Acoustic Encoding
words) are easier to recall than words such as level, truth and value (abstract - Learning the alphabet or multiplication tables
words). Self-Reference Effect
c. ACOUSTIC ENCODING – encoding of sounds. - I was given a list of words to learn and asked to
relate each word to something about me, I
SELF-REFERENCE EFFECT – the tendency for an individual to have better memory for would stand a much better chance of recalling it
information that relates to oneself in comparison to material that has less personal later than if I was not given the instructions.
relevance.
2. STORAGE- Is the creation of a permanent record of information. Involves the retention or maintenance of encoded material over time.
- MAINTAINANCE REHEARSAL- continuous repetition.
- Repeating a phone number mentally, or aloud until the number is entered into the phone to make the call.

- ELABORATIVE REHEARSAL- link information to other information/memories to make it more meaningful.

- When trying to remember that someone is named George, one might think of five other things one knows about people named George.

- BADDELEY & HITCH MODEL “WORKING MEMORY” - where short-term memory has different forms depending on the type of information
received. Storing memories is like opening different files on a computer and adding information.

3 short-term systems:
 a. VISUOSPATIAL SKETCHPAD- handles visual and spatial information (know their location in relation to other objects). It allows people
to recall layouts of a room or the way a painting looks.
b. EPISODIC BUFFER- it holds integrated episodes or scenes and a “buffer” in the sense of providing a limited capacity interface
between systems using different “representational codes”.
PHONOLOGICAL LOOP- store is the inner ear; it stores information that is heard for a few seconds.
- THE ATKINSON- SHIFFRIN MODEL (A-S MODEL)- assumes there are three unitary (separate) memory stores, and that information is
transferred between these stores in a linear sequence.
Memory Systems
a. SENSORY REGISTER: Quick scan for importance, Precoding
b. WORKING OR STM: Coding, Rehearsal, Recoding
c. LTM: Process, Store, Recall
- SENSORY MEMORY- storage of brief sensory events, such as sights, sounds, and tastes. Stored for up to a couple of seconds. First step
of processing stimuli from the environment.
The Stroop Effect- describes why it is difficult for us to name a color when the word and the color of the word are different.
- SHORT TERM MEMORY (WM)- temporary storage system that processes incoming sensory memory. Lasts about 20 seconds.
- Capacity is usually about 7 items +/-2.
MEMORY CONSOLIDATION – Transfer of STM to long-term memory.
- REHEARSAL– the conscious repetition of information to be remembered.
- LONG TERM MEMORY- is the continuous storage of information. no limit and is Explicit Memory
like the information. - remembering information, you have learned
a. EXPLICIT MEMORY- memories of facts and events we can consciously when taking a test.
remember and recall/declare and personally experienced. Semantic
a.a SEMANTIC– knowledge about words, concepts and language. - Knowing who the President is.
a.b EPISODIC– information about events we have personally experienced. Episodic
-A small number of people have a highly superior autobiographical - If you are studying for your PSY 101 exam, the
memory known as HYPERTHYMESIA. material you are learning.
Implicit Memory
b. IMPLICIT MEMORIES- memories that are not part of our consciousness. - Singing a familiar song.
Formed through behaviors. Procedural
b.a PROCEDURAL– stores information about how to do things. Skills and - Riding a bike at the age of 50 even though you
actions.
haven’t ridden in over 30 years.
b.b EMOTIONAL CONDITIONING- includes behaviors that are learned.
3. RETRIEVAL- the act of getting information out of memory storage and back Recall
into conscious awareness. Needed for everyday functioning. - Writing an Essay
Recognition
 - Used for a multiple-choice test.
3 ways to retrieve information: Relearning
a. RECALL– being able to access information without cues. - if you try to relearn how to speak Spanish, you
b. RECOGNITION– being able to identify information that you have previously will learn it quicker than the first time.
learned after encountering it again.
c. RELEARNING– Learning information that you previously learned.
Photographic memory Technically refers to EIDETIC IMAGERY. Renders everything in minute detail while an - Most of us remember a face much more easily
eidetic image portrays the most interesting and meaningful parts of the scene most than the name associated with that face.
accurately and is subject to the same kind of distortions found in normal memories.
PARTS OF THE BRAIN KARL LASHLEY was looking for evidence of ENGRAM – the group of neurons that serve as the “physical representation of memory”.
INVOLVED IN MEMORY EQUIPOTENTIALITY HYPOTHESIS - if part of one area of the brain involved in memory is damaged, another part of the same area can take over
that memory function.
ERIC KANDEL
➢ Studied the synapse and its role in controlling the flow of information through neural circuits needed to store memories.

