MATH 113 - HOMEWORK 5

SOLUTIONS

11.1. Here is a list of the elements of Z2 × Z4 and their orders:

(0, 0), order 1
(0, 1), order 4
(0, 2), order 2
(0, 3), order 4
(1, 0), order 2
(1, 1), order 4
(1, 2), order 2
(1, 3), order 4
This group is not cyclic, since no element has order 8.

11.2. Here is a list of the elements of Z3 × Z4 and their orders:

(0, 0), order 1
(0, 1), order 4
(0, 2), order 2
(0, 3), order 4
(1, 0), order 3
(1, 1), order 12
(1, 2), order 6
(1, 3), order 12
(2, 0), order 3
(2, 1), order 12
(2, 2), order 6
(2, 3), order 12
This group is cyclic, isomorphic to Z12 , since four elements (the possible generators) have
order 12.

11.25. 1089 = 3 · 3 · 11 · 11. Up to isomorphism, there are four abelian groups of order 1089.
I will list them in two forms, first decomposed into cyclic groups of prime power order, then
simplified as much as possible using the Chinese Remainder Theorem. For the homework,
one form or the other is sufficient.
Z9 × Z121 ∼ = Z1089 .
Z3 × Z3 × Z121 ∼ = Z3 × Z363 .
∼
Z9 × Z11 × Z11 = Z11 × Z99 .
Z3 × Z3 × Z11 × Z11 ∼ = Z33 × Z33 .

11.39. For this solution, I’ll write (G, +) additively. Let T be the set of elements of finite
order in G.
Closure: Let a, b ∈ T . Let n be the order of a and m the order of b. Then nm · (a + b) =
nm · a + nm · b = m · (n · a) + n · (m · b) = n · 0 + m · 0 = 0, so (a + b) has order at most nm,
and hence (a + b) ∈ T .
 Identity: 0 ∈ T , since 0 has order 1.
Inverse: Let a ∈ T of order n. Then n · (−a) = −(n · a) = −0 = 0, so −a has order at
most n, and hence −a ∈ T .

14.10. Note that 26 + h12i = 2 + h12i. The multiples of 2 + h12i are 2 + h12i, 4 + h12i,
6 + h12i, 8 + h12i, 10 + h12i, 12 + h12i = h12i, so this coset has order 6.

14.11. First, note that the subgroup h(1, 1)i consists of {(0, 0), (1, 1), (2, 2), (0, 3), (1, 4), (2, 5)}.
The multiples of (2, 1) + h(1, 1)i are (2, 1) + h(1, 1)i, (1, 2) + h(1, 1)i, (0, 3) + h(1, 1)i = h(1, 1)i,
so this element has order 3.
A less computational way to answer this question is to note that (1, 1) has order 6 in
Z3 × Z6 , so |(Z3 × Z6 )/h(1, 1)i| = 18/6 = 3. Since the element (1, 2) + h(1, 1)i is not equal
to the identity in the quotient group, it must have order 3.

14.26. Let (G, +) be an abelian group and T the torsion subgroup of G. T is normal, since
G is abelian. To show G/T is torsion free, we must show the identity is the only element of
finite order. Let a + T ∈ G/T , and suppose that n · (a + T ) = T . We’ll show that a + T = T
(and then we’ll be done, since T is the identity of G/T ).
Now (n · a) + T = n · (a + T ) = T , so n · a ∈ T . Hence (n · a) has finite order. Let m be
the order of (n · a). We have mn · a = m · (n · a) = 0, so a has finite order. But then a ∈ T ,
and a + T = T , as desired.

