10/03/2023

Source: https://medium.com/lab-work/its-not-just-memeing-around-memes-are-affecting-fake-
news-9bf2cf7b7121

Mathematical Language
and Symbols (Part 2)

JEMIL R. ABAY
Instructor I

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Learning Outcomes
O Analyze information and the relationship
between statements.
O Find the truth values of conjunctions,
disjunctions, negations, conditional, and
biconditional statements.
O Use truth tables and logical operators to solve
problems.
O Examine valid conclusions based on given
assumptions.
O Identify the validity of arguments using a truth
table.

https://emilkirkegaard.dk/en/2011/11/three-logicians-walk-into-a-bar-a-formal-explanation/

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Logic
O Logic is the study of argument or
reasoning,
O Logicians are those who study it.
O Building strong arguments and recognizing
weak ones is a skill we may use in many
fields as well as in our daily lives.
O If no one thought logically, we would all run
around like headless chickens, making no
sense.

Statement
O It is a declarative sentence that is either true (T)
or false (F), but not both.
O We refer to T or F as the truth value of the
statement.
O Example:
Let p: The capital city of the Philippines is China.
q: A square has four sides.

Note: Questions and commands are not

statements

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Negation
O The negation of statement p is “~p” (read as
“not p”)
O Keep in mind that the truth values of a
statement p and its negation ~p will always be
opposite.
O Example:
Let p: Pedro is always late in my online class.
Then ~p: Pedro is not always late in my online
class.
OR Pedro is always punctual in my online class.

Conjunction
O If p, q are statements, their conjunction is p
∧ q (read as “p and q”).
O Example:
Let p: He has a car.
q: He has a boat.
Then p ∧ q: He has a car and he has a boat.
Note that for any statement of the form “p∧q”
to be true, both p and q must be true.

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Conjunction
Note: The word but is also a conjunction; it is
sometimes used to precede a negative phrase.
O Example:
“I've fallen and I can't get up" means the same
as "I've fallen but I can't get up."
In either case, if p is "I've fallen" and q is "I can
get up" the conjunction above is symbolized as
p ∧ ~q.

Disjunction
O If p, q are statements, their disjunction is p
∨ q (read as “p or q”).
O Example:
Let p: Mt. Mayon is in Naga.
q: Barangay Belen is in Goa.
Then p ∨ q: Mt. Mayon is in Naga or Barangay
Belen is in Goa.
Note that for any statement of the form “p∨q”
to be true, at least one from p and q is true.

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Example 1
O Let p, q, and r be statements with the following
truth values: p is false, q is true, and r is false.
Find the truth value of p ∧ (q ∨ r).
O Solution:
Given: p = F, q = T, and r = F
p ∧ (q ∨ r)
F ∧ (T ∨ F)
F∧T
F

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Example 2
O Suppose p and q represent false statements, while
r represents a true statement. Find the truth value
of ~[ ~r  (p  ~q) ].
O Solution:
Given: p = F, q = F, r = T
~[ ~r  (p  ~q) ]
~[ ~T  (F  ~F) ]
~[ F  (F  T) ]
~( F  T)
~F
T

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Try this
Suppose p is true, q is false, and r is true. Find
the truth value of the following.
1. p ∨ (p ∨ ~r)
2. p ∨ (~p ∧ q)
3. ~p ∧ (q ∨ r)
4. (p ∨ q) ∨ (~p ∨ q)
5. (p ∧ ~ q) ∨ (~r ∨ q)

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Solution
1. p ∨ (p ∨ ~r)
Given: p = T, q = F, r = T
T ∨ (T ∨ ~T)
T ∨ (T ∨ F)
T∨T
T

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Solution
2. p ∨ (~p ∧ q)
Given: p = T, q = F, r = T
T ∨ (~T ∧ F)
T ∨ (F ∧ F)
T∨F
T

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Solution
3. ~p ∧ (q ∨ r)
Given: p = T, q = F, r = T
~T ∧ (F ∨ T)
F ∧ (F ∨ T)
F∧T
F

