High Rise Residential Building Ventilation in Cold Climates - A Review of Ventilation System Types and Their Impact On Measured Building Performance

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Received: 25 August 2022 Revised: 8 October 2022 Accepted: 10 October 2022
DOI: 10.1111/ina.13158
REVIEW
High-rise residential building ventilation in cold climates:

A review of ventilation system types and their impact on
measured building performance
Justin Berquist1,2 | Noah Cassidy3 | Marianne Touchie1,3 | William O'Brien4 |

Jamie Fine3
1
Department of Mechanical and Industrial
Engineering, University of Toronto, Abstract
Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Ventilation system performance in high-rise multi-unit residential buildings (MURBs)
2
Construction Research Centre, National
Research Council Canada, Ottawa,
has a significant impact on resident wellbeing. While the importance of ventilation is
Ontario, Canada well established, it is commonly overlooked since underperformance often goes unde-
3
Department of Civil and Mineral tected. This article presents a review and synthesis of ventilation system performance
Engineering, University of Toronto,
Toronto, Ontario, Canada in high-rise MURBs located in cold climates as it relates to the three pillars of sustain-
4
Department of Civil and Environmental ability: economic (capital and operational cost), social (airflow control, indoor envi-
Engineering, Carleton University, Ottawa,
ronmental quality, and occupant behavior and interactions), and ecological (energy
Ontario, Canada
and carbon). A meta-analysis revealed previous ventilation system designs generally
Correspondence
prioritized economic sustainability, specifically, capital cost. However, priorities have
Justin Berquist, Construction Research
Centre, National Research Council recently shifted toward social and ecological sustainability. While this shift is posi-
Canada, 1200 Montréal Road, Ottawa,
tive, there is insufficient empirical evidence showing which ventilation system most
ON K1A 0R6, Canada.
Email: justin.berquist@mail.utoronto.ca effectively supports it. The decentralized heat/energy recovery ventilator (HRV/ERV)
and justin.berquist@nrc-cnrc.gc.ca
system shows the potential to improve upon the social and ecological sustainability of
Funding information previous designs, such as the centralized pressurized corridor system, but the inter-
Natural Sciences and Engineering
connected nature of performance metrics can cause improvements to one to nega-
Research Council of Canada; RDH Building
Sciences; The Atmospheric Fund; Toronto tively impact others. Therefore, further research is required to enhance ventilation
Community Housing
system performance in cold climate, high-rise MURBs, and facilitate decision-making
while designing and retrofitting these systems.
KEYWORDS
affordability, indoor environment, multi-unit, residential, sustainability, ventilation
1 | I NTRO D U C TI O N portion of housing units in countries in the northern hemisphere

(e.g., 33% in Canada in 2018 3 and 63% in South Korea in 2020 4)
Ventilation system performance within high-rise multi-unit resi- and people spend a significant amount of time in residences (70%
dential buildings (MURBs) is paramount for resident wellbeing. in Canada5 and 62% in Korea 6). However, poor IAQ and airborne
Indoor air quality (IAQ) directly impacts occupant health, com- contaminant transmission between suites can arise within MURBs
fort, and productivity,1,2 which is especially important for high- due to the use of ineffective ventilation systems and a lack of inter-
rise MURBs since apartment buildings account for a substantial zonal air control.7
© 2022 National Research Council Canada and John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Reproduced with the permission of the Minister of Innovation, Science and Economic
Development.
Indoor Air. 2022;32:e13158. |

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2 of 24 BERQUIST et al.
Supplying ventilation in cold climates, such as the marine west

coast, humid continental, tundra, and ice cap climates (Köppen–
Practical Implications
Geiger climate classifications), is particularly challenging due to the
• The pressurized corridor ventilation system has the low-
cold weather's impact on building and system operation. Airflow
est associated capital and maintenance cost and, as a
control within buildings is impacted by stack and wind effects, which
8 result, is one of the most prevalent systems. However,
are typically more pronounced in cold climates. The reliability and
building owners should be cautioned when selecting
maintainability of mechanical ventilation systems can become more
this system type as its increased affordability appears to
challenging in cold climates due to the increased potential for equip-
come at the cost of a low-quality indoor environment as
ment performance degradation or failure, such as frosting within
9 it tends to under-deliver outdoor air to floors and suites.
HRVs/ERVs. Natural ventilation systems may be less viable in cold
In addition, there may be substantial energy and carbon
climates as occupants tend to operate these systems, such as win-
10 costs associated with this system as a result of thermally
dows, less during the winter, and tempering ventilation air in cold
conditioning outdoor air that is not delivered to suites as
climates has higher energy and financial costs associated with it due
8 intended.
to large temperature and humidity differentials.
• The ventilation system growing in popularity, the decen-
To our knowledge, no literature review exists on the current
tralized HRV/ERV system, has barriers associated with
state and in situ performance of ventilation systems in cold climate,
its economic sustainability (capital and maintenance
high-rise MURBs. Previous literature reviews have assessed dwell-
cost), but is likely a more socially sustainable system.
ing11 and bedroom12,13 ventilation in all types of residential buildings,
However, while it is likely an improvement over the
the application of various types of demand-controlled ventilation
pressurized corridor ventilation system, it may contain
(DCV) in all types of residential buildings,14 the integration of heat/
unidentified imperfections due to its limited applica-
enthalpy exchangers into all building types,15 freezing concerns in
tion and correspondingly, limited data availability. In
centralized heat/enthalpy exchangers in apartment buildings,16 and
addition, the ecological sustainability of this system is
the airborne transmission and dispersion mechanisms in high-rise
not well understood. While this system is likely to have
MURBs.17 However, these studies did not assess field