AERONAUTICAL LABORATORY I

Module 01: Wind Tunnel Familiarization

Learning Module 01: Wind Tunnel Familiarization

Prepared by: Engr. Noruane A. Daileg

Instructor I

Aeronautical Engineering Department

Institute of Engineering and Technology
Philippine State College of Aeronautics
AERONAUTICAL LABORATORY I
Module 01: Wind Tunnel Familiarization

Table of Contents

Title Page
Gospel Reflection i
Tips for Self-Learning ii
TOPIC 01: WIND TUNNEL FAMILIARIZATION
i. Learning Outcomes iv
I. Introduction 1
II. History of Wind Tunnels 2
Activity 01 12
Paper Assignment 01 12
III. Types of Wind Tunnels 14
IV. Elements of a Wind Tunnel 25
Activity 02 28
References 29
Format of Activity Submissions 30
Honesty Clause 32
AERONAUTICAL LABORATORY I
Module 01: Wind Tunnel Familiarization

Gospel Reflection

Rest is a gift that we too easily tend to push aside. But life without rest is not
sustainable. Rest refreshes our bodies, giving us the energy we need to honour God
and to love others.

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Tips for Self-Learning

1. Assess one’s readiness to learn

Students require various skills as well as an appropriate attitude towards learning for a
successful independent study. This tip involves students conducting a self-evaluation of their
present situation, study habits, and support network both at school and at home. This also
involves evaluating past experiences with independent learning

2. Develop a time-Management Strategy

One Challenge facing in online learning is the self-discipline necessary for us to devote
an ample amount of time to a class in courses that might not have regularly scheduled times to
meet synchronously online or in person. A key difference between in-person and online
learning is the level of independence and ability to participate in the online classroom
“activities” at a time convenient to the student. However, this also presents a potential
conundrum, procrastination. This problem could cause a student to fall behind in the online
course.
A way to mitigate these problems is to try to set and stay to specific “study days”. One
way to accomplish this is by dividing your typical week with days assigned for “learning”, this
includes reading and taking notes of modular materials (learning/laboratory), and some days
reserved for writing assignments. Another way is to incorporate the assistance of your peers
from home or in the online course. Monitoring the progress of your learning can be performed
by any of your family members, since they are the closest person to you (physically) throughout
this online course. Block mates for a specific online course can also assist you with monitoring
by comparing your progress with his/her accomplishments for that online course, forming a
mutual benefit for you and your peers.

3. Engage in the Learning Process

Students need to understand themselves as learners in order to understand their needs
as self-directed learning students. Students must also need to understand their own approach to
studying.
i. A deep approach to studying involves change in ourselves as learners and is ideal for
self-directed learning. This approach is about understanding ideas for yourself,
applying the knowledge to situations that may be unique to you in some levels and
using novel examples to explain a concept, and learning more than is required for unit
completion.
ii. A surface approach involves reproduction: this approach lets you to adapt with the
course requirements, learning only what is required to complete a unit in good standing,
and tending to regurgitate examples and explanations used in reading.
iii. A strategic approach involves organization: achieving the highest possible grades,
learning what is required to pass exams, memorizing facts, and spending time practicing
from past exams.

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4. Stay motivated
Due to the lack of physical contact and interaction with other learners or instructors,
online students might lose their interest or motivation mid-way through their course or
program. Especially in this trying times, we must always remember that no matter what, we
must keep on finding something to fight for.

5. Evaluate Learning
In order for students to be successful in self-directed learning, they must be able to
engage in self-reflection and self-evaluation of their learning goals and progress in a unit of
study. To support this self-evaluation process, they should:
i. Regularly consult with the course instructor,
ii. Seek feedback, and
iii. Engage in reflection of your achievements

6. Find some time to Rest.

Just as this tip suggests, find some time to relax. Make some coffee, eat donuts, play
games. Working on learning modules for more than what your mind can take may cause a
burnout in your system.

Reference(s):
 How Students Develop https://er.educause.edu/articles/2007/1/how-students-develop-
Online Learning Skills online-learning-skills
 Self-Directed Learning: https://uwaterloo.ca/centre-for-teaching-excellence/teaching-
A Four-Step Process resources/teaching-tips/tips-students/self-directed-
learning/self-directed-learning-four-step-process
 Self-Regulation In Online https://elearningindustry.com/self-regulation-in-online-learning
Learning
 How to Be a Successful https://www.northeastern.edu/bachelors-
Online Learner: 9 Tips & completion/news/successful-online-learning-strategies/
Strategies

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120 minutes
AERONAUTICAL LABORATORY I
Module 01: Wind Tunnel Familiarization

Introduction
What are Wind Tunnels? Wind tunnels, are large tubes with air moving inside them. Hence,
the reason why they are termed as such. However, using this description not only discredits the
importance of these machines and their contribution to many industries (Aviation, Automotive,
Construction, etc.) but also it does not explain thoroughly what these machines are capable of.
Departing from the very simplistic description given in the earlier paragraph, wind tunnels are
machines for producing controlled stream of air flowing through tunnels of varying but controlled
sizes. This, in turn enables us to study the effects of bodies moving through air or the resistance to
moving air of manufactured models.
Wind tunnels are facilities (circular, elliptical or rectangular tunnels) in which the wind is
produced by fans or by compressed air to study and measure the action of the air flow around a solid.
The test section is the part of the circuit where the solid is studied. Invented in the late nineteenth
century, these aerodynamic laboratories took off in the early twentieth century. The method is based
on the principle of relativity enunciated by Isaac Newton in 1687: the forces exerted on a solid
immersed in a fluid and the fluid are the same either the solid moves with a certain speed through the
fluid at rest, or the fluid moves, with the same relative velocity to the solid that it is immobile.
In French, wind tunnel is still designated by the term “soufflerie”, which was correct for the
first facilities, since a fan was blowing air upstream (relative to the direction of flow) of the test-section.
The first evolution was to suck air downstream of the test section. The precursors of the other countries
in the science of flight use terms that do not prejudge whether the direction of the air is moving in the
circuit: wind tunnel in English, Windkanal in German, galleria aerodinamica in Italian, and
aerodinamicheskaya truba in Russian. Anyway, wind tunnels have largely contributed to the
development of aviation, reducing the number of accidents, thus saving the lives of pilots and
maintaining the equipment. They also allowed replacing the “flair” of the pioneers by the “art” of the
engineers, according to the beautiful sentence by Gustave Eiffel. (Chanetz, A century of wind tunnels
since Eiffel, 2016)
In aviation, wind tunnels are used to imitate the actions of an object in flight. Researchers use
wind tunnels to learn more about how an aircraft will fly. Some wind tunnels are big enough to hold
full-size versions of vehicles. The wind tunnel moves air around an object, making it seem like the
object is really flying. (Wild, 2018)

Applications of Wind Tunnels

In most cases, powerful fans move air through the tunnels. The object to be tested is fastened
in the test section as to prevent the stream of air from moving the object. The object can be anything.
Object’s tested in wind tunnels range from Shoes to a model of a building, a vehicle or maybe just
some of its parts.
Applications of wind-tunnel research range from routine testing of airframes to fundamental
research on the boundary layer, the slow-moving layer of air adjacent to any wind-exposed body
surface. Measurements of air pressure and other characteristics at many points on the model yield

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information about how the total wind load is distributed. In addition to aircraft and spacecraft,
aerodynamic studies in wind tunnels have been highly profitable devices for solving design problems
in automobiles, boats, trains, bridges, and building structures. (Britannica, 1998)

History of Wind Tunnels

The use of wind tunnels are very much obvious as for today’s standards. However, it was not
the first device used to test aerodynamics. First, relatively steady natural wind sources were searched
out. Models were mounted above windswept ridges and in the mouths of blowing caves. Early
experimenters realized that they needed a machine to replace nature's capricious winds with a steady,
controllable flow of air. Each recognized, as Leonardo da Vinci and Isaac Newton had done in the past
that they could either move the model that they are testing through the air at the required velocity or
they could blow the air past a stationary model. Both of these approaches were employed in the early
days of aeronautics. (NASA N. A., Whirling Arms and the First Wind Tunnels)

Benjamin Robins (1707 – 1751), a brilliant English mathematician

and military engineer, was the first to make use of the “Whirling arm”. The
machine had an arm with a length of 4 feet spun around by a falling weight
acting on a pulley and spindle arrangement. Using the whirling arm in his
experiments in 1746, Robins mounted objects of various shapes on the tip
of the whirling arm and begin to spin them in different directions. His
experiments brought light as to how different shaped objects, when
moving through air is affected differently by air resistance, or “drag”.
However, what limited his experiments is the speeds that the whirling arm
can reach. Soon after, another English engineer, adopted Robins’ invention
Image of Benjamin Robins of the whirling arm.

