Chapter 3
The polar region is exposed to water around the
Cell Structures and Their
Functions
Lecture Outline
Cell Structure
Organelles:
• specialized structures in cells that perform
• specific functions
• Example: nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes
Cytoplasm:
• jelly-like substance that holds organelles
Cell membrane:
• also termed the plasma membrane
• a structure that encloses the cytoplasm
Generalized Cell
Functions of the Cell
Smallest units of life
Cell metabolism and energy use
Synthesis of molecules
Communication
Reproduction and inheritance
Cell Membrane
The cell membrane, or plasma membrane, is the
outermost component of a cell.
It forms a boundary between material in inside
the cell and the outside.
Materials inside the cell are intracellular and
those outside are extracellular.
It acts as a selective barrier.
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Cell Membrane Structure
The fluid-mosaic model is the model used to
describe the cell membrane structure.
The membrane contains phospholipids,
cholesterol, proteins, and carbohydrates.
Phospholipids form a bilayer.
Phospholipids contain 2 regions: polar and
nonpolar.
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Phospholipid Structure
A phospholipid molecule has a polar head region
that is hydrophilic and a nonpolar tail region that
is hydrophobic.
membrane.
The nonpolar region is facing the interior of the
membrane.
The Cell Membrane
Movement through the Cell Membrane
The cell membrane has selective permeability,
which allows only certain substances to pass in
and out of the cell.
Substances such as enzymes, glycogen, and
potassium are found in higher concentrations
inside the cell.
Substances such as sodium, calcium, and
chloride are found in higher concentrations
outside the cell.
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Cell Membrane Passage
Some substances, like O2 and CO2 , can pass
directly through the cell membrane’s
phospholipid bilayer.
Some substances must pass through
transmembrane protein channels, such as Na+
through its channels.
The route of transport through the membrane
depends on the size, shape, and charge of the
substance.© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
Cell Membrane Passage
Some substances require carrier molecules to
transport them across the cell membrane, such
as glucose.
Some substances require a vesicular transport
across the membrane.
The vesicle must fuse with the cell membrane
for transport.© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
Active Transport and Passive Transport
Passive membrane transport does not require
the cell to expend energy.
Active membrane transport does require the
cell to expend energy, usually in the form of ATP.©
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Active Transport and Passive Transport
Leak and Gated Channels
Passive membrane transport mechanisms
include diffusion, osmosis, and facilitated Two classes of cell membrane channels include
leak channels and gated channels.
diffusion.
Leak channels constantly allow ions to pass
Active membrane transport mechanisms include
through.
active transport, secondary active
Gated channels limit the movement of ions
transport, across the membrane by opening and closing.
endocytosis, and exocytosis.© 2019 McGraw-Hill
Diffusion through the Cell Membrane
Diffusion

Diffusion generally involves movement of substances

in
a solution down a concentration gradient.
A solution is generally composed of two major parts,
solutes and the solvent.
Solutes are substances dissolved in a predominant
liquid or gas, which is called the solvent.
Solutes, such as ions or molecules, tend to move
from Leak and Gated Membrane Channels
an area of higher concentration of a solute to an area
of
lower concentration of that same solute in solution.
This movement from high concentration to a low
concentration is diffusion.

Concentration Gradient

A concentration gradient is the difference in the

concentration of a solute in a solvent between
two points divided by the distance between the
two points.
The concentration gradient is said to be steeper
when the concentration difference is large
and/or the distance is small.
Diffusion
0
Osmosis
Osmosis is the diffusion of water (a solvent)
across a selectively permeable membrane from
a region of higher water concentration to one of
lower water concentration.
Osmosis exerts a pressure, termed osmotic
pressure, which is the force required to prevent
movement of water across cell membrane