• AMYGDALA- Involved in fear and fear memories (memory storage is influenced - AMYGDALA- difficulty with memory processing,
by stress hormones). emotional reactions, and decision-making.
• HIPPOCAMPUS- Associated with explicit memory, recognition memory and - HIPPOCAMPUS -inability to process new
spatial memory. declarative memories.
• CEREBELLUM- Plays a role in processing procedural memories, such as how to - CEREBELLUM- an eye-blink in response to a puff
play the piano and classical conditioning. of air.
• PREFRONTAL CORTEX- Appears to be involved in remembering semantic - PREFRONTAL CORTEX-often display short-term
tasks. memory deficits, which may help to explain
some of their difficulties in planning.
NEUROTRANSMITTERS • Communication among neurons via neurotransmitters is critical for developing new memories. Repeated neuron activity increased
neurotransmitters in the synapse stronger synaptic connections (This is how memory consolidation occurs).
EPINEPHRINE- plays an important role in your body's fight-or-flight response.
SEROTONIN-mood, sleep, digestion, nausea, wound healing, bone health, blood clotting and sexual desire.
ACETYLCHOLINE- enhances the encoding of memory by enhancing the influence of feedforward afferent input to the cortex.
DOPAMINE- enhancing the influence of feedforward afferent input to the cortex.
GLUTAMATE- plays a prominent role in neural circuits involved with synaptic plasticity.
AROUSAL THEORY – strong emotions trigger the formation of strong memories and weaker emotional experiences form weaker memories.
- You would feel alarmed and scared when you notice a rattlesnake.
Strong emotional experiences can trigger the release of neurotransmitters which strengthen memory. Evidenced by
 FLASHBULB MEMORIES - A record of an atypical and unusual event that has very strong emotional associations.
- 9/11 terrorist attacks.
PROBLEMS WITH AMNESIA – the loss of long-term memory that occurs as the result of disease, physical Anterograde Amnesia
MEMORY trauma, or psychological trauma. - might remember how to make a phone call but
1. ANTEROGRADE AMNESIA- commonly caused by brain trauma. cannot they don't remember what they did earlier this
morning. (Accident)
remember new information. can remember information and events that
happened prior to injury. hippocampus usually affected. Retrograde Amnesia
2. RETROGRADE AMNESIA- loss of memory for events that occurred before the - someone might forget whether they own a car,
trauma. cannot remember some or all past events. difficulty remembering what type it is, and when they bought it — but
episodic memories. they will still know how to drive

MEMORY CONSTRUCTION– formulation of new memories. Suggestibility

CONSTRUCTION & RECONSTRUCTION– process of bringing up old memories. - someone says, “The guy had an earring,
RECONSTRUCTION SUGGESTIBILITY- is the effects of misinformation from external sources that leads to remember?” And suddenly you remember that
the creation of false memories. “by asking questions” he in fact did have an earring but actually not.
EYEWITNESS -used in the prosecution of criminals. Procedures can lead to alterations in an Eyewitness misidentification is the leading cause of
MISIDENTIFICATION eyewitness’s memory leading to misidentification. wrongful convictions
THE MISINFORMATION MISINFORMATION EFFECT PARADIGM – after exposure to incorrect information, a Therapist asks the client if someone touched his
EFFECT person may misremember the original event. genitals and the client created memories that the
person touched his genitals
REPRESSED & controversial topic within psychology is the idea that whole events can be repressed Repressed Memories
RECOVERED MEMORIES or falsely recalled. - a young child is bitten by a dog. They later
- FALSE MEMORY SYNDROME – recall of false autobiographical memories. develop a severe phobia of dogs but have no
- REPRESSED MEMORIES: Some psychologists believe it is possible to memory of when or how this fear originated
completely repress traumatic childhood memories such as sexual abuse. Can
lead to psychological distress in adulthood.
FORGETTING -loss of information from long-term memory.

ENCODING FAILURE -occurs when the memory is never stored in our memory in the first place.

EBBINGHAUS’ -which illustrates Ebbinghaus conclusion that most forgetting occurs soon after we learn something
FORGETTING CURVE Immediate: 100% ; 20 Minutes: 58% ; 1 hour: 44 % ; 9 hours: 33% ; 2 days: 28% ; 6-31 days: 21-25%
MEMORY ERRORS SIN TYPE DESCRIPTION EXAMPLE
Transience Forgetting Accessibility of memory decreases over time Forget events that occurred long ago
 Absentmindedness Forgetting Forgetting caused by lapses in attention. Forget where your phone is
Blocking Forgetting information is temporarily blocked tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
Misattribution Distortion Source of memory is confused Recalling a dream memory as a waking memory
Suggestibility Distortion False memories Results from leading questions
Bias Distortion Memories distorted by current belief system Align memories to current beliefs
Persistence Intrusion Inability to forget undesirable memories Traumatic events
TRANSIENCE/STORAGE - Overtime, unused information tends to fade away.
DECAY LETHOLOGICA OR TIP OF THE TONGUE PHENOMENON - effortful retrieval that occurs when we know something but cannot quite pull it out of
memory.
BIAS - your feelings and view of the world can distort your memory of past events.
STEREOTYPICAL BIAS - involves racial and gender biases.
EGOCENTRIC BIAS – involves enhancing our memories of the past.
HINDSIGHT BIAS – the tendency to think an outcome was inevitable after the fact.
PERSISTENCE - Instead of forgetting things, we don’t/can’t forget things - PTSD
INTERFERENCE -Sometimes forgetting is caused by a failure to retrieve information. This can be due to Proactive
interference, either retroactive or proactive. - Memory of old locker combination interferes
PROACTIVE INTERFERENCE- Old info hinders recall of new information. with recall of new gym locker combination.
Retroactive
RETROACTIVE INTERFERENCE- New information hinders recall of old information. - Learn sibling’s new college email address
interferes with recall of old email address
MEMORY-ENHANCING REHEARSAL – conscious repetition of information to be remembered. Chunking
STRATEGIES CHUNKING– organizing information into manageable bits or chunks. - Separating phone numbers into 3 chunks
ELABORATIVE REHEARSAL – technique in which you think about the meaning of the Mnemonic devices
new information and its relation to knowledge already stored in your memory. - a knuckle mnemonic, Acronym, Acrostic, Jingle
MNEMONIC DEVICES – memory aids that help us organize information for encoding.
MODULE 7: LEARNING
LEARNING -change in human performance, permanent change in a person’s knowledge, or .APPLICATION TO REAL-LIFE SITUATION
enduring change in behavior.
INNATE- unlearned behaviors.
REFLEXES - Involve the activity of specific body parts and systems. - Knee-jerk, pupil contraction in bright light
- neural reaction to a specific stimulus in the environment
INSTINCTS - triggered by a broader range of events. - Aging process, desire to survive
- movement of the organism as a whole
FORMS OF LEARNING BEHAVIORAL LEARNING (Stimuli – Response)- outward expression of new behaviors - A student gets a small treat if they get 100%
- Focuses solely on observable behaviors. on their spelling test. In the future, students
- Biological basis for learning. work hard and study for their test to get the
- Against the subjective methods of structuralism and functionalism. reward.
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING - Learning What is Linked to What
IVAN PAVLOV - process by which we learn to associate stimuli and, consequently, to anticipate events.
UNCONDITIONED STIMULI- automatically produce a reflex.
UNCONDITIONED RESPONSE- auto response to US.
CONDITIONED STIMULI- paired by US, elicit by UR.
UNCONDITIONED RESPONSE- learned response.
HIGHER–ORDER the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second conditioned stimulus.
CONDITIONING
EXTINCTION the decrease in the conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is no longer presented with the conditioned stimulus.
SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY the return of a previously extinguished conditioned response following a rest period.
GENERALIZATION - the tendency to respond in the same way to different but similar stimuli.
DISCRIMINATION - the ability to differentiate between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that have not been paired with an unconditioned stimulus.
HABITUATION - when we learn not to respond to a stimulus that is presented repeatedly without change.
WATSON’S “LITTLE His Little Albert experiment demonstrated how fear can be conditioned.
ALBERT” EXPERIMENT
OPERANT CONDITIONING - Learning What Does What to What
- employs rewards and punishments for behavior.
EDWARD THORNDIKE –LAW OF EFFECT- favorable consequence become more likely, unfavorable consequence becomes less likely.
B.F. SKINNER- developed operant conditioning as a systematic study of how behaviors are strengthened or weakened according to their
consequences.
 TYPES OF BEHAVIORS - RESPONDENT BEHAVIORS occur automatically and reflexively.
- pulling your hand back from a hot stove or jerking your leg when the doctor taps on your knee.