John Smeaton (1724 – 1792), a British engineer,

wrote and published in 1759 a paper that addressed the
relationship between pressure and velocity for objects
moving in water and air. Smeaton had used a whirling
arm device to measure the drag exerted on a surface by
moving air. From his work Smeaton created an equation
to explain his observations. The equation is 𝐷 =
𝐶𝐷 (𝑘)(𝑆)(𝑉 2 ), where D is the drag, S is the surface area,
V is the air velocity, and k is a pressure constant and Cd
is a drag coefficient that depends on the shape,
roughness, and inclination of the model to the flight
direction. Smeaton’s coefficient (k) is the drag of a 1
Image of John Smeaton’s design of a
square foot flat plate moving at one mile per hour. The
“Whirling arm”
value of k was determined experimentally and, by 1900,

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the accepted value was 0.005. The modern accepted value is 0.00326. (NASA N. A., Principles of
Flight in Action)

*Note that this form of the drag equation is no longer used today. The k factor has been
replaced by the density of the air to account for variations with altitude and weather conditions.

Another Englishman Sir George Cayley (1773 – 1857), which

some considers to be the “Father of Aviation”, also used a whirling arm
to measure the drag and lift of various aerofoils. His whirling arm was 5
feet long and attained tip speeds between 10 and 20 feet per second.
Armed with test data from the arm, Cayley built a small glider that is
believed to have been the first successful heavier-than-air vehicle in
history. In 1804 Cayley built and flew an unmanned glider with a wing
area of 200 square feet. By 1852 he had a tri-plane glider design that
incorporated many features of modern aircraft, but manned, powered
aircraft were still half a century away.
Sir George Cayley’s largest contribution to aeronautics was to Image of Sir George Cayley
design philosophy. In 1799 for the first time in history, the concept of the
modern airplane was discovered. Cayley had an understanding with the basic principles of flight during
a time when enthusiasts and aspiring aeronauts believed that the propulsion system should be able to
generate both lift (upward) and thrust (forward) motion at the same time, as birds and helicopters do.
Although, the term “helicopter” was coined by Gustave de Ponton d’Amécourt in 1861. Cayley
identified two very important factors that are related to flight.
1. Drag vector is parallel to the flow opposite of the aircraft’s motion through the air; and
2. Lift vector is perpendicular to the flow.
Sir George Cayley also identified for the first time that lift is
generated by a region of low pressure on the upper surface of the wing.
In addition, he demonstrated that cambered wings (curved surfaces)
generate lift more efficiently than a flat surface.
Otto Lilienthal (1846 – 1896), before his glider experiments, also
dabbled with the whirling arm and tested various lifting surfaces.
However, his experiments between 1866 and 1889 yielded incorrect
results for both flat and cambered aerofoils which led him to believe that
“powered” flight was impossible to achieve, or at least with his abilities.
Despite these failures, Otto Lilienthal became famous as the first man to
launch himself into the air, fly, and land safely using a glider.
Unfortunately on August 09, 1896, the glider he was piloting stalled and
proceeded to went into a nosedive. Otto met his demise the following Image of Otto Lilienthal
day with his last words: “Opfer müssen gebracht warden” Sacrifices
must be made.

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Two more individuals who made use of the

Whirling Arm are Hiram Maxim and Samuel
Pierpont Langley. In stark contrast from the bird-
like gliders of Otto Lilienthal was the gigantic
structures made by Sir Hiram Stevens Maxim, an
American-born British inventor. Earning huge
fame and profit from his previous work with the
invention of the first portable fully automatic
Machine Gun, Maxim began to set his attention to
new frontiers, this new frontier being powered,
manned flight.
Sir Hiram Stevens Maxim (1840 – 1916) Image of Sir Hiram Stevens Maxim’s goliath Whirling Arm
first tested aerofoils. His version of the whirling
arm had a diameter of 64 feet with the arm boasting elaborate instrumentation to measure lift, drag,
and relative air velocity.
Samuel P. Langley (1834 – 1936) an
American aviation pioneer, mathematician,
astronomer, and Secretary of Smithsonian
Institution, like his other contemporaries began
assessing various aerofoils. Similar to Sir
Maxim before him, Samuel built a large
whirling arm with 60 feet in diameter and was
spun around by 10-horsepower engine. One of
Image of Samuel Pierpont Langley and his Aerodrome number 5 his experiments with the arm attained speeds up
to 100 mph. However, being remembered as
one of the most unlucky trail blazers in flight, Samuel’s experiments were met with frustrations.
Located outdoors because of its huge stature, the apparatus was frequently disturbed by winds and the
self-created mass of air swirling around the arm which threw off results from his own experiments. At
this point in time, the close of the 19 th Century saw Samuel P. Langley and the Wright brothers
labouring to create powered controllable flight. However, seeing the Whirling arm’s limitations, the
Wright brothers turned to the wind tunnel as their major test facility.

The whirling arm provided most of the systematic aerodynamic data gathered up to the end of
the nineteenth century. Its flaws, however, did not go unnoticed. Test results were adversely influenced
as the arm's eggbeater action set all the air in the vicinity in rotary motion. Aircraft models on the end
of an arm in effect flew into their own wakes. With so much turbulence, experimenters could not
determine the true relative velocity between the model and air. Furthermore, it was extremely difficult
to mount instruments and measure the small forces exerted on the model when it was spinning at high
speeds. Something better was needed. (NASA N. A., Whirling Arms and the First Wind Tunnels)

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Francis Herbert Wenham (1824 – 1908), was a British marine engineer

and also a member of the Aeronautical Society of Great Britain, also engaged
with whirling arm experiments. However, disappointment with his
experiments necessitated him to urge the Council to raise funds to build a wind
tunnel. In 1871, together with John Browning (1831 – 1925), a colleague in
the Aeronautical Society, they built a wind tunnel located in Greenwich at
Penn’s Marine Engineering Works. The build was made according to Francis
Wenham’s own design. He described it as “a trunk 12 feet long and 18 inches
square, to direct the current horizontally, and in parallel course.” A fan-blower
upstream of the model, driven by a steam engine, propelled air down the tube
to the model. Image of Francis (Frank) H.
Wenham. 1866
With this breakthrough, detailed technical data was achieved using this
apparatus. Francis Wenham mounted different models in the wind tunnel, measuring the lift and drag
forces created by the air stream produced by the fan blower. For such a simple experiment, the results
they gained were of great significance to aeronautics. They found out that at low angles of incidence,
the lift-to-drag ratios (L/D ratios) of test surfaces could be surprisingly high, with roughly 5 at a 15
degree angle of attack. With such high lift-to-drag ratios, wings could, in theory, support considerable
loads, making powered flight seem much more achievable than previously thought possible. These
researches also revealed the effect of what is now called aspect ratio: long, narrow wings, like those
on modern gliders, provided much more lift than stubby wings with the same areas.
Horatio Frederick Phillips (1845 – 1926), an English aviation
pioneer, reported to be a huge fanatic of aviation even from a young
age, follows closely the researches being conducted by the Aeronautical
Society of Great Britain. In 1872, a 27 year old Horatio was in
attendance at a presentation of Francis H. Wenham about an important
report with regard to the findings of his wind tunnel experiments using
flat plates. Unimpressed with Wenham’s results, as well as with the
other researchers of the Society, Horatio Phillips felt that he could do
better and had built his own wind tunnel by the early 1880’s.
Horatio’s wind tunnel made use of a steam injector to suck air
Image of Horatio F. Phillips
through the apparatus and thus produced more reliable results than any
other wind tunnel built of his time. The tunnel was 17 inches square and
6 feet long. Attached to one end was “an expanding delivery tube of sheet-iron”, which was 6 feet
long, 12 inches wide where it entered the box contracting to 8 inches, and again expanding to 2 feet.
In its narrowest part was introduced a ring of iron pipe pierced with holes, through which steam was
fed from a large boiler under 70 pounds pressure. This produced by suction an air current in the square
part of the tunnel. (Randers-Pehrson, 1935)