Osmotic Pressure and the Cell

Osmotic pressure depends on the difference of

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Leak and Gated Channels
Lipid soluble substances can diffuse directly
through the phospholipid bilayer.
Water-soluble substances, such as ions, can
diffuse across the cell membrane only by passing
through cell membrane channels.© 2019 McGraw-
Hill Education
solution concentrations inside a cell relative to
outside the cell.
A cell may be placed in solutions that are either
hypotonic, isotonic, or hypertonic compared to
the cell cytoplasm.
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Hypotonic
A hypotonic solution has a lower concentration
of solutes and a higher concentration of water
relative to the cytoplasm of the cell.
The solution has less tone, or osmotic pressure,
than the cell.
Water moves by osmosis into the cell, causing it
to swell.
If the cell swells enough, it can rupture, a
process called lysis.
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Isotonic
A cell immersed in an isotonic solution has the
same solute concentrations inside and outside
the cell.
The cell will neither shrink nor swell.
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Hypertonic
The cytoplasm of a cell in a hypertonic solution
has a lower solute concentration and higher
water concentration than the surrounding
solution.
Water moves by osmosis from the cell into the
hypertonic solution, resulting in cell shrinkage,
or crenation.
Osmosis
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Red Blood Cell Changes in Differing
Solutions
Carrier-Mediated Transport
Some water-soluble, electrically charged or
large sized particles cannot enter or leave
through the cell membrane by diffusion.
These substances include amino acids, glucose,
and some polar molecules produced by the cell.
Carrier molecules are proteins within the cell
membrane involved in carrier-mediated
transport.© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
Carrier-Mediated Transport
Carrier-mediated transport mechanisms include
facilitated diffusion and Active transport.
Facilitated diffusion does not require ATP for
energy.
Active transport does require ATP for transport.©
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Facilitated Diffusion
Facilitated diffusion is a carrier-mediated
transport process that moves substances across
the cell membrane from an area of higher
concentration to an area of lower concentration
of that substance.
Because movement is with the concentration
gradient, metabolic energy in the form of ATP is
not required.
Facilitated Diffusion
Active Transport
Active transport is a carrier-mediated process,
requiring ATP, that moves substances across the
cell membrane from regions of lower
concentration to those of higher concentration
against a concentration gradient.
Active transport processes accumulate
necessary substances on one side of the cell
membrane at concentrations many times
greater than those on the other side.
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education© 2019 McGraw-Hill n
Sodium-Potassium Pump
A major example of active transport is the action
of the sodium-potassium pump present in cell
membranes.
The sodium-potassium pump moves Na+ out of
cells and K+ into cells.
The result is a higher concentration of Na+
outside cells and a higher concentration of K+
inside cells
Sodium-Potassium Pump
Endocytosis
Endocytosis is a process that that brings
materials into cell using vesicles.
Receptor-mediated endocytosis occurs when
a specific substance binds to the receptor
molecule and is transported into the cell.
Phagocytosis is often used for endocytosis when
solid particles are ingested.
Pinocytosis has much smaller vesicles formed,
and they contain liquid rather than solid
particles
Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis

Secondary Active Transport
Secondary active transport uses the energy
provided by a concentration gradient
established by the active transport of one
substance, such as Na+ to transport other
substances.
No additional energy is required above the
energy provided by the initial active transport
pump.© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
Exocytosis
Exocytosis involves the use of membrane-bound
sacs called secretory vesicles that accumulate
materials for release from the cell.
The vesicles move to the cell membrane and
fuse, ultimately releasing the material by
exocytosis.
Examples of exocytosis are the secretion of
digestive enzymes.

Secondary Active Transport Exocytosis

In cotransport, the diffusing substance moves in

the same direction as the initial active
transported substance.
In countertransport, the diffusing substance
moves in a direction opposite to that of the
initial active transported substance.

Secondary Active Transport

General Cell Structure Cell Nucleus

The interior of a cell is composed of the cytoplasm,

which a jelly-like fluid that surrounds the organelles.
Organelles are specialized structures that perform
certain functions.
Organelles include the nucleus, ribosomes,
endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes,
peroxisomes, mitochondria, cytoskeleton,
centrioles, cilia, flagella, and microvilli

Generalized Cell
Chromosome Structure

Cell Nucleus

The nucleus is a large organelle usually located

near the center of the cell. Ribosomes
The nucleus is bounded by a nuclear envelope,
which consists of outer and inner membranes Ribosome components are produced in the
with a narrow space between them. nucleolus.
The nuclear membrane contains nuclear pores, Ribosomes are the organelles where proteins
through which materials can pass into or out of are produced.
the nucleus.© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education Ribosomes may be attached to other organelles,
such as the endoplasmic reticulum.
Cell Nucleus Ribosomes that are not attached to any other
organelle are called free ribosomes.
The nuclei of human cells contain 23 pairs of
chromosomes which consist of DNA and Ribosome Production
proteins.
During most of a cell’s life, the chromosomes are
loosely coiled and collectively called chromatin.
When a cell prepares to divide, the
chromosomes become tightly coiled and are
visible when viewed with a microscope.© 2019
McGraw-Hill Education
Cell Nucleus

