Models, Terminology, Solutions & Separable

14 CHAPTER 1 First-Order Differential Equations
The Analytic, Qualitative, and Numerical Approaches

Our discussion of the three population models in this section illustrates three differ-
ent approaches to the study of the solutions of differential equations. The analytic ap-
proach searches for explicit formulas that describe the behavior of the solutions. Here
we saw that exponential functions give us explicit solutions to the exponential growth
model. Unfortunately, a large number of important equations cannot be handled with
the analytic approach; there simply is no way to find an exact formula that describes
the situation. We are therefore forced to turn to alternative methods.
One particularly powerful method of describing the behavior of solutions is the
qualitative approach. This method involves using geometry to give an overview of the
behavior of the model, just as we did with the logistic population growth model. We
do not use this method to give precise values of the solution at specific times, but we
are often able to use this method to determine the long-term behavior of the solutions.
Frequently, this is just the kind of information we need.
The third approach to solving differential equations is numerical. The computer
approximates the solution we seek. Although we did not illustrate any numerical tech-
niques in this section, we will soon see that numerical approximation techniques are a
powerful tool for giving us intuition regarding the solutions we desire.
All three of the methods we use have certain advantages, and all have drawbacks.
Sometimes certain methods are useful while others are not. One of our main tasks as
we study the solutions to differential equations will be to determine which method or
combination of methods works in each specific case. In the next three sections, we
elaborate on these three techniques.
EXERCISES FOR SECTION 1.1
In Exercises 1 and 2, find the equilibrium solutions of the differential equation speci-
fied.
dy y+3 dy (t 2 − 1)(y 2 − 2)
1. = 2. =
dt 1−y dt y2 − 4
3. Consider the population model

dP P
= 0.4P 1 − ,
dt 230
where P(t) is the population at time t.

(a) For what values of P is the population in equilibrium?
(b) For what values of P is the population increasing?
(c) For what values of P is the population decreasing?
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1.1 Modeling via Differential Equations 15
4. Consider the population model

dP P P
= 0.3 1 − − 1 P,
dt 200 50
where P(t) is the population at time t.

(a) For what values of P is the population in equilibrium?
(b) For what values of P is the population increasing?
(c) For what values of P is the population decreasing?
5. Consider the differential equation
dy
= y 3 − y 2 − 12y.
dt
(a) For what values of y is y(t) in equilibrium?
(b) For what values of y is y(t) increasing?
(c) For what values of y is y(t) decreasing?
In Exercises 6–10, we consider the phenomenon of radioactive decay which, from ex-
perimentation, we know behaves according to the law:
The rate at which a quantity of a radioactive isotope decays is proportional to
the amount of the isotope present. The proportionality constant depends only
on which radioactive isotope is used.
6. Model radioactive decay using the notation
t = time (independent variable),

r (t) = amount of particular radioactive isotope
present at time t (dependent variable),
−λ = decay rate (parameter).
Note that the minus sign is used so that λ > 0.

(a) Using this notation, write a model for the decay of a particular radioactive iso-
tope.
(b) If the amount of the isotope present at t = 0 is r0 , state the corresponding
initial-value problem for the model in part (a).
7. The half-life of a radioactive isotope is the amount of time it takes for a quantity of
radioactive material to decay to one-half of its original amount.
(a) The half-life of Carbon 14 (C-14) is 5230 years. Determine the decay-rate pa-
rameter λ for C-14.
(b) The half-life of Iodine 131 (I-131) is 8 days. Determine the decay-rate param-
eter for I-131.
(c) What are the units of the decay-rate parameters in parts (a) and (b)?
(d) To determine the half-life of an isotope, we could start with 1000 atoms of the
isotope and measure the amount of time it takes 500 of them to decay, or we
could start with 10,000 atoms of the isotope and measure the amount of time it
takes 5000 of them to decay. Will we get the same answer? Why?
8. Carbon dating is a method of determining the time elapsed since the death of organic
material. The assumptions implicit in carbon dating are that
• Carbon 14 (C-14) makes up a constant proportion of the carbon that living mat-
ter ingests on a regular basis, and
• once the matter dies, the C-14 present decays, but no new carbon is added to
the matter.
Hence, by measuring the amount of C-14 still in the organic matter and comparing
it to the amount of C-14 typically found in living matter, a “time since death” can be
approximated. Using the decay-rate parameter you computed in Exercise 7, deter-
mine the time since death if
(a) 88% of the original C-14 is still in the material.