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Solution
4. (p ∨ q) ∨ (~p ∨ q)
Given: p = T, q = F, r = T
(T ∨ F) ∨ (~T ∨ F)
(T ∨ F) ∨ (F ∨ F)
T∨F
T

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Solution
5. (p ∧ ~ q) ∨ (~r ∨ q)
Given: p = T, q = F, r = T
(T ∧ ~ F) ∨ (~T ∨ F)
(T ∧ T) ∨ (F ∨ F)
T∨F
T

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Truth Tables
O It is a logical tool that can be used to compare
and analyze compound logic statements.
p∧q

p q p∧q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
O The capital city of the Philippines is Manila and a
triangle has three sides.

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Truth Tables
O (p ∨ q)

p q p∨q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

O The sun rises in the east or earth is flat.

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Truth Table
O Construct a truth table for p ∧ (q ∨ r).

p q r q∨r p ∧ (q ∨ r)
T T T T T
T T F T T
T F T T T
T F F F F
F T T T F
F T F T F
F F T T F
F F F F F

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Truth Table
O Construct a truth table for (r  ~q)  (~p  q).

p q r ~p ~q r~q ~pq (r~q) (~pq)

T T T F F T T T
T T F F F F T F
T F T F T T F F
T F F F T T F F
F T T T F T T T
F T F T F F T F
F F T T T T T T
F F F T T T T T

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Try this
Construct a truth table for the following
statements.
1. p ∨ (p ∧ ~q)
2. (p ∨ q) ∨ ~p
3. (~p ∨ q) ∧ (p ∨ r)
4. (p ∧ ~q) ∨ ~(p ∨ q)

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Solution
1. p ∨ (p ∧ ~q)

p q ~q p ∧ ~q p ∨ (p ∧ ~q)
T T F F T
T F T T T
F T F F F
F F T F F

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Solution
2. (p ∨ q) ∨ ~p

p q ~p p∨q (p ∨ q) ∨ ~p
T T F T T
T F F T T
F T T T T
F F T F T

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Solution
3. (~p ∨ q) ∧ (p ∨ r)

p q r ~p ~p ∨ q p∨r (~p ∨ q) ∧ (p ∨ r)

T T T F T T T
T T F F T T T
T F T F F T F
T F F F F T F
F T T T T T T
F T F T T F F
F F T T T T T
F F F T T F F

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Solution
4. (p ∧ ~q) ∨ ~(p ∨ q)

p q ~q p∨q ~(p ∨ q) p ∧ ~q (p ∧ ~q) ∨ ~(p ∨ q)

T T F T F F F
T F T T F T T
F T F T F F F
F F T F T F T

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Conditional Statement
O It is a statement in the form “If p, then q”
(denoted by p → q).
O p is called the antecedent, and q is called
the consequent.
O Example:
Let p: You carefully study our lessons.
q: You will get a high score in your exam.
Then, p → q: If you carefully study our lessons,
then you will get a high score in your exam.

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Conditional Statement
Note that the conditional statement p → q is TRUE in
every case except when p is a true statement, and q is a
false statement.
p q p→q

T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
p → q: If you carefully study our lessons, then you will
get a high score in your exam.

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Variations of the
Conditional Statement
Direct Converse Inverse Contrapositive
Statement
If p, then q. If q, then p. If not p, then If not q, then
not q. not p.
p→q q→p
~p → ~q ~q → ~p

O Example
Direct Statement: If you eat alone, then you are sad.
Converse: If you are sad, then you eat alone.
Inverse: If you don’t eat alone, then you are not sad.
Contrapositive: If you are not sad, then you don’t eat alone.

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Truth Table for Variations of

the Conditional Statement

P q q→p ~p ~q ~p → ~q →
~q ~p
T T T F F T T
T F T F T T F
F T F T F F T
F F T T T T T

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Biconditional Statement
O It is a statement that is usually phrased with the
connective “if and only if.”
O It is denoted by p ↔ q that means (p → q) ∧ (q
→ p).
O Example
Let p: If I study hard
q: I will pass
Then, p ↔ q: I will pass if and only if I study hard.
OR: If I study hard, then I will pass; and if I pass,
then I studied hard.

