From:

Hamill, L., 2011. Understanding hydraulics. Macmillan International Higher Education.

Hydraulic structures 331

9.4 Culverts
Culverts are very common, often being constructed to allow rivers to pass under highways
or railway embankments. They have also been used to carry watercourses under built-up
areas, and many towns flood because the culvert’s capacity is insufficient to carry large flood
flows. Culverts vary in length from tens to hundreds of metres. Depending upon the size
and importance of the culvert, the inlet may be a special structure designed to allow water
to enter smoothly, or simply a pipe protruding into the upstream channel (Fig. 9.23). The
essential components of a culvert are the inlet, the barrel and the exit. The depth at
the inlet is (H1), and the water surface is called the headwater level, as shown in Fig. 9.24.
The barrel (of length L and height Y) can be formed from circular pipes, rectangular con-
crete box sections, oval corrugated metal sections or in situ concrete. The depth of flow in
the barrel is DB. The bed slope of the barrel (SB) may equal the natural slope of the stream
(SO), or may be steeper to eliminate or reduce any potential problem with siltation and debris
accumulation. Depending upon SB and other factors, the flow in the barrel can be subcriti-
cal (DC < DB < Y), supercritical (DB < DC < Y) or the barrel can flow full (DB = Y). Large cul-
verts usually have an exit structure designed to return the flow to the river channel
smoothly, without erosion. The depth at exit is H2 and the water surface is called the tail-
water level.
Unlike bridge openings, culverts can be long enough to be treated as open channels
during low flows. Whatever the discharge, their length means that the friction head
loss can be significant and must be included in any calculations. During floods, when the
inlet (and possibly the outlet) is submerged, the flow in the culvert can be analysed in
the same way as the flow between two reservoirs (as in section 6.2). Thus some of the
factors affecting flow through a culvert are length, roughness, inlet geometry, inlet con-
ditions, barrel slope, size, and tailwater (exit) conditions. This makes an accurate analysis
of culverts difficult unless standard types that have characteristics proven by experience
or model tests are used. A badly designed culvert can lead to upstream flooding, and
property damage both upstream and downstream. As with a bridge, when a culvert is
placed in a natural stream channel, flood flows must be funnelled off the upstream
floodplain and through the relatively narrow barrel. The contraction and subsequent
expansion of the flow combined with friction means that there is a loss of energy head.
To compensate, and to maintain continuity, there is an increase in upstream water level
to force the water through the culvert. This increase in level is the afflux (backwater).
A hydraulically inefficient culvert will cause a much larger afflux than an efficient,
well designed one. The afflux increases rapidy when the barrel becomes submerged (see
Fig. 9.16), so when designing a culvert it is essential to know what type of flow is
occurring.
332 Understanding Hydraulics

Culve
rt emba
nkme
nt

Angled Vertical
wing wall headwall

q
Flood plain

River Flood plain

(a)

River

(b)

Figure 9.23 Types of culvert. (a) An embankment with a concrete culvert incorporating a
vertical headwall and wingwalls at an angle q. (b) An arch culvert with the headwall flush
to the embankment

9.4.1 Types of flow in culverts

There are many ways to classify the flow through culverts. Several or all of the flow condi-
tions shown in Table 9.7 and Fig. 9.25 may be experienced at one culvert as the discharge
and water level increases during a flood, and then falls. There are many different flow clas-
sifications and design guidelines, such as those given by Chow (1981), American Iron and
 Hydraulic structures 333

V12
=0
2g
Head water level
hE
hF
H1 hV Tail water
L HWL
level

VB H2
SBL
SB

z1
z2

Datum level

Figure 9.24 A culvert with the headwater and tailwater level above the entrance and
exit respectively. The culvert barrel has a length L, height Y, flow velocity VB and bed slope
SB. The entrance, friction and exit (velocity) head losses are denoted by hE, hF and hV
respectively

Steel Institute (1984), French (1986) and CIRIA (1997), but in broad terms the types of flow
above can be listed in four categories:

! channel flow with unsubmerged inlet (types 1, 3 and 4);

! submerged inlet, but barrel only part full (type 2);
! submerged inlet, barrel full, but free discharge at the outlet (type 5);
! submerged inlet and outlet (type 6).

Culverts are often described as operating under inlet control or outlet control. The control
point (CP) has the lowest discharge capacity. Thus the term ‘inlet control’ means simply
that the inlet has a lower discharge capacity than either the culvert barrel or the outlet,
so the inlet is limiting the discharge through the culvert (flow types 1 and 2). Inlet
control tends to occur with larger culverts on relatively steep gradients where generally the
outlet will flow freely and will not submerge. Often the control is where the velocity
increases and critical depth occurs. Remember that DC increases inside a width constric-
tion (see Fig. 8.18 and equation (8.32)) so if the culvert is narrower than the upstream
channel it is possible that the flow will pass through critical depth near the entrance
establishing inlet control. With critical flow established, the characteristics of the channel
downstream of the control do not affect the flow upstream. Thus an example of inlet
control is when the flow passes through critical depth as it enters the barrel, and then for
the remainder of the culvert the flow is supercritical so that the partially-full barrel can cope
comfortably with any discharge that passes through the inlet. A variation on type 1 and 2
flow is that a hydraulic jump occurs in the barrel and the flow returns to subcritical
before the exit.
When operating in inlet control the headwater depth is determined by the flow rate
(Q m3/s), the cross-sectional area of the barrel (AB m2) and the shape (i.e. hydraulic efficiency)
334 Understanding Hydraulics

