GROUP 1: THE DEFINITION, HISTORY, AND TYPES
It is also the most active of other genres of
OF DRAMA
DRAMA BY TEXTBOOK DEFINITION
A drama is a type of literature that is written for the
purpose of being performed in front of an audience.
This type of writing is written in the form of a script,
and the story is told through the lines of the
characters played by actors.
BUT WHAT IS DRAMA?
Drama, sometimes called “play”, is the depiction of
stories of multiple genres or themes be it fictional or
real events. Drama can be performed on different
mediums such as televisions, radio, and most
notably, on stage. Actors play certain characters on
stage and the mastermind behind great dramas and
stories are called the “Playwrights” and
“Dramatists.”
DRAMA AS A GENRE OF LITERATURE
Drama as a literary genre is realized in performance,
which is why Robert Di Yanni described it as a
“staged art”. As a literary form, it is designed for the
theatre because characters are assigned roles and
their roles are enacted on a stage. These characters
can be human beings, dead or spiritual beings,
animals, or even abstract qualities. Drama is an
adaptation, recreation, and reflection of reality on
stage. Mostly, the word “dramatist” is used for an
artist who is involved in any dramatic composition
either in writing or in performance. It is difficult to
separate drama from performance because during
the stage performance of a play, the drama brings
life experiences realistically to the audience. It is the
most concrete of all genres of literature. When
reading a novel, you read a story as told by the
novelist. The playwright most probably do not tell
the story as well but instead, you get the story as the
characters interact and live out their experiences on
stage. In drama, the characters talk to themselves
and react to issues according to the impulse of the
moment. Drama is presented in a dialogue. As a
genre of literature, drama occupies a unique
position.
literature because of the immediate impact it has on
the audience. It is used to inform, to educate, to
entertain, and in some cases to mobilize the
audience.
WHAT THEN IS DRAMA?
Drama is an imitation of life. Drama is different from
other forms of literature because of its unique
characteristics. It is read, but it is composed to be
performed so the ultimate aim of dramatic
composition is for it to be presented on stage before
an audience. This directly implies that it is a medium
of communication as it has a message to
communicate to its audience.
This brings us to mimesis or imitation. Drama is
mimetic which means that it imitates life. It is the
only branch of literature which tries to imitate life
and presents it realistically to the people. It is this
mimetic impulse of drama that makes it appeal to
people.
Drama thrives on action. The term “drama” is used
at the following three (3) different levels:
1. Performance
2. Composition
3. Branch of Literature.
(1) Performance - Drama is used for plays that
are acted on stage or screen. These plays are
different from musical performances as they must
tell stories which are acted out by actors and
actresses. These actors and actresses must be
playing roles by imitating other characters.
Therefore, they must assume other people’s
personalities by bearing different names, ages,
occupation, nationalities, and etc.
(2) Composition - Drama is used to describe a
dramatic composition which employs language and
pantomime to present a story or series of events
intended to be performed. Sometimes, especially
with written compositions, they may not be
presented on stage but this does not stop it from
being drama. In as much as a play is enjoyed more
when it is performed, you can still read a play and
be entertained by it.
(3) Branch of Literature - Drama is a term used
for the branch of literature that covers dramatic
composition. The basic difference between drama
and other forms of literature like prose and poetry
is that drama is presented in a dialogue from the
beginning to the end. Any information by the
playwright is given in stage-direction. We have
dialogue in prose and poetry but they are
interjected in the course of the story.
HISTORY OF DRAMA
Greek
The first ever plays in Ancient Greece were held as
part of festivities that celebrate and worship
Dionysus. Portrayals of the parts of the god of wine's
life were acted by priests. The plays initially included
death and suffering with comedy soon coming to
grow out of them. The theatrical culture of Athens
produced three notable genres of drama: tragedy,
comedy, and the satyr play.
As the popularity of drama heightened, the
audience would also increase in number—causing
the performances to be moved out into the open as
people gathered on slopes of hills. And instead of
priests, actors would now perform although women
were still not allowed to act during this time—the
female roles being given to men. Actors had to play
multiple parts as there were only a handful of them
performing on stage.
The drama masks that we usually associate with
theatre were used for this exact purpose. The
smiling comedy mask and the frowning tragedy
mask were used by actors to enhance the songs and
actions in the play.
The plays were also supported by a chorus—which
consists of as many as fifty people—who would sing
or speak simultaneously. They act as the narrators
and provide commentary and insight on the
character's thoughts. Most of these plays were
mostly about love, marriage, wars, and suffering.
Aeschylus' The Persians—first performed in 472
B.C.E.—is the oldest surviving drama of all Greek
plays. It won first prize at the City Dionysia
competition.
Roman
While Greek dramas were still performed in Rome,
240 B.C.E. marked as the beginning of Roman
drama—having strong influences from Greek drama
itself.
The first significant works of Roman literature were
the comedies and tragedies that Livius Andronicus
wrote around that time, though none of his plays
survived.
The Roman comedies that survived were from the
two dramatists, Titus Maccius Plautus (Plautus) and
Publius Terentius Afer (Terence)—all of which are
fabula palliata or comedies based on Greek subjects.
In addition, nine of Seneca's tragedies survived,
which are all fabula crepidata or tragedies derived
from Greek originals. One example of this is his
work, Phaedra, that was based on Euripides'
Hippolytus.
Roman theatre was more varied, extensive, and
sophisticated than that of any culture prior to it. It
included the first stage curtains, lavish decorations,
and awnings to provide shade. The audience would
even be sprayed with perfumed water on
particularly hot days. And unlike the Greek originals,
the Roman comic dramatists would use musical
accompaniment to its dialogue.
Middle Ages
During the Middle Ages, religion was a big part of
life. Whereas the origin of Greek drama stemmed
from worshipping Dionysus, the medieval drama
originated as an expression of the Christian religion.
The religious plays contained events from both the
Bible's Old Testament and New Testament—these
were called mystery plays. These performances
sometimes took place in small wagons that would
parade around town, moving from one audience to
another.
There were also miracle plays that were about
saints. And morality plays that were allegorical and
usually featured a hero who must overcome evil.
Later on interludes—which were funny in nature
and usually performed during feasts—were written
as well.
Renaissance
You might already know the word Renaissance
means 'rebirth'. In the case of drama, the
Renaissance, which lasted from approximately
1400-1700, was the rebirth of interest in theatre
across Europe. In fact, the Renaissance introduced
many of the elements we still think of when we
imagine a theatre: indoor theatres, an arched stage,
a curtain dropped between scenes, more elaborate
set design. All of these changes were implemented
during the Renaissance. More importantly,
however, the purpose of drama transitioned from
stories told by the Church to stories made primarily
for entertainment for both royalty and commoners.
Usually when we hear the word Renaissance,
especially in conjunction with drama, we think of
Shakespeare's England. What most people don't
know is the Renaissance actually began in Italy,
where music, song and dance were implemented
into the plays produced in the new indoor theatres.
From there, the rebirth of the arts moved to other
countries in Europe. The French imitated Italian
theatre and boasted the talent of playwright
Molière, whose plays poked fun at the people in
important positions. This sort of drama appealed to
every level of society. It was a rich blend of serious
and light-hearted entertainment. These
performances lasted from about the fifteenth to
sixteenth century. In this time, society was 'reborn'
with new ideas and learning ambitions.
In those days, most plays were performed by groups
of professional men. Each group had a patron who
looked after the actors and payed their wages. At
the time, women were still not allowed to act so
female roles were played by boys. This was the time
when England's most famous dramatist lived -
Shakespeare. William Shakespeare started writing
plays in 1590, at the age of 26. He wrote about 38
plays in his lifetime.
Theatre was beginning to thrive until the civil war. In
1642, dramatic theatre was banned. All theatres
were closed until 18 years later, when a new king
took the throne. In Spain, they kept some of the
religious dramas, but also began performing action-
based plays. It wasn't until later that the
Renaissance was embraced in England during the
reign of Queen Elizabeth I and continued through
the reign of King James I and King Charles I. Theatre
flourished during this time, producing several great
playwrights.
During this era, scenery became widely used and
special effects began to appear. The largest change
was the women were now allowed to appear on
stage.
Modern Drama
The drama which had suffered a steep decline
during the Victorian Age was revived with great
force at the beginning of the 20th century and the
course of six decades has witnessed many trends
and currents in the 20th-century drama. Modern
Drama is essentially a drama of ideas rather than
action. The stage is used by dramatists to give
expression to certain ideas which they want to
spread in society. Modern Drama dealing with the
problems of life has become far more intelligent
than ever it was in the history of drama before the
present age. With the treatment of actual life, the
drama became more and more drama of ideas,
sometimes veiled in the main action, sometimes
didactically act of forth.
Over the next few decades, theatre continued to
grow. It was a source of entertainment and wisdom.
Technical effects and lighting became more
advanced. Drama has developed to such a point
where some actors become famous. Drama has
connected people for centuries until now, giving us
the entertaining performances we have today.
Unlike the earlier drama of Shakespeare and
Sophocles, modern drama tended to focus not on
kings and heroes, but instead on ordinary people
dealing with everyday problems. And like much of
the literature of this period, which expressed
reactions to rapid social change and cataclysmic
events like World War I, it often dealt with the sense
of alienation and disconnectedness that average
people felt in this period.