(b) 12% of the original C-14 is still in the material.
(c) 2% of the original C-14 is still in the material.
(d) 98% of the original C-14 is still in the material.
Remark: There has been speculation that the amount of C-14 available to living
creatures has not been exactly constant over long periods (thousands of years). This
makes accurate dates much trickier to determine.
9. Engineers and scientists often measure the rate of decay of an exponentially decay-
ing quantity using its time constant. The time constant τ is the amount of time that
an exponentially decaying quantity takes to decay by a factor of 1/e. Because 1/e
is approximately 0.368, τ is the amount of time that the quantity takes to decay to
approximately 36.8% of its original amount.
(a) How are the time constant τ and the decay rate λ related?
(b) Express the time constant in terms of the half-life.
(c) What are the time constants for Carbon 14 and Iodine 131?
(d) Given an exponentially decaying quantity r (t) with initial value r0 = r (0),
show that its time constant is the time at which the tangent line to the graph
of r(t)/r0 at (0, 1) crosses the t-axis. [Hint: Start by sketching the graph of
r (t)/r0 and the line tangent to the graph at (0, 1).]
(e) It is often said that an exponentially decaying quantity reaches its steady state
in five time constants, that is, at t = 5τ . Explain why this statement is not
literally true but is correct for all practical purposes.
10. The radioactive isotope I-131 is used in the treatment of hyperthyroidism. When
administered to a patient, I-131 accumulates in the thyroid gland, where it decays
and kills part of that gland.
(a) Suppose that it takes 72 hours to ship I-131 from the producer to the hospital.
What percentage of the original amount shipped actually arrives at the hospi-
tal? (See Exercise 7.)
(b) If the I-131 is stored at the hospital for an additional 48 hours before it is used,
how much of the original amount shipped from the producer is left when it is
used?
(c) How long will it take for the I-131 to decay completely so that the remnants
can be thrown away without special precautions?
11. MacQuarie Island is a small island about half-way between Antarctica and New
Zealand. Between 2000 and 2006, the population of rabbits on the island rose from
4,000 to 130,000. Model the growth in the rabbit population R(t) at time t using an
exponential growth model
dR
= k R,
dt
where t = 0 corresponds to the year 2000. What is an appropriate value for the
growth-rate parameter k, and what does this model predict for the population in the
year 2010. (For more information on why the population of rabbits exploded, see
Review Exercise 22 in Chapter 2.)
12. The velocity v of a freefalling skydiver is well modeled by the differential equation
dv
m = mg − kv 2 ,
dt
where m is the mass of the skydiver, g is the gravitational constant, and k is the drag
coefficient determined by the position of the diver during the dive. (Note that the
constants m, g, and k are positive.)
(a) Perform a qualitative analysis of this model.
(b) Calculate the terminal velocity of the skydiver. Express your answer in terms
of m, g, and k.
Exercises 13–15 consider an elementary model of the learning process: Although hu-
man learning is an extremely complicated process, it is possible to build models of cer-
tain simple types of memorization. For example, consider a person presented with a
list to be studied. The subject is given periodic quizzes to determine exactly how much
of the list has been memorized. (The lists are usually things like nonsense syllables,
randomly generated three-digit numbers, or entries from tables of integrals.) If we let
L(t) be the fraction of the list learned at time t, where L = 0 corresponds to knowing
nothing and L = 1 corresponds to knowing the entire list, then we can form a simple
model of this type of learning based on the assumption:
• The rate d L/dt is proportional to the fraction of the list left to be learned.
Since L = 1 corresponds to knowing the entire list, the model is
dL
= k(1 − L),
dt
where k is the constant of proportionality.
13. For what value of L, 0 ≤ L ≤ 1, does learning occur most rapidly?