Table 9.7 Types of culvert flow

Type Inlet Barrel Outlet Method of analysis

or comments

I 1 Unsubmerged. Part full. Unsubmerged. As an open

N Inlet control with critical Supercritical flow. H2 < DC channel.
L depth at inlet. DB < DC < Y
E SB > SC
T
C 2 Submerged. Part full. Unsubmerged. Inlet as orifice,
O H1 > 1.2–1.5Y Supercritical flow H2 < DC barrel as open
N Inlet (orifice) control. over at least May become type channel flow.
T Contracting flow passes part of its length. 5 or 6 flow if
R through critical just DB < DC < Y tailwater rises rapidly.
O
inside barrel.
L

3 Unsubmerged. Part full. Unsubmerged. As open channel.

Subcritical flow. Subcritical flow. Outlet control with
O DC < DB < Y critical depth at exit.
U SB < SC H2 < DC
T
L 4 Unsubmerged. Part full. Unsubmerged. As open channel.
E Subcritical flow. Subcritical flow. Outlet control; control Normal design
T DC < DB < Y point in channel condition for new
SB < SC downstream of exit. culverts.
Subcritical flow.
DC < H2 < Y
5 Submerged. Flowing full along Unsubmerged. Flow from a
C H1 > 1.2–1.5Y or all or part of Outlet control with reservoir through
O its length. control point at or a pipeline: see
N downstream of the Example 6.3.
T exit.
R DC < H2 < Y
O
L 6 Submerged. Full. Submerged H2 > Y As pipeflow between
H1 > 1.2–1.5Y DB = Y Outlet control with reservoirs: see
control point in Examples 6.2 and
downstream river channel. 6.4.

of the inlet. In this condition the length and roughness of the barrel and the outlet condi-
tions do not matter. When Q is small and the entrance unsubmerged the culvert behaves
like an open channel, and can be analysed as such.
Culverts operating with inlet control are also sometimes described as being hydrauli-
cally short or hydraulically long. This has nothing to do with their actual length, i.e. L
in Fig. 9.24, but can be explained as follows. With the inlet submerged, the flow contracts as
it enters the culvert so that the barrel is initially running part full, and then gradually expands
again as friction slows the flow. The culvert is hydraulically short if the flow exits the culvert
before having expanded to fill the barrel; such a culvert will never flow full like a pipe. The
culvert is hydraulically long if the barrel is full when the exit is reached.
Generally culverts operating in outlet control will be found where the bed slope is
relatively flat. In outlet control, it is the outlet which restricts the discharge through
 (a) Type 1

Jump possible
either in barrel
or downstream
Y
CP DC
DB
H2
SB
(b) Type 2

Jump either in barrel

H1 or downstream
Y
CP DC
DB
H2

(c) Type 3

Hydraulic jump
Y CP
DB
DC H2
SB

(d) Type 4

Downstream
CP
Y
DB
DC H2

SB
(e) Type 5

H1
Downstream
Y CP
DB
H2

(f) Type 6

Downstream
H1 CP

Y
DB
H2

Figure 9.25 Illustration of the culvert flow types listed in Table 9.7. The control point is
marked (CP). Types 1 (unsubmerged) and 2 (submerged) are under inlet control. Types 3
and 4 (unsubmerged) and types 5 and 6 (submerged) are all under outlet control

335
336 Understanding Hydraulics

the culvert. The critical factors are the tailwater level in the outlet channel (H2), and the
slope, roughness and length of the barrel. If H2 is high as a result of an obstruction in
the river channel further downstream, this affects the discharge through the barrel. Usually
the barrel will tend to run full over part or all of its length, and at the design discharge
will probably have a fully submerged inlet and quite possibly a submerged outlet. In this
condition an increase in tailwater level will produce a corresponding increase in head-
water level in order to maintain the required differental head. This condition is unde-
sirable for several reasons: it results in a relatively large head loss and increases the risk of
upstream flooding and property damage (as for a bridge, Fig. 9.16); in severe storms the
level and quantity of water upstream of the inlet could threaten the safety of the embank-
ment; blockage by floating debris significantly exacerbates these problems; extensive
downstream damage may result if the barrel at exit is flowing full and blasting water into
the downstream channel. In the latter case an impact stilling basin (or similar) may be
advisable.