Common themes in the new early 20th century
drama were political, reflecting the unease or
rebellion of the workers against the state,
philosophical, delving into the who and why of
human life and existence, and revolutionary,
exploring the themes of colonization and loss of
territory. They explored common societal business
practices (conditions of factories), new political
ideologies (socialism), or the rise of a repressed
sector of the population (women). Industrialization
also had an impact on Twentieth century drama,
resulting in plays lamenting the alienation of
humans in an increasingly mechanical world.
TYPES OF DRAMA
Drama consists of four main forms which are
tragedy, comedy, tragicomedy and melodrama.
These types originated in different eras but have the
common characteristics of drama. All four types
include plot, characters, conflict, music and
dialogue. Each type has its own characteristics and
main themes which differentiate each from one
another.
Tragedy is known to be the first form of drama
originated from Ancient Greece. Like tragedy,
comedy also started from Greek Theatre. However,
tragicomedy emerged a bit later, during the times of
the Roman Empire. Melodrama is the fourth and last
form which originated much later than the three. It
first appeared in France at the end of the 18th
century.
Among all four, Greek tragedy and Greek comedy
formed the cornerstone of modern theatre.
(Bartleby Research)
Tragedy
Tragedy came from the Greek word “tragoidia”
which literally means “goat song”. Tragedy first
appeared in the theater of Ancient Greece. Like
comedy, it lived through the Roman Empire,
Medieval times, Renaissance and other eras. A
tragedy is defined as a dramatic poem or play in
formal language and in most cases has a tragic or
unhappy ending.
According to History of the Theatre: Pearson New
International Edition (2014), the three great
playwrights of tragedy were Aeschylus, Sophocles,
and Euripides. The surviving plays of the fifth
century were all works of the three said playwrights
which tells us that our knowledge of Greek tragedy
is based almost entirely on their work.
The Greek philosopher Aristotle defined “tragedy”
as a dramatization of a serious happening—not
necessarily one ending with the death of the
protagonist.
Aristotle believed that a tragedy drama has to
implant a feeling of fear and pity in the audience. He
argued that tragedy cleansed the heart through pity
and terror, purging us of our petty concerns and
worries by making us aware that there can be
nobility in suffering.
Example:
Romeo and Juliet
Almost the entire world viewed this play as a love
story but if you look closer, Romeo and Juliet is a
perfect example of tragedy. Two teenagers deeply
in love with each other who kill themselves because
of the stubborn hatred of ignorant adults.
The tragedy may be overrated and overdone, but
consider the ending of the play: Juliet lies asleep but
Romeo believes that she is dead so he prepares to
drink poison in order to join her. The situation
remains one of the most
devastating examples of dramatic irony in the
history of drama. (StoryMirror)
Other examples:
● Oedipus the King
● Death of a Salesman
● Medea
● King Lear
Comedy
Comedy (from the Greek word kōmōdía) is a type of
drama that aims to make the audience laugh. Its
tone is light and it mostly has a happy ending. Such
tradition came from the Ancient Greek theater,
where comedy first emerged as a form of drama.
Comedy could be further divided into subcategories,
for example, dramatic irony, farce, sarcasm, black
comedy, etc. Each type of comedy has its own
audience. Interestingly, such preferences may also
depend on the cultural background of people.
Comedy was mainly a way to mock men in power for
their vanity and foolishness and satyr plays on the
other hand were short plays performed between
the acts of tragedies and made fun of the plight of
the tragedy’s characters, tragedy dealt with the big
themes of love, loss, pride, the abuse of power and
the fraught relationships between men and gods.
Comedy is a type or genre of drama that is intended
to make people laugh. However, humor is not the
only quality that signifies a comedy. The main
themes of a comedy are● The tone is lighthearted.
● Ingenious wordplay or twists of phrases.
● Serious issues are addressed in a
lighthearted manner.
● Misunderstandings are amusing.
● A happy ending.
● Characters who are silly and out of the
ordinary.
● Usually concludes with a wedding, especially
in romantic comedies.
The sub-genres of comedy include
romantic comedies, sentimental comedies
and others.
Example:
One of the Shakespearean comedies is “A
Midsummer Night’s Dream”. This romantic comedy
addresses one of his favorite themes, “love
conquers all,” with a funny twist. Young couples
continually fall in and out of love as a result of a
sequence of humorous and surprising events. Their
equally humorous real-world problems are
magically solved by a mischievous sprite named
Puck as they tackle the flaws of love. Old enemies
will soon become friends, and truly loved ones will
meet again to live happily at Shakespeare’s happy
ending.
A Midsummer Night's Dream, for example, is a
classic Shakespearean comedy, and a good example
of farce as well. The play is driven by the pranks of
Puck, a mischievous jokester who uses magic to
make characters fall in love with each other for
comic effect.
Here is a list of some well-known examples of
Shakespearean comedies:
● All’s Well That Ends Well
● As You Like It
● The Comedy of Errors
Here are some famous literary examples that can be
considered modern comedy:
● Slaughterhouse five
● The House of Mirth
● The Odd Couple
● Pride and Prejudice
Tragicomedy
Tragicomedy is a special kind of drama that
combines the features of tragedy and comedy. It
means that such a play may be sad but will have a
happy ending, or it may be serious with some
elements of humor emerging throughout the whole
play.
Unlike comedy and tragedy, tragicomedy emerged a
bit later, in the times of the Roman Empire. Roman
dramatist Plautus was the first to write a
tragicomedy and to use the term. In his play
Amphitryon, he used the lightheartedness of
comedy but chose gods and kings as the main
characters. This was quite revolutionary of him.
Before Plautus, there were strict rules about writing
drama, it was either comedy or tragedy. These
genres were never mixed together. Plautus was the
first to note that in our daily lives we have features
of both tragedy and comedy. Therefore, drama also
can combine them both.
These are among the types of drama in literature.
They are more than just
tragedy and comedy blended together. The main
themes are-
● A serious plot delivered in a funny, sarcastic,
or snarky manner.
● Characters with tragic flaws whose acts do
not result in death
● A confusing subject
● Characters with broad personalities that act
in stereotypically humorous ways
● There is no joyful or funny conclusion.
Example:
The movie O Brother, Where Art Thou is a modern
example of tragicomedy. Three escaped convicts
experience much difficulty traveling to the leader's
(Ullyses Everett Magill) homestead to retrieve a
treasure. The homestead is flooded before they can
get the treasure, and Magill finds out that the wife
he left behind is marrying someone else. But, along
the way, there are many comedic elements-
including "sirens," women who lure the men and
turn one of them into a frog, and in the end, the
convicts put out a hit record as the "Soggy Bottom
Boys."
Melodrama
Melodrama is the last one of the four types of
drama. It most especially in Britain. During this time,
theaters opened the door for common people and
melodrama was aimed at this layer of society in
particular.
Melodrama is a kind of drama in which everything is
hyperbolized. Usually, themes depicted in
melodramas are simple, full of exciting or sad events
and without any unpredictable plot twists. There are
quite a lot of stereotypes in such dramas. However,
the main point of a melodrama is not to tell a story
but to awaken feelings in the audience. Characters
in melodrama are often beautiful heroines,
charming heroes and scary villains with
exaggerated emotions and reactions.
Example:
A Doll’s House (1879) by Henrik Ibsen
The play begins as melodrama, the popular dramatic
form in which an innocent woman was often
attacked by a seducer or blackmailer.
Nora’s exaggerated emotions place the piece
squarely in the category of melodrama. WOW!! The
finale is a blend of Nora’s delight and hope and
Torvald’s melancholy and despair. (Bhattacharya, R.)
Other Examples:
● Last Christmas (2019)
● After We Fell (2021)
● Silver Skates (2020)
● The Theory of Everything (2014)
GROUP 2: THE ART OF PLAYWRITING
Defining playwrighting as just writing would
be the simplest way to do so. This specific version,
however, varies from others. Unlike novels, where
the reader is immediately engaged in the author's
world, no play comes to life after being written. This
gap between the actions of writing and staging is
why a playwright's job does not finish on the final
dot of a script.
Writing words that will serve as the
foundation for what performers do and say in front
of an audience is an imaginative experience.
Fortunately, the pleasure and satisfaction of
composing plays is not limited to a tiny, exclusive
group of linguistic geniuses. Since there's no formal
training required, anyone may compose plays. Yet,
like with any other endeavor, the more you know
about a subject, the faster you'll pick it up and the
better you'll be at it.
DEFINITION OF PLAYWRITING
Playwriting as we all can read is exactly what it
means. According to the dictionary itself, it is the
activity or process of writing plays. On the other
hand, a playwright is a theatre artist who writes
scripts to be performed on a stage or in a theatrical
setting. In theatre, they are the equivalent of the
screenwriter for films.
BRIEF HISTORY OF PLAYWRITING- PAT
The earliest playwrights in Western literature
with surviving works are the Ancient Greeks. These
early plays were for annual Athenian competitions
among playwrightsheld around the 5th century BC.
The citizens celebrated Dionysia, the festival that
worshiped Dionysus, god of wine and theater. The
Theater of Dionysus, an amphitheater located in
Athens, played host to a number of dramas.