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Diagram of Phillips’ wind tunnel. 1884

Horatio soon began to conduct experiments quantitatively

exploring George Cayley’s theory on the effective lift of what he
termed “sustainers”. His were the first systematic studies of cambered
aerofoils where he noticed partial vacuum above the aerofoils. He
patented a number of profiles, and introduced the downward curving
leading edge, now in almost universal use.
In a classic set of experiments, Osborne Reynolds (1842-1912)
of the University of Manchester demonstrated that the airflow pattern
over a scale model would be the same for the full-scale vehicle if a
certain flow parameter were the same in both cases. This factor, now
known as the Reynolds number, is a basic parameter in the description Profiles patented by Horatio Phillips
of all fluid-flow situations, including the shapes of flow patterns, the
ease of heat transfer, and the onset of turbulence. This comprises the central scientific justification for
the use of models in wind tunnels to simulate real-life phenomena.
Dr Ludwig Mach (1868 – 1951), first-born of Ernst Mach, was an Austrian physician and
chemist. In 1893, Ludwig was the first to use a wind tunnel to photograph the flow of air. The size of
his wind tunnel, in comparison from his other contemporaries, is quite small having a cross-section of
0.60 by 0.82 feet; one side of the tunnel was made of glass and the others black on the inside. The air
was sucked through by means of a centrifugal fan at the rate of 32.80 feet per second. A piece of wire
mesh over the opening served to straighten the current. By use of silk threads, cigarette smoke and
glowing particles of iron, the flow could be observed. Streams of heated air were also introduced,
invisible to the eye, but recording on a photographic plate. A number of good flow photographs were
obtained. (Randers-Pehrson, 1935)
The first wind tunnel measurements of pressure distribution were made by Johannes O.V.
Irminger (1848 – 1938) and Henrik Christian Vogt (1848 – 1928) of Copenhagen. H. C. Vogt, a Danish
marine engineer and mathematician, became interested in bird flight during a trip around the world
around 1877, as he watched birds soaring around the ship on which he was a passenger.

Returning to Denmark from his time in England, H.C. Vogt later became a member of the
English Aeronautics Club. As he was working on the theory of lift on a wing, he became convinced
that Newton’s assumption on flight was wrong. Upon this realization, H.C. Vogt wrote a letter to
Samuel P. Langley about his suspicions with which Langley argued that such a great mathematician

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as Isaac Newton could not be wrong. H.C. Vogt after this exchange became famous enough to be
invited to the Aeronautical Navigation Conference in Chicago in 1893.

H.C. Vogt, convinced by Horatio Phillips to prove his theory, decided to enlist the assistance
of his friend J.O.V. Irminger. J.O.V. Irminger at that time is the director of the Eastern Gas Works in
Copenhagen. The Easter Gas Works had a very large smokestack measuring of about 100 feet high
and 5 feet in diameter, into which J.O.V. Irminger cut an opening where they built their first wind
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tunnel. Irminger and Vogt’s wind tunnel was a rectangular box, 40 inches long and 4 2 by 9 inches
inside cross-section. The wind tunnel utilizes the draft produced in the smokestack. The year was 1893,
and certainly was not the first wind tunnel, especially in England where Wenham (in 1871) and Phillips
(in ~1880’s) built their own. However it was the first in Denmark. (Randers-Pehrson, 1935)

Images of Wind Tunnel Experiments by Irminger. ~1930

Colonel Charles Renard of France (1847 – 1905), constructor of the famous war balloon La
France, was an inventor in the French military. He entered l'École Polytechnique and by 1868 became
sous-lieutenant in an engineering corps. In the 1870 Franco-Prussian War, Renard headed a division.
By 1875 the French ministry of war had appointed him secretary of a communications commission
working on carrier pigeons and balloon-based optical telegraphy. At this time he was interested in
heavier-than-air flight, but the obstacle of motor weight led him to shift his focus to lighter than
air aeronautics. In 1878 he was appointed to head the new aeronautics research facility at Chalais-
Meudon.

Sometime during the latter half of the 1890’s wind tunnels were used in the Établissement
Militaire. The wind tunnel was cylindrical, 2.63 feet in diameter and around 13.12 feet long using fan
blower to control the stream of air. However the wind produced was said to be violent. 45.93 feet per
second is given in a published chart and because of meagre information about military experiments,
there was also no mention of any means to straighten the wind.

Sir Hiram Stevens Maxim enters the scene of aeronautics once more in the middle of the
1890’s. For the construction of his £20,000 giant aircraft, Sir Hiram realized the necessity for scientific
data and utilized a number of testing devices. Sir Hiram’s wind tunnel was a wooden box 12 feet long
and 3 by 3 feet inside cross-section, connected with a shorter box 4 feet square. Two air-screws on the
same shaft, placed in a wider section and driven by a 100 horsepower steam engine, blew the air
through the tunnel. Sir Hiram tested aerofoils, struts, and airplane parts in his wind tunnel, and also
the efficiency of steam condenser pipes.

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Poul la Cour (1846 – 1908) was a Danish scientist, inventor, and educator. Following the
experiments of J.O.V. Irminger and H.C. Vogt, Poul used wind tunnel technology to further his
windmill research. Poul used two variation of wind tunnels for his experiments. Both were made of
sheet iron, cylindrical, ~7.22 feet long; one was 3.28 feet in diameter and the other 1.64 feet. The wind
was produced by electric blower fans with a speed of 32.81 feet per second. The wind was straightened
by radial fins inside the tunnels. The testing surfaces and windmill models were placed 1 meter out in
front of the tunnel. (Randers-Pehrson, 1935)

Poul la Cour’s main contribution to aerodynamics was his experimental investigations using
wind tunnels, full scale measurements, control, and storage. It was believed that la Cour was aware of
aerofoil aerodynamics but could not explain it in theory. Poul la Cour’s work was also acknowledge
by Albert Betz, the German physicist and also a pioneer of turbine technology, in foreword of his text
book Wind-Energie.

Image of Poul la Cour (left) and one of the wind tunnels installed in his test centre (right).

Dr Etienne-Jules Marey (1830 – 1904) was a French scientist, physiologist and

chronophotographer. Famous from his chronophotgraphic studies of animal locomotion, in 1899
turned his attention to obtaining photographs of air in motion.
Marey’s wind tunnel was 7.87 by 11.81 inches in cross-section, with front and sides of plate
glass and the back covered with black velvet. The wind tunnel used a small suction fan to draw down
the air and straightened by passing through fine silk gauze of very even weave.

Image of Movements of Air by Etienne-Jules Marey

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Smoke was supplied through a row of fine tubes located at the top of the tunnel and descended
in straight bands, clearly showing the flow past small models that were inserted (see image above).
Photographs were taken by means of a magnesium flash, burnt in a ventilated box near the transparent
side of the wind tunnel.

One of the parties interested with Marey’s experiments was Smithsonian’s Samuel P. Langley.
Langley provided funds from the Smithsonian Institution for its continuance, and by next year, Marey
built a new and improved tunnel. Larger in size, with 7.87 by 19.69 inches in cross-section, able to fit
60 smoke tubes that could vibrate laterally 10 times a second. The speed of the air (instantaneous) was
indicated by the undulations of the smoke bands caused by these vibrations. Judging from some of the
photographs where the measuring rod is visible, the speed was measured to be about 11.81 inches per
second. From here on, Dr Marey devoted the few remaining years of his life to photographing
movements of air.
At the beginning of the 20th Century, wind tunnels and their very practical experimental
facilities quickly imposed themselves at the expense of “alternative means” based on the direct
displacement of the object in the air. However, even with the decades of its use since its first conception
from Wenham, alternative means of such experiments still persist even in this new century.