9.4.2 Culvert analysis

When operating as an open channel, the techniques in Chapter 8 relating to uniform and
non-uniform flow can be used to determine the profile of the water surface in the culvert
(see also Chow, 1981, Chapter 10). If the flow is subcritical, then the downstream condi-
tions would determine the water level upstream. If the flow passes through critical, then
the conditions downstream of this point do not matter.
The entrance to a culvert may become submerged when the headwater depth H1 = 1.2Y,
but this cannot be guaranteed until H1 > 1.5Y. When the inlet is submerged but the exit is
free (type 2 flow) this resembles a free small orifice so:

1 2
Q = Cd AB [2 gH1 ] (9.10)

where Cd is a dimensionless coefficient of discharge and AB is the cross-sectional area of the

barrel (m2). For pipe or box culverts set flush in a vertical headwall, the value of Cd is about
0.44 when H1/Y = 1.4 rising to 0.51 when H1/Y = 2.0 and 0.59 when H1/Y = 5.0. These values
are applicable to pipes with or without wingwalls. For box culverts with 45° wingwalls and
a square edged soffit, Cd is about 0.44 when H1/Y = 1.3 rising to 0.53 when H1/Y = 2.0 and
0.62 when H1/Y = 5.0 (French, 1986). Alternatively:

1 2
Q = CD AB [2 g ( H1 - Y 2)] (9.11)

where (H1 - Y/2) is the headwater depth measured above the centre of the orifice. For cir-
cular and pipe-arch culverts CD has a value ranging from 0.62 for square edged inlet struc-
tures to 1.0 for well rounded ones (ARMCO, undated).
If the inlet is submerged and the barrel is full (type 5) or the outlet is submerged (type
6) then the flow can be analysed using the methods for reservoir–pipeline problems in
Chapter 6, i.e. discharge to the atmosphere or flow between two reservoirs respectively. In
such cases the headwater depth (H1) is determined by the tailwater level (H2) and the head
loss through the culvert as shown in Fig. 9.24. They can be analysed by applying the energy
equation to an upstream and downstream section:

z1 + H1 + V12 2 g = z2 + H2 + hE + hF + hV (9.12)
 Hydraulic structures 337

If SB is the bed slope of the culvert barrel then (z1 - z2) = SBL. The entrance head loss is
hE = KEV22/2g (Table 6.4). The friction head loss in the barrel (subscript B) may be taken as
hF = SFL where SF = VB2nB2/RB4/3 from equation (8.40), L is its length, VB is the velocity in the
barrel, nB is its average Manning’s n, and RB is its hydraulic radius. Because of the static tail-
water submerging the outlet the kinetic energy of the water emerging from the culvert is
lost, so the outlet head loss is hV = V22/2g. If the outlet is not submerged then V22/2g would
be included in equation (9.12) anyway as the standard velocity head term. Thus equation
(9.12) becomes:

SB L + H1 + V12 2 g = H2 + KEV22 2 g + V22 nB2 L RB4 3 + V22 2 g (9.13)

If the approach velocity head V12/2g = 0 due to the ponding of water upstream, then SBL +
H1 is the headwater level (HWL) above the mean bed level at the culvert outlet (Fig. 9.24).
If V2 = VB, then equation (9.13) becomes:

HWL = H2 + VB2 2 g + KEVB2 2 g + VB2 nB2 L RB4 3 (9.14)

With a bevelled ring entrance, KE = 0.25; if the barrel projects from the fill with no head-
walls, KE can be as high as 0.90, but typically if the end of the barrel matches the fill slope
or has square edged wingwalls or headwalls then KE = 0.50 so:

HWL = H2 + 1.5VB2 2 g + VB2 nB2 L RB4 3 (9.15)

so headwater elevation above datum = z2 + HWL (9.16)

and H1 = HWL - SBL (9.17)

These equations can be applied in both submerged and open channel flow. However, if
the tailwater level (H2) is below the top of the culvert outlet, when calculating the head-
water level the total head loss should be added to the larger of H2 or 0.5(DC + Y) where
DC is the critical depth at the flow rate in question. Note that the headwater elevation
can be minimised by using a rounded entrance, a good alignment, a smooth barrel and
effective exit.

9.4.3 Design objectives for new culverts

Sometimes it is necessary to recalculate the discharge capacity of an existing culvert to deter-
mine if replacement is necessary. Obviously under these circumstances the characteristics
of the culvert are predetermined. However, when a new structure is proposed the designer
has many options, so the following desirable characteristics should be kept in mind:
(a) The culvert alignment should be chosen to avoid the river having to bend sharply at
entry and exit. Construction costs are reduced by minimising culvert length, channel
realignment and stream diversion; it may not be possible to minimise all three, so a
compromise may be needed according to the geometry of the site.
(b) Whenever possible the shape and capacity of the culvert should match that of the
natural channel, and careful consideration should be given to whether or not the
entrance should be allowed to submerge. Many culverts under highways are relatively
large, perhaps 3 m high, so if they submerge (say H1 > 3.6 m) there may be water to a
depth of 3 m on the floodplain. It is quite possible to have a floodplain 60 m wide and
338 Understanding Hydraulics

extending 150 m upstream, so this amounts to 3 ¥ 60 ¥ 150 = 27 000 m3 of stored water.