During the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries,
the Renaissance saw a continuation of this style and
also the evolution of farces, which showcased more
comedic and less moralistic stories. In the
nineteenth century, a new genre took hold of
European theater companies. Realism portrayed
domestic life truthfully. Design and acting were
geared toward putting real life on stage.
Fast forward in the twentieth and twenty-
first centuries, underrepresented artists began
receiving more recognition during this period of
time with the contemporary playwrights works.
I. Glimpsing the Life of a Playwright
A playwright lives in two worlds - the realm
of art and the world of craft. The boundary between
art and craft is evident for playwrights. As an artist,
the writer evokes a concept, a tale, or a message
that the play will portray. And, like a craftsman, the
playwright pulls together the materials and
production skills to create the platform — the play
— from which the concept, and story, may
successfully reach audiences.
Some playwrights believed that:
- If you want to create and stage believable
characters in a play, you need to watch,
listen to, and learn from everyone you come
across, and you should be able to make use
of what you take in. You can learn a good
deal from the successes and failures of
others, and you need to know and
understand trends and what producers and
audiences are looking for. By interacting
with others and staying active, you keep the
mental shelves well-stocked with fresh
experiences to draw on.
- (Some playwrights suggest that creating
believable characters requires observation
from people around us, and feeding the
preferences of the producers and audience
is a
must.)
II. Understanding Plays
For a couple of hours, a group of people
comes and sits in the shadows to watch performers
act out a narrative. Plays have a language that’s
common to playwrights, actors, directors, and other
theater people including the protagonist, conflict,
exposition, and more. The use of this specialized
vocabulary promotes clarity among theater people
as a play is developed and, ultimately, staged.
Hence, Compelling plays or plays that keep the
audience glued to their seats feature the following
important characteristics:
● Characters that the audience can
understand and empathize with.
● Stories that keep audiences guessing; never
become predictable.
● Specific details about the characters and the
story rather than generalities and
stereotypes.
● An essential simplicity and clarity at the core
because no matter how complex the story
may be, the play should be able to answer
one simple and unambiguous question: Will
the protagonist succeed in achieving her
objectives or not?
III. Coming up with and refining ideas
Playwriting gives inspiration
Inspiration is unpredictable. You never know
when you'll come across a play notion that you want
to spend months, if not years, pursuing. Ideas for
plays may originate from so many different places
that naming and discussing all of them would
require a book in and of itself.
✓ Your life: Good or bad occurrences in your
life usually provide fertile material. A writer’s life is
her unique and most valuable resource.
✓ Stories you’ve been told: Family memories
or other stories and events that have been told to
you can spark a play idea.
✓ Media reports: Events, enraging or
encouraging, that have been reported in
newspapers, magazine, television, radio, and on the
Internet can provide the germ of an idea that can
grow into a play.
✓ Your imagination: Sometimes ideas just pop
into your head seemingly with no provocation at all.
Write them down.
IV. Getting started on your play
Playwriting practices creativity.
As you get started on your play, you want to
get everything properly organized. So, consider all
the following recommendations:
✓ Be sure your characters are detailed and
specific and driven by clear objectives. You want to
be clear on which character is your protagonist and
which is your antagonist and what each of them is
after.
✓ Remember to use your environment in the
play. A scene involving two brothers in conflict over
an inheritance will play out very differently if it takes
place in their home, in a restaurant or in a church.
Where the dispute takes place can and should
influence what they can say and how they can say
it.
✓ Be clear about your inciting incident. This
important term indicates the event that ignites the
play and sets your protagonist on her journey.
✓ Start your play as far into the story as
possible. Writing plays is about picking the crucial
moments of your story and putting only those on
stage. Early events and background information can
be relegated to backstory and revealed through
exposition.
✓ Consider adding a ticking clock. Suspense
can be fueled by a limit on the time your protagonist
has to complete her mission.
V. Getting ready to collaborate
Playwriting is communication.
Novels, short stories, and poems are forms
of writing in which nothing necessarily stands
between the creator and the audience. A poet can
recite his work for anyone who’ll listen. A prose
writer can make her work available to readers
online. However, play is where theatre begins. It
needs to be performed by actors. And the
performance is enhanced immensely by the work of
a director and a score of people working on the
overall production.
The collaborative nature of playwriting
requires the playwright to be open to the input and
imagination of the other actors with the director’s
vision impacting your play. The creativity of all the
designers (sets, lights, sound, and costumes) is
evident in the finished production. Yet, as a
playwright, you’ll want to adopt a team-spirit
mindset to playwriting.
Get over it. The successful playwright — the
successful artist of any sort — is one who
understands that you need to be your own best
advocate.
TYPES OF PLAYWRITING
Plays come in all shapes and sizes. Here are the most
common ones:
Ten-Minute Plays
Ten-minute plays have become very popular in
recent years with the advent of The Actors Theater
of Louisville contest. A good ten-minute play is not
a sketch or an extended gag, but rather a complete,
compact play, with a beginning, middle and end. It
typically takes place in one scene and runs no more
than ten pages. In fact, because many contests
disqualify entries with more than ten pages, it's a
good idea to adhere to that page limit religiously.
One-Act Plays
One-acts can run anywhere from fifteen minutes to
an hour or more. While technically, the one-act gets
its name from having only one act (however long
that might be), it's more commonly thought of as a
play that isn't long enough to constitute a full
evening. Arguably the most popular length for one-
acts is around a half-hour. At this length, a play can
fit on a bill with a pair of other one-acts, and if your
play is suitable for high school production, thirty
minutes is a good length for a competition play.
A good one-act focuses on one main action or
problem; there's no time to get into complicated
layers of plot. And for practical reasons, it's a good
idea to keep your play to one set and as few scenes
as possible. Why? Let's say that your one-act is on a
bill with two other one-acts, a common scenario.
Let's further say that your one-act has two distinct
settings, requiring two different sets and a set
change in the middle of an already short play. Not a
good thing. Each of the other one-acts already has
its own set requirements, so suddenly the theater is
faced with building four different sets for one
evening. Not likely to happen.
Another common situation is that a one-act
precedes a play that's not quite long enough to be
an evening unto itself. My play The White Pages
opened for Steve Martin's Picasso at the Lapin Agile
and had to make use of largely the same set, with
canvases painted like bookcases and a desk brought
on to make it look more like a bookstore. So the
moral of the story is to write your one-act with the
most minimal set and technical demands possible.
Full-Length Plays
Full-length plays are also called evening-length
plays, because they're long enough to be their own
evening. How long is that? Anywhere from around
seventy or eighty minutes and up. How is it? These
days, with TV shrinking our attention spans, you'd
better have a very good reason to keep an audience
in the theater for much longer than two hours. And
it's always a good idea to write your play so that it
can be produced, if necessary, with minimal set and
technical requirements. This doesn't mean that an
ambitious designer can't go to town on your script if
that possibility exists, but if producing your play
requires eight set changes or filling the stage with
water, most theaters will not be able to afford you.
Musicals
Musicals can run the gamut in length from ten
minutes (though these are rare, because it's not
very cost effective to assemble a band to play for
only ten minutes) to three hours. Again, the middle
ground - somewhere between ninety minutes and
two hours, is probably the one to shoot for.
SIX ARISTOTELIAN ELEMENTS OF PLAYWRITING
1. PLOT - The arrangement of events or
incidents on the stage. The plot is composed of
“clearly defined problems for characters to solve.”
(Kernodle, et al 6) Plot is to be differentiated from
Story which is a chronological detailing of events
that happened on and off stage. Events happening
off stage are introduced through exposition
(narrative dialogue). The playwright must create a
plot that is both credible and astonishing.
2. CHARACTER / CHARACTERIZATION - The
agents of the plot. Characters provide the
motivations (reasons) for the events of the plot.
“Vivid characters” face and overcome “obstacles
that we can recognize.” They provide the vehicle for
conflict. Characters must be “round” and not “flat”
meaning that they must have multiple dimensions,
a thinkable combination of needs, hopes, inhibition,
and fears of real human beings.
3. THEME - The reason the playwright wrote
the play. The examination of “patterns of life” can
be didactic or just a slice of life.
4. LANGUAGE / DIALOGUE - “Vivid characters”
facing and overcoming recognizable obstacles need
to express themselves in “heightened language.”
Dramatic dialogue consists of two parts: narrative
and dramatic.
5. RHYTHM - The heart of the play. Plot,
character, language, and spectacle all have their
individual rhythms in time. The combination of all
these rhythms create the impelling force of the play
leading to a final climax and Denouement. Rhythm
creates mood.
6. SPECTACLE - Everything that is seen or heard
on stage. Actors, sets, costumes, lights and sound.
NOTE: All plays have spectacle - some emphasize
spectacle more than others.
NOTABLE PLAYWRIGHT AND THEIR WORKS
a. FOREIGN
1. Tennessee Williams
Tennessee Williams, an iconic playwright in
American history between 1940s 1960s, he wrote
several award-winning plays, including The Glass
Menagerie, A Streetcar Named Desire, and Cat on a
Hot Tin Roof. Known for gritty characters and
heartbreaking themes, these plays combined poetic
language with dramatic flair and are recognized
today as American classics.
William’s pal revealed that the playwright was
incredibly productive as he can write 90 words per
minute in a room full of loud people. Despite his
extraordinary writing skills, his first professionally
produced show “Battle of Angels” was premiered in
Boston in 1940, unfortunately, it became a huge
mess.