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Biconditional Statement
O Keep in mind that the biconditional statement p ↔ q
will be true whenever the p and q are either both
TRUE or both FALSE.
p q p→q q→p (p → q) ∧ (q → p)
or
p↔q
T T T T T
T F F T F
F T T F F
F F T T T
O p ↔ q will be true whenever the p and q are both
TRUE or FALSE.

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Tautologies and
Contradiction
O Tautology – It is a statement that is always
TRUE.
O Contradiction – It is a statement that is
always FALSE.

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Tautologies and
Contradiction
O p ∨ ~p is a tautology.
p ~p p ∨ ~p
T F T
F T T

O q ∧ ~q is a contradiction.
q ~q q ∧ ~q
T F F
F T F

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Tautologies and
Contradiction
O p → ~p is neither a tautology nor a
contradiction.
p ~p p → ~p

T F F
F T T

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Argument
O It is defined as a sequence of statements.
O It is divided into two sections: premises and
conclusion.
Example 1:
Premise 1: The person who robbed my bike
wears a red t-shirt.
Premise 2: Jose wears a red t-shirt
Conclusion: Therefore, Jose robbed my bike.

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Argument
Example 2:
Premise 1: Joe is the President of the United
States.
Premise 2: Jill is the wife of Joe.
Conclusion: Therefore, Jill is the first lady of
the United States.

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Validity of Argument
O A valid argument is one that if all of the
premises were true, the conclusion would
have to be true as well.
O In other words, a valid argument is one in
which the conclusion necessarily follows
from the premises.
O Keep in mind that if the premises are true,
the conclusion cannot be false.
O An argument that does not meet the said
condition is invalid.

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Valid Argument
O It’s worth noting that the conclusion in Example 1
does not necessarily follow from the premises.
O For example, one could argue that Jose isn’t the only
one who wears a red t-shirt.
O As a result, the first argument is invalid.
O In Example 2, because Joe is the current President of
the United States and Jill is his wife, it logically follows
that Jill is the first lady of the United States.
O Therefore, because the premises are true, the
conclusion must likewise be true.
O The argument in Example 2 is thus valid.

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Valid Argument
O Validity has nothing to do with whether any
of the premises are true.
O It simply states that if they are true, the
conclusion must be true.
O So, validity is more concerned with the form
of an argument than with its truth.

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Valid Argument
Example 3
Premise 1: Bugs Bunny is a rabbit.
Premise 2: All rabbits are birds.
Conclusion: Therefore, Bugs Bunny is a bird.

True premises and conclusions are not

required for a valid argument.
On the other hand, a sound argument must
contain true premises and a true conclusion.

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Sound Argument
O An argument is sound if it fits these two
conditions:
O (1) it is valid, and
O (2) its premises are true.

Example 4:
Premise 1: All dogs are mammals.
Premise 2: Chihuahua is a dog.
Conclusion: Therefore, Chihuahua is a mammal.

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Valid and Sound Argument

Source: https://www.diffen.com/difference/Deductive_vs_Inductive

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Validity of an Argument
Step 1: Symbolize all of the premises and conclusion.

Step 2: Construct a truth table for the premises and conclusion.

Step 3: Find the rows where all of the premises are true (critical
rows).

Step 4: Check the conclusion of all critical rows.

✓ If the conclusion in each critical row is true, then the argument

form is valid.

✓ If one of the critical rows has a false conclusion, then the

argument form is invalid.

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Example 5
Use a truth table to test the validity of the following argument:

If the apartment is damaged, then the deposit won’t be

refunded.
The apartment isn’t damaged.
Therefore, the deposit will be refunded.

Solution
Step 1: Symbolize all of the premises and conclusion.
Let p be the statement “The apartment is damaged.”
Let q be the statement “The deposit won’t be refunded.”
p→q
~p
∴~q

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p→q
Example 5 (Cont.) ~p
∴~q

Step 2: Construct a truth table for the

premises and conclusion.