14. Suppose two students memorize lists according to the model
dL
= 2(1 − L).
dt
(a) If one of the students knows one-half of the list at time t = 0 and the other
knows none of the list, which student is learning more rapidly at this instant?
(b) Will the student who starts out knowing none of the list ever catch up to the
student who starts out knowing one-half of the list?
15. Consider the following two differential equations that model two students’ rates of
memorizing a poem. Aly’s rate is proportional to the amount to be learned with pro-
portionality constant k = 2. Beth’s rate is proportional to the square of the amount to
be learned with proportionality constant 3. The corresponding differential equations
are
dLA dLB
= 2(1 − L A ) and = 3(1 − L B )2 ,
dt dt
where L A (t) and L B (t) are the fractions of the poem learned at time t by Aly and
Beth, respectively.
(a) Which student has a faster rate of learning at t = 0 if they both start memoriz-
ing together having never seen the poem before?
(b) Which student has a faster rate of learning at t = 0 if they both start memoriz-
ing together having already learned one-half of the poem?
(c) Which student has a faster rate of learning at t = 0 if they both start memoriz-
ing together having already learned one-third of the poem?
16. The expenditure on education in the U.S. is given in the following table. (Amounts
are expressed in millions of 2001 constant dollars.)
Year Expenditure Year Expenditure Year Expenditure

1900 5,669 1940 39,559 1980 380,165
1910 10,081 1950 67,048 1990 535,417
1920 12,110 1960 114,700 2000 714,064
1930 30,700 1970 322,935
(a) Let s(t) = s0 ekt be an exponential function. Show that the graph of ln s(t) as
a function of t is a line. What is its slope and vertical intercept?
(b) Is spending on education in the U.S. rising exponentially fast? If so, what is
the growth-rate coefficient? [Hint: Use your solution to part (a).]
17. Suppose a species of fish in a particular lake has a population that is modeled by
the logistic population model with growth rate k, carrying capacity N , and time t
measured in years. Adjust the model to account for each of the following situations.
(a) One hundred fish are harvested each year.
(b) One-third of the fish population is harvested annually.
(c) The number of fish harvested each year is proportional to the square root of the
number of fish in the lake.
18. Suppose that the growth-rate parameter k = 0.3 and the carrying capacity N = 2500
in the logistic population model of Exercise 17. Suppose P(0) = 2500.
(a) If 100 fish are harvested each year, what does the model predict for the long-
term behavior of the fish population? In other words, what does a qualitative
analysis of the model yield?
(b) If one-third of the fish are harvested each year, what does the model predict for
the long-term behavior of the fish population?
19. The rhinoceros is now extremely rare. Suppose enough game preserve land is set
aside so that there is sufficient room for many more rhinoceros territories than there
are rhinoceroses. Consequently, there will be no danger of overcrowding. However,
if the population is too small, fertile adults have difficulty finding each other when it
is time to mate. Write a differential equation that models the rhinoceros population
based on these assumptions. (Note that there is more than one reasonable model that
fits these assumptions.)
20. While it is difficult to imagine a time before cell phones, such a time did exist. The
table below gives the number (in millions) of cell phone subscriptions in the United
States from the U.S. census (see www.census.gov).
Year Subscriptions Year Subscriptions Year Subscriptions

1985 0.34 1993 16 2001 128
1986 0.68 1994 24 2002 141
1987 1.23 1995 34 2003 159
1988 2.1 1996 44 2004 182
1989 3.5 1997 55 2005 208
1990 5.3 1998 69 2006 233
1991 7.6 1999 86 2007 250
1992 11 2000 110 2008 263
Let s(t) be the number of cell phone subscriptions at time t, measured in years since
1989. The relative growth rate of s(t) is its growth rate divided by the number of
subscriptions. In other words, the relative growth rate is