A few said that the audience were not ready for its
groundbreaking openness and its careful
juxtaposition of religion and sexuality, and some
said that the smoke pots exploded. As a result, not
only did it flop but it also created a huge scandal that
led to the Boston City Council and police
commissioner to demand its censorship. Therefore,
it was forcibly closed. But the hardworking Williams
revised it and brought it back as Orpheus
Descending, which later was made into the movie.
A few years later, here comes the Glass menagerie
which brought him the catastrophe of success.
Followed by his A Streetcar Named Desire, and Cat
on a Hot Tin Roof.
His involvement with the theatrical production
revolves around intimate, confessional, and
autobiographical styles and it forever changed the
landscape of American drama.
He once said, "My work is emotionally
autobiographical. It has no relationship to the actual
events of my life, but it reflects the emotional
currents of my life".
Homosexuality, loneliness, and family relations all
integrate themselves into Williams' plays, these
themes portray the isolation he experienced during
his life.
The 1960s were a difficult time for Williams. His
work received poor reviews and increasingly the
playwright turned to alcohol and drugs as coping
mechanisms. And was hospitalized in 1969. Upon
his release, Williams churned out several new plays
but he never fully escaped his demons. Surrounded
by bottles of wine and pills, Williams died in a New
York City hotel room on February 25, 1983.
2. Friedrich Schiller
Friedrich Schiller is widely revered to as one of the
most important classical poets and playwrights of
Germany. He managed to conceive new forms of
expression in drama like bourgeois tragedy and
melodrama.
Most notably, Schiller's first play, Die Räuber (The
Robbers). In the play, Karl Moor is a brilliant and
ambitious son of a nobleman. Karl's deceitful
brother Franz convinces their father that Karl is
villainous and not to be trusted, and Karl's father
promptly disowns him. Enraged, Karl becomes an
anarchist, leading a band of thieves and criminals
rampaging across the countryside. Eventually, Karl
realizes that anarchy is not an acceptable
alternative to civil society, and that society cannot
be reformed by violence.
Although it has sometimes been interpreted as a
morality play. Other critics interpreted The Robbers
as a tragedy of social injustice, depicting how a man
of such intelligence could be driven to base violence
and crime by an unjust society.
The first performance of the said play rocketed
Schiller to instant fame and renown. Radical
intellectuals heralded the play as marking a major
change in the German theater, where issues of
social justice would be addressed directly.
Conservatives and members of the upper-class,
Duke Eugen among them, were scandalized by the
work's revolutionary undertones. The Duke ordered
that
Schiller be imprisoned and forbidden from writing
more plays.
Schiller escaped and lived in almost total poverty
but continued to write other plays. In his later years,
he passed away at the age of 45 due to tuberculosis.
3. William Shakespeare
154 sonnets, 38 plays, 2 narrative poems, and a
variety of other poems. Yes,
Shakespeare, the great Shakespeare. Most
important literary figure of the
English language, England's national poet, the
greatest dramatist of all time.
He has had more theatrical works performed than
any other playwright. His works are truly loved
throughout the world. To this day, countless theater
festivals around the world honor his work, students
memorize his eloquent poems and scholars
reinterpret the million words of text he composed.
Shakespeare produced most of his known work
between 1589 and 1613. His early plays were mainly
comedies and histories, and these works remain
regarded as some of the best work produced in
these genres. He then wrote mainly tragedies until
about 1608, including Hamlet, Othello, and
Macbeth, considered some of the finest works in the
English language. In his last phase, he wrote
tragicomedies, also known as romances, and
collaborated with other playwrights.
The Hamlet…
4. Eugene O’Neill
Eugene O’Neill was one of the greatest
playwrights who revolutionized American Theater
during the 1920’s and 30’s. Through his
experimental and emotionally probing dramas, he
addressed the difficulties of human society with a
deep psychological complexity.
O'Neill spent much of his early life on the road with
his father, James O’Neill, a stage actor and a
Shakespearean.
His talent for poignant and piercing dramas sprang
from a life marked by challenges.
After the tragedies of the death of O’Neill’s father,
mother, and brother, as well as the break-up of his
marriage, he went on to create a number of
penetrating and insightful views into family life and
struggle. Concerned that they might be altered after
his death, O’Neill eventually destroyed the
manuscripts, accidentally leaving behind only one,
“A Touch of the Poet.”
O’Neill’s final years were spent estranged from
much of the literary community and his family.
Though he was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1936,
most of his later works were not produced until
after his death.
5. Lorraine Hansberry
Lorraine Hansberry, writer, activist and
author, whose iconic play “A Raisin in the Sun” was
the first written by a black woman performed on
Broadway. At just age 29, Hansberry was the
youngest playwright to win the prestigious New
York Drama Critics’ Circle Award.
"A Raisin in the Sun" is about a struggling Black
family in Chicago and draws heavily from the lives
of the working-class tenants who rented from her
father. There are strong influences from her own
family on the characters as well.
To Hansberry, the play expresses an America where
“we have among our miserable and downtrodden
ranks people who are the very essence of human
dignity”. She said that “in order to create the
universal, you must pay attention to
the specific.”
As Hansberry said, “the most oppressed group of
any oppressed group will be its women;” those who
are “twice oppressed” may become “twice
militant”. Both reminders resonate in revivals
through Hansberry’s particularities of Chicago
racism, Black women’s lives, and universal dignity,
commitments equally manifest in her civil rights
efforts.
b. LOCAL
In the Philippines, we have the Order of National
Artists (Orden ng mga Pambansang Alagad ng
Sining) which is the highest national recognition
given to Filipino individuals who have made
significant contributions to the development of
Philippine arts; namely, Music, Dance, Theater,
Visual Arts, Literature, Film, Broadcast Arts, and
Architecture and Allied Arts. The order is jointly
administered by the National Commission for
Culture and the Arts (NCCA) and the Cultural Center
of the Philippines (CCP) and conferred by the
President of the Philippines upon recommendation
by both institutions. Here are some playwrights who
received such honor:
WILFRIDO MA. GUERRERO
National Artist for Theater (1997)
(January 22, 1910 – April 28, 1995)
On the 22nd of January 1910, Wilfrido Ma. O.
Guerrero was born; a son of the famous Dr. Manuel
S. Guerrero and Elisa Ocampo. He wrote his first play
at age 14, and his play in Spanish, "No Todo Es Risa",
was produced at the Ateneo when he was 15.
He was later a reporter and proofreader for La
Vanguardia, and drama critic for the Manila Tribune.
He worked for some time in Philippine Films (1939)
as a scriptwriter. He organized and was the director
of the Filipino Players (1941-1947).
In 1947 the late Bienvenido Gonzalez, president of
the University of the Philippines, appointed
Guerrero, despite his lack of a degree, assistant
professor of dramatics. He became director of the
UP Dramatic Club for which he produced and
directed over 120 plays.
Guerrero has the unique distinction of being the first
Filipino who has had a theater named after him in
his own lifetime: The Wilfrido Ma. Guerrero Theater
of the University of the Philippines, Diliman. Upon
his death in May 1995, his colleagues in the theater
and the academe drafted a resolution declaring him
National Artist. Two years later, the national
government officially proclaimed Guerrero as
"National Artist for Theater”.
His plays include Forever, Frustrations, Wow These
Americans, Perhaps, Three Rats, Deep in My Heart,
In Unity, Our Strange Ways, Wanted: A Chaperon,
The Forsaken
House, and Half an Hour in a Convent.
Conclusion for Guerrero’s part
Guerrero’s plays of timeless humor,
unconsummated love, individual moral dilemmas,
and honor against all odds—these were portrayed
in vivid action with inimitable phrases rendered by
actors who were as outstanding in their delivery as
they were in their dedication to Philippine theater.
AMELIA LAPEÑA-BONIFACIO
National Artist for Theater (2018)
April 4, 1930 – December 29, 2021
Professor Emerita Amelia Lapeña-Bonifacio
is a playwright, puppeteer and an educator.
She graduated with an AB (English) from
University of the Philippines Diliman in 1953
and earned her MA (Speech-Theatre Arts)
from the University of Wisconsin-Madison in
1958. Known as the Grand Dame of
Southeast Asian children’s theatre, Tita
Amel is the founder and playwright-director
of the Teatrong Mulat ng Pilipinas, which has
placed the Philippines on the artistic map of
World Theater. Now, she is one of the
honored National
Artist for Theater in the Philippines.
Some of her notable works are:
 6 na Dulang Filipino Para Sa Mga
Bata, 1976
 Tat-lu-han (Three Plays), 1975
 Ang Paglalakbay ni Sisa: Isang Noh Sa
Laguna, 1998
 Isang Kyogen sa Pritil, 1977
 Sepang Loca, 1957
 Papet Pasyon, 1985
ROLANDO S. TINIO National Artist for Theater and
Literature (1997) (March 5, 1937 – July 7, 1997)
Rolando S. Tinio was a playwright, actor,
poet, translator, teacher, and critic. He grew
up in Tondo and graduated from the
University of Santo Tomas with a degree in
Philosophy, magna cum laude at the age of
18.