Remember that when there is more than 25 000 m3 of water above the level of adjacent
ground then the UK Reservoirs Act (1975) applies, so the culvert and embankment
would have to be considered as a dam (see Table 13.3). In practice this can result in
complications and additional expense, and may mean that to avoid potential failure
the embankment has to be designed to be overtopped safely by extreme floods.
(c) If necessary, entrance screens should be provided to collect debris and prevent block-
age of the culvert. After allowing for freeboard and the passage of any debris, the capac-
ity of the culvert should exceed the design flow. If the area around the culvert is to be
developed (e.g. for housing), any future increase in run-off should be allowed for. At
many sites height restrictions mean that the culvert will become submerged during high
flows so, as with bridges, a significant increase in upstream depth should be anticipated
and allowed for (Fig. 9.16).
(d) The culvert barrel should be straight and smooth with no bends or changes of section.
In the early stages of design a barrel gradient (SB) equal to the natural watercourse (SO)
may be assumed, although it can be different when there is a good reason, e.g. made
steeper to achieve a self-cleansing velocity and avoid problems with the accumulation
of sediment and debris. Sometimes the overall gradient of the stream can be increased
by realigning it to shorten its length (culvert construction is easier on dry ground
anyway, and eliminates the need for stream diversion). However, there is no point
making the culvert so steep that its outlet is buried in the downstream channel. At the
design discharge, ideally the minimum velocity should be 0.75 m/s, and the maximum
2.0 m/s to avoid scour in the downstream channel. Culverts with two or more barrels
set at different heights are sometimes employed, the lowest barrel conveying low flows
and the others coming into use as the discharge increases. Although the accumulation
of sediment is to be avoided, it is sometimes good practice to have the invert below
normal bed level, say a quarter of the diameter of a large pipe or a minimum of 0.15 m
for box culverts. This allows an environmentally friendly bed similar to the stream to
be provided, or facilitates some natural siltation (allow for this when assigning nB). It
also allows for any future erosion or regrading of the channel: the culvert bed should
not be higher than that of the adjacent channel.
(e) There should be suitable, safe access for maintenance. Pipe diameters less than 0.45 m
should be avoided as they are prone to blockage, while long motorway culverts of less
than 1.0 m diameter are difficult to inspect and maintain. Concrete pipes are available
up to 2.4 m diameter (between 1.2 m and 2.4 m they increase in 0.15 m increments).
Precast concrete box sections are available from 1.0 m wide and 0.6 m high to 6.0 m ¥
3.6 m (from 1.2 m both width and height increase in 0.3 m increments). Corrugated
metal culverts may have a span up to 12 m and a rise of 9 m. Clearly these larger sizes
allow easy access.
(f) The environmental impact should be as small as possible. Visual appearance and the
needs of wildlife should be considered (e.g. fish and wildlife migration).

9.4.4 Design calculations

Opinions vary regarding the ideal design flow condition in a culvert. One school of thought
is that the culvert should match as closely as possible the slope and bankful shape of the
natural stream channel, in which case the culvert should be designed for type 3 flow with
outlet control, the barrel running part full and subcritical conditions throughout (CIRIA,
 Hydraulic structures 339

1997). However, this tends to produce a rather large culvert and assumes the flow in the
potentially smooth culvert is the same as in the naturally rough channel, which need not
be the case. Others have advised that the culvert should be designed for inlet control and
modest submergence of the inlet (ARMCO, undated). This avoids an oversized culvert barrel,
usually eliminates excessive upstream flooding as a result of high tailwater levels, and
minimises potential downstream damage caused by a full barrel discharging into the
channel. A compromise is to design the culvert to operate unsubmerged during a 1 in 10
year flood, but to pass a 1 in 100 year flood with an acceptable amount of upstream sub-
mergence.
To design a new culvert the information requirements are:

! The design return period and discharge, Q (see section 13.3.2). The return period is often
1 in 100 years for urban areas, but something less extreme for other areas.
! The tailwater level corresponding to Q. This can be based on the depth obtained from
the Manning equation (uniform flow, section 8.2), the calculated surface profile (gradu-
ally varying flow, section 8.11) or field observations.
! The maximum permissible headwater elevation that will not cause unacceptable upstream
flooding. After deducting some amount for freeboard (say 0.3 m), this level must at least
equal the tailwater level plus head losses.
! The number, type, roughness, length, slope and invert level of the barrels.
! The cross-sectional area of the barrels, AB. As a first estimate CIRIA (1997) suggested that
AB = ATW + (BS ¥ FB) where ATW is the cross-sectional area of flow between the banks of
the natural channel at the design tailwater level (i.e. ignore the floodplains), BS is the
corresponding width of the water surface and FB is the design freeboard in the culvert
barrel. With free flow, FB should be at least 0.3 m for small culverts and 0.6 m for large
culverts.

EXAMPLE 9.5

A single barrel, rectangular culvert has to be designed for a river that has a 1 in 10 year flood
flow of 12.90 m3/s and a 1 in 100 year discharge of 23.00 m3/s. The maximum permissible
upstream flood level is 78.60 m above Ordnance Datum (mOD). The length of the culvert barrel
is 45 m and its design freeboard is 0.60 m. The mean bed level at the outlet is
74.80 mOD, and 60 m upstream it is 74.90 mOD. During a 1 in 10 year flood the downstream
channel has a tailwater depth of 2.10 m and a surface width (BS) of 5.40 m. During a 100 year
flood the tailwater depth is 3.06 m. The river has a bed of gravel and some stones averaging
around 120 mm diameter. Determine a suitable size and slope for the culvert.

The approach adopted will be to make the culvert match as closely as possible the size, shape
and slope of the natural channel during the 1 in 10 year flood and to design the culvert for type
3 subcritical channel flow. Then a check of what happens during the 1 in 100 year event will be
undertaken.