In 1901, the same time as Dr A. F. Zahm started to pioneer America’s first significant wind
tunnel, testing of the Experimental three-phase rail car in consortium with Siemens and AEG supplying
the electrical equipment. From the series of test runs, the Experimental three-phase railcar attained
breaking speeds of 524.93 feet per second (99 mph). This experiment became a pretext for one of the
methods used by the Aérotechnique de l’Université de Paris at St. Cyr in 1910. Funded by Henry
Deutsch de la Muerthe, the University not only incorporated a wind tunnel, whirling arm, and other
testing devices, but it also had an open-air, three quarter-mile, electric-powered track along which ran
special test cars that could carry different models and even full-size airplanes (light aircraft) for brief
test runs. At the same time during the same decade, Armand de Gramont, duke of Guiche and a defector
of Gustave Eiffel tested wings by attaching them to his car.
Dr. Albert Francis Zahm (1862 – 1954), a professor of mathematics
and engineering as well as the chief of the Aeronautical Division of the U.S
Library of Congress, devised the first complete Aeronautical Laboratory,
equipped for a wide range of experiments in the field of aerodynamics with
instruments capable of measuring exact measurements. It was erected on the
grounds of the Catholic University of America in the winter of 1901 and was
funded by Hugo Mattullath, an inventor of a giant flying boat with which Dr
Zahm agreed to become a consulting engineer of Mattullah’s company, albeit
only in his spare time.
The Aeronautical Laboratory building was a one-story frame structure
of 30 by 80 feet. It houses a wooden wind tunnel 6 feet square in cross-section Image of Dr Albert Francis
Zahm
and 40 feet long, with windows in the ceiling and the walls. The wind was
drawn through at a speed of 27 miles per hour by a 5 foot suction fan, driven by a 12 horsepower,
electric motor. The intake end was covered with one or two screens of cheese cloth or wire mesh to
straighten the wind. The air speed was held constant within a fraction of 1 percent by a boy with a

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tachometer and a rheostat, controlling the fan speed. For some researches movable liners were
introduced in the main tunnel, making the current contract trumpet-wise to gain speed, then run straight
in a narrower stream, and finally discharge as an open jet in the after part of the main tunnel. The
testing model was placed either between the parallel sides, where the wind speed was the greatest, or
in the centre of the current where it entered the experimental chamber.

Images of A.F. Zahm’s Wind Tunnel in the Catholic University; Exterior (left), Interior (right)

The laboratory’s description was communicated to the American Association for the Advance
Science June 30, 1932, and was privately printed (200 copies) in a small pamphlet which is now a
great rarity. Mattullath died in December of 1902, soon after, the flying-boat project was abandoned,
but the scientific work in the laboratory went on intermittently until 1908. Money grants for special
researches were made by the Smithsonian Institution and the Carnegie Institution in 1904 and 1905.
Results of the investigations were communicated to scientific journals and societies. The most
important of these was Dr Zahm’s epoch-making paper of Atmospheric Friction, read before the
Philosophical Society of Washington, February 27, 1904.
This paper disclosed for the first time the fact that skin friction is responsible for the major part
of the total drag. The tests were made in the wind tunnel on carefully constructed boards up to 16 feet
long suspended on the wire balance.
Tests were also made on various spindle-and fish
shaped bodies, establishing the best form for airship hulls and
giving, for the first time, the reason why the now universally
accepted torpedo shape is preferable. The resistance of wires,
struts, wings, and other airplane parts was also studied.
The tunnel was also used for instruction at the
University, several students taking part in the experiments.
Occasionally, special tests were made for other investigators;
for instance, Octave Chanute sent stuffed buzzard for lift and
drag measurements, and a model plane by Emile Berliner was
Image of shapes used by A.F. Zahm in his study
also tested in this tunnel. of skin friction

10
AERONAUTICAL LABORATORY I
Module 01: Wind Tunnel Familiarization

The Wright brothers, Wilbur (1867 – 1912) and Orville (1871 – 1948), were two American
aviation pioneers generally credited with inventing, building, and flying the world’s first successful
motor-operated airplane.
The Wright brothers’ gliding experiments at Kitty Hawk in 1901, although they seemed
successful to other observers, were very disappointing to the Wright brothers themselves, as the new
glider did not at all performed according to their calculations based on the aerodynamic tables of
Lilienthal. On returning to Dayton in August, they decided to find out by laboratory methods what was
wrong.
Their first testing machine consisted of a bicycle wheel mounted horizontally on a spar
projecting from the front of a bicycle. The relative aerodynamic efficiency of various surfaces was
found by mounting them on this wheel, balancing one against the other and riding the bicycle at a
fairly constant speed.
Next, they sent the blast from a fan through a square tube and mounted their surface as blades
on a vane in the stream, balancing a curved surfaces against a plane surface. By the middle of October
1901 a small wind tunnel was completed. It was 16 inches square inside about 6 feet long, with a glass
top. The wind was forced through by a blower fan, and passed through a honeycomb wind-straightener.
The air speed was estimated to be 40 feet per second.
The balance was based on the principle using the normal pressure on a plane surface to measure
the lift of an aerofoil. The wing model and the normal plane were mounted on separate horizontal
cross-stream bars so linked together that the wind lift on the model tended to move it across stream.
The drag on the normal plane would tend to resist this movement. When the two were exactly balanced,
the ratio of lift to the resistance of the normal plane was indicated by a pointer.

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AERONAUTICAL LABORATORY I
Module 01: Wind Tunnel Familiarization

ACTIVITY
ACTIVITY 01: History of Wind Tunnels
1. Create a descriptive timeline that describes the History of Wind Tunnels, either in a linear or
non-linear form.

Describe the Stuff that happened

1990 in 1990’s. Milestones reach during

this time, etc.

Same for this one.

1991
And to this one as well. You get the
1992 point.

2. Complete this matrix detailing the Specifications of Pioneer Wind Tunnel

Specifications
Date Name Cross-Section/ Air Speed Impeller & Engine Subject of Research
Specification (feet/second)
49.867 Air draft from
Vogt Pressure
1894 4.5 inches by 9 inches feet per the Smokestack
&Irminger distribution
second (Chimney)
***meant as an example on how to accomplish the matrix.

PAPER ASSIGNMENT 01: Multi-Purpose Wind Tunnels: Discovering its Development and
Placement throughout History.
Read carefully and follow the instructions listed below.

Format: APA
Contents:
1. This Research must be accomplished individually. Please avoid copying the work of your
classmates, anyone who does so shall be penalized of repeating this activity;
2. (At least) 3 double spaced typewritten pages. Excluding the title and table of reference
3. Should include four sections

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AERONAUTICAL LABORATORY I
Module 01: Wind Tunnel Familiarization

A. Introduction
B. Summary of the articles
C. Opinion or reaction to the articles
 You may decide to do a combination of any of the following:
i. Compare the works to other related articles.
ii. You may hypothesize how such Discovery/Development could have
led to the modern design and functionalities of a Modern Multi-
Purpose Wind Tunnel.
iii. You may expand on the points of the article or cover other domains
not covered in the said article; or
iv. You may argue against the works questioning its assumptions.
D. Conclusion
4. Students must use in-text citations as well as a bibliography section to cite every Source that is
used in this paper.
5. Correct Grammar, syntax, usage, spelling, and punctuation are absolutely required.

Note* | kindly read the Rubric for Written Submissions to assist you in accomplishing the
activities in this part of the module better.
RUBRIC FOR WRITTEN SUBMISSIONS

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AERONAUTICAL LABORATORY I
Module 01: Wind Tunnel Familiarization

Types of Wind Tunnels

Wind Tunnels are often designed for a specific purpose and speed range. Therefore, there are
many different types of wind tunnels and several different ways to classify wind tunnels. In this section
of the module we shall present various types of wind tunnels and discuss some of the unique features
of each type of tunnel.

1. Speed Regime
There are four speed regimes when it comes to aerodynamic testing. Wind tunnels are often
denoted by the speed in the test section relative to the speed of sound. An obvious example of this is
the relationship of thunder and lightning using natural observations. I think it is already apparent that
lightning creates thunder. A single lightning strike can heat the air around 54,000 Fahrenheit. This
causes the air to expand rapidly, thus creating a shock wave that turns into a booming sound wave,
thunder. The reason why you see lightning before you hear thunder is because light, which travels at
roughly 300,000,000 meters per second, arrives almost instantly when compared to speed of sound
through air, which is about 340 meters per second.
An easier way for us to understand the concept of speed of sound is by imagining a sound wave
move into a stagnant gas. Air contains several molecules which are moving randomly with some
velocity and energy. Now let’s say a firecracker detonated somewhere, the detonation of the firecracker
releases energy which is gained by the air molecules. Subsequently, the mean velocity of the air
molecules will increase and collide with the neighbouring molecules, with which they will also transfer
some of the energy they gained to the neighbouring molecules. The speed at which the energy released
by the fire cracker travels through the medium (air) is its speed of sound. Now imagine riding on top
of this same wave as you watch the air go by.