1 ds
,
s(t) dt
and it is often expressed as a percentage.
(a) Estimate the relative growth rate of s(t) at t = 1. That is, estimate the relative
rate for the year 1990. Express this growth rate as a percentage. [Hint: The
best estimate involves the number of cell phones at 1989 and 1991.]
(b) In general, if a quantity grows exponentially, how does its relative growth rate
change?
(c) Also estimate the relative growth rates of s(t) for the years 1991–2007.
(d) How long after 1989 was the number of subscriptions growing exponentially?
(e) In general, if a quantity grows according to a logistic model, how does its rela-
tive growth rate change?
(f) Using your results in part (c), calculate the carrying capacity for this model.
[Hint: There is more than one way to do this calculation.]
21. For the following predator-prey systems, identify which dependent variable, x or y,
is the prey population and which is the predator population. Is the growth of the
prey limited by any factors other than the number of predators? Do the predators
have sources of food other than the prey? (Assume that the parameters α, β, γ , δ,
and N are all positive.)
dx dx x2
(a) = −αx + βx y (b) = αx − α − βx y
dt dt N
dy dy
= γ y − δx y = γ y + δx y
dt dt
22. In the following predator-prey population models, x represents the prey, and y rep-
resents the predators.
dx dx
(i) = 5x − 3x y (ii) = x − 8x y
dt dt
dy dy
= −2y + 12 x y = −2y + 6x y
dt dt
(a) In which system does the prey reproduce more quickly when there are no preda-
tors (when y = 0) and equal numbers of prey?
(b) In which system are the predators more successful at catching prey? In other
words, if the number of predators and prey are equal for the two systems, in
which system do the predators have a greater effect on the rate of change of the
prey?
(c) Which system requires more prey for the predators to achieve a given growth
rate (assuming identical numbers of predators in both cases)?
1.2 Analytic Technique: Separation of Variables 21
23. The following systems are models of the populations of pairs of species that ei-
ther compete for resources (an increase in one species decreases the growth rate of
the other) or cooperate (an increase in one species increases the growth rate of the
other). For each system, identify the variables (independent and dependent) and the
parameters (carrying capacity, measures of interaction between species, etc.) Do
the species compete or cooperate? (Assume all parameters are positive.)
(a) dx x2 (b) dx
= αx − α + βx y = −γ x − δx y
dt N dt
dy dy
= γ y + δx y = αy − βx y
dt dt
1.2 ANALYTIC TECHNIQUE: SEPARATION OF VARIABLES
What Is a Differential Equation and What Is a Solution?

A first-order differential equation is an equation for an unknown function in terms of its
derivative. As we saw in Section 1.1, there are three types of “variables” in differential
equations—the independent variable (almost always t for time in our examples), one
or more dependent variables (which are functions of the independent variable), and the
parameters. This terminology is standard but a bit confusing. The dependent variable
is actually a function, so technically it should be called the dependent function.
The standard form for a first-order differential equation is
dy
= f (t, y).
dt
Here the right-hand side typically depends on both the dependent and independent vari-
ables, although we often encounter cases where either t or y is missing.
A solution of the differential equation is a function of the independent variable
that, when substituted into the equation as the dependent variable, satisfies the equation
for all values of the independent variable. That is, a function y(t) is a solution if it
satisfies dy/dt = y (t) = f (t, y(t)). This terminology doesn’t tell us how to find
solutions, but it does tell us how to check whether a candidate function is or is not a
solution. For example, consider the simple differential equation
dy
= y.
dt
We can easily check that the function y1 (t) = 3et is a solution, whereas y2 (t) = sin t is
not a solution. The function y1 (t) is a solution because
dy1 d(3et )
= = 3et = y1 for all t.
dt dt
where c2 = −3c1 . Exponentiating we obtain
|2000 − 3S| = e(−0.03t+c2 ) = c3 e−0.03t ,
where c3 = ec2 . Note that this means that c3 is a positive constant. Now we must be
careful. Removing the absolute value signs yields
2000 − 3S = ±c3 e−0.03t ,
where we choose the plus sign if S(t) < 2000/3 and the minus sign if S(t) > 2000/3.
Therefore we may write this equation more simply as
2000 − 3S = c4 e−0.03t ,
where c4 is an arbitrary constant (positive, negative, or zero). Solving for S yields the
general solution
2000
S(t) = ce−0.03t + ,
3
where c = −c4 /3 is an arbitrary constant. We can determine the precise value of c if
we know the exact amount of sugar that is initially in the vat. Note that, if c = 0, the
solution is simply S(t) = 2000/3, an equilibrium solution.
EXERCISES FOR SECTION 1.2
1. Bob, Glen, and Paul are once again sitting around enjoying their nice, cold glasses
of iced cappucino when one of their students asks them to come up with solutions to
the differential equation
dy y+1
= .
dt t +1
After much discussion, Bob says y(t) = t, Glen says y(t) = 2t + 1, and Paul says
y(t) = t 2 − 2.
(a) Who is right?
(b) What solution should they have seen right away?
2. Make up a differential equation of the form
dy
= 2y − t + g(y)
dt
that has the function y(t) = e2t as a solution.