- OPERANT BEHAVIORS are those under our conscious control, the consequences of these actions influence whether they occur again in
the future.
- offering praise when they do something positive.
REINFORCEMENT IN is any event that strengthens or increases the behavior it follows.
OPERANT CONDITIONING
- POSITIVE REINFORCERS are favorable events or outcomes that are presented after the behavior by the addition of praise or a direct
reward.
- NEGATIVE REINFORCERS involve the removal of unfavorable events or outcomes after the display of a behavior by the removal of
something considered unpleasant.
PUNISHMENT IN OPERANT presentation of an adverse event or outcome that causes a decrease in the behavior it follows.
CONDITIONING
- POSITIVE PUNISHMENT presents an unfavorable event or outcome to weaken the response it follows.
- NEGATIVE PUNISHMENT occurs when a favorable event or outcome is removed after a behavior occurs
REINFORCEMENT CONTINUOUS REINFORCEMENT involves delivering a reinforcement every time a response occurs.
SCHEDULES
PARTIAL REINFORCEMENT- most effective once a behavior is established. New behavior is likely to disappear.
- FIXED RATIO (Fairly steady response rate)
- VARIABLE-RATIO (Fairly steady and start to increase but slow immediately after the reinforcement has been delivered)
- FIXED INTERVAL (high response rate and slow extinction rates)
- VARIABLE-INTERVAL (Fast response rate and slow extinction rate)
FORMS OF LEARNING COGNITIVE LEARNING- Grew in response to Behaviorism, stored cognitively as - Asking students to reflect on their experience.
symbols, process of connecting symbols in a meaningful & memorable way. - Helping students find new solutions to
- changes in mental processes, not directly observable. problems.
- Developed as a rebellion against narrow perspective of behaviorism. - Helping students explore and understand how
Big names: Kohler, Tolman, Bandura ideas are connected.
INSIGHT LEARNING -problem solving occurs by means of a sudden reorganization of perception - Kohler put a chimpanzee (Sultan) inside a
• The learning displayed by Kohler’s chimps defied explanation by the cage.
behaviorists
COGNITIVE MAPS -a mental image an organism uses to navigate through a familiar environment
-Finding Out What’s on a Rat’s Mind
• Edward Tolman believes that learning is mental, not purely behavioral.
• Learning does not always involve changes in behavior, nor does it require reinforcement.
- LATENT LEARNING is a learning that occurs but is not observable in behavior until there is a reason to demonstrate it.
 FORMS OF LEARNING SOCIAL LEARNING/OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING - Imitating what you have watch in the TV.
Bandura’s Challenge to Behaviorism - Copying the behavior of your siblings.
- new responses are acquired after watching other’s behavior and the consequences - Learning through observation.
of their behavior.
- most human behavior is learned through observation, imitation, and modeling.
THREE KINDS OF MODELS LIVE- Demonstrate a behavior in person.
VERBAL- Does not perform the behavior but explains or describes the behavior.
SYMBOLIC- Demonstrate behaviors in books, movies, TV shows, video games or internet sources.
STEPS IN THE MODELING ATTENTION- pays attention to observe the modelled behavior.
PROCESS RETENTION- mentally retains what has been observed.
REPRODUCTION- from mental representations into ACTIONS.

MOTIVATION REINFORCEMENT- influences motivation to perform learned behavior.