Within the nucleus are Nucleoli, which are diffuse

bodies with no surrounding membrane. that are
found within the nucleus
There are usually one to several nucleoli within the
nucleus.
The subunits of ribosomes, a type of cytoplasmic
organelle, are formed within a nucleolus. Endoplasmic Reticulum
These ribosomal components exit the nucleus
through nuclear pores.© 2019 McGraw-Hill The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a series of
Education membranes forming sacs and tubules that
extends from the outer nuclear membrane into
the cytoplasm.
The rough ER is involved in protein synthesis and
is rough due to attached ribosomes.
The smooth ER has no attached ribosomes and
is a site for lipid synthesis, cellular detoxification,
and it stores calcium ions in skeletal muscle
cells.
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Golgi Apparatus
The Golgi apparatus, also called the Golgi
complex, consists of closely packed stacks of
curved, membrane-bound sacs.
It collects, modifies, packages, and distributes
proteins and lipids manufactured by the ER.
The Golgi apparatus forms vesicles, some of
which are secretory vesicles, lysosomes, and
other vesicles.
Golgi Apparatus
Lysosomes
Lysosomes are membrane-bound vesicles
formed from the Golgi apparatus.
They contain a variety of enzymes that function
as intracellular digestive systems.
Vesicles formed by endocytosis may fuse with
lysosomes in order to breakdown materials in
the endocytotic vesicles.
One example is white blood cells phagocytizing
bacteria
Lysosome Action
Peroxisomes
Peroxisomes are small, membrane-bound
vesicles containing enzymes that break down
fatty acids, amino acids, and hydrogen peroxide
(H2O2 ).
Hydrogen peroxide is a by-product of fatty acid
and amino acid breakdown and can be toxic to a
cell.
The enzymes in peroxisomes break down
hydrogen.
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Mitochondria
Mitochondria (singular mitochondrion) are small
organelles responsible for producing considerable
amounts of ATP by aerobic (with O2 ) metabolism.
They have inner and outer membranes separated
by a space.
The outer membranes have a smooth contour, but
the inner membranes have numerous folds, called
cristae, which project into the interior of the
mitochondria.© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
Mitochondria
The material within the inner membrane is the
mitochondrial matrix and contains enzymes and
mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA).
Cells with a large energy requirement have more
mitochondria than cells that require less energy
A Mitochondrion
The Cytoskeleton
The cytoskeleton gives internal framework to the
cell.
It consists of protein structures that support the
cell, hold organelles in place, and enable the cell
to change shape.
These protein structures are microtubules,
microfilaments, and intermediate filaments.
Microtubules
Microtubules are hollow structures formed from
protein subunits.
The microtubules perform a variety of roles,
including helping to support the cytoplasm of
cells, assisting in cell division, and forming
essential components of certain organelles, such
as cilia and flagella.
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Microfilaments
Microfilaments are small fibrils formed from
protein subunits that structurally support the
cytoplasm, determining cell shape.
Some microfilaments are involved with cell
movement.
Microfilaments in muscle cells enable the cells to
shorten, or contract.
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Intermediate Filaments
Intermediate filaments are fibrils formed from
protein subunits that are smaller in diameter than
microtubules but larger in diameter than
microfilaments.
They provide mechanical support to the cell.
A specific type of intermediate filament is keratin,
a protein associated with skin cells.
The Cytoskeleton
Centrioles
The centrosome is a specialized area of
cytoplasm close to the nucleus where
microtubule formation occurs.
It contains two centrioles, which are normally
oriented perpendicular to each other.
Each centriole is a small, cylindrical organelle
composed of microtubules.
The centriole is involved in the process of
mitosis.
Centriole
Cilia
Cilia project from the surface of certain cells.
They are responsible for the movement of
materials over the top of cells, such as mucus.
Cilia are cylindrical structures that extend from
the cell and are composed of microtubules.
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Flagella
Flagella have a structure similar to that of cilia
but are much longer, and they usually occur only
one per cell.
Sperm cells each have one flagellum, which
propels the sperm cell.
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Microvilli
Microvilli are specialized extensions of the cell
membrane that are supported by microfilaments.
They do not actively move as cilia and flagella do.
Microvilli are numerous on cells that have them and
they increase the surface area of those cells.
They are abundant on the surface of cells that line
the intestine, kidney, and other areas in which
absorption is an important function.
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Whole Cell Activity
A cell’s characteristics are determine by the type
of proteins produced.
The proteins produced are in turn determined
by the genetic information in the nucleus.
Information in DNA provides the cell with a code
for its cellular processes.
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DNA
DNA contains the information that directs
protein synthesis; a process called gene
expression.
A DNA molecule consists of nucleotides joined
together to form two nucleotide strands.
The two strands are connected and resemble a
ladder that is twisted around its long axis.
Each nucleotide consists of a 5-carbon sugar, a
phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.© 2019
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DNA Translation

Each nucleotide on one DNA strand has a specific
bonding pattern to another nucleotide on the
opposite strand.
A gene is a sequence of nucleotides that provides
a chemical set of instructions for making a
specific protein.
Gene Expression
Translation occurs in the cell cytoplasm after
mRNA has exited the nucleus through the
nuclear pores.
The mRNA attaches to a ribosome.
Codons (3 nucleotide bases) on the mRNA are
read by anticodons (3 nucleotide bases) on
transfer RNA (tRNA).© 2019 McGraw-Hill Educa