3
3. Make up a differential equation of the form dy/dt = f (t, y) that has y(t) = et as a
solution. (Try to come up with one whose right-hand side f (t, y) depends explicitly
on both t and y.)
4. In Section 1.1, we guessed solutions to the exponential growth model d P/dt = k P,

where k is a constant (see page 6). Using the fact that this equation is separable,
derive these solutions by separating variables.
In Exercises 5–24, find the general solution of the differential equation specified. (You
may not be able to reach the ideal answer of an equation with only the dependent vari-
able on the left and only the independent variable on the right, but get as far as you
can.)
dy dy dy
5. = (t y)2 6. = t4y 7. = 2y + 1
dt dt dt
dy dy dx
8. =2− y 9. = e−y 10. = 1 + x2
dt dt dt
dy dy t dy t
11. = 2t y 2 + 3y 2 12. = 13. = 2
dt dt y dt t y+y
dy √ dy 1 dy 2y + 1
14. =t 3y 15. = 16. =
dt dt 2y + 1 dt t
dy dy 4t dv
17. = y(1 − y) 18. = 19. = t 2 v − 2 − 2v + t 2
dt dt 1 + 3y 2 dt
dy 1 dy et y dy
20. = 21. = 22. = y2 − 4
dt ty + t + y + 1 dt 1 + y2 dt
dw w dy
23. = 24. = sec y
dt t dx
In Exercises 25–38, solve the given initial-value problem.

dx √ dy
25. = −xt, x(0) = 1/ π 26. = t y, y(0) = 3
dt dt
dy dy
27. = −y 2 , y(0) = 1/2 28. = t 2 y 3 , y(0) = −1
dt dt
dy dy t
29. = −y 2 , y(0) = 0 30. = , y(0) = 4
dt dt y − t2y
dy dy
31. = 2y + 1, y(0) = 3 32. = t y 2 + 2y 2 , y(0) = 1
dt dt
dx t2 dy 1 − y2
33. = , x(0) = −2 34. = , y(0) = −2
dt x + t3x dt y
dy dy 1
35. = (y 2 + 1)t, y(0) = 1 36. = , y(0) = 1
dt dt 2y + 3
dy dy y2 + 5
37. = 2t y 2 + 3t 2 y 2 , y(1) = −1 38. = , y(0) = −2
dt dt y
39. A 5-gallon bucket is full of pure water. Suppose we begin dumping salt into the
bucket at a rate of 1/4 pounds per minute. Also, we open the spigot so that 1/2
gallons per minute leaves the bucket, and we add pure water to keep the bucket full.
If the salt water solution is always well mixed, what is the amount of salt in the
bucket after
(a) 1 minute? (b) 10 minutes? (c) 60 minutes?
(d) 1000 minutes? (e) a very, very long time?
40. Consider the following very simple model of blood cholesterol levels based on the
fact that cholesterol is manufactured by the body for use in the construction of cell
walls and is absorbed from foods containing cholesterol: Let C(t) be the amount (in
milligrams per deciliter) of cholesterol in the blood of a particular person at time t
(in days). Then
dC
= k1 (N − C) + k2 E,
dt
where
N = the person’s natural cholesterol level,
k1 = production parameter,
E = daily rate at which cholesterol is eaten, and
k2 = absorption parameter.
(a) Suppose N = 200, k1 = 0.1, k2 = 0.1, E = 400, and C(0) = 150. What will
the person’s cholesterol level be after 2 days on this diet?
(b) With the initial conditions as above, what will the person’s cholesterol level be
after 5 days on this diet?
(c) What will the person’s cholesterol level be after a long time on this diet?
(d) High levels of cholesterol in the blood are known to be a risk factor for heart
disease. Suppose that, after a long time on the high cholesterol diet described
above, the person goes on a very low cholesterol diet, so E changes to E =
100. (The initial cholesterol level at the starting time of this diet is the result
of part (c).) What will the person’s cholesterol level be after 1 day on the new
diet, after 5 days on the new diet, and after a very long time on the new diet?
(e) Suppose the person stays on the high cholesterol diet but takes drugs that block
some of the uptake of cholesterol from food, so k2 changes to k2 = 0.075.
With the cholesterol level from part (c), what will the person’s cholesterol level
be after 1 day, after 5 days, and after a very long time?
41. A cup of hot chocolate is initially 170◦ F and is left in a room with an ambient tem-
perature of 70◦ F. Suppose that at time t = 0 it is cooling at a rate of 20◦ per minute.
(a) Assume that Newton’s law of cooling applies: The rate of cooling is propor-
tional to the difference between the current temperature and the ambient tem-
perature. Write an initial-value problem that models the temperature of the hot
chocolate.
(b) How long does it take the hot chocolate to cool to a temperature of 110◦ F?
42. Suppose you are having a dinner party for a large group of people, and you decide to
make 2 gallons of chili. The recipe calls for 2 teaspoons of hot sauce per gallon, but
you misread the instructions and put in 2 tablespoons of hot sauce per gallon. (Since
each tablespoon is 3 teaspoons, you have put in 6 teaspoons per gallon, which is a
total of 12 teaspoons of hot sauce in the chili.) You don’t want to throw the chili
out because there isn’t much else to eat (and some people like hot chili), so you
serve the chili anyway. However, as each person takes some chili, you fill up the
pot with beans and tomatoes without hot sauce until the concentration of hot sauce
agrees with the recipe. Suppose the guests take 1 cup of chili per minute from the
pot (there are 16 cups in a gallon), how long will it take to get the chili back to the
recipe’s concentration of hot sauce? How many cups of chili will have been taken
from the pot?
43. In Exercise 12 of Section 1.1, we saw that the velocity v of a freefalling skydiver is
well modeled by the differential equation
dv
m = mg − kv 2 ,
dt
where m is the mass of the skydiver, g is the gravitational constant, and k is the drag
coefficient determined by the position of the driver during the dive.
(a) Find the general solution of this differential equation.
(b) Confirm your answer to Exercise 12 of Section 1.1 by calculating the limit of
v(t) as t → ∞.
1.3 QUALITATIVE TECHNIQUE: SLOPE FIELDS
Finding an analytic expression (in other words, finding a formula) for a solution to a dif-
ferential equation is often a useful way to describe a solution of a differential equation.
However, there are other ways to describe solutions, and these alternative representa-
tions are frequently easier to understand and use. In this section we focus on geomet-
ric techniques for representing solutions, and we develop a method for visualizing the
graphs of the solutions to the differential equation
dy
= f (t, y).
dt
The Geometry of dy/dt = f (t, y)