VICARIOUS REINFORCEMENT – one is motivated to copy the reinforced action of a model.
VICARIOUS PUNISHMENT – one is less motivated to copy a model’s action if this was punished.
MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES -Grew out of Constructivism, framed around metacognition.
- people are born with eight intelligences
SPATIAL- visual the world in 3D (directions) EXISTENCIAL- tackling questions why we live and die.
NATURALIST- living things and nature (environment) INTERPERSONAL- sensing people’s feelings and motives
MUSICAL- sounds, tone, timbre BODILY-KINESTHETIC- mind and body
LOGICAL MATHEMATICAL- quantifying things, making hypothesis, LINGUISTIC- words
and proving them. INTRA-PERSONAL- understanding yourself
FORMS OF LEARNING BRAIN-BASED LEARNING- motivated by the general belief that learning can be accelerated and improved if educators base how and what
they teach on the science of learning.
- involves a teaching method that limits lectures and encourages exercise breaks, team learning, and peer teaching.
centers around neuroplasticity, or the remapping of the brain’s connections when learning new concepts.
SOME CORE PRINCIPLES OF Positive Emotions, Health and Exercise, Group Work, Peer Teaching, Practice, Written and Verbal Information, Stimulation, Less Stress
BRAIN-BASED LEARNING
MODULE 8: NATURE OF INTELLIGENCE
Intelligence - the cognitive ability of an individual to learn from experience, to reason well, .APPLICATION TO REAL-LIFE SITUATION
and to cope effectively with the demands of daily living. How well a person is
able to use cognition in coping with the world.
Classic Definitions of - SPEARMAN (1904)- education of relations and correlates.
Intelligence - BINET & SIMON (1905)- ability to judge well, understand well, reason well.
- TERMAN (1916)- capacity to form concepts and grasp their significance.
- THURSTONE (1921)- capacity to inhibit instinctive adjustments, flexibly imagine different responses.
- WECHSLER (1939)- capacity of the individual to act purposefully, think rationally, and deal with the environment.
- STERNBERG (1985)- mental capacity to automatize information processing and to emit appropriate behavior.

Cultural Differences in
Views of Intelligence
The Classic Approaches
GARDNER (1986)- skill to solve problems within one or more cultural settings
CHINA (YANG & STERNBERG, 1997)
- Emphasis on benevolence & doing what is right
- Importance of humility, freedom from conventional standards of judgment, knowledge of oneself
- AFRICA (RUZGIS & GRIGORENKO, 1994)
Conceptions of intelligence revolve largely around skill that help to facilitate and maintain harmonious & stable intergroup relations.
- FRANCIS GALTON: THE 1ST MODERN ATTEMPT: intelligence is inherited.
- ALFRED BINET: INTELLIGENCE TESTING: measure higher ability functions such as judgment, comprehension, and reasoning. Age
differentiation and general mental ability were used as key principles in the test.
- CHARLES SPEARMAN: GENERAL INTELLIGENCE: Intelligence is a single, general cognitive ability that could be measured and
numerically (g factor was the most important; s factors were very specific to particular tests)

LOUIS L. THURSTONE: PRIMARY MENTAL ABILITIES: Intelligence is composed of 7 primary mental abilities (Verbal Comprehension, Word
Fluency, Number, Space, Associative Memory, Perceptual Speed, Reasoning)
Relevant Modern FLUID INTELLIGENCE: to come up with a strategy to solve a statistic problem
Approaches • Related to a person’s inherent capacity to learn & solve problems.
• Used in adapting to new situations.

CRYSTALLIZED INTELLIGENCE: to recall the exact formulas you need to use.

• What one has already learned through the investment of fluid intelligence in cultural settings.
• Used for tasks which require learned or habitual response.
Howard Gardner: Multiple
Intelligences
Robert Sternberg: Triarchic
Theory of Intelligence
Emerging Approaches
Numerical expressions of human intelligence are not a full and accurate MATHEMATICAL- quantifying things, making hypothesis, and
depiction of people's abilities describe eight distinct intelligences that are proving them.
based on skills and abilities that are valued within different cultures. INTERPERSONAL- sensing people’s feelings and motives
KINESTHETIC- mind and body
LINGUISTIC- words
VISUAL- visual the world in 3D (directions) INTRA-PERSONAL- understanding yourself
NATURALISTIC- living things and nature (environment)
MUSICAL- sounds, tone, timbre
intelligence as "mental activity directed toward purposive adaptation to, selection and Analytical
shaping of real-world environments relevant to one’s - Solving a murder mystery
- ANALYTICAL - the ability to evaluate info and solve problems. Creative
- Innovations
- CREATIVE - the ability to come up with new ideas.
Practical
- PRACTICAL - the ability to get along in different contexts. - ''Street smarts''
PLANNING, ATTENTION-AROUSAL, SIMULTANEOUS AND SUCCESSIVE (PASS) THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE; Brain is modularized.
• PLANNING - which involves executive functions responsible for controlling and organizing behavior, selecting, and constructing (found
in the frontal lobe)
• ATTENTION PROCESS - which is responsible for maintaining arousal levels and alertness and ensuring focus on relevant stimuli.
(Found in the frontal lobe and the lower parts of the cortex)
• SIMULTANEOUS PROCESSING - is engaged when the relationship between items and their integration into whole units of information
is required. (Found in occipital and the parietal lobes)
- SUCCESSIVE PROCESSING - is required for organizing separate items in a sequence such as remembering a sequence of words or
actions exactly in the order. (Found in the frontal-temporal lobes)
EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE- ability to monitor emotions, to discriminate among them, and to use the information to guide one's thinking and
actions."
• SELF-AWARENESS: Observing yourself and recognizing a feeling.
• MANAGING EMOTIONS: Handling feelings so that they are appropriate; realizing what is behind a feeling; finding ways to handle fears
and anxieties.
• MOTIVATING ONESELF: Channeling emotions in the service of a goal; emotional self-control; delaying gratification and stifling
impulses.
• EMPATHY: Sensitivity to others' feelings and concerns and taking their perspective; appreciating the differences in how people feel
about things.
• HANDLING RELATIONSHIPS: Managing emotions in others; social competence and social skills.
MODULE 9: MOTIVATION AND EMOTION
Motivation need or desire that energizes behavior and directs it toward a goal. .APPLICATION TO REAL-LIFE SITUATION
It is what either starts or stops behavior. Extrinsic
- EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION: type of motivation in which a person performs an - Going to the same store because you benefit
action because it leads to an outcome that is separate from or external to the from loyalty programs.
person. Example: Going to work for money. Intrinsic
- INTRINSIC MOTIVATION: type of motivation in which a person performs an - Playing sports because you enjoy how they
action because the act itself is rewarding or satisfying in some internal make you feel.
manner.
Different Theories on - INSTINCT THEORY- organisms are motivated to engage in certain behaviors Instinct Theory
Motivation because of their genetic programming and because these behaviors lead to - mother will attempt to provide comfort to a
success in terms of natural selection. baby who has been crying all night.
A. INSTINCTUAL BEHAVIORS- Reproduction and social dominance. Human Drive Theory
beings are territorial “this is our space” by nature. Some animals have - We eat when we're hungry to reduce the
instinctual behaviors like mating dances and nest building sequences. discomfort that hunger causes within our
- DRIVE THEORY (Drive Reduction or Homeostatic theory)- motivated by the bodies.
need to reduce internal tension caused by unmet biological needs. They work Incentive Theory
by “negative” feedback, that is one experiences an unpleasant feeling. - an employee might work harder on a project
- INCENTIVE THEORY- motivated by the pull of external (outside) goals such as to earn a good review
rewards.
Types of Motives 1. PRIMARY MOTIVES- based on biological needs that must be met for survival. They are innate like hunger, thirst, pain avoidance, needs for
air, sleep, elimination of wastes, and regulation of body temperature.
HUNGER
A. ANOREXIA NERVOSA- Active self-starvation or sustained loss of appetite that seems to have psychological origins.
B. BULIMIA NERVOSA- Excessive eating usually followed by self-induced vomiting and/or taking laxatives.
C. BINGE EATING DISORDER- Recurring episodes of excessive amount of food in a short period of time.