15.39. Note: In part c, there should only be n − 2 “special” 3-cycles. They have the form
(rsi) for 1 ≤ i ≤ n and i 6= r, i 6= s. A “3-cycle” of the form (rsr) or (rss) makes no sense.
a. Let (abc) be a 3-cycle in Sn . Note that (abc) = (ac)(ab) ∈ An . Hence every 3-cycle is in
An .
b. I claim that any element of An can be written as a product of 3-cycles. Let σ ∈ An .
By definition of An , we can describe σ as a product of an even number of 2-cycles:
σ = (ρ1 ρ2 ) . . . (ρn−1 ρn ).
Consider a product of two 2-cycles ρi ρi+1 appearing in the description of σ.
Case 1: ρi = ρi+1 . Since ρ = ρ−1 for any 2-cycle ρ, ρi ρi+1 = ρi ρi = e. So this product can
be removed from the description of σ.
Case 2: ρi and ρi+1 are disjoint. Then we can write ρi = (ab) and ρi+1 = (cd) for distinct
a, b, c, d. Note (ab)(cd) = (acb)(acd), so we can replace ρi ρi+1 by (acb)(acd) in the
description of σ.
Case 3: ρi and ρi+1 are not disjoint. Then they have one element, call it a, in common (if
they had two in common, they would be equal). Write ρi = (ac) and ρi+1 = (ab)
for distinct a, b, c. Note (ac)(ab) = (abc), so we can replace ρi ρi+1 by (abc) in the
description of σ.
We have shown that each pair ρi ρi+1 in the description of σ can be removed or replaced
with a product of 3-cycles. Hence σ can be written as a product of 3-cycles, and An is
generated by the 3-cycles in Sn .
c. Fix any r, s ∈ {1, 2, . . . , n}. I claim that any 3-cycle in Sn can be written as a product of
the “special” 3-cycles (rsi) for i 6= r, i 6= s. Let σ be a 3-cycle.
Case 1: σ contains both r and s.
Case 1a: σ sends r to s. Then σ is of the form (rsi) for some i, and it is already
special!
 Case 1b: σ sends s to r. Then σ is of the form (ris) for some i, and (rsi)2 = (ris).
Case 2: σ contains just one of r and s.
Case 2a: σ contains r but not s. Then σ is of the form (rij) for some i and j,
and (rsj)(rsi)2 = (rsj)(ris) = (rij).
Case 2b: σ contains s but not r. Then σ is of the form (sij) for some i and j,
and (rsj)2 (rsi) = (rjs)(rsi) = (sij).
Case 3: σ contains neither r nor s. Then σ is of the form (ijk) for some i, j, and k, and
(rsi)2 (rsk)(rsj)2 (rsi) = (ski)(sij) = (ijk).
Now we already knew that any element of An could be expressed as a product of 3-
cycles, and any 3-cycle can be expressed as a product of special 3-cycles, so (for any choice
of r and s) the special 3-cycles generate An .
d. Let N be a normal subgroup of An , and suppose that N contains a 3-cycle, σ = (rsi) for
some r, s, and i. We’ll define special 3-cycles as in part c, taking r and s to be these first
two elements of σ. If we can show that N contains every special 3-cycle, then N contains
a complete set of generators for An , and hence N = An .
Let j be a new element distinct from r, s, and i. We need to show that the special
3-cycle (rsj) is in N . Let ρ = (rs)(ij) ∈ An . Since σ ∈ N , σ 2 ∈ N , and since N is normal
in An , ρ(σ 2 )ρ−1 is also in N .
Now ρ(σ 2 )ρ−1 = (rs)(ij)(rsi)2 ((rs)(ij))−1 = (rs)(ij)(ris)(ij)(rs) = (rsj) ∈ N .
e. Let N be a nontrivial normal subgroup of An for n ≥ 5. Our goal is to show that N = An ,
since then An has no nontrivial proper normal subgroups, that is, An is simple. By part
d, it suffices to show that N contains a 3-cycle.
We will consider elements of N written in disjoint cycle form, that is, as a product of
disjoint cycles. One of the following cases must occur. In each of the following cases, µ is
a product of disjoint cycles (possibly the identity), disjoint from the cycles made explicit.
I. N contains a 3-cycle.
II. N contains an element of the form µ(a1 . . . ar ) with r > 3.
III. N contains an element of the formu µ(a4 a5 a6 )(a1 a2 a3 ).
IV. N contains an element of the form µ(a1 a2 a3 ), where µ is a product of 2-cycles.
V. N contains an element of the form µ(a3 a4 )(a1 a2 ), where µ is a product of 2-cycles.
Why must one of these cases occur? If we are not in case II, all elements consist of
cycles of length at most 3 (i.e. 2-cycles and 3-cycles). If we are not in case III, no element
is made up of more than one 3-cycle. Since N is nontrivial, it contains some non-identity
element, which must be a single 3-cycle (case I) or a single 3-cycle together with some
2-cycles (case IV), or some even (since we’re in An ) number of 2-cycles (case V).
I claim that in each case, N contains a 3-cycle.
Case I. Nothing to see here.
Case II. Let σ = µ(a1 . . . ar ) ∈ N . Let ρ = (a1 a2 a3 ) ∈ An . By normality of N ,
ρσρ−1 ∈ N , and also σ −1 ∈ N , so σ −1 ρσρ−1 ∈ N .
Writing this out, we have
σ −1 ρσρ−1 = (µ(a1 . . . ar ))−1 (a1 a2 a3 )(µ(a1 . . . ar ))(a1 a2 a3 )−1
= (ar . . . a1 )µ−1 (a1 a2 a3 )µ(a1 . . . ar )(a3 a2 a1 )
= (a1 a3 ar ) ∈ N.
Case III. Let σ = µ(a4 a5 a6 )(a1 a2 a3 ), and let ρ = (a1 a2 a4 ) ∈ An . As in Case II,
σ −1 ρσρ−1 ∈ N .
 σ −1 ρσρ−1 = (µ(a4 a5 a6 )(a1 a2 a3 ))−1 (a1 a2 a4 )(µ(a4 a5 a6 )(a1 a2 a3 ))(a1 a2 a4 )−1
= (a3 a2 a1 )(a6 a5 a4 )µ−1 (a1 a2 a4 )µ(a4 a5 a6 )(a1 a2 a3 )(a4 a2 a1 )
= (a1 a4 a2 a6 a3 ) ∈ N.
But this is a cycle of length greater than 3, so by Case II, N contains a 3-cycle.
Case IV. Since µ is a product of 2-cycles, µ2 = e. Since also µ commutes with (a1 a2 a3 ),
we have (µ(a1 a2 a3 ))2 = µ2 (a1 a2 a3 )2 = (a1 a3 a2 ) ∈ N .
Case V. Let σ = µ(a3 a4 )(a1 a2 ), and let ρ = (a1 a2 a3 ) ∈ An . As in Case II, σ −1 ρσρ−1 ∈
N.