Applying continuity equation by using point 1 as ahead of and point 2 behind the wave, we
find that:

𝜌1 𝐴1𝑉1 = 𝜌2 𝐴2 𝑉2

Replacing V with a as our velocity: 𝜌1 𝐴1 𝑎1 = 𝜌2 𝐴2 𝑎2

Or 𝜌𝐴1 𝑎 = (𝜌 + 𝑑𝜌)𝐴2 (𝑎 + 𝑑𝑎)

The area of the stream tube in the model image is constant (c), there is no geometric reason as
to why the stream tube should change area in passing through the wave. Therefore 𝐴 = 𝐴1 = 𝐴2 = 𝑐.
Thus, the previous equation becomes:
𝜌𝑎 = (𝜌 + 𝑑𝜌)(𝑎 + 𝑑𝑎)

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AERONAUTICAL LABORATORY I
Module 01: Wind Tunnel Familiarization

𝜌𝑎 = 𝜌𝑎 + 𝑎𝑑𝜌 + 𝜌𝑑𝑎 + 𝑑𝜌𝑑𝑎

However, the product of two small quantities 𝑑𝜌𝑑𝑎 is very small in comparison to the other
terms in the equation above and hence can be ignored.

𝜌𝑎 − 𝜌𝑎 = 𝑎𝑑𝜌 + 𝜌𝑑𝑎
𝑑𝑎
𝑎 = −𝜌
𝑑𝜌

Now, applying Euler’s momentum equation, 𝑑𝑝 = −𝜌𝑉𝑑𝑉

𝑑𝑝 = −𝜌𝑎𝑑𝑎
𝑑𝑝
𝑑𝑎 = −
𝜌𝑎
1 𝑑𝑝
𝑎 = (𝜌 ) ( )( )
𝑑𝜌 𝜌𝑎
𝑑𝑝
𝑎2 =
𝑑𝜌

On a physical basis, the flow through a sound wave involves no heat addition, and the effect of
friction is negligible. Therefore making it isentropic.
𝑃2 𝜌 𝑘
Using isentropic relations: = (𝜌2 )
𝑃1 1

𝑃2 𝑃1
= = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (𝑐)
𝜌2𝑘 𝜌1𝑘
𝑃
=𝑐
𝜌𝑘

𝑃 = 𝑐𝜌 𝑘
𝑑𝑝
Substituting the equation above in 𝑎2 = 𝑑𝜌:

𝑑
𝑎2 = 𝑐𝜌 𝑘
𝑑𝜌

𝑎2 = 𝑐𝑘𝜌 𝑘−1

Substituting the value of c to the equation above:

𝑃
𝑎2 = ( ) (𝑘 )(𝜌 𝑘−1 )
𝜌𝑘
𝑃
𝑎2 = ( ) (𝑘 )(𝜌 𝑘−1 )
𝜌𝑘

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AERONAUTICAL LABORATORY I
Module 01: Wind Tunnel Familiarization

𝑃
𝑎 2 = ( ) (𝑘 )
𝜌

𝑷
Speed of sound formula: 𝒂 = √𝒌 (𝝆 )

Using the Ideal Gas Law: 𝑃 = 𝜌𝑅𝑇

𝒂 = √𝒌𝑹𝑻
Sound waves travel through air at a determined speed – the speed of sound. Mach number is
defined as the ratio of a vehicle (aircraft, aerofoil in aeronautics) speed to the speed of sound. It is a
function of gas temperature and specific heat ratio.
𝑽 𝑽
𝑴= =
𝒂 √𝒌𝑹𝑻

Where:
M = Mach number
V= Vehicle speed
a = Speed of sound
𝑘 = Specific heat ratio
R = Gas constant (air)
T = Absolute temperature

Sample Problem:
Find the Mach number of an object moving through air at 350 meters per second at Standard
Sea Level Conditions.
Given:
V = 350 meters per second
Atmospheric Properties for temperature at SSLC = 288.16 Kelvin
Specific heat ratio for air (k air) = 1.4
Gas Constant = 287.08 Joule per Kilogram-Kelvin
Formula:
𝑉
𝑀 = ; 𝑎 = √𝑘𝑅𝑇
𝑎
Solution:
𝑎 = √𝑘𝑅𝑇
𝑎 = √1.4(287.08)(288.16)
𝑎 = 340.316 𝑚/𝑠
Substitute the value of a to the Mach number equation:
𝑚
350 𝑠
𝑀= 𝑚
340.316
𝑠
𝑀 = 1.028

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AERONAUTICAL LABORATORY I
Module 01: Wind Tunnel Familiarization

The four speed regimes are summarized as follows:

A. Sonic: When the flow Mach number is 1

B. Subsonic: 𝟎 < 𝑴 < 𝟏. 𝟎

These flows as its name suggests are flows below sonic, hence the use of the prefix “sub”.
Subsonic Flows are usually categorized into two: Low-speed subsonic and High-speed subsonic flows.
Low-speed subsonic are flows at 𝑀 ≤ 0.3, in which air can be treated as an ideal, incompressible gas
for slender aircraft configurations. Therefore, the effects of shock waves for this flow are commonly
not considered during the process of its design and analysis.

When an airflow with pressure 𝑃1

Schematic of a subsonic wind tunnel
enters the nozzle at a low-speed 𝑉1 , where
the area is 𝐴1 and it converges to a smaller
area 𝐴2 at the test section. Low-speed
subsonic flow, around 𝑀 ≤
𝑚
0.3 (𝑎𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑉 ≤ 100 𝑠 ), are assumed
to be incompressible. Hence, dictates that
the flow velocity increases as the air flows
through the convergent nozzle.

From continuity equation: 𝜌1 𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝜌2 𝐴2 𝑉2

For incompressible flows: 𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2

𝐴1
(𝑉 )
𝑉2 =
𝐴2 1
Flowing through the test section, the air then passes into a diverging duct called a diffuser.
Using continuity equation, as the area 𝐴3 increases, the velocity 𝑉3 decreases.
𝐴2
𝑉3 = (𝑉 )
𝐴3 2
Using Bernoulli’s equation, we can calculate for pressure at various locations along a single
streamline. Derived from the Euler’s momentum equation.
𝑑𝑝 = −𝜌𝑉𝑑𝑉
Or, 𝑑𝑝 + 𝜌𝑉𝑑𝑉 = 0
2 2
Using Integration, ∫1 𝑑𝑝 + ∫1 𝜌𝑉𝑑𝑉 = 0
2 2
∫ 𝑑𝑝 + 𝜌 ∫ 𝑉𝑑𝑉 = 0
1 1
𝑽𝟐𝟐 𝑽𝟐𝟏
Bernoulli’s equation: (𝑷𝟐 − 𝑷𝟏 ) + 𝝆 ( − )=𝟎
𝟐 𝟐
𝑉12 𝑉22
Or, 𝑃1 + 𝜌 2
= 𝑃2 + 𝜌 2
= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (𝑐)

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AERONAUTICAL LABORATORY I
Module 01: Wind Tunnel Familiarization

𝑉2
𝑃+𝜌=𝑐
2
In practical operations of Low-speed subsonic wind tunnels, the test section velocity 𝑉2 is
𝐴
governed by the pressure difference 𝑃1 − 𝑃2 and the area ratio of the nozzle 𝐴2 .
1
𝑉12 𝑉22
From: 𝑃1 + 𝜌 = 𝑃2 + 𝜌
2 2
2(𝑃1 − 𝑃2 )
𝑉22 = [ ] + 𝑉12
𝜌
𝐴
Substituting 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 (𝑉2 ) to the equation above:
1

2(𝑃1 − 𝑃2 ) 𝐴2 2
𝑉22 = [ ] + [( ) (𝑉2 )2 ]
𝜌 𝐴1
𝐴2 2 2(𝑃1 − 𝑃2 )
𝑉22 − [( ) (𝑉2 )2 ] = [ ]
𝐴1 𝜌
𝐴2 2 2(𝑃1 − 𝑃2 )
𝑉22 [1 −( ) ]=[ ]
𝐴1 𝜌
𝟐(𝑷𝟏 − 𝑷𝟐 )
𝑽𝟐𝟐 =
𝑨 𝟐
𝝆 [𝟏 − (𝑨𝟐 ) ]
𝟏
Note that the term “pressure”, at any
point (Points 1, 2, etc.), being tossed around
throughout this discussion are called static.
Static pressure at a given point is the pressure
we would feel if we somehow are able to travel
along with the flow at that point.