THIRST AND PAIN

- EXTRACELLULAR THIRST: When water is lost from fluids surrounding the cells of the body.
- INTRACELLULAR THIRST: When fluid is drawn out of cells because of increased concentration of salts and minerals outside the cell.
Best satisfied by drinking water.
- PAIN AVOIDANCE: An episodic drive. Distinct episodes when bodily damage takes place or is about to occur.
SEX DRIVE
- ESTRUS: Changes in animals that create a desire for sex; females in heat
- ESTROGEN: A female sex hormone
- ANDROGENS: Male hormones
 Sex Disorders
A. GENDER IDENTITY DISORDER- when the person’s sense of identity (male vs. female) is inconsistent with who they are physically.
“I’m a man trapped in a woman’s body” or vice versa.

B. SEXUAL DYSFUNCTION- The golden age of Viagra….

- MEN: hypoactive sexual desired disorder, sexual aversion disorder, male erectile disorder, inhibited male orgasm, premature
ejaculation, dyspareunia.
- WOMEN: hypoactive sexual desire disorder, sexual aversion disorder, female sexual arousal disorder, inhibited female orgasm,
dyspareunia, and vaginismus.

C. PARAPHILIAS- When the weird get going, the going gets weird…
- FETISHISM: sexual attraction to nonliving objects.
- VOYEURISM: observing undressed individuals without
their knowledge.
- TRANSVESTISM: related to the act of cross-dressing
- SEXUAL SADISM: involves sexual excitement when
hurting others.
- SEXUAL MASOCHISM: when one is being inflicted with
pain.
- ZOOPHILIA: involves getting sexual excitement with
animals as partners.
- EXHIBITIONISM: involves exposing oneself to
strangers.
- FROTTEURISM: rubbing one’s body against an
unsuspecting victim.
- NECROPHILIA: with a corpse
- PEDOPHILIA: Sexuality is focused on children.
- INCEST: sexual relation with a family member

2. STIMULUS MOTIVES- are largely unlearned. It place a premium on obtaining information about the environment and depend more on
external stimuli than on internal states.
SENSATION SEEKERS- people who prefer high levels of stimulation. Whether you are high or low in sensation seeking is probably
based on how your body responds to new, unusual, or intense stimulation.
- People who score high on sensation seeking tend to be independent, bold, who value change. They report more sexual partners than
low scorers, always “looking for thrills.”
- Low sensation seekers are orderly, nuturant, giving, and enjoy company of others.

- EXPLORATION AND CURIOSITY- Exploration and curiosity are motives activated by the unfamiliar and are directed toward the goal of
discovering how the world works. Psychologists disagree on the nature and causes of curiosity, but it has been linked to creativity.
- MANIPULATION AND CONTACT- Humans and primates need to manipulate objects to gain both tactile information and a sense of
comfort. Contact, the need for affection and closeness, is another important stimulus motive. Although manipulation requires active
"hands-on" exploration, contact may be passive.

3. SECONDARY MOTIVES (Social/Psychological Motives)- based on learned needs, drives, and goals.
Need for Achievement- Motivation is a habitual desire to achieve goals through one’s efforts. The desire to excel or meet some excellence.
Abraham Maslow Hierarchy GROWTH NEEDS: 1. Physiological Needs: Food, water, shelter, sleep, excretion, etc.
of Needs - Self-actualization- beauty, richness, justice.
2. Safety Needs: A sense of security of the self, job security, health security.
BASIC NEEDS 3. Belongingness and Love Needs: Strong bonds, love relationships.
- Esteem and self-esteem
4. Esteem Needs: Self-confidence, respect, good reputation, etc.
- Love and belonging
- Safety and Security 5. Self-Actualisation: Morality, spontaneity, and acceptance.
- Physiological needs