Tinio published four volumes of poems
between 1972 and 1993. His language
morphed from “Taglish,” a mixture of
Tagalog and English, to pure Filipino and
back to English. His book Kristal na Uniberso
won the National Book Award.
Among his many works for the theater are
Larawan, the musical, Ang Mestisa, Ako, Ang
Kiri, Ana Maria and the komedya Orosman
at Zafira. He was known for translating
Western classics, which includes the works
of Shakespeare, Ibsen, Sophocles, Chekhov
and Puccini into Filipino. He led theater
groups Ateneo Experimental Theater and
Teatro Pilipino to new heights with his
artistic vision and intellectual approach. He
also worked on the stage adaptation of
 National Artist Nick Joaquin’s play Portrait of
the Artist as Filipino. He was conferred
National Artist status in 1997.
One of his famous works is the musical Ang
Larawan which began from the stage and
then later on brought up to the screens. It is
set in Intramuros before WWII, focusing on
the plight of unmarried sisters Candida and
Paula Marasigan. They are the daughters of
high-profile painter Don Lorenzo Marasigan.
Legaspi already played the role of Candida
when the play was staged by Tanghalang
Pilipino in 1992. She again played Candida
(opposite Zsa Zsa Padilla’s Paula) in the 1997
musical. Sadly, Tinio would never see the
musical he helped create as he passed away
10 days before the musical opened.
“It allows us to see our past and it allows us
to understand why we are like this. It allows
us to see what we lost — that’s the number
one thing that I take away from “Ang
Larawan”
– Celeste Legaspi, Actress and Producer of
Ang Larawan
SUMMARY
Since the birth of theater in 5th century BCE
of Greece, the art of plays continues to blossom and
adapt to the changes of the growing society. Dramas
evolved from the existence of comedy, tragedy, and
satyr to more experimental pieces being created.
Playwriting as an activity or process of
writing plays by playwrights, conceives two worlds;
the realm of art and the world of craft. These lead
to creation of plays that may depict the state of the
society directly, or in the face of euphemisms and
idiomatic phrases. In order to compose a play that
will be of interest to the people and earn their
acknowledgement, it is important to pay attention
to the formulation of plots, the characters, the
theme where the play revolves and the dialogues
that will give life to the voices of the story.
Depending on the need of plot or interest of the
production, the plays may vary from ten-minute or
one-act short plays to full-length musicals.
Through the years, there have been multiple
playwrights that have been recognized due to their
masterpieces that never lose their sparks to the
audiences. Who would ever forget the iconic
soliloquy of Prince Hamlet’s “To be or not to be -
that is the question.” by William Shakespeare or the
puppet theater made known by the 2018 National
Artist for Theater, Professor Amelia Lapena-
Bonifacio? Even the controversial works of Wilfrido
Ma. Guerrero still grazes the limelight as it is used in
various learning institutions in giving light to the
issues of the community.
The beauty of theater will never cease to amaze the
people of different generations.
Indeed, it is an art that unfolds on the stage and
proceeds to bloom beyond the spotlight.
GROUP 5&6: THEATER PERSONNEL (Director,
Actor, Stage Manager, Producer, Audience)
I. BRIEF DISCUSSION OF DRAMA AND THEATER
1.1. WHAT IS DRAMA
In literature, drama is the portrayal of fictional or
nonfictional events through the performance of
written dialog (either prose or poetry). Dramas can
be performed on stage, on film, or the radio.
Dramas are typically called plays, and their creators
are known as “playwrights” or “dramatists.”
(Longley, 2019) The term “drama” is derived from
the Greek word, dran meaning “to do” or “to act.”
People who love the drama have varied
interpretations of the background, just as they do
with books or other written literary works. There is
direct interaction between the author and the
reader in a drama. Drama can also refer to a real-life
or fictional event that incorporates emotion or
conflict. This term is also used to refer to genres in
film and series in today's society.
1.2. WHAT IS THEATER
The term 'theater' is derived from the Greek term
theasthai (to behold). On the other hand, the term
"theatre" refers to the actual staging of a play on a
stage. A stage, performers, a backdrop, costumes,
lighting, sound effects, and, most importantly, an
audience are all required. In reality, a performance
venue, performers, and an audience are three of
theater's most fundamental prerequisites. The
author, director, performers, technicians, and a
slew of other individuals work together to create
theater. The audience and the author have no direct
interaction in this context. Another interpretation of
the play can be presented in the theater.
1.3. THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DRAMA AND
THEATER
The main distinction between drama and theater is
that drama refers to a play's printed text, whereas
theater refers to the play's onstage presentation.
Another way to distinguish the two categories is the
play's interpretation. The theatrical production's
interpretation of the play may differ from the
understanding received via the reading of the
drama. There is a direct connection between the
audience and the creator in a drama. Directors,
performers, and designers, on the other hand, serve
as middlemen in the theater. Furthermore, although
drama is an abstract object, a theater is a real entity
II. THEATER PERSONNEL
2.1. DIRECTOR
Prolusion
Even if they may not appear in front of the camera,
the director is one of the most important people on
a film set. They do more than shout “action” and
“cut” behind the scenes, they're the most important
individual who decides the imaginative vision and
makes all of the film’s greatest choices. Directors,
also known as Filmmakers, manage the creative
aspects of the production. They direct the making of
a film by visualizing the script while guiding the
actors and technical crew to capture the vision for
the screen. They control the film’s dramatic and
artistic aspects. A director could be an individual
who decides the inventive vision of a highlight film,
tv show, play, short film, or other production. They
have total imaginative control of a venture. In
addition to having a strong grasp of specialized
knowledge instructed in directing classes, they must
also have a personal or passionate connection to the
material. In short, directors are one of the most
important creative leads in film. They come up with
creative vision all throughout the whole process
from pre-production to the final output of a film.
Progression
In ancient Greece, the birthplace of European
drama, the writer bore principal responsibility for
the staging of his plays. Actors were generally semi-
professionals, and the director oversaw the
mounting of plays from the writing process all the
way through to their performance, often acting in
them too, as Aeschylus for example did.
The author-director would also train the chorus,
sometimes compose the music, and supervise every
aspect of production. The fact that the director was
called didaskalos, the Greek word for "teacher, "
indicates that the work of these early directors
combined instructing their performers with staging
their work.
The beginning of modern directing is commonly
associated with the Meiningen Players, a German
acting troupe organized in 1874 by George II, duke
of Saxe Meiningen. Under the direction of Ludwig
Chronegk, the group worked as a unit, setting an
influential example of effective ensemble playing.
Leading realistic directors of the late 19th century.
included André Antoine in France, Otto Brahm in
Germany, and Constantin Stanislavsky in Russia. The
most innovative of these was probably Stanislavsky,
who stressed ensemble acting and the importance
of actors' absolute identification with their roles.
In addition to producing increased artistic
possibilities for directors, the rise of antirealism
made the director's practical task of coordinating
scene design, lighting, and acting even more
essential. A director who experimented successfully
with both realism and antirealism was the German
Max Reinhardt. Noted for his extravagant
productions, he tried to remove the barrier between
actors and audience by projecting the stage into the
audience and scattering actors among the
spectators.
During the 1920s there were several important
antirealist directors working in Germany and the
Soviet Union, notably Vsevolod Meyerhold,
Alexander Tairov, and Erwin Piscator.
A disciple of Reinhardt, Piscator worked with the
playwright Bertolt Brecht, whose theories have
greatly influenced 20th-century theater. The
director was commonly of prime importance in the
theatrical productions of the late 20th century.
Representation
The Roles and responsibilities of directors, they are
responsible for the performance of the company, as
dictated by the board’s overall strategy. The people
in charge of the film are directors, the role of
director comes with enormous responsibility and is
remunerated accordingly.
The main purpose of the role is to direct and control
the film's operations and to give strategic guidance
and direction to the actors to ensure that the film
will achieve its mission and objectives.
A film director's day-to-day tasks change as the
film's production progresses. They are in charge of
reviewing and interpreting scripts, establishing the
film's tone, and selecting assistant directors at the
start of a project. On set, directors begin working
with other department heads, such as those in
charge of casting, design, and camera work. The
most subjective and creative part of any film
director job description. It’s up to the director to
discover how the actors like to work and adjust
accordingly to bring out the best performance.
Some of the key responsibilities of a film director
include:
 Reviewing and adjusting scripts and
selecting which to turn into films
 Monitoring and approving film production
budgets
 Watching auditions, selecting actors, and
directing actors
 Overseeing all aspects of the production
process, on and off the set
 Working with the sound and music
departments
 Working with editors to produce the final
version of the film
 Ensuring that the film stays within its budget
and on its timeline
From the beginning of the project to the final cut,
the director is heavily involved in all stages of
filmmaking. Their role in each stage, however, can
differ. A director, for example, is heavily involved
behind the scenes before ever setting foot on a film
set. Examine the various roles that a director plays
during the filmmaking process. From the
Development Phase, the story and script are
frequently developed prior to the start of pre-
production, and the director is usually not involved
in the project until the pre-production phase. If, on
the other hand, a director wrote the script, they
would be involved earlier in the project. More
hands-on directors may also make comments or
changes to the script during the development
phase.