Another type of pressure being utilized

in aerodynamics, namely, total pressure. Now,
imagine a steady flow striking on an object. For
sample purposes, let’s use a flat plate. The flow,
in turn, now would try to move around the object just like with the sample image. However, as you
can see, there is one streamline that divides the flow in half, along with this streamline, the fluid moves
towards the object. Unable to pass through the object, the fluid therefore, comes to a rest.

The total pressure 𝑃0 , is the pressure measured at a point where the fluid comes to rest.
1 1
𝑃𝑥 + [ (𝜌)(𝑉𝑥2 )] = 𝑃0 + [ (𝜌)(02 )]
2 2
𝟏
𝑷𝟎 = 𝑷𝒙 + 𝝆𝑽𝟐𝒙
𝟐
Where:
𝑃0 = Total Pressure
𝑃𝑥 = Static Pressure
1
𝜌𝑉𝑥2 = Dynamic Pressure
2

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AERONAUTICAL LABORATORY I
Module 01: Wind Tunnel Familiarization

Sample Problem:
An airflow hits a flat plate perpendicularly at a speed of 20 meters per second at Standard Sea
Level Conditions. Determine what is the Total pressure experienced by the plate.
Given:
Flow velocity (V) = 20 meters per second
Atmospheric Properties for:
Pressure @SSLC = 101325 Pascal
Density @SSLC = 1.225 kilogram per cubic meter
Formula:
𝑉12 𝑉22
𝑃1 + 𝜌 = 𝑃2 + 𝜌 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (𝑐 )
2 2
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑤𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 1 𝑎𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2 𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Solution:
𝑚 𝑚 2
𝑘𝑔 ( ) (20
𝑁 𝑠 2 ] + 1.225 𝑘𝑔 [ 𝑠) ] = 𝑃 +0
101325 2 [ 2
𝑚 𝑁 𝑚3 2
𝑁
𝑃2 = 𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 101570
𝑚2

Another classification of the Subsonic Regime is what we call the high-speed subsonic flows.
These flows are a bit faster than the ones we assumed for the previous section. However, being
subsonic in nature, its Mach number is still less than one. In this section, the effects of compressibility
is much more apparent and must be taken into account.
As shown in our previous assumptions, 𝑀 < 0.3 can be treated as incompressible and, conversely,
flows where 𝑀 ≥ 0.3 should be treated as compressible. Compressible flows are governed by
isentropic relations.
Since the density for compressible flows change from point to point, using the Bernoulli’s equation
won’t be ideal. In compressible flows we use the energy equation:
1
ℎ + 𝑉 2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
2
Where:
ℎ = 𝑒𝑚𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦
𝑉 = 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
Since, ℎ = 𝐶𝑝𝑇 then:
1
𝐶𝑝𝑇 + 𝑉 2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
2
1 2 1
𝐶𝑝𝑇1 + 𝑉1 = 𝐶𝑝𝑇2 + 𝑉22
2 2
Where:
𝐶𝑝 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝑘𝑅
Since, 𝐶𝑝 = 𝑘−1 then:
𝑘𝑅 1 𝑘𝑅 1
(𝑇1 ) + 𝑉12 = (𝑇2 ) + 𝑉22
𝑘−1 2 𝑘−1 2
Since, 𝑎 = 𝑘𝑅𝑇

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AERONAUTICAL LABORATORY I
Module 01: Wind Tunnel Familiarization

𝑎12 1 𝑎22 1
+ 𝑉12 = + 𝑉22
𝑘−1 2 𝑘−1 2
From a point to stagnation, the energy equation becomes:
1
ℎ1 + 𝑉12 = ℎ0
2
1
𝐶𝑝𝑇1 + 𝑉12 = 𝐶𝑝𝑇0
2
Divide both sides by 𝐶𝑝𝑇1
1 𝑉12 𝑇0
1+ ( )=
2 𝐶𝑝𝑇1 𝑇1

𝑇0 1 𝑉12
=1+ ( )
𝑇1 2 𝑘𝑅 𝑇
𝑘−1 1

𝑇0 1 𝑉12
= 1+ ( 2 )
𝑇1 2 𝑎1
𝑘−1
𝑻𝟎 𝟏
= 𝟏 + (𝒌 − 𝟏)(𝑴𝟐 )
𝑻𝟏 𝟐

Using isentropic relations:

𝒌
𝑷𝟎 𝟏 𝒌−𝟏
= [𝟏 + (𝒌 − 𝟏)(𝑴𝟐 )]
𝑷𝟏 𝟐
𝟏
𝝆𝟎 𝟏 𝒌−𝟏
= [𝟏 + (𝒌 − 𝟏)(𝑴𝟐 )]
𝝆𝟏 𝟐
Sample Problem:
At a point in an airflow the pressure, temperature, and velocity are 1 atm, 320 Kelvin, and 1000
m/s. Calculate the total temperature and total pressure at this point.
Given:
𝑃 = 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚 𝑚
𝑉 = 1000
𝑠
𝑇 = 320 𝐾𝑒𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 1.4

Solution:
𝑻𝟎 𝟏
= 𝟏 + (𝒌 − 𝟏)(𝑴𝟐 )
𝑻𝟏 𝟐
2
𝑚
𝑇0 1 1000
= 1 + (1.4 − 1) ( 𝑠 )
320 𝐾 2 √(1.4)(287.08)(320)
𝑇0
= 2.555066781
𝑇1
𝑇0 = 817.6213699 𝐾𝑒𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛
For total pressure, you can proceed just by using isentropic relations.

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AERONAUTICAL LABORATORY I
Module 01: Wind Tunnel Familiarization

𝒌
𝑷𝟎 𝑻𝟎 𝒌−𝟏
=[ ]
𝑷𝟏 𝑻𝟏
1.4
𝑃0 = 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚 [2.555066781]1.4−1
𝑃0 = 26.663 𝑎𝑡𝑚

C. Transonic: 𝟎. 𝟖 < 𝑴 < 𝟏. 𝟎 − 𝟏. 𝟐

The Classification “Transonic” happens when the regions of the object’s surface are mixed
flow in which the local Mach number is either less or more than one and thus called as sonic pockets.
In order to enhance our understanding, let us imagine an airplane in flight. What parts of an airplane
do you think would reach sonic or supersonic speeds first? If your answer is the leading edges or the
nose cone, then you’re right. This means that even though some of the parts of the plane reach sonic
or supersonic flow it doesn’t mean that the whole object is flying in supersonic speeds.

Sonic pockets, are initiated as soon as the local Mach number reaches one and subsequently
terminates in the downstream with a shock wave across which there is discontinuous and sudden
change in flow properties. If the free stream Mach number is slightly above unity, the shock pattern
will move towards the trailing edge and a second shock wave appears in the leading edge which is
called as bow shock. In front of this bow shock, the streamlines are straight and parallel with a uniform
supersonic free stream Mach number. After passing through the bow shock, the flow becomes subsonic
close to the free stream value. Eventually, it further expands over the aerofoil surface to supersonic
values and finally terminates with trailing edge shock in the downstream. (National Programme in
Technology Enhanced Learning)

D. Supersonic: 𝟏. 𝟎 − 𝟏. 𝟐 < 𝑴 < 𝟓

Supersonic flows, opposite of subsonic, are flows whose Mach number, defined as the speed
of the fluid relative to the sonic speed (M=1) in the same medium, is more than unity, hence the use
of prefix “super”. Another difference, notable in this regime is the appearance of shock waves.
Shockwaves are very small regions in the gas (about 10−5 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠) where the gas properties change

21
AERONAUTICAL LABORATORY I
Module 01: Wind Tunnel Familiarization

by a large amount. When the incoming stream is subsonic, and the molecules far upstream of the
cylinder get information about the presence of the cylinder through the signals which travel with speed
of sound well in advance before reaching the cylinder. Therefore, the molecules orient themselves in
order to flow around the cylinder as shown.