1 in 10 year flood, Q = 12.90 m3/s

Say maximum permissible upstream flood level = 78.60 - 0.30 m freeboard = 78.30 mOD.
Natural slope of stream, SO = (74.90 - 74.80)/60 = 1 in 600.
340 Understanding Hydraulics

Make slope of culvert barrel SB = SO = 1 in 600.

Length of culvert = 45 m.
Say invert level of entrance = 74.80 + 45 ¥ (1/600) = 74.88 mOD.
Say width of culvert barrel = bankful width BS = 5.40 m.
Assume depth of flow in culvert barrel, DB = 2.10 m.
Velocity of flow in barrel, VB = 12.90/(5.40 ¥ 2.10) = 1.14 m/s (0.75 < 1.14 < 2.00 m/s, so OK).
Make culvert height Y = tailwater depth + culvert freeboard = 2.10 + 0.60 = 2.70 m.
Use a rectangular concrete box section 5.40 m wide ¥ 2.70 m high.
From equation (8.32), critical depth in the rectangular culvert is:
DC = (Q2/gB2)1/3 = (12.902/9.81 ¥ 5.42)1/3 = 0.83 m.
Check tailwater level: 0.5(DC + Y) = 0.5(0.83 + 2.70) = 1.77 m (i.e. < 2.10 m), so use 2.10 m.
Allow for the possibility of giving the culvert a bed of gravel and stones or for the natural
transport of such material into the culvert, so say the composite bed/concrete roughness of the
barrel is nB = 0.030 s/m1/3.

RB = AB PB = (2.10 ¥ 5.40) (5.40 + 2 ¥ 2.10) = 1.18 m.

Estimate the headwater level from equation (9.15):

HWL = H2 + 1.5VB2 2g + VB2nB2L RB4 3

1.5 ¥ 1.142 1.142 ¥ 0.032 ¥45
= 2.10 + +
19.62 1.18 4 3
= 2.10 + 0.10 + 0.04
= 2.24 m

Therefore headwater elevation = 74.80 + 2.24 = 77.04 mOD (< 78.30 mOD maximum, so OK).
This method tends to overdesign, and a smaller culvert could be possible. It also assumes that
the depth of flow in the culvert is the same as in downstream channel. Check the actual flow
depth in the barrel (assuming uniform flow) using the Manning equation:

AB 2 3 1 2
Q= RB SB
nB
2 3 12
5.40DB È 5.40DB ˘ Ê 1 ˆ
12.90 =
0.03 ÍÎ 5.40 + 2DB ˙˚ Ë 600 ¯

2 3
È 5.40DB ˘
1.76 = DB Í
Î 5.40 + 2D B ˙˚

By trial and error DB = 1.71 m (note that this would give a higher velocity and higher losses).
Thus DB = 1.71 m > DC (0.83 m) so type 4 subcritical flow occurs, probably with a depth DB
between 1.71 and 2.10 m. It is unlikely that the culvert’s inlet will become submerged (see
below).

1 in 100 year flood, Q = 23.00 m3/s

The tailwater depth = 3.06 m > 2.70 m height of the barrel (Y), so it is possible the barrel will be
full with type 6 flow and outlet control (i.e. the control is in the downstream channel). With a
full barrel VB = 23.00/(5.40 ¥ 2.70) = 1.58 m/s and RB = (5.40 ¥ 2.70)/(2 ¥ 5.40 + 2 ¥ 2.70) =
0.90 m.
 Hydraulic structures 341

HWL = H2 + 1.5VB2 2g + VB2nB2L RB4 3

1.5 ¥ 1.582 1.582 ¥ 0.032 ¥ 45
= 3.06 + +
19.62 0.90 4 3
= 3.06 + 0.19 + 0.12
= 3.37 m
Therefore headwater elevation = 74.80 + 3.37 = 78.17 mOD (< 78.30 mOD maximum, so OK).
From equation (9.17), H1 = HWL - SBL = 3.37 - (1/600) ¥ 45 = 3.23 m.
The upstream depth ratio H1/Y = 3.23/2.70 = 1.20, so it is just possible that the entrance
may submerge. Check the discharge capacity of the entrance using an orifice equation. Assuming
the entrance to the box culvert has 45° wingwalls and a square top edge, for equation (9.10) the
value of Cd is about 0.44 when H1/Y = 1.3 so assuming submergence has occurred:
12 12
Q = CD AB(2gH1) = 0.44 ¥ 5.4 ¥ 2.7 [19.62 ¥ 3.23] = 51.07 m3 s

Alternatively, using equation (9.11) as a cross-check:

12 12
Q = C d AB[2g(H1 - Y 2)] = 0.62 ¥ 5.4 ¥ 2.7 [19.62 ¥ (3.23 - 2.70 2)] = 54.90 m3 s
Thus both equations indicate that at the values of H1/Y required for submergence the capac-
ity of the inlet far exceeds the actual discharge, so the culvert is not operating under inlet control
and must be in outlet control. Note if a higher headwater level and inlet control was acceptable
then the culvert could be made smaller.

