BAYERO UNIVERSITY, KANO 1

GSP1201/2201
USE OF ENGLISH
2020/2021 SESSION

GROUP A1
FACULTY OF AGRICULTURE
&
FACULTY OF VETENARY MEDICINE
Dr. BELLO SHEHU ABDULLAHI
 Module 1: Vocabulary Development 2
Objective: This module focuses on the need for and ways
of developing vocabularies, which are essential
ingredients for spoken and written communication.

The following items will be discussed in this module:

 Denotation and Connotation

 Registers and Jargons
 Antonyms and Synonyms
 Phrasal verbs
 Idioms
 Introduction 3

There are different ways of understanding word

meaning. Consulting the dictionary should be
the last resort when other avenues fail. One
may also consult the dictionary to confirm an
already understood word meaning in order to
get more information about the specific word.
Different ways of understanding word meaning
include:
 1. Origin of word or Etymology 4

Some English words originate from other languages

such as Latin, French, Portuguese and Greek. This
knowledge cancels every possibility of assigning
meaning to the root or stem based on a familiar
English word. Example, Manipulate is a Latin originated
word. The initial letters, man- has nothing to do with
gender or sex. The word, Manipulate, is from the Latin
word, Manipulus (handful) from the word Manus
(hand) to mean “skillful handling of objects” in the
English Language.
2. Sound or Onomatopoeic word 5

The meaning of some words can be

derived from the sound produced when
pronouncing the words. The sound of the
word actually portrays the meaning of
the word. Example, whisper, rustling,
whistling or tick-tok.
 3. Root/Base of a word 6

one can ascertain the meaning of a word by

understanding the meaning of the root or the base of the
word. A Root is a basic word to which affixes can be
attached. It is called a root because it forms the basis of a
new word and cannot be broken down. Example, Act is a
word and a root word as well. The suffix, -ive can be
attached to it to form a new word, Active. A Base, on the
other hand, is a word which gives basis for the formation of
a new word. It functions as a root but is distinct because the
base can be further broken down. Example, act is a root for
act(ive), while active is a base for act(iv)(ity). Thus
understanding the root or the base of a work enhances the
understanding of the word. Some examples include
Omnious (from omen, which means sign, often negative),
Indecisive (from decision), or Ingenious (from genius).
 4. Loan words 7

These are words borrowed from other

languages and are used in the new
language without changing the form of
the word. Example, Coup d’état
(borrowed from French), Safari
(borrowed from Arabic) and
Anonymous (Greek), Loot (Hindi) and
Cartoon (Italian), among others.
5. Grammatical category of a word 8

Knowing the word class of words helps to

understand the meaning of a word. For
instance, knowing that a given word is an
action word (verb) and not a noun
accelerates the possible understanding
of the word meaning.
 6. Context
The environment in which a word is used helps in 9
suggesting the meaning of the word. This environment
includes the surrounding words, which are words that
come before or after a word, the setting where the
word is used, such as in an office, in a bar, in a
classroom, etc. Example, the word, Treatment can
meaning differently based on the context: a. an
attitude towards a person (Think of how you treat a
slave, guest, friend or customer); b. The action of a
nurse or doctor to a patient in a hospital; c. Purifying
water. The three different meanings are recognisable
when used because of the environment where it is
used, topic in which it is used and the person who used
the word.
 7. Intuition 10

A native speaker of a language has the

intuitive or innate knowledge of his
language. Similarly, a competent user of
a language has an intuitive knowledge
of the language as well. This is achieved
through extensive reading and rich
exposure to the second language.
 8. The Dictionary 11

This is the last resort to understanding the

meaning of a word. It also serves as a
reference material to affirm, compare or get a
further understanding of a given word. The
dictionary goes beyond word definition in
teaching vocabulary meaning. It gives other
information such as pronunciation, word class,
style (formal or informal, derogatory, archaic),
its relationship with other words and usage.
 Denotation and Connotation 12
Meaning can be actual or literal, where the item which the word
represents can be identified in the world. This type of word
meaning is called Denotation. Example, the word, dog means a
particular type of domestic animal.
Conversely, meaning can sense or literary, where the meaning of
a word is by associating the actual meaning of a given word and
extending it by sense to relate it to another experience. This type
of meaning is known as Connotation. Example, the actual or
denotative meaning of dog could be extended to some
behaviour which is similar to the speaker’s understanding of a
dog’s behaviour. A person who is promiscuous could be called a
dog; a thief could me termed a rat, and a witty person could be
called a tortoise.
In understanding the two concepts of denotation and connotation, we can
highlight the similarities (if any) and differences in their features.
13

1. Both denotative and connotative meanings are types of meaning

available to every language users.