During the Pre-Production Phase, a director must
be pragmatic because their vision will be
constrained by the project's budget and script. The
first step in pre-production is to develop a game
plan with others who will be involved in the
production process. During this phase, the director
can request script revisions, often working closely
with the story's writers. Before production begins,
directors review the tone of the film and
communicate their vision to the heads of the other
departments.
Creating storyboards and listing shots is another
step in pre-production. This phase also includes
actor auditions and casting to find the right people
to fill the roles and bring the story to life. The next
step in the process of production film is the
production phase. In this phase, the director
watches the actor's rehearsal and makes important
decisions regarding the appearance and overall
direction of the film.
A director's most important role in the production
process is to guide actors and cameras to get the
right angles, shots and results. The director needs to
know the actors and understand how they want to
do their job, and then can adjust the director to get
the best results. The director works with the actors
during rehearsal to ensure that the storyline and
vision for the finished product are considered. The
filming process also depends a lot on the director,
who must be satisfied with the take before moving
on to the next scene in the story.
Lastly, the Post-Production Phase. The final stage of
the film is post-production, which can take place
both on and off set. This is the moment when all the
parts come together to create the final result, and
the director will actively intervene to ensure that
the film comes out as he imagined. At this phase,
they work closely with the film's editors to produce
both the director's cut and the final cut. They are
also working with the music and sound department
to ensure that their vision is reflected in the final
version, which includes sound effects, background
noise and music for each scene.
List of the three types of film and TV director:
The “Technical” Director - This director spends most
of his time with the crew on the technical aspects of
the shot and scene. He spends very little time with
the actors (giving direction). He may just want to
“let the actors do their thing” or he may not know
how to successfully communicate with an actor.
The “Performance” Director - This director works
with and understands the actor and the “acting
process” but he also spends time with the technical
aspects of the shot and scene.
The “New” Director - This director is someone who
knows “a little about something but not enough of
the entire job of directing.” These directors work in
other areas of the business and get a “shot” at
directing (Ex: producer, writer, 1AD, editor, actor,
DOP)
Directing students study the art form in
undergraduate programs, graduate programs,
conservatory programs, and directing workshops.
Many Hollywood directors have a directing degree
from an accredited directing program in New York
City or Los Angeles. Such: Master of Fine Arts (MFA)
in Filmmaking, Master of Arts (MA) in Film and
Media Production, Bachelor of Fine Arts (BFA) in
Filmmaking and Associate of Fine Arts (AFA) in
Filmmaking. To have a directing degree is important,
but a job as a director requires experience leading a
small project. If your work gets attention and praise,
you can hire an agent to find more opportunities.
Many directors start working on sets as interns or
assistant sound engineers while overseeing their
own projects.
As you progress through your ranks, you can learn
how to hire, gain experience, and build connections
that will help you find employment in the future.
Some directors enter this field after working as
writers or actors in film and/or television. When a
film industry professional turns into a director, the
learning curve is less steep as they've learned what
a good director looks like over the years of working
closely with and observing the director. And in order
for a director to become successful in such fields
he/she must possess the following:
 Creativity
 Confidence Ability to motivate
 Sharp eye for detail
 Communication skills to give directions to
actors
 Organization
 Ability to stick to budgets and timelines
Theater Directors in the Philippines
Severino Reyes
Severino Reyes is one of the stalwarts of Filipino art
and literature. He was the fifth child born into the
family in Santa Cruz, Manila, in 1861. He was a well-
educated man who attended several different
institutions of higher learning. Eventually, Reyes
completed his Bachelor of Philosophy from the
University of Santo Tomas and his Bachelor of Arts
from Colegio San Juan de Letrán. During his time, he
was a writer and director who went on to raise
Tagalog sarzuela.
A widely read man who had a deep knowledge of
religion, philosophy, history, literature, the arts, and
sciences. In 1902, he founded and directed the
Grand Compania de Zarzuela Tagala, which
presented its first one-act piece, Ang Kalupi, in 1902,
at the Teatro Zorilla, once located in Calle Iris,
Manila. The company traveled extensively, giving
shows in neighboring towns and provinces.
Notable works of Severino Reyes:
 Walang Sugat (No wounds), 1902 in Teatro
Zorilla. A drama set in Bulacan during the
Philippine revolution that tackled the
bravery and dedication of the katipuneros of
the Philippines in the later years of Spanish
occupation. This marked the beginning of
the Golden Age of Zarzuela in the country.
 R. I. P. (Requiescat In Pace), known as the
komedya dead and ready for burial. Engaged
komedyantes in full costume and riding
horse in stoned house.
 Writings: Mga kwento ni Lola Basyang,
featured on liwayway magazine in 1922,
based on a neighbor named Gervacia De
Guzman as Lola Basyang, an old woman who
loves to tell stories from her ancient baul for
her grandkids.
 Others: Minda Mora, Mga Bihag ni Cupido,
Ang Bagong Fausto, Ang Tunay na Hukom,
Ang Tatlong Bituin, Margarita Ng Mananahi,
Ang halik ng Isang Patay, and Luha ng
Kagalakan.
Socrates Hernandez Topacio
Socrates Hernandez Topacio, also known as "Soxie
Topacio" , attended college at the University of the
Philippines, where he took up courses in Chemical
Engineering and shifted to a Bachelor of Science in
Architecture and Mass Communication.
Unfortunately, he did not finish any degree, but is
excellently considered as one of the legends in
Philippine entertainment as he expressed his
passion and experience as a film and theater
director and actor in Filipino films. Soxei was given a
lifetime achievement award by Philstage and
became a film director when Lino Brocka, a well-
known film director, introduced him to television
and allowed him to direct productions in another
medium. He had been a resident artist of the
Philippine Educational Theatre Association (PETA)
since 1969, a program director of Kalingan Ensemble
from 1982-1986, PETA executive director from
1986-1994, and a member of the Board trusted from
1995 until his death in 2017. Soxie Topacio was
known for his play with PETA Theater: Ang babae sa
Bote, Hayop man ay Lumuluha rin, Monumento,
Mariang Aliw, Halika sa tarantula, Noli Fili, Dekada
200, and many other theatrical play even in other
theater and film industry.

Dindo Angeles
Dindo Angles' artistic formation is in theater. He
completed his high school at Ateneo de Manila
University and earned a degree in Political Science
and Government from the University of the
Philippines. Angeles was known as the film and
theater director of different institutions and
organizations: Resident director of Sine Pilipino Film
Productions (1973- 1977).
Instructor for Theater Arts in the Philippine High
School of Arts (1977-1978), Artistic Director for
Drama and Literature in the Cultural Center of the
Philippines of a Folk Arts Theater organization, and
also a director and writer of Ateneo's Dulaang Sibol
Annual Play competition in the late 60's, and a co-
founder of the Samahan sa Dulo, an intimate
theater company, which did experimental
productions of young Filipino playwrights' works.
The major objective is to develop a truly Filipino
theater form that will use the 'empty space' , any
space, for performances.
Dindo Angeles was known for his musical play
"Sinta, " which won the FAMAS Best Musical Award
in 1977. As Folks Arts Theater’s artistic director for
drama and literature, Angeles led a research team
that documented indigenous tribal dances, oral and
written folk literature, and developed these into
contemporary dance-drama.
International Great Theater Directors of their Time
Joan Littlewood, (1914- 2002)
A British theater director who founded the Theater
Workshop in 1945. Littlewood attended the Royal
Academy of Dramatic Art in London and had an
actor training program at the Theater Workshop
focused on voice, movement and improvisation. She
was a champion of the ensemble theater,
considered unconventional at the time. Directing
productions at her Theater Workshop in Stratford,
Littlewood gained widespread acclaim for an
inventive approach to the classic plays of
Shakespeare and his contemporaries.
Trevor Nunn, (1904)
Multi-award winning British theater director who
succeeded Peter Hall to become artistic director of
the Royal Shakespeare Company at just 28 years of
age, a position he held for 18 years (1968-1986). He
later headed the National Theater from 1997 to
2003. Nunn was also a very successful director of
non-subsidized theater including the West End
premieres of Cats (1981), Starlight Express (1984)
and Les Miserables (1985). In 1980, Nunn adapted
Charles Dickens’ comic novel The Life and
Adventures of Nicholas Nickleby into a nine-hour
stage extravaganza. To this day, it remains one of
the most successful productions in the history of the
Royal Shakespeare Company.
2.2. ACTOR 2.2.1.
DEFINITION OF ACTOR
According to the dictionary, the word actor refers to
a person who acts professionally regardless of
gender. The Oxford English Dictionary claimed that
the word actor was originally used for both sexes.
Eventually, the word “actress” refers specifically to
a female person who acts. Therefore, both terms
can be used interchangeably to describe a female
person that acts. Furthermore, several online
websites define that an actor has an ability to
express ideas, interpret a writer’s script and portray
the characters to entertain and inform the
audiences. This is done by acting, singing, and
dancing. Actors can usually be seen on television,
film, theater, and other performing art venues and
they can also work in several environments such as
theme parks, production studios, or at specific
filming locations. This discussion will focus on actors
who act professionally in the theater stages
including their roles, responsibilities, skills, and
qualifications.