Premise 1 Premise 2 Conclusion

p q p→q ~p ~q
T T T F F
T F F F T
F T T T F
F F T T T

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Example 5 (Cont.)
Step 3: Find the rows where all of the
premises are true (critical rows).

Premise 1 Premise 2 Conclusion

p q p→q ~p ~q
T T T F F
T F F F T
F T T T F
F F T T T

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Example 5 (Cont.)
Step 3: Find the rows where all of the
premises are true (critical rows).

Premise 1 Premise 2 Conclusion

p q p→q ~p ~q
T T T F F
T F F F T
F T T T F
F F T T T

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Example 5 (Cont.)
Step 4: Check the conclusion of all critical rows.
Premise 1 Premise 2 Conclusion
p q p→q ~p ~q
T T T F F
T F F F T
F T T T F
F F T T T
Notice that in the third row, both premises are true
while the conclusion is false; hence the argument is
invalid.

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Example 6
Use a truth table to test the validity of the following argument:
Jose wears a pair of shoes or Jose wears a pair of slippers.
Jose is not wearing a pair of slippers.
Jose is wearing a pair of shoes.

Solution
Step 1: Symbolize all of the premises and conclusion.
Let p be the statement “Jose wears a pair of shoes.”
Let q be the statement “Jose wears a pair of slippers.”

Jose wears a pair of shoes or Jose wears a pair of slippers. p∨q

Jose is not wearing a pair of slippers. ~q
Jose is wearing a pair of shoes. ∴p

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p∨q
Example 6 (Cont.) ~q
∴p

Step 2: Construct a truth table for the

premises and conclusion.

Premise 1 Premise 2 Conclusion

p q p∨q ~q p
T T T F T
T F T T T
F T T F F
F F F T F

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Example 6 (Cont.)
Step 3: Find the rows where all the premises
are true (critical rows).

Premise 1 Premise 2 Conclusion

p q p∨q ~q p
T T T F T
T F T T T
F T T F F
F F F T F

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Example 6 (Cont.)
Step 4: Check the conclusion of all critical rows.
Premise 1 Premise 2 Conclusion
p q p∨q ~q p
T T T F T
T F T T T
F T T F F
F F F T F
Notice that both premises and conclusion are true in
the second row; hence the argument is valid.

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Example 7
Determine whether the following argument form
is valid or invalid.
p→q ∧r
q→p∨r
∴p

Step 1: Symbolize all of the premises and

conclusion.
The given argument is already in symbolic form.

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Example 7 (Cont.)
Step 2: Construct a truth table for the
premises and conclusion.
Premise 1 Premise 2 Conclusion

p q r q ∧r p∨r p→q ∧r q→p∨r p

T T T T T T T T
T T F F T F T T
T F T F T F T T
T F F F T F T T
F T T T T T T F
F T F F F T F F
F F T F T T T F
F F F F F T T F

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Example 7 (Cont.)
Step 3: Find the rows where all of the
premises are true (critical rows).
Premise 1 Premise 2 Conclusio
n
p q r q ∧r p∨r p→q ∧r q→p∨r p

T T T T T T T T
T T F F T F T T
T F T F T F T T
T F F F T F T T
F T T T T T T F
F T F F F T F F
F F T F T T T F
F F F F F T T F

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Example 7 (Cont.)
Step 3: Find the rows where all of the premises are true (critical
rows).
Premise 1 Premise 2 Conclusion
p q r q ∧r p∨r p→q ∧r q→p∨r p

T T T T T T T T
T T F F T F T T
T F T F T F T T
T F F F T F T T
F T T T T T T F
F T F F F T F F
F F T F T T T F
F F F F F T T F
The argument form is invalid because three of the critical rows
have a false conclusion.

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Valid Argument Forms

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Example 8
O Determine whether this argument is valid or
invalid:

If I have a fever, then I won’t attend the

online class.
I attended the online class.
Therefore, I don’t have a fever.
O Answer: Valid

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Example 9
O Find a valid conclusion.
i. You study Mathematics or English.
ii. You do not study English.

Answer: Therefore, you study Mathematics.

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THANK YOU…

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