Gene expression, which is protein synthesis,

Translation
involves transcription and translation.
Transcription involves copying DNA into Transfer RNA transports specific amino acids
messenger RNA. from the cytoplasm to the ribosome-mRNA
Translation involves messenger RNA being used complex and initiates formation of the
polypeptide chain.
to produce a protein. 19 McGraw-Hill Education©
The process continues until the entire
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polypeptide is completely formed.
Transcription
Translation of mRNA in Protein
Transcription takes place in the nucleus of the
Synthesis
cell.
DNA determines the structure of mRNA through
transcription.
During transcription, the double strands of a
DNA segment separate, and DNA nucleotides of
the gene pair with RNA nucleotides that form the
mRNA.© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

Transcription

DNA contains one of the following organic bases:

thymine, adenine, cytosine, or guanine.
Messenger RNA (mRNA) contains uracil, adenine,
cytosine, or guanine.© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
Overview of Gene Expression
Transcription

DNA nucleotides pair only with specific RNA

nucleotides.
DNA’s thymine pairs with RNA’s adenine.
DNA’s adenine pairs with RNA’s uracil.
DNA’s cytosine pairs with RNA’s guanine
DNA’s guanine pairs with RNA’s cytosine.

Transcription

The Cell Cycle

During growth and development, cell division

occurs to increase the number of cells or replace
damaged or dying ones.
This cell division involves a cell cycle.
The cell cycle includes two major phases: a
nondividing phase, called interphase, and a cell
dividing phase, termed mitosis.© 2019 McGraw-Hill
Education
The Cell Cycle
A cell spends most of its life cycle in interphase
performing its normal functions.
During interphase, the DNA (located in
chromosomes in the cell’s nucleus) is replicated.
The two strands of DNA separate from each
other, and each strand serves as a template for
the production of a new strand of DNA.© 2019
McGraw-Hill Education
The Cell Cycle
Nucleotides in the DNA of each template strand
pair with new nucleotides that are subsequently
joined by enzymes to form a new strand of DNA.
The sequence of nucleotides in the DNA
template determines the sequence of
nucleotides in the new strand of DNA.
Replication of DNA gives two identical
chromatids joined at a centromere; both form
one chromosome
DNA Replication
Cell Genetic Content
Each human cell (except sperm and egg)
contains 23 pairs of chromosomes, a total of 46.
The sperm and egg contain 23 chromosomes
total.
One pair of chromosomes are the sex
chromosomes, which consist of two X
chromosomes if the person is a female or an X
and Y chromosome if the person is a male.
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
Mitosis
Mitosis involves formation of 2 daughter cells
from a single parent cell.
Mitosis is divided into four phases: prophase,
metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
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Prophase
During prophase the chromatin condenses to
form visible chromosomes.
Microtubules, termed spindle fibers, form to
assist in breaking the centromere between the
chromatids and move the chromosomes to
opposite sides of the cell.
The nuclear membrane dissolves.
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Metaphase
During metaphase, the chromosomes align near
the center of the cell.
The movement of the chromosomes is regulated
by the attached spindle fibers.
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Anaphase
At the beginning of anaphase, the chromatids
separate and each chromatid is called a
chromosome.
Each of the two sets of 46 chromosomes is
moved by the spindle fibers toward the centriole
at one of the poles of the cell.
At the end of anaphase, each set of
chromosomes has reached an opposite pole of
the cell, and the cytoplasm begins to divide.
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
Telophase
During telophase, the chromosomes in each of the
daughter cells become organized to form two
separate nuclei, one in each newly formed daughter
cell.
The chromosomes begin to unravel and resemble
the genetic material during interphase.
Following telophase, cytoplasm division is
completed, and two separate daughter cells are
produced.
The Cell Cycle
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Differentiation

A sperm cell and an oocyte unite to form a

single cell, then a great number of mitotic
divisions occur to give the trillions of cells of the
body.
The process by which cells develop with
specialized structures and functions is called
differentiation.
During differentiation of a cell, some portions of
DNA are active, but others are inactive.
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Diversity of Cell Types

Apoptosis
Apoptosis, termed programmed cell death, is a
normal process by which cell numbers within
various tissues are adjusted and controlled.
In the developing fetus, apoptosis removes extra
tissue, such as cells between the developing
fingers and toes.
In some adult tissues, apoptosis eliminates
excess cells to maintain a constant number of
cells within the tissue.
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Cellular Aspects of Aging
There are various causes for cellular aging.
• Existence of a cellular clock
• Presence of death genes
• DNA damage
• Formation of free radicals
• Mitochondrial damage
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Tumors

Tumors are abnormal proliferations of cells.

They are due to problems occurring in the cell
cycle.
Some tumors are benign and some are
malignant (cancer).
Malignant tumors can spread by a process,
termed metastasis