Emotions as a state characterized by physiological arousal, changes in facial expression,

gestures, posture, and subjective feelings. Represent a complex state which results in
alteration of feelings, both psychological and physical.
Eight Primary Emotions Fear, Surprise, Sadness, Disgust, Anger, Anticipation, Happy, Trust
Wheel of Emotion Love, Submission, Awe, Optimism, Aggressiveness, Contempt, Remorse, Disapproval
Facial Expressions Basic expressions seem to be universal. Children who are born blind express
emotions the same way sighted people do
3 Key Elements of Emotion - Physiological Experience: body response like sweating
- Subjective Experience: feeling or emotion we feel.
- Behavioral Experience: facial expression (happy or mad)
Categories for Theory of - Physiological: Response within the body cause emotions.
Emotions - Neurological: Brain activity causes emotional responses.
- Cognitive: Thoughts form emotions.
EVOLUTIONARY THEORY - Emotions evolved due to adaptability allowing human beings and animals to fear evolved because it helped people to act in ways
(AS SEEN BY CHARLES survive and reproduce. that enhanced their chances of survival.
DARWIN) - The ultimate purpose of emotions is to motivate human beings to respond
quickly to stimuli in the environment.
COGNITIVE APPRAISAL (BY Stimulus – thought – the simultaneous experience of response – emotion we might hear a gunshot and experience fear, which
RICHARD LAZARUS) - This learning is built on Schacter-Singer’s theory is then followed by cognitive appraisals of
unexpectedness and ability to cope. Alternatively, we
might feel angry and not know why – so we look for a
reason.
Facial Feedback Hypothesis - The Facial Feedback Hypothesis states that facial expressions can cause smiling should typically make individuals feel happier,
(CHARLES DARWIN AND emotion! and frowning should make them feel sadder.
WILLIAM JAMES) - Changes in heart rate and skin temperature
- Smiling when your down may help improve mood but it’s important to deal
with your emotions constructively.
JAMES-LANGE’S VISION OF - Event – Arousal – Interpretation- Emotion
EMOTIONS - Suppose you are walking in the woods, and you see a grizzly bear. You begin
to tremble, and your heart begins to race. The James-Lange theory proposes
that you will interpret your physical reactions and conclude that you are
frightened ("I am trembling. Therefore, I am afraid.")
CANNON-BARD theory of - Event – Arousal + Emotion
emotion - seeing a snake might prompt both the feeling of fear (an emotional response)
and a racing heartbeat (a physical reaction).

Schachter-Singer Theory - Event – Arousal – Reasoning – Emotion

- a person being at a dinner party with friends they love (stimulating event) and
feeling an increased heart rate and perspiration (physiological arousal).

Schachter-Singer Two - Event – Arousal – Cognitive Labels – Emotion

Factory Theory - Being late for an important meeting: A person is running late for an important
meeting. The person's body experiences physiological arousal due to the
stress and frustration of being late, such as an increased heart rate and
sweating.
MODULE 10: PERSONALITY
Personality - Word stems from “persona” (Latin word – mask)
- the enduring or lasting patterns of behavior and though across time and situation.
APPROACHES OF 1. PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORIES
PERSONALITY THEORIES - holds that behaviors are influenced by unconscious processes.
- assumed that childhood experiences shape our personality later in life.
• Sigmund Freud: Psychoanalysis
• Carl Jung: Analytical Psychology
• Alfred Adler: Individual Psychology
• Karen Horney: Psychoanalytic Social
• Erik Erickson: Ego Psychology
Harry Stack Sullivan: Interpersonal Theory
APPROACHES OF 2. TRAIT THEORIES
PERSONALITY THEORIES - identify categories of traits that describe many people that can be used to predict behavior.
-classifying traits of people.

EYSENCK’S THREE FACTOR THEORY

Fundamental factors in personality:
• Introversion versus Extroversion
• Emotionally Stable versus Unstable (neurotic)
• Impulse Control versus Psychotic
FOUR BASIC TEMPERAMENTS:

BODY FLUIDS BASIC TEMPERAMENTS COMBINATION EFFECT

Black Bile Melancholic introverted + unstable sad, gloomy
Yellow Bile Choleric extroverted +unstable hot-tempered, irritable
Phlegm Phlegmatic introverted + stable sluggish, calm
Blood Sanguine extroverted + stable cheerful, hopeful
CATTELL: SOURCE AND SURFACE TRAITS Surface Traits
Two basic categories of traits: - Being Altruistic (when we act to promote
• SURFACE TRAITS: Features that make up the visible areas of personality. someone else's welfare, even at a risk or cost
• SOURCE TRAITS: Underlying characteristics of a personality. to ourselves)
Source Traits
- being unselfishness, not greedy, sharing, and
being thoughtful.
 Distinguished 3 types of traits: OPENNESS
• Dynamic. - Traits include insightfulness, originality, and
• Ability. curiosity.
• Temperament. CONSCIENTIOUSNESS
- Traits include ambition, discipline, consistency,
and reliability.
McCrae and Costa believed that five factors were most important: EXTRAVERSION
• OPENNESS- Represents the willingness to try new things and think outside - Traits include being outgoing, energetic, and
the box. confident.
• CONSCIENTIOUSNESS- The desire to be careful, diligent and to regulate AGREEABLE
immediate gratification with self-discipline. - Traits include tactfulness, kindness, and
• EXTRAVERSION- individual draws energy from others and seeks social loyalty.
connections or interaction. NEUROTICISM
• AGREEABLE- how an individual interacts with others. - Traits include pessimism, anxiety, insecurity,
• NEUROTICISM- A tendency towards negative personality traits, emotional and fearfulness.
instability, and self-destructive thinking.
CARDINAL TRAITS
GORDON ALLPORT’S 3 TRAITS - Kind : Mother Theresa
3 kinds of traits: CENTRAL TRAITS
- Traits describe by others towards the person.
• CARDINAL: a single personality trait that directs most of a cardinal person’s
activities (e.g., greed, lust, kindness).
• CENTRAL: a set of major characteristics that make up the central core of a
person’s personality.
• SECONDARY: less important personality traits that do not secondary affect
behavior as much as central and cardinal traits do.
APPROACHES OF 3. BEHAVIORAL/SOCIAL LEARNING THEORIES
PERSONALITY THEORIES - approach holds that behaviors are influenced by rewards, punishments, and models by means of imitation.
- people act the way they do because of the environment, not because of their personal choice or direction.
• John B. Watson: Behaviorism
• Burrhus Frederick Skinner: Behavioral Analysis
• Ivan Pavlov: Classical Conditioning
• Julia Rotter: Social Learning Theory
APPROACHES OF 4. HUMANISTIC THEORIES
PERSONALITY THEORIES - people are assumed to have a great deal of responsibility for their actions.
- people have the power to determine their own destiny and to decide their actions at almost any given moment.
• Abraham Maslow: Holistic-Dynamic
 • Carl Rogers: Person-Centered Theory
• Rollo May: Existential Psychology
• Eric Fromm: Humanistic Psychoanalysis
APPROACHES OF 5. COGNITIVE THEORIES
PERSONALITY THEORIES - differences in personality as differences in the way people process information.
- When people demonstrate noticeable different patterns of behavior, it is the result of differences in the way they perceive the world and in
the way they organize and utilize this information
• Albert Bandura: Social Cognitive Theory
• George Kelly: Psychology of Personal Constructs
• Rotter and Mischel: Cognitive Social Learning Theory
PSYCHODYNAMIC - focuses on the inner person.
Sigmund Freud
Much of behavior is motivated by inner forces, memories, and conflicts of which a person has little awareness or control.
Levels of Mental Life • UNCONSCIOUS- contains all drives, urges and instincts beyond our Unconscious
(TOPOGRAPHIC MODEL) awareness. - anger at one's mother, memories of childhood
abuse, and hatred of a family member.
• PRECONSCIOUS- all the elements that are not conscious but can become Preconscious
conscious either quite readily or with some difficulty. - someone may see or hear something that
makes them remember to do something they
• CONSCIOUSNESS- defined as mental elements in awareness at any given had planned to do.
point in time Consciousness
- a person can concentrate on the wind blowing
out the window while paying attention to his
own pattern of breathing.
Provinces of the Mind 1. ID (“IT”)- seeks immediate satisfaction of its wishes. ID
(The Structural Model) • Raw, unorganized, inborn part of personality - a toddler that wanted a second helping of a
• Primitive desires of hunger, sex, and aggression dessert and whined until it was given to them.
• Pleasure Principle
EGO
2. EGO (“ME”)- Instinctual energy (ID) is restrained to maintain the safety of the - if a person cuts you off in traffic, the ego
individual and keep him/her within societies norms. prevents you from chasing down the car and
• Due to constant battle between an id demanding instant gratification and a physically attacking the offending driver.
superego demanding constant restraint.
• Compromise SUPEREGO
• Rational and reasonable - A woman feels an urge to steal office supplies
from work.
 3. SUPEREGO (“OVER-ME”)- The cost of advanced civilization is the sense of MORAL IDEALS
guilt. (Freud) - Dapat ginawa mo pero di mo ginawa
• Right and wrong
• Develops at age 5 or 6. CONSCIENCE
• Learned from others. - Ginawa mo pero dapat di mo ginawa
Moral Ideals and Conscience- Guides us toward socially acceptable behavior using
guilt and anxiety.
Dynamics of Personality • DRIVES-WHAT PUSHES US?
Eros (Growth) and Thanatos (Destruction)
• SEX AND AGGRESSION- Libidinal Drive (Sexual Satisfaction)
• ANXIETY- when we cannot satisfaction (constant conflict between ID and EGO)
DEFENSE -It is the thwarting of frustrations brought about by the id/superego conflict. 1. A child suffers abuse by a parent, represses the memories,
MECHANISM and becomes completely unaware of them. (Repressed
1. REPRESSION- when the ego prevents anxiety-provoking thoughts from being Memory)
entertained in the conscious level and bury down to the unconscious. 2. A person who is angry at their boss may “take out” their
2. DISPLACEMENT- the substitution of one cathexis by another, the true desire anger on a family member.
3. IDENTIFICATION- the tendency to increase personal feelings of worth by taking 3. You idolize your father about his achievement, and you feel
on the characteristics of someone viewed successful. like your successful too.
4. REACTION FORMATION- objectionable thoughts are repressed by the expression 4. Being overly friendly to someone you don't like.
of their opposite goals. 5. A woman who has been unfaithful to her husband but who
5. PROJECTION- something true about a person but might cause anxiety if accuses her husband of cheating on her.
recognized is repressed and projected into someone else instead. 6. A person might account for a bad mood by explaining that
6. RATIONALIZATION- justifying behavior or thoughts that are anxiety-provoking. bad traffic affected the morning commute.
a. SOUR GRAPE a. Someone was turned down by a romantic interest, they
b. SWEET LEMON might claim that they didn't want to date the person in
7. REGRESSION- returning to an earlier stage of development when one the first place.
experiences stress. b. We want a high-end laptop, but what we have is an old,
8. ALTRUISM- using constructive and instinctually gratifying service to others to outdated desktop.
undergo a vicarious experience. 7. A person stuck in traffic may experience road rage, he had
9. SUBLIMATION- achieving impulse gratification and the retention of goals but tantrum that helps them cope with the stress of driving.
altering a socially objectionable aim to a socially acceptable one. 8. You help others because you couldn’t you’re your brother.
10. SUPPRESSION- consciously postponing attention to a conscious impulse or 9. You displace your anger into something good.
conflict. 10. Consciously choosing to block ideas or impulses that are
11. PASSIVE-AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOR- expressing aggression toward others undesirable.
indirectly through passivity, masochism and turning against the self. 11. You obeyed your parents but you tend to do it slowly to
annoy them.
Personality Development Oral Stage (0-1): infant’s need for gratification from the mother.
ORAL AGGRESSIVE: Alcoholism, smoking, oral sadism. (Lack)
ORAL RECEPTIVE: Gullible and overdependent. (Over satisfied)
Anal Stage (2-3): toddler’s need for gratification along the rectal area. Demands of toilet training.
ANAL RETENTIVE: Controlling, over organized, or stubborn. (Early)
ANAL EXPULSIVE: Sloppy, impulsive, or disorganized (Late)
Phallic Stage (3-6): preschooler’s gratification involving the genitals. Fondling their genitals and developing an incestuous desire for the
opposite sex parent.
Parents respond too POSITIVELY: opinions of themselves are so unrealistically high.
Parents who REJECT their child’s wishes: devalue themselves and who are overly insecure and self-doubting.
a. Oedipus Complex – sexual attachment of a male child to his mother.
b. Electra Complex – sexual attachment of a female child to her father.
Latency Stage (6 to puberty): sexual desires are repressed, and the entire child’s available libido is channeled into socially acceptable outlets.
Genital Stage (Puberty – onwards): maturation of the reproductive system, production of sex hormones, and a reactivation of the genital zone
as an area of sensual pleasure.
ANALYTICAL PSYCHOLOGY -humans are not only motivated by repressed experiences but also by emotionally- toned experiences coming from ancestors.
Compendium of Opposites:
- Introverted and extraverted
- Rational and Irrational
- Male and Female
- Conscious and Unconscious
PSCYHE - Total Personality PRINCIPLE OF OPPOSITES
- Nonphysical space with its own personal reality. - . If I have a good thought, for example, I
cannot help but have in me somewhere the
opposite bad thought.
PSYCHE ENERGY- flows continuously in various directions.
PRINCIPLE OF EQUIVALENCE
Operates according to:
- When I held that baby bird in my hand, there
PRINCIPLE OF OPPOSITES
was energy to help it. But there is an equal
amount of energy to crush it.
PRINCIPLE OF EQUIVALENCE
PRINCIPLE OF ENTROPY
- if a person has more traits of extroversion
PRINCIPLE OF ENTROPY than introversion, then he will be called an
extroverted person.
Levels of the Psyche 1. CONSCIOUS- images are those that are sensed by the ego, whereas unconscious elements have no relationship with the ego.
- EGO-the center of consciousness
- force in the personality responsible for feelings of identity and continuity
- personal sense of identity
- contains conscious thoughts of our own behavior, feelings, memories of our experiences.
2. PERSONAL UNCONSCIOUS- Embraces all repressed, forgotten, or subliminally perceived experiences of one individual.
- Contents of the personal unconscious are called COMPLEXES.