Object subject to: Subsonic flow (left), Supersonic flow (right)

But when the incoming stream is supersonic, the molecules travel faster than the signals and
there is no possibility that they will be informed of the presence of the cylinder, before they reach the
cylinder. Also, the reflected signals from the cylinder face tend to coalesce (merge) at a short distance
ahead of the cylinder. Their coalescence forms a thin compression front called shock wave. (Ganesan,
2010)
Another thing noticeable for supersonic flows, are the effects of compressibility, as it becomes
apparent in the change of the air density. In fact, the density changes faster than the velocity by a factor
of the square of the Mach number 𝑀2 . In a
supersonic flow, by decreasing the cross-
sectional, area one can cause the flow’s
velocity to decrease and pressure to increase,
contrary to how subsonic flows work.
Furthermore, compressible flows experience
mass flow choking. (NASA, 2015) As a
compressible fluid reaches the speed of
sound (i.e. has a Mach number of 1), pressure
changes can no longer be communicated
Wind Tunnel Design: Subsonic (Top), Supersonic (Bottom)
upstream as the speed of which these pressure
changes are propagated is limited by the speed of sound. Speeds greater than Mach 1 could only be
achieved by expanding the channel area downstream of the throat to accommodate the increased
volume required by the supersonic flow. The first practical applications of these fundamental channel
flow relations to achieve supersonic velocities were in the converging-diverging nozzles of the deLaval
steam turbines. (Aiken Jr.)

E. Hypersonic: 𝑴 > 𝟓. 𝟎
Hypersonic flows like Supersonic flows as per definition are flows that are faster than speed of
sound. However, while Hypersonic flows do not have such a simple characterization. When the free
stream Mach number is increased to higher supersonic speeds, the oblique shock shift closer to the
object’s surface. At the same time, the pressure, temperature and density across the shock increase
explosively at a point which the molecules of the air that surround the aircraft start to change by

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AERONAUTICAL LABORATORY I
Module 01: Wind Tunnel Familiarization

breaking apart. So, the flow field between the shock and object becomes hot enough to ionize the gas.
These particular complicated features are the unique characteristics of a hypersonic flow. In reality,
the term hypersonic doesn’t happen at one particular speed and the signs used to determine such are
the particular characteristics mentioned in this discussion. However, these characteristics associated
with the hypersonic flow gradually appear as the free stream Mach number is increased beyond 5.
(National Programme in Technology Enhanced Learning)

2. Geometry
A. Open Return (Eiffel type)
Wind tunnels are also designated by the geometry of the tunnel itself. The open circuit
arrangements, collect air upstream is accelerated in a contraction consisting of a conduit of convergent
section; then the air flows through the test section before being directly discharged into the atmosphere.
The open return or open circuit wind tunnel is also called an Eiffel tunnel, after the French engineer,
or an N.P.L. tunnel, after the National Physical Laboratory located in England, where the tunnel was
first used.
Although, the original design of the
Wright Brother’s wind tunnel is of open
return design, Eiffel’s version has a major
innovation of utilizing a diffuser (patented
by Eiffel November 28, 1911) by inserting a
divergent section in between the test section
and the suction fan located downstream of
Diagram of an Open Circuit Wind Tunnel operation
the tunnel. The utilization of the diffuser
drastically lowers the power required for the
operation of the installation. The concept behind this innovation stems from Bernoulli’s law, 𝑃1 +
1 1
𝜌𝑉12 = 𝑃2 + 2 𝜌𝑉22 where pressure and velocity are inversely proportional. Therefore, by reducing
2
the velocity 𝑉2 of air in the diffuser section, in turn has the effect of compressing the air, increasing
pressure 𝑃2 . (Chanetz, et al., 2020)

The open return tunnel has some advantages and some disadvantages relative to the closed
return tunnel. (National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 2015)

Advantages:
 Low Construction cost

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AERONAUTICAL LABORATORY I
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 Superior design for propulsion and smoke visualization. There is no accumulation of

exhaust products in an open tunnel.

Disadvantages:

 Poor flow quality possible in the test section. Flow turning the corner into the bell
mouth may require extensive screens or flow straighteners. The tunnel should also be
kept away from objects in the room (walls, desks, people ...) that produce asymmetries
to the bell mouth. Tunnels open to the atmosphere are also affected by winds and
weather.
 High operating costs. The fan must continually accelerate flow through the tunnel.
 Noisy operation. Loud noise from the fan may limit times of operation.

B. Closed Return (Prandtl or Göttingen type)

A type of wind tunnel geometry where, contrary to open circuits, the air circulates
continuously within the wind tunnel. Also called as Prandtl tunnel, after the German engineer, or
Göttingen tunnel after the research laboratory in Germany where this type of tunnel was first used.
(National Aeronautics and Space Administration , 2015)
Components of these type are essentially the same as to what open-circuit wind tunnels use,
the difference only arise with the addition of the return duct that allows the air exiting the fan to return
(as its name suggests) to the contraction section and then to the test section once more. Corners
typically consist of 90 degree bends. To limit the pressure losses at the corners and avoid the formation
of secondary recirculating flows, the corners are usually equipped with guide vanes. The test section
for this type of wind tunnel can
either be open or closed. This type of
arrangement leads to improved
energy efficiency and allows better
control over the test condition.
(Discetti & Ianiro, Low-speed
subsonic wind tunnels, 2017)

Also the closed-return

Diagram of Closed Circuit Wind tunnel Operation
tunnel presents its own Advantages
and Disadvantages. (National Aeronautics and Space Administration , 2015)

Advantages:
 Superior flow quality in the test section. Flow turning vanes in the corner and flow
straighteners near the test section insure relatively uniform flow in the test section.
 Low operating costs. Once the air is circulating in the tunnel, the fan and motor only
needs to overcome losses along the wall and through the turning vanes. The fan does
not have to constantly accelerate the air.
 Quiet operation relative to an open return tunnel.
Disadvantages:

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AERONAUTICAL LABORATORY I
Module 01: Wind Tunnel Familiarization

 Higher construction cost because of the added vanes and ducting.

 Inferior design for propulsion and smoke visualization. The tunnel must be designed to
purge exhaust products that accumulate in the tunnel.
 Hotter running conditions than an open return tunnel. Tunnel may have to employ heat
exchangers or active cooling.

C. Intermittent
Like its type suggests, Intermittent Wind Tunnels make use of surging air flow at a particular
set of intervals. Sub-types of Intermittent wind tunnels are:
i. Intermittent blow-down tunnels
ii. Intermittent in-draft tunnels
iii. Intermittent pressure-vacuum tunnels

D. Continuous
In a continuous tunnel, the compressor continuously adds energy to the flow to allow the
continuous air flow through the tunnel. As a result, the air is continuously heated. Compressors used
for continuous tunnels are usually not equipped with after coolers for removing the compression heat;
hence, a special cooler is required to avoid a continuous increase of the air temperature in the test
section. Continuous tunnels may operate both in the supersonic regime (as blow-down and in-draft
tunnels) and in the hypersonic regime. For hypersonic operation, the air must be heated upstream of
the nozzle to prevent liquefaction during the expansion in the nozzle. Downstream of the nozzle, the
air flow is cooled by a cooler to be safely handled by the compressor. (Discetti & Ianiro, Supersonic
wind tunnels, 2017)
Here are the several advantages featured by the intermittent type wind tunnels with respect to
continuous type wind tunnels.

 Simpler to design and less costly to build.

 Failure of a model will usually not yield a tunnel damage.
 Faster start-up.
However, continuous tunnels allow long run times with constant testing conditions.

Elements of a Wind Tunnel

In this section, this module will focus on the elements of a Subsonic Wind Tunnel. The
Elements of a wind tunnel are what we call the “key” components of what a common/ regular wind
tunnel should have. Among these Elements are the Test Section, Contraction Cone, Diffuser, and the
Drive Section.