2.2.2. THE WORLD’S FIRST ACTOR
Thespis of Ancient Greece is recognized as one of
the world’s first actors, and from his name, we got
the noun “Thespian” , referring to the actors and
actresses in the west in his honor. According to the
studies, in the middle of ancient Greek
performances, Thespis had an idea for the show that
none had seen before. He got the bright idea to use
masks to slip between characters and to enhance
the effect. This dimension of drama seeded the
Western theatrical tradition and served as the birth
of theater, when he then became the world’s first
actor.
2.2.3 ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES
Actors do not just solely act. Behind their
applaudable lines, expressions, and the way they
act, they shoulder responsibilities for them to be
excellent in the entertainment industry. Actors
study lines, songs or dances, whatever is needed in
different scenes. They are obliged to understand
their character’s life and live as them for a short
period of time, just until the show ends. Knowing
your role or character is important in drama because
you could not portray one if you don’t know them
well, such as their background, situation, feelings,
gestures, and even how they project their voice.
Moreover, attend all rehearsals scheduled, costume
fittings, and technical and dress rehearsals. They
keep a professional relationship with their co-
actors, director, and other staff. They take direction
from the director and/or choreographer and
perform other duties laid out in the job description
depending on the kind of show. It is the actor's
responsibility to do his or her best to act naturally.
They must follow rules but at the same time, not
forget about their rights and personal choices as
individuals. Being an actor isn’t quite an easy one,
like society used to believe.
2.2.4. HOW TO BECOME AN ACTOR (SKILLS AND
QUALIFICATIONS)?
There are no specific qualifications to become an
actor. Focusing on acting careers is different from
other fields like business courses or Medicine, that
require first a diploma and a lot of certifications for
them to be an accountant or doctor, respectively.
Although there were no set legal rules regarding if a
person could or could not be an actor, others can be
an actor after graduating from filmmaking courses,
communication, and such. There are also talent
scouts who persuade people with acting potential
and make them have their debut as actors, with or
without formal education. Also, acting can be
learned through training programs or private drama
classes.
Skills to Become an Ideal Actor:
 Ability to take direction
- An actor must be willing to follow
directions for the benefit of the show
 Ability to work as a team and also
individually
- A production team consists of several
members with different tasks and duties.
One can be considered as a good actor if
he/she knows how to interact and work with
anyone or even alone
 Good time keeping skills
- Actors must be organized and good at time
management.
 Reliability
- Being true to oneself and to others will make
an actor reliable.
 Ability to learn lines
- Actors study lines ahead of time and make
sure that they remember them and know
how to execute their part.
 Confidence in being in front of an audience
- Not everyone was blessed with this skill of
being confident in front of a larger audience.
This is one of the skills that actors must
possess.
 Experience in improvisation/ad-libbing
- Doing ad-lib is common in play production
wherein an actor thinks fast and provides
lines that will suit the scene.
  Ability to work unsocial hours (evenings and
weekends)
- They make most of their time
available so they can rehearse during
evenings and even weekends.
 Clear vocals, ability to project voice
- A good actor speaks loudly and
clearly.
2.3. STAGE MANAGER 2.3.1
BACKGROUND
The Stage Management team is responsible for the
organization of the backstage crews and cast during
performances as well as in the rehearsal room. It is
often made up of a number of different stage
management positions although in smaller
productions there may only be one stage manager.
Stage Managers are usually associated with a
company either as a permanent member of staff or
as a freelancer.
Definition
The Stage Manager is the most senior member of
the Stage Management Team and is responsible for
the health and safety of the performers and crew for
every performance as well as for ensuring all
departments have completed their tasks for the
production to be performed during both the
rehearsal and performance periods. This includes
pre-show checks, particularly safety checks,
including at fight or movement rehearsals.
2.3.2 ROLES OF A STAGE MANAGER
The primary role of the Deputy Stage Manager is to
call the show. Following the prompt book (the full
script along with the prompts and cues for the
performers as well as lighting, sound and scene
changes), they talk to the department operators and
technicians over a headset to coordinate the show.
They will also use a public address system to
summon the actors from their dressing rooms and
to coordinate with the front of house when the
performance is about to start. The role of the stage
manager is especially important to the director in
rehearsals. Here the director and the stage manager
work side by side, with the stage manager recording
the director's decisions about blocking and notes for
the actors, keeping track of logistical and scheduling
details and communicating what goes on in
rehearsals to the rest of the team. This enables the
director to concentrate his or her full attention on
directing.
Stage managers have several key responsibilities
and tasks to perform in each phase of a production,
including:
 scheduling and running rehearsals
 communicating the director's wishes to
designers and craftspeople
 coordinating the work of the stage crew
 calling cues and possibly actors' entrances
during performance
 overseeing the entire show each time it is
performed
In conjunction with the director, the stage manager
determines the scheduling of all rehearsals and
makes sure everyone involved is notified of
rehearsal times, meetings, costume/wig fittings and
coaching sessions. During the rehearsal phase, stage
managers also:
 mark out the dimensions of the set on the
floor of the rehearsal hall
 make sure rehearsal props and furnishings
are available for the actors
 attend all rehearsals
 notify the designers and craftspeople of
changes made in rehearsal
In rehearsals the stage manager also records all
blocking, plus all the light, sound and set change
cues, in a master copy of the script called the
prompt book. The information in the prompt book
also allows the stage manager to run the technical
rehearsals, calling each technical cue in turn to
determine precisely how it needs to be timed to
coordinate with the onstage action.
The stage manager and the technical director also
work out a smooth and efficient plan for the stage
crew to follow during set changes. Furniture and
prop plans for complicated sets are drawn up by the
stage manager and technical designer to show
exactly where the furniture and props are to be
positioned on stage at the beginning of each scene
and sometimes in the wings. Once the show opens,
the director's work is essentially complete. Now it's
the stage manager's job to make sure that every
aspect of the production runs just as the director
intended time after time, until the production
closes.
2.3.3. SKILLS OF A STAGE MANAGER
Additional qualifications for the position include
strong interpersonal and communication skills to
work with stage professionals such as actors and
directors, as well as in writing. The ability to
multitask and build collaboration with other people
and companies to a bigger influence and resources.
They have broad knowledge of technical theater and
are able to work greatly under pressure. Stage
Managers should have a sharp eye for details as they
are also assigned on calling cues, it requires
excellent observation and memorization.
2.3.4 HOW TO BECOME A STAGE MANAGER
To become a stage manager, you have to get a
degree to get into the field. These subjects can be
useful for your training:
 Drama and Theatre Studies
 Music
 Performing Arts
 Stage Management
 Theatre Production/Professional Practice
You can start as an Assistant Stage Manager, once
you gain enough experience, you can level up as
Deputy Stage Manager and for larger theatre
Company Stage Manager.
2.4. PRODUCER
2.4.1 BACKGROUND
A producer, in general, handles all aspects of pre-
production, production, post-production until the
release, as well as its financial, strategic, and
managerial aspects of the project. In theater, they
are the ones who “put on the show”. They oversee
all the aspects of the theater production from ideas
to putting everything and managing the show.
2.4.2. ROLES OF A PRODUCER
A theater producer is in charge of the entire process
of production, their roles can be quite numerous.
Their tasks change frequently, but they are in
control of the financial, strategic, and management
aspects of the whole production.
They're in charge of meeting with the directors,
creative teams, and artists on a regular basis, setting
a production calendar, and organizing technical and
stage management, as well as workshop functions.
When it comes to financing, they oversee how the
budget is spent, establish ticket prices, and have a
say in the play's marketing plan. Furthermore,
producers are the ones who negotiate, issue
contracts, and ensure that all legal requirements are
met, such as copyright law, insurance liability,
payroll, and tax.
2.4.3. SKILLS OF A PRODUCER
The following are the skills a theater producer must
have:
 They must be an effective leader
 Have excellent communication abilities
 Problem-solver who acts fast
 Encourages collaboration with the whole
team
 Have good organization skills
 Scheduling
 Time management
 Knowledgeable in business management
 Financial planning
 Negotiation
2.4.4. HOW TO BECOME A THEATER PRODUCER?
Having a degree or HND (Higher National Diploma)
is not essential for those who want to become a
theater producer. Though one must possess certain
qualifications, as well as established reputation and
experience to become one, just like the ff:
 Actor
 Assistant director
 Designer Producer
 Stage Manager
 Writer
Having a degree/background in theater or related to
that can be helpful to provide the necessary skills a
theater producer must possess. These include
subjects such as:
 Creative and performing arts
 Drama and theater studies
 English literature
 Humanities-based subjects involving
thought, reflection, and interpretation (E.g
Philosophy, History, and Psychology)
 Languages
 Music
For someone with an unrelated degree, they must
get a postgraduate qualification with a strong
emphasis on practical skills in theater and drama.
2.5. AUDIENCE
2.5.1. DEFINITION AND BACKGROUND
Assume you're performing on a stage with no one
watching. What would your reaction be?
Merriam Webster defines an Audience as a group
of listeners or spectators. Audiences are very
important to performers because they are the ones
who see and listen to them, as well as clap and show
appreciation if they enjoy the performance. With
the audience present, performers receive feedback
on whether their performance was good or bad.
When there is a large audience present, performers
are more motivated to perform than when the
audience strength is low. The audience is a
prerequisite for any stage performer.