If the function y(t) is a solution of the equation dy/dt = f (t, y) and if its graph passes
through the point (t1 , y1 ) where y1 = y(t1 ), then the differential equation says that
the derivative dy/dt at t = t1 is given by the number f (t1 , y1 ). Geometrically, this
equality of dy/dt at t = t1 with f (t1 , y1 ) means that the slope of the tangent line to
the graph of y(t) at the point (t1 , y1 ) is f (t1 , y1 ) (see Figure 1.10). Note that there is
nothing special about the point (t1 , y1 ) other than the fact that it is a point on the graph
HINTS AND ANSWERS
Hints and Answers for Section 1.1
1. The function that is constantly −3, that is, 11. k ≈ 0.58 and R(10) ≈ 1,321,198
y(t) = −3 for all t, is the only equilibrium
13. L = 0
solution.
15. (a) Beth
3. (a) P = 0 and P = 230
(b) Aly
(b) 0 < P < 230
(c) They have the same rate.
(c) P > 230 and the nonphysical values P < 0
17. (a) d P/dt = k(1 − P/N )P − 100.
5. (a) y = −3, y = 0, and y = 4
(b) d P/dt = k(1 − P/N )P − P/3.
(b) −3 < y < 0 and y > 4 √
(c) d P/dt = k(1 − P/N )P − a P, where a is a
(c) y < −3 and 0 < y < 4
positive parameter.
7. (a) λ = (ln 2)/5230 ≈ 0.000132533
19. For example, one model is d R/dt = k R(R/M − 1),
(b) λ = (ln 2)/8 ≈ 0.0866434 where M is a parameter that corresponds to the
(c) 1/year for C-14, 1/day for I-131 threshold at which the population is too small to
(d) Yes sustain itself over the long term. There are other
reasonable models based on the stated assumptions.
9. (a) τ = 1/λ
(b) If h is the half-life, then τ = h/(ln 2). 21. (a) x is predator; y is prey; no limits on prey; no
(c) The time constant for Carbon 14 is approxi- other food source for predator.
mately 7545 years, and the time constant for (b) x is prey; y is predator; other limits on prey
Iodine 131 is approximately 11.5 days. exist; other food sources available for predator.
(d) Hint: What is the derivative of r (t)/r 0 at t = 0? 23. (a) The species cooperate.
(e) Hint: Is the exponential function ever zero? (b) The species compete.
What is the value of r(τ )/r0 ?