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AERONAUTICAL LABORATORY I
Module 01: Wind Tunnel Familiarization

The Test Section

The aim of wind tunnels is to provide a uniform, steady, and controllable flow in the test
section. The test section assembly is the most delicate part of the tunnel because it houses the
model/object tested, hence the reason for its name, as well as a portion of the balances that measures
lift and drag.
There are two types of test sections, open test
section and closed test section, not to be confused
with open circuit and closed circuit wind tunnels. An
open test section used in an open circuit wind tunnel
requires a form of enclosure around the test section in
order to prevent the possibility of the air being drawn
from the test section instead of the inlet portion of the
Converging tunnel. When an open test section is
employed, unsteady shear layers are formed at the test
section boundaries, thus inducing unsteadiness flow.
Using a closed test section eliminates this
disadvantage. However, employing closed test
sections can also lead to a phenomenon called
Diagram of an open test-section in an Open circuit wind
horizontal buoyancy happening. (Discetti & Ianiro, tunnel (top), and Closed circuit wind tunnel (bottom)
Test Section, 2017)
As the flow advances along the test section, the boundary layer at the wall thickens. This effect
reduces the effective cross-sectional area and therefore yields an increase of velocity and a decrease in
pressure. This decrease in static pressure induces an additional drag on the model/object named
horizontal buoyancy. Eliminating this disadvantage can be done by either increasing the cross-
sectional area of the test section or using an open test section. (Discetti & Ianiro, Test Section, 2017)
(Wind tunnels, n.d.)
The Contraction Cone
The contraction cone is the part of the wind tunnel where the air flow accelerates. As its name
suggest, the contraction cone is a section of the tunnel where its area converges from a larger cross-
sectional area to a smaller one, directly attached to the wind tunnel’s test section. Discussed in an
earlier section of this module, using Continuity Equation, 𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2 we can reason out that as the
cross-sectional area of the tunnel decreases, the velocity of the air moving along the flow tends to
increase.

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AERONAUTICAL LABORATORY I
Module 01: Wind Tunnel Familiarization

The design of the contraction cone presents

two main issues. One being that because of its solid
edges, an adverse pressure gradient may likely be
encountered at its entrance and exit. An adverse
pressure gradient occurs when the static pressure
increases in the direction of the flow, a large enough
pressure increase may slow the fluid’s flow to zero
velocity or even become reversed. If such reversal
happens to occur, then a flow separation from the
Diagram of a Contraction Cone surface of the cone might take place.
(EDUCALINGO, 2020)
Another issue with regard to flow separation arises once more when we consider the shape of
the contraction cone’s cross-section. When using a contraction cone of rectangular shape cross-section,
secondary flows from its edges may result to lower flow velocity thus yielding a higher risk of flow
separation. Separation of flow from the surface leads to a dramatic degradation of the air flow quality
traveling directly towards the test section. A form of mitigating this flaw is by designing contraction
cones cross-sections with shapes having smoother edges. (Discetti & Ianiro, The contraction cone,
2017)

Diffuser
As per explained in an earlier section of this module, the diffuser is “a divergent section in
between the test section and the suction fan located downstream of the tunnel. The utilization of the
diffuser drastically lowers the power required for the operation of the installation. The concept behind
1 1
this innovation stems from Bernoulli’s law, 𝑃1 + 2 𝜌𝑉12 = 𝑃2 + 2 𝜌𝑉22 where pressure and velocity are
inversely proportional. Therefore, by reducing the velocity 𝑉2 of air in the diffuser section, in turn has
the effect of compressing the air, increasing pressure 𝑃2 .” (Chanetz, et al., 2020)

Drive Section (fan)

The drive section of a Wind tunnel drives the flow of air through the wind tunnel by producing
an increase in pressure in the flow. The drive section determines how the working fluid is moved
through the test section. Different drive systems have distinct optimum operational modes, whose
selection is dependent on the medium and the operational regime.
For a wind tunnel, two primary drive systems are a compressor and fan. In the former,
pressurized air is supplied from a compressor (usually from storage tanks) through a con-trolled valve
or regulator to the tunnel. In the latter, axial or centrifugal fans or blowers either push or pull air through
the test section. Fans/blowers can be either shaft- or belt-driven, depending on acceptable costs and
desired performance characteristics. (Cattafesta, Bahr, & Mathew, 2010)

27
 Conduct a Short Research with regard to the different classifications of Wind Tunnels and
find at least 2 examples of these classifications in real life. Also, kindly:

i. List and provide at least a short description for each classification.

ii. Provide examples.
iii. Cite your reference (APA format)

*Note | A sample of this activity is in the next page.

AERONAUTICAL LABORATORY I
Module 01: Wind Tunnel Familiarization

Note* | kindly read the Rubric for Written Submissions to assist you in accomplishing the
activities in this part of the module better.
RUBRIC FOR WRITTEN SUBMISSIONS

FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT (45 minutes)

*A formative assessment will be conducted separately from this module

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AERONAUTICAL LABORATORY I
Module 01: Wind Tunnel Familiarization

References
Aiken Jr., W. S. (n.d.). The High Speed Frontier. National Aeronautics and Space Administration.

Britannica, E. o. (1998, July 20). Wind Tunnel | aeronautical engineering. Retrieved from britannica.com:
https://www.britannica.com/technology/wind-tunnel

Cattafesta, L., Bahr, C. J., & Mathew, J. (2010). Fundamentals of Wind‐Tunnel Design.

Chanetz, B. (2017). A century of wind tunnels since Eiffel. Elsevier, 10.

Chanetz, B., Delery, J., Gillieron, P., Gnemmi, P., Gowree, E. R., & Perrier, P. (2020). The Eiffel Type or Open
Circuit Wind Tunnel. In B. Chanetz, J. Delery, P. Gillieron, P. Gnemmi, E. R. Gowree, & P. Perrier,
Experimental Aerodynamics: An Introductory Guide (pp. 29-30). Cham: Springer Nature Switzerland
AG.

Discetti, S., & Ianiro, A. (2017). Low-speed subsonic wind tunnels. In S. Discetti, & A. Ianiro, Experimental
Aerodynamics (p. 58). Forida: CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group.

Discetti, S., & Ianiro, A. (2017). Supersonic wind tunnels. In S. Discetti, & A. Ianiro, Experimental
Aerodynamics (pp. 76-79). Florida: CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group.

Discetti, S., & Ianiro, A. (2017). Test Section. In S. Discetti, & A. Ianiro, Experimental Aerodynamics (pp. 59-
60). Florida: CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group.

Discetti, S., & Ianiro, A. (2017). The contraction cone. In S. Discetti, & A. Ianiro, Experimental Aerodynamics
(p. 62). Florida : CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group.

EDUCALINGO. (2020, September). Adverse pressure gradient. Retrieved from educalingo:

https://educalingo.com/en/dic-en/adverse-pressure-gradient

Ganesan, V. (2010). Gas Turbines. New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill.

NASA. (2015, May 05). Wind Tunnel Design. Retrieved from grc.nasa.gov: https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-
12/airplane/tunnozd.html

NASA, N. A. (n.d.). Principles of Flight in Action. Museum in a Box.

NASA, N. A. (n.d.). Whirling Arms and the First Wind Tunnels. Wind Tunnels of NASA.

National Aeronautics and Space Administration . (2015, May 05). Closed Return Wind Tunnel. Retrieved from
National Aeronautics and Space Administration : https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-
12/airplane/tuncret.html

National Aeronautics and Space Administration. (2015, May 05). Open Return Wind tunnel. Retrieved from
National Aeronautics and Space Administration: https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-
12/airplane/tunoret.html

National Programme in Technology Enhanced Learning. (n.d.). Lecture 1 Compressible Flows. In Mechanical -
Principle of Fluid Dynamics.

Randers-Pehrson, N. H. (1935). Pioneer Wind tunnels. Washington: The Smithsonian Institution.

Wild, F. (2018, July 14). What Are Wind Tunnels? Retrieved from NASA:
https://www.nasa.gov/audience/forstudents/k-4/stories/nasa-knows/what-are-wind-tunnels-
k4.html

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Wind tunnels. (n.d.). Retrieved from what-when-how: In Depth Tutorials and Information: http://what-
when-how.com/flight/wind-tunnels/

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Format for Activity Submissions

Honesty Clause
Here is a copy of the Honesty Clause which you will attach to every submission you will carry
out in this learning module.
“As members of the Academic Community, students are expected to recognize and uphold standards
of intellectual and academic integrity. Philippine State College of Aeronautics assumes, as a basic
and minimum standard of conduct in academic matters, that students should be honest and that they
submit for credit only the products of their own efforts.”
________________________________________________
Signature over PRINTED name

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