σ −1 ρσρ−1 = (µ(a3 a4 )(a1 a2 ))−1 (a1 a2 a3 )(µ(a3 a4 )(a1 a2 ))(a1 a2 a3 )−1

= (a1 a2 )(a3 a4 )µ−1 (a1 a2 a3 )µ(a3 a4 )(a1 a2 )(a3 a2 a1 )
= (a1 a3 )(a2 a4 ) ∈ N.

Now we (finally) use the fact that n ≥ 5. Let a5 be an element of {1, . . . , n}

distinct from a1 , . . . , a4 . Let α = (a1 a3 )(a2 a4 ) ∈ N , and let β = (a1 a3 a5 ) ∈ An .
By normality of N , β −1 αβ = (β −1 )α(β −1 )−1 ∈ N , so also β −1 αβα ∈ N .
Writing this out,
β −1 αβα = (a1 a3 a5 )−1 ((a1 a3 )(a2 a4 ))(a1 a3 a5 )((a1 a3 )(a2 a4 ))
= (a5 a3 a1 )(a1 a3 )(a2 a4 )(a1 a3 a5 )(a1 a3 )(a2 a4 )
= (a1 a3 a5 ) ∈ N.
And we’re done! That was fun, right?

It’s interesting to note that we only used n ≥ 5 in one place, in Case V. Let’s look at
An for n < 5.
A1 doesn’t really make sense, since there are no transpositions in S1 (which is the trivial
group). A2 is also trivial, since S2 ∼= Z2 , and the only even permutation is the identity.
A3 is of order 3, since |S3 | = 3! = 6, so we know that A3 ∼
= Z3 , and hence is simple.
So we turn to A4 . The arguments above still work to show that every nontrivial normal
subgroup of A4 which falls into Cases I-IV must be all of An . So the only way we could
have a nontrivial proper normal subgroup is if it was the Case V kind: every element is
a product of an even number of disjoint 2-cycles.
Indeed such a normal subgroup of A4 does exist: it consists of all possible products of
two disjoint 2-cycles: N = {e, (12)(34), (13)(24), (14)(23)}. N is isomorphic to the Klein
4-group, and its existence shows that S4 is solvable, explaining (by Galois theory) the
solvability of degree 4 polynomials by roots.

(1) Consider the multiplicative groups (R∗ , ·) and (R+ , ·). Show that R∗ ∼
= R+ × Z2 .

Solution: Define φ : R+ × Z2 → R∗ by φ(r, 0) = r and φ(r, 1) = −r.

 φ is a homomorphism:


rr0 if s = 0, s0 = 0
(−r)r0 if s = 1, s0 = 0

φ((r, s))φ((r0 , s0 )) =

r(−r0 ) if s = 0, s0 = 1

(−r)(−r0 ) if s = 1, s0 = 1



rr0 if s = 0, s0 = 0
−rr0 if s = 1, s0 = 0

=

−rr0 if s = 0, s0 = 1

 0
rr if s = 1, s0 = 1
= φ(rr0 , s + s0 )
= φ((r, s)(r0 , s0 ))
φ is one-to-one: Suppose φ(r, s) = 1. Then r = 1, and s = 0 (since φ(r, s) = 1 > 0).
(1, 0) is the identity of R+ × Z2 , so the kernel of φ is trivial.
φ is onto: Let r ∈ R∗ . If r > 0, then φ(r, 0) = r. If r < 0, then −r > 0, and
φ(−r, 1) = −(−r) = r.
(2) Consider the multiplicative group (Q+ , ·). List the elements of the cyclic subgroup
H = h4i. Is H normal? List the elements of the cosets 31 H and 2H. Describe the
quotient Q+ /H by picking a representative for each coset of H. In the quotient
Q+ /H, what is the order of 13 H? What is the order of 2H? What is (2H)( 23 H)?
1 1
Solution: H = {. . . 16 , 4 , 1, 4, 16, . . . }.
+
H is normal, since Q is abelian.
1 1 1 4 16
3
H = {. . . 12 , 3 , 3 , 3 , . . . } = { 13 · 4n | n ∈ Z}.
2H = {. . . 21 , 2, 8, 32, . . . } = {2 · 4n | n ∈ Z}.
A coset of H looks like ab H = { ab · 4n | n ∈ Z} for some rational number ab . If there
are any power of 4 in a or b, we can absorb them into H, so each coset contains exactly
0
one fraction ab0 such that 4 does not divide a0 or b0 . This is a natural choice for the
representative of the coset. To multiply two cosets, multiply their representatives,
then remove any powers of 4 from the numerator and denominator.
The coset 31 H has infinite order, since ( 13 H)n = ( 13 )n H will never be equal to H:
No integer power of 31 is a power of 4.
On the other hand, the coset 2H has order 2, since (2H)2 = 22 H = 4H = H.
(2H)( 32 H) = 43 H = 31 H.