Aside from the work itself, the essence of art
generally grows outside the work and the creator,
implying that it grows beyond their grasp, leading up
to the audience. Since people's reactions to art, i.e.,
to films, paintings, etc. are crucial—for
commentary, critique, or just appreciation. Though
audience contributions vary in a performing art such
as theater, their impact provides a level of
participation that has a significant impact on a live
performance.
Unlike any other type of art, performing art goes
inside this finite space and time, it begins and ends.
Watch a film or observe a painting—over and over
again—it would be the same as it is, the perspective
of the people may vary through time but the art will
be unaffected by any presence of the audience. In
theater, a play will be done again but for different
audiences and also difference in performers, which
then sort of produce a different work of art.
A Brief History of the Audience
The audience has evolved over time, from a
participatory crowd to a group of people sitting
behind an imaginary line, silently observing the
performers. The audience is constantly expanding
and changing. Human beings have always needed to
communicate their wants, needs, perceptions, and
disagreements to others. This need to communicate
is at the heart of art, as well as the foundation of the
theatre's relationship with its audience.
In later years, Greek audiences were not afraid to
express their displeasure at a less-than-spectacular
performance. Stones and other sloppy objects were
thrown, hissing was popular, and loud groans of
discontent could send any actor into early
retirement. The Romans loved violence, and the
audience was a lively crowd. People of all
socioeconomic backgrounds attended the theatre
because it was free.
Chinese and Japanese audiences have always been
tireless, owing to the fact that their theater forms,
such as Japanese "Kabuki" and "Noh" plays and
Chinese operas, could last anywhere from a full day
to three days. In China, the audience was divided;
the upper classes sat closer to the action of the play,
while the lower classes, who were generally a
louder, more talkative bunch, were seated in the
back stalls. The audience expected a superior
performance, and if it fell short in any way, the
audience had the option of stopping the production
and demanding a different presentation.
Many different types of theater have been passed
down through history, and we, as spectators, bring
our own experiences and histories to the event,
causing us to react differently to different
productions.
Audience as Performer
According to Heim's book, Audience as Performer
(2016), there are two troupes of performers in the
theatre: actors and audience members. All of these
behaviors– laughing, applauding, and many more–
are responses of a group of people gathered in a
communal space known as a theatre auditorium.
They join forces to play a role–that of the audience.
The audience role has its own idiosyncrasies,
prescribed gestures, and spontaneous expressions.
Individuals may have the opportunity to play the
role of an audience member at some point in their
lives.
The reactions of audience members also contribute
to the overall theatrical experience. The true
enchantment of theatre occurs in the interaction
between actors and audience members. This
encounter takes place in the theatre rather than the
cinema because theatre is a live performance. The
audience is influenced by the actor's performance,
and the actors are influenced by the audience's
responses.
The encounter and the electricity of co-creation that
occurs in the theatre are what distinguishes playing
the role of a theatre audience member from other
roles in life. The responses of the audience actually
contribute to, inform, and change the onstage
performance.
House is a theater's seating area. You're sitting in
the house when you're in the audience watching a
show. The audience is sometimes referred to as the
house. When asked, "How big is the house tonight?"
"They want to know how many people are in the
audience."
2.5.2. ROLE OF THE THEATER AUDIENCE
The History of Audience Rules
The expectations for audience members' roles in a
theatre have not always been consistent. They have
evolved over time and continue to do so. Women
were not generally permitted to be theatre
audience members or actors in some theatrical
traditions. Some theatrical eras catered solely to the
upper classes, whereas others saw the theatre as
low-brow popular entertainment for the masses.
Audiences were expected to be more raucous in
earlier periods of history, particularly during
Shakespeare's time. It was not uncommon for
audience members to eat, drink, and speak during
performances, even calling out to the actors as they
performed at times. It was common for actors in the
late 1600s Restoration theatre to chat with
audience members in between scenes and then
return to the stage when their part resumed.
As an audience member, you may feel like a quiet
observer with no involvement in the action on stage,
but this is not the case. Actors prepare for each play
for weeks, but the real work doesn't begin until you,
the audience, arrive. What you do in the audience
fuels the actors onstage. Actors can hear and see
you, and they wait for the audience to return the
energy and emotion to them. It aids in the
progression of the play, and each member of the
audience, like the actors on stage, has a role to play.
Actors rely on the audience to perform well in order
for the show to be a success. Before you go to the
theater for a day or night of art, consider the
following Ten (10) Theater Audience Etiquette:
1. First and foremost, Punctuality. Audience
members at theatre performances should always
arrive on time. This demonstrates respect for
everyone else in the theater, including the actors
and fellow audience members.
2. Then there are phones. Most people have them
and enjoy them, but they can make the job of an
actor difficult. Please silence and put away your
phones before entering the theater, and do not text
or use them during the performance. The light from
a phone on stage can cause an accident or disrupt
an important moment for actors. That’s why actors
encourage the audience to use the play as a way to
disconnect from reality.
3. The third is the manner of eating or drinking
inside the theater can be loud, smelly, or make a
mess, it is strictly prohibited to bring food or drink
inside. Nothing beats being in the middle of a
dramatic scene when someone begins crunching on
a snack.
4. Next is the "Fourth wall" is the invisible barrier
that separates the audience from the actors. In
television, this would be the screen. However, as
fluid as it can be, in theater, actors communicate
directly with the audience through monologues, and
a variety of other means, breaking down this barrier
and allowing the audience to participate. Audiences
must respect the fourth wall and refrain from
breaking it by entering the stage or engaging with
performers in ways that are not acceptable forms of
participation.
5. Fifth, the Physical Space is very important to
actors, and the audience can help ensure that
everyone in the audience has a great experience by
respecting the theater and other people in the
audience. Actors appreciate it when you react, so
feel free to laugh, gasp, and clap. Avoiding
conversation during the show, on the other hand,
can help actors create a great experience for
everyone. In fact, theatres are built to carry sound,
so even whispers can be heard from across the
room.
6. Sixth, The Attention of the Audience. During a
performance, it is expected that audience members
will pay close attention to the performers. Actors
feed off the energy they receive from the audience
and can detect if the audience is distracted.
7. Seventh, The Responsiveness of the Audience.
While audiences should not interrupt
performances, emotional responses such as
laughter, shocked gasps, and clapping are permitted
at various points throughout a performance. This
type of response, like paying attention, will assist
the actors in putting on a better performance.
8. Eighth, Suspension of Disbelief. Creating a work
of theatre requires a leap of imagination on the part
of everyone involved. The audience is expected to
suspend their disbelief and become immersed in the
world of the play.
9. Ninth, The Graciousness of the Audience. Putting
on a live theatre performance entails accepting the
possibility that something will go wrong. If a
performance does not go as planned, audiences
should be patient with performers and crew
members as they work out any problems.
10. Lastly, The Appreciation of the Audience.
During and especially at the end of a performance,
audiences should express their appreciation for the
show. Typically, this takes the form of applause or
standing ovation at the end of a performance.
Both an audience without a performer and a
performer without an audience appear to be
incomplete. Even if a performer is well prepared and
confident in his or her performance, he or she will
wish for the support of a genuine audience.
Sometimes performers only realize the value of
their performance after seeing how the audience
reacts to it. We must ensure that wherever we are
as an audience, we are always well behaved, take an
interest in, and encourage the performers.
Theatres must see audiences as collaborators.
Without an audience, there is no theatre.
Collaboration is at the heart of making theatre, and
theaters need to see and value the audience, as
collaborators, as people whose response,
ownership, and critique of what the entire theater
production does is critical to the evolution of their
art form.
III. CONCLUSION
Theatre, as discussed, is the staging of fictional or
non-fictional events masterfully crafted and woven
together by a playwright. We come to learn,
however, that it takes much more than just the
playwright’s skill in creating a story to make drama
and, in turn, theatre, come alive. From the
managerial duties of the theater director,
overseeing the production and providing general
instruction, to the strategic decision-making of the
producer, to the vision and execution of an
organized stage manager, many roles and the
skillsets required to assume each one come into play
which all culminate into the production.
who, across the centuries, have also developed a
more integral role to the production.
The relationship of the theatrical production and the
audience is one that is not meant to be
underestimated. Generally, the audience is
recognized as the recipient of a performance
provided by the production, though throughout
history, this passive role has been shown to be an
inconsistent and inaccurate representation and that
on several occasions, the audience has shown to
have been more involved in the flow and direction
of the performance they are watching. Along with
certain rules and etiquette that has been
established as the culture of theater and the arts
continues to grow, the audience’s less predictable
input adds a controlled level of dynamism and depth
to each individual performance, enhancing its
impact and meaning.

One of these key roles is that of an actor whose job

is to bring life to the characters in the story through
dramatics and on-stage performance. From its early
days in Ancient Greece, acting conventions and
tradition have come a long way to develop the art
into the form we can observe today. Learning
behaviors and nuances consistent with their
assigned characters and internalizing their
characters on a level that goes deeper and beyond
that of a performance are some of the newer
responsibilities that actors have had to assume over
the course of the craft’s millennia-long
development.

On top of these roles and responsibilities, actors

gradually had to acquire more and more skills to
keep up with the changing times, including the
ability to take direction and work with a team, the
ability to improvise lines and actions, and the ability
to work at unsocial hours. These skills, along with so
much more, define a meaningful modern theatrical
act, the performance witnessed by the audience,