2. Denotative meaning identifies items in the world (DONKEY = an animal with

four legs usually used for carrying loads), while connotative meaning is a
sense relation of the denotative meaning of a given word by extension. Eg,
the meaning of a donkey can be extended to a human behaviour based
on the speaker’s knowledge of donkey. To one experience, a workaholic is
a donkey, while another experience sees a stupid person as a donkey.
These experiences are triggered by the speaker’s culture.

3. Denotative meaning is a stable relationship. Thus, CAR remains that same

item in real life which has four wheels, while connotative meaning is an
unstable relationship. Thus, the meaning of a gorilla depends on a given
speaker’s experience.
4. In denotative meaning is concrete, while connotative 14
meaning is abstract. In essence, Denotation, we can see, feel,
touch or identify items in the world, whereas in connotation,
meaning of items cannot be seen, touched or identified.
Instead, we extend the denotative meaning to express our
ideas, experiences, events or emotions.
5. In denotative meaning, a word may denote on item or entity
with different shades of meaning. Example, the word, teacher
has different shades of meaning such as teacher, tutor,
facilitator, lecturer. Whereas in connotation, we associate
meaning with other abstract nature (behaviour, event, idea or
feeling) which has similar characteristics. Example, woman vs.
gentle; Pig vs. dirty; Rat vs. thief; Owl vs. witchcraft (African
association) or wisdom (western association).

It is important to note that:

 15
1. Words which has different shades of meaning also
bring about the incidence of synonymy in language.
Thus, connotative meaning yields synonyms,
examples:
• Sour (orange) and Rancid (butter)
• Blond (hair) and Brown (dress)
• Deep (gutter) and Profound (wound)
• Bright (student) and Colourful (attire)
• Statesman (usually for retired politicians who aren’t
termed, corrupt) and Politician (corrupt and active
persons in active politics)
• Lecturer (tertiary institutions) and Teacher
(primary/secondary schools), etc.
2. Literary writings are known for the profuse use of
connotative meanings as seen in the literary 16
devices such as metaphor, irony, satire, imagery,
etc. Example, bat connotes blindness.
3. Connotation carries negative and positive
meanings. Some synonyms differ in either the
negative or positive implication of the word. A word
may be positive to A but negative to B. example,
• Childlike (positive to young children but negative
to adults) and Youthful
• Statesman (positive) and Politician (negative
based on cultural perception)
• Liberty (positive to Americans) and Freedom
(positive to South Africans but negative to
Americans)
 Registers and Jargons 17
Jargons have two different meanings:
a) Register
It refers to the technical vocabulary of a profession, trade or
activity. Example, Law, Medicine, Linguistics, Tourism, Football, etc.
this professional use of language is known as REGISTERS. It is
necessary and useful for members of the professional group to use
the specialised vocabulary in their field (Registers) as a sign of
expertise in their profession.
Registers work like a professional code, thus excluding non-
members from their conversations. It makes communication
specific, precise and accurate. It also promotes economy in
communication. Register is a professional badge of identification
for members who feels an air of authority, prestige and higher
status when using registers in communication.
 Some professions and their registers: 18
 LAW: plaintiff, prosecutor, writ, defendant, appellant,
mandamus, accused, petitioner.
 LINGUISTICS: phoneme, allophone, plosive, rounded
vowel, allomorph, Syllabic, consonant.
 POLITICS: controversy, eloquent, declare, candidate,
strategy, bunk, canvass, veto, adverse, jubilant,
gracious, charisma.
 RELIGION: blasphemy, animism, Buddhism,
agnosticism, atheism, ecclesiastic, episcopal,
evangelical, ecumenical, Eucharist, heresy.
 MEDICINE: acute, abrasion, abscess, autopsy, biopsy,
diagnosis, edema, fracture, malignant , benign
 Registers and Jargons 19
b) Jargons
This is an obscure and pretentious use of language. It is marked by
round-about way of expression. It entails the use of long and pompous
words which are often unnecessary and inappropriate. The major aim
of the speaker is to impress the audience. Here, communication suffers
because words are barriers to understanding.
To test if an expression is a jargon, we ask this question:
Can it be said in simple words without impeding the speaker’s intent?
If the answer is yes. It is a jargon; if the answer is no, it is a register.
Example: 1. Jalopies circumnavigates. This is s jargon because one can
simply say Cars move.
Example: 2. The word contains an allomorph. This is a register because it
cannot be said in a better language without a roundabout use of
words.
 Phrasal verb 20
 Phrasal verb is a group of words which consists of a verb and
other particles, where the particles are preposition (P) or adverb
(A) or both. Thus, phrasal verb can have these structure:
• V + P = Call off
• V + A = Add up
• V + A+ P = Catch up with
There is a corresponding lexical verb for every phrasal verb which
means the same as the phrasal verb. For example:
• Look for = Search
• Put off = Extinguish
• Object to = Refuse/Reject
• Bring up = Raise.
 Phrasal verb 21
 Phrasal verbs are subdivided into Separable and non-separable phrasal
verbs. Separable phrasal verbs are those phrasal verbs which can take a
word inserted between the verb and the particle. For example:
• Break down vs. Break the topic down
• Bring up vs. Bring your child up
• Call off vs. Call the strike off
• Put off vs. Put the fire off.
 Non-separable phrasal verbs are those phrasal verbs which cannot take a
word inserted between the verb and the particle. For example:
• Look for
• Hold on
• Stop by
• Hang out
• Sit up.
 Phrasal verb 22
 Furthermore, Phrasal verbs are divided into
Literal and non-literal phrasal verbs. The literal
phrasal verbs, just as the name imply denote a
literal meaning which are not taken
idiomatically, while non-literal phrasal verbs take
literary or idiomatic meaning. Example, Look
up/down can take a literal meaning which
denotes an upward/downward gaze. This
phrasal verb, Look down, can take a non-literal
meaning, merciful. Other examples include:
hang on (persevere), sit up (pay attention).
 Idiom 23

Idiom is a group of word whose meaning cannot

be predicted by the sequence of words in the
structure. This means that idioms are opaque in
nature. These group of words fossilize (archaic and
incapable of change) over time to form a unit of
meaning. Idiom, therefore, involves a kind of
collocation (the company a word keeps), where a
word in an idiomatic phrase cannot be substituted
with another word. Example, He kicked the
bucket, not *He played the bucket/He jacked the
basket.
 Examples of idioms are: 24
Idioms Meaning
Beat around the bush To avoid talking about what’s important

Get your act together Get organized and do things effectively

Hit the sack Go to sleep

Your guess is as good as mine I do not know

Good things come to those who To have patience

wait

Back against the wall Stuck in a difficult circumstance with no escape

Up in arms Being grumpy or angry about something

 Examples of idioms are: 26
Idioms Meaning
Cut corners Doing something in an easier and least expensive
manner

Boil the ocean Taking up an almost impossible or overly ambitious

project

Keep an ear to the ground Staying informed and updated about everything

Eat like a horse Eating too excessively

A snowball effect The aspect of momentum in every event and how they
build upon each other
 Idiom 27
 Idioms are semantically like a single word but do
not function like a word. It does not change or
take grammatical features like noun words take
plural forms (car – cars) or a verbs take tense
forms (cook – cooked). Thus, To kick the bucket
cannot be expressed as *To kick the buckets.
*To spill the bean is a wrong form of To spill the
beans. More so, idioms do not take comparisons
or passives. Example, A red herring, not *a
redder herring; He kicked the bucket, not *the
bucket was kicked
28