1. (a) Bob and Glen dy
3. = 3t 2 y
(b) The function that is constantly −1, that is, the dt
equilibrium solution y(t) = −1 for all t.
755
756 Hints and Answers for Chapter 1
5. (a) separable 23. w(t) = kt for t = 0, where k is any real number.

(b) y(t) = −3/(t 3 + k), where k is any real number, (The differential equation is not defined at t = 0.)
√
along with the equilibrium solution y(t) = 0 for 25. x(t) = e−t /2 / π
2
all t.
27. y(t) = 1/(t + 2)
7. y(t) = ke2t − 1/2, where k is any real number
29. y(t) = 0
9. y(t) = ln(t + c), where c is any real number
31. y(t) = 7e2t /2 − 1/2
11. (a) separable
33. x(t) = − 4 + (2/3) ln(t 3 + 1)
(b) y(t) = −1/(t 2 + 3t + k), where k is any real
number, along with the equilibrium solution 35. y(t) = tan(t 2 /2 + π/4)
y(t) = 0 for all t.
37. y(t) = −1/(t 2 + t 3 − 1)

13. y(t) = ± ln k(t 2 + 1) , where k is any positive 39. (a) Amount of salt ≈ 0.238 lbs
real number. The choice of sign is determined by (b) Amount of salt ≈ 1.58 lbs
the initial condition. (c) Amount of salt ≈ 2.49 lbs
√
15. y(t) = −1 ± 4t + c /2, where c is any real (d) Amount of salt ≈ 2.50 lbs
number. The plus or minus sign is determined by (e) Amount of salt ≈ 2.50 lbs
the initial condition.
41. (a) The initial-value problem is
17. y(t) = ket /(ket + 1), where k is any real number,
along with the equilibrium solution y(t) = 1 for dT
= −0.2(T − 70), T (0) = 170.
all t. Note that this is a special case of the logistic dt
equation with growth-rate parameter 1 and carrying (b) t = (ln 0.4)/ − 0.2 ≈ 4.6
capacity 1. √
mg Ce2 (kg/m) t − 1
19. v(t) = −1 + ke−2t+t
3 /3
, where k is any real number 43. (a) v(t) = √
k Ce2 (kg/m) t + 1

mg
21. y 2 /2 + ln |y| = et + c, where c is any real number, (b)
along with the equilibrium solution y(t) = 0 for k
all t.

1. y 3. y
2 2
1 1
t t
−2 −1 1 2 −2 −1 1 2
−1 −1
−2 −2

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14 CHAPTER 1 First-Order Differential Equations

The Analytic, Qualitative, and Numerical Approaches

EXERCISES FOR SECTION 1.1

3. Consider the population model

where P(t) is the population at time t.

4. Consider the population model

where P(t) is the population at time t.

5. Consider the differential equation

6. Model radioactive decay using the notation

t = time (independent variable),

Note that the minus sign is used so that λ > 0.

(a) 88% of the original C-14 is still in the material.

13. For what value of L, 0 ≤ L ≤ 1, does learning occur most rapidly?

Year Expenditure Year Expenditure Year Expenditure

Year Subscriptions Year Subscriptions Year Subscriptions

subscriptions. In other words, the relative growth rate is

1.2 ANALYTIC TECHNIQUE: SEPARATION OF VARIABLES

What Is a Differential Equation and What Is a Solution?

where c2 = −3c1 . Exponentiating we obtain

|2000 − 3S| = e(−0.03t+c2 ) = c3 e−0.03t ,

2000 − 3S = ±c3 e−0.03t ,

EXERCISES FOR SECTION 1.2

2. Make up a differential equation of the form

that has the function y(t) = e2t as a solution.

4. In Section 1.1, we guessed solutions to the exponential growth model d P/dt = k P,

In Exercises 25–38, solve the given initial-value problem.

1.3 QUALITATIVE TECHNIQUE: SLOPE FIELDS

The Geometry of dy/dt = f (t, y)

Hints and Answers for Section 1.2

5. (a) separable 23. w(t) = kt for t = 0, where k is any real number.

Hints and Answers for Section 1.3

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