3. COLLECTIVE UNCONSCIOUS- roots in the ancestral past of the entire species.

responsible for people’s many myths, legends, and religious beliefs.
Archetypes - Ancient or archaic images that derive from the collective unconscious.
- Dreams are the main source of archetypal material.

1. SELF- most comprehensive of all archetypes

- it pulls together the other archetypes in the process of self-realization.
- its ultimate symbol is the mandala.
2. PERSONA- side of personality that people show to the world.
3. SHADOW- archetype of darkness and repression, represents those qualities we do not wish to acknowledge but attempt to hide from
ourselves and others.
4. ANIMA- Feminine archetype in men.
5. ANIMUS- Masculine archetype in women.
6. GREAT MOTHER- preexisting concept of mother is always associated with both positive and negative feelings.
- represents two opposing forces—fertility and nourishment on the one hand and power and destruction on the other.
7. WISE OLD MAN- unconscious and cannot be directly experienced by a single individual.
- personified in dreams as father, grandfather, teacher, philosopher, guru, doctor, or priest.
8. HERO- Represented in mythology and legends as a powerful person.
- fights against great odds to conquer or vanquish evil in the form of dragons, monsters, serpents, or demons.

Horney: Psychoanalytic BASIC HOSTILITY- If parents do not satisfy the child’s needs for safety and BASIC HOSTILITY
Social Theory satisfaction, the child develops feelings of basic hostility toward the parents. - The child wants to leave but cannot.

BASIC ANXIETY- “a feeling of being isolated and helpless in a world conceived as BASIC ANXIETY
potentially hostile” - A child felt insecure when she got a low score.
Neurotic needs 10 categories of neurotic needs
• Affection and approval
• A dominant partner
• Power
• Exploitation
• Prestige
• Admiration
• Achievement or ambition
• Self-sufficiency
• Perfection
• Narrow limits to life
Neurotic trends COMPLIANT- Moving toward people (fear of abandonment) COMPLIANT
- usually desire be loved, wanted, and
AGGRESSIVE- Moving against people (fear of rejection) appreciated by others.
AGGRESSIVE
DETACHED- Moving away from people (fear of invasion) - for power, prestige, or achievement may
engage in behaviors that can be aggressive or
exploitative.
DETACHED
- distancing themselves from others in order to
avoid being tied down or dependent on other
people.
MEASUREMENT OF 1. SELF-REPORT TESTS OF PERSONALITY: QUESTIONNAIRES AND INVENTORIES
PERSONALITY - asking individuals to respond to a self-report inventory or questionnaire.

2. PROJECTIVE MEASURES OF PERSONALITY

- present individuals with ambiguous stimuli—stimuli that can be interpreted in many ways.

3. BEHAVIORAL OBSERVATIONS, INTERVIEWS, AND BIOLOGICAL MEASURES

- Interviews are also used to measure specific aspects of personality.

4. (PET) SCANS AND MIT

to see if individuals show characteristic patterns of activity in their brains patterns that are related to differences in their overt behavior.