9.5 Broad crested and Crump weirs

Broad crested weirs are robust structures that are generally constructed from reinforced con-
crete and which usually span the full width of the channel. They are used to measure the
discharge of rivers, and are much more suited for this purpose than the relatively flimsy
sharp crested weirs. Additionally, by virtue of being a critical depth meter, the broad crested
weir has the advantage that it operates effectively with higher downstream water levels than
a sharp crested weir.
Mostly rectangular broad crested weirs will be considered below, although there are a
variety of possible shapes: triangular, trapezoidal and round crested all being quite common.
If a standard shape is used then there is a large body of literature available relating to their
design, operation, calibration and coefficient of discharge (see BS ISO 3846). However, if a
unique design is adopted, then it will have to be calibrated either in the field by river gauging
or by means of a scaled-down model in the laboratory (see Chapter 10).

9.5.1 Head–discharge relationship

A rectangular broad crested weir is shown in Fig. 9.26. When the length, L, of the crest is
greater than about three times the upstream head, the weir is broad enough for the flow to
pass through critical depth somewhere near to its downstream edge. Consequently this
makes the calculation of the discharge relatively straightforward. Applying the continuity
equation to the section on the weir crest where the flow is at critical depth gives: Q = ACVC.
342 Understanding Hydraulics

Figure 9.26 Rectangular broad crested weir with critical depth on the crest (not to scale)

Now assuming that the breadth of the weir (b) spans the full width (B) of the channel and
that the cross-sectional area of flow is rectangular, then:

1 2
AC = bDC and VC = ( gDC )
1 2
Q = bDC ( gDC )

Q= g bDC3 2
(9.18)

The same result can be obtained by rearranging equation (8.32) with B = b. However,
equation (9.18) does not provide a very practical means of calculating Q. it is much easier
to use a stilling well located in a gauging hut just upstream of the weir to measure the head
of water, H1, above the crest than to attempt to measure the critical depth on the crest itself.
In order to eliminate DC from the equation, we can use the fact that in a rectangular channel
DC = –32 EC (equation (8.35)). Using the weir crest as the datum level, and assuming no loss of
energy, the specific energy at an upstream section (subscript 1, Fig. 9.26) equals that at the
critical section:
H1 + V12/2g = DC + VC2/2g where DC + VC2/2g = EC

Therefore EC = H1 + V12/2g

DC =
2
E so DC =
3 C
2
(
H + V12 2 g
3 1
)
Substituting this expression for DC into equation (9.18) gives:

3 2 3 2
2 Ê 2ˆ
g b ÈÍ ( H1 + V12 2 g )˘˙
3 2
b ( H1 + V12 2 g )
1 2
Q= = (9.81)
Î3 ˚ Ë 3¯

3 2
Q = 1.705 b ( H1 + V12 2 g ) (9.19)
 Hydraulic structures 343

The term V12/2g in the above equation is the velocity head of the approaching flow. As
with the rectangular sharp crested weir, the problem arises that the velocity of approach,
V1, cannot be calculated until Q is known, and Q cannot be calculated until V1 is known.
A way around this involving an iterative procedure was described in Chapter 5, but in prac-
tice it is often found that the velocity head is so small as to be negligible. Alternatively, a
coefficient of discharge, C, can be introduced into the equation to allow for the velocity of
approach, non-parallel streamlines over the crest, and energy losses. C varies between about
1.4 and 2.1 according to the shape of the weir and the discharge, but frequently has a value
of about 1.6. Thus:

3 2
Q = CbH1 (9.20)

The broad crested weir will cease to operate according to the above equations if a back-
water from further downstream causes the weir to submerge. Equations (9.19) and (9.20)
can be applied until the head of water above the crest on the downstream side of the weir,
HD, exceeds the critical depth on the crest. This is often expressed as the submergence ratio,
HD/H1. The weir will operate satisfactorily up to a submergence ratio or modular limit of
about 0.66, that is when HD = 0.66H1. For sharp crested weirs the head–discharge relation-
ship becomes inaccurate at a submergence ratio of around 0.22, so the broad crested type
has a wider operating range. Once the weir has submerged, the downstream water level must
also be measured and the discharge calculated using a combination of weir and orifice equa-
tions. However, this requires the evaluation of two coefficients of discharge, which means
that the weir must be calibrated by river gauging during high flows. This can be accom-
plished using a propeller type velocity (current) meter.
A Crump weir has a triangular cross-section with (generally) upstream and downstream
slopes of 1 : 2 and 1 : 5 respectively and a horizontal crest. Critical or supercritical flow
occurs on the downstream slope. The depth of flow is measured at tapping points
upstream of the weir and (sometimes) just downstream of the crest, the latter being
used in calculations when the weir is submerged. The advantage of a Crump weir is a
wider range of measurement, a more predictable performance when submerged, smaller
head losses and less afflux. Twort et al. (1994) stated that it was perhaps the most suc-
cessful of all weirs with a simple head discharge relationship of approximately Q =
1.96bH13/2 m3/s up to a submergence ratio of about 0.75. Reasonable results can be obtained
up to a submergence ratio of about 0.90 by using the downstream crest tappings, although
these are prone to blockage by silt and sediment. For accuracy a sharp crest is important,
so sometimes it is formed by a metal strip, and there should be a depth of at least 60 mm
over the crest. This can be achieved either by a using a compound weir that has several
crests at different levels, or the flat-V form shown in Fig. 9.4. The latter gives greater
accuaracy and sensitivity at low flows in much the same way as the triangular sharp crested
weir in section 5.5.3.

9.5.2 Minimum height of a broad crested weir

A common mistake made by many students in design classes is to calculate the head that
will occur over a weir at a particular discharge without considering at all the height of weir
required to obtain critical depth on the crest. For example, suppose the depth of flow
approaching the weir is 2 m. If the height, p, of the weir crest above the bottom of the
344 Understanding Hydraulics

Figure 9.27

channel is only 50 mm, the weir is so low that the flow would be totally unaffected by it
and certainly would not be induced to pass through critical depth. Equally ridiculously, if
the weir is 4 m high it would behave as a small dam and would raise the upstream water
level very considerably and cause quite serious flooding.
So how can we work out the optimum height for the weir? What height will give
supercritical flow without unduly raising the upstream water level?
The answer is obtained by applying the energy equation to two sections (Fig. 9.27),
one some distance upstream of the weir (subscript 1) and the second on the weir crest where
critical depth occurs (subscript c). In this case the bottom of the channel is used as the
datum level. Assuming that the channel is horizontal over this relatively short distance,
that both cross-sectional areas of flow are rectangular, and that there is no loss of energy,
then:

V12 2 g + D1 = VC2 2 g + DC + p (9.21)

where V1 = Q/A1, DC = (Q2/gB2)1/3, and VC = (gDC)1/2. This is usually sufficient to enable

equation (9.21) to be solved for p when Q and D1 are known (Example 9.6). Alternatively, the
depth, D1, upstream of the weir can be calculated if Q and p are known (Example 9.7). When
calculating the ‘ideal’ height of weir, it must be appreciated that it is only ideal for the design
discharge. The weir cannot adjust its height to suit the flow, so at low flows it may be too
high, and at high flows it may be too low. Consequently ‘V’ shaped concrete weirs are often
used, or compound crump weirs that have crests set at different levels.

EXAMPLE 9.6

Water flows along a rectangular channel at a depth of 1.3 m when the discharge is 8.74 m3/s.
The channel width (B) is 5.5 m, the same as the weir (b). Ignoring energy losses, what is the
minimum height (p) of a rectangular broad crested weir if it is to function with critical depth
on the crest?

V1 = Q A = 8.74 (1.3 ¥ 5.5) = 1.222 m s .

1 3 1 3
DC = (Q 2 gB 2 ) = (8.742 9.81 ¥ 5.52 ) = 0.636 m
12 12
VC = ( gDC ) = (9.81 ¥ 0.636) = 2.498 m s
 Hydraulic structures 345

Substituting these values into equation (9.21) and then solving for p gives:

1.2222 19.62 + 1.300 = 2.4982 19.62 + 0.636 + p

0.076 + 1.300 = 0.318 + 0.636 + p
p = 0.42 m

The weir should have a height of 0.42 m measured from bed level.

EXAMPLE 9.7

Water flows over a broad crested weir 0.5 m high that completely spans a rectangular channel
10.0 m wide (b = B). When the discharge is 19.0 m3/s, estimate the depth of flow upstream of
the weir. Assume no loss of energy and that critical depth occurs on the weir crest.
1 3 1 3
DC = (Q 2 gB 2 ) = (19.02 9.81 ¥ 10.02 ) = 0.717 m
12 12
VC = ( gDC ) = (9.81 ¥ 0.717) = 2.652 m s

Substitution of these values into equation (9.21) and the fact that V1 = Q/BD1 gives:

V12 2g + D1 = 2.6522 19.62 + 0.717 + 0.500

Q 2 2gB 2D12 + D1 = 0.358 + 0.717 + 0.500
[19.02 (19.62 ¥ 10.02 ¥ D12 )] + D1 = 1.575
[0.184 D12 ] + D1 = 1.575
D1 has to be found by trial and error but it is often possible to make a reasonably accurate
first guess because the upstream velocity head is usually small (see the previous example). So
to begin with, guess D1 = 1.55 m and evaluate the left-hand (LH) side of the equation, then
adjust D1 until the LH and the right-hand (RH) sides agree.

Try D1 = LH = RH =
1.55 m 1.627 1.575
1.50 1.582 1.575
1.48 1.564 1.575
1.49 1.573 1.575

The water upstream of the weir is approximately 1.49 m deep.

9.6 Throated flumes

With small open channels a throated flume may prove a better alternative than a weir, and
they have been used successfully to measure relatively large flows. The throated flume is
basically a width constriction that, when seen in plan, has a shape similar to a Venturi
meter. Thus it has a rounded (bell-mouth) converging section, a parallel throat, and a diverg-
ing section (Figs 9.28 and 9.29). Typically it is constructed from concrete, although other
materials can be used. Advantages of the flume include:
(a) The obstacle to the flow is relatively small so there is little afflux or backwater (that is
increase in the upstream water level), which is an asset where the channel has little free-
board, or has a very small slope.
346 Understanding Hydraulics

Figure 9.28 A throated flume on Devonport Leat, Devon,

looking upstream. Note the acceleration of the water through
the throat with the flow passing through critical depth, then
the small hydraulic jump downsteam of the throat. The advan-
tage of flumes like this is that they do not cause an increase
in water level upstream. This flume has a flat bed without
a hump

(b) It is easily constructed and very robust, since there is little to damage.
(c) Easy maintenance, since there is unlikely to be any siltation, and there is little to
trap floating debris. Consequently flumes are often used in sewage treatment
works.
 Hydraulic structures 347

Figure 9.29 (a) Plan of a flume, and (b) section of a throated flume with a hump [from BS
3680 (now BS ISO 4359), courtesy of BSI]

(d) Like a Venturi meter, there is little loss of energy when water flows through a flume,
much less than with a weir.

9.6.1 Head–discharge relationship

The throated flume is essentially a width constriction like that discussed in section 8.6.2.
Under normal operating conditions, throated flumes are designed so that the flow passes
through critical depth in the throat, with a weak hydraulic jump forming in the diverging
section (Fig. 9.29). Thus they are sometimes called ‘standing wave flumes’ as well as
‘Venturi flumes’. Being a critical depth meter, these flumes have the advantage that all of
the equations applicable to critical flow in a rectangular channel can be applied to derive
the head–discharge equation. The procedure is the same as for the broad crested weir,
and the result identical:
3 2
Q = 1.705 bC ( D1 + V12 2 g ) (9.22)

where bC is the width of the throat where critical flow occurs (which is not the same as the
full channel width, B) and D1 is the depth of water above the flat bed of the flume (instead
348 Understanding Hydraulics

of the height of water above the weir crest, H1). As with the broad crested weir, a coeffi-
cient of discharge should be intoduced to allow for energy losses, and the fact that the
velocity of approach, V1, is often assumed to be negligible, so:

Q = CbC D13 2
(9.23)

where C has a value of about 1.65, slightly higher than the coefficient for a broad crested
weir (see BS ISO 4539).
It is often difficult to design a throated flume that will operate satisfactorily over a range
of discharges with critical depth in the throat and a standing wave in the diverging portion.
The principal problem is usually submergence of the flume due to a high downstream water
level, DD. When this happens the head–discharge relationship becomes invalid. The sub-
mergence ratio is defined as DD/D1, with submergence of the flume occurring when the ratio
is about 0.75, that is when DD = 0.75D1. The maximum permissible value of this ratio is
called the modular limit. To ensure that the flow is induced to pass through critical depth,
the throat must be made narrow enough to provide a strong control over the flow. Unfor-
tunately, this can lead to a large afflux at higher discharges. As with the broad crested weir,
the proportions of the structure are fixed and are ‘ideal’ for only a limited range of dis-
charge. This problem can be alleviated by designing a flume with a streamlined hump. In
the converging part of the flume the channel bed (invert) gradually rises, becomes flat in
the throat, and then gradually falls to the original level in the diverging portion. The hump
aids the formation of critical flow (see section 8.6.2 and Fig. 8.19) and results in greater
accuracy, although construction is more difficult. Normally a streamlined hump is employed
in addition to a contraction in width, but it is possible to use a hump by itself without any
narrowing of the channel. The upstream and downstream depths (D1 and DD) are measured
above the top of the hump (Fig. 9.29b) and the submergence ratio is again defined as DD/D1.
The equations above can still be applied, but may require some adjustment to the value of
C. If the hump is made more pronounced so that it is triangular with a 1 : 2 upstream slope
and a 1 : 5 downstream slope and the throated sides are omitted, then it becomes a Crump
weir. These weirs have a modular limit of about 0.8.
A shortened flume without any curves is favoured in the USA, and is often referred to as
a Parshall flume (US Bureau of Reclamation, 1967).

9.6.2 Design of throated flumes

The design of these flumes requires some degree of compromise between ensuring that the
throat is narrow enough to control the flow and prevent submergence, but not so narrow
as to cause excessive afflux. The equations and principles presented earlier can be used as
the basis of a simple design procedure, as in Example 9.8.

EXAMPLE 9.8

A throated flume is to be built on a uniform man-made rectangular channel like that in Fig. 9.28.
The flow in the channel is maintained at about 0.3 m3/s with a normal depth of around 0.35 m.
The freeboard of the channel is very limited, so the afflux should not exceed 0.2 m otherwise
overtopping and scouring of the banks will result. Determine a suitable throat width for a flat
bed flume. Assume a modular limit of 0.75 and a coefficient C of 1.65.
 Hydraulic structures 349

Assume the normal depth of flow exists at all sections in the unconstricted channel, so
DN = DD = 0.35 m. The flume will submerge at the modular limit when DD = 0.75D1. Thus the
minimum depth upstream must be D1 = DD/0.75 = 0.35/0.75 = 0.467 m. Putting
D1 = 0.467 m into equation (9.23):

0.3 = 1.65bC 0.4673 2

which gives bC = 0.570 m

Therefore the maximum throat width that will induce critical flow = 0.57 m.
Alternatively, if the upstream depth, D1 = DN + 0.2 m (the maximum allowable afflux) then D1
= 0.35 + 0.20 = 0.55 m. Putting D1 = 0.55 m in equation (9.23) now gives:

0.3 = 1.65bC 0.553 2

and hence bC = 0.446 m

Therefore to limit the afflux to 0.2 m the minimum throat width is 0.45 m.
Since the repercussions of exceeding the maximum afflux sound quite severe, a throat
width closer to the maximum than the minimum value would be sensible, say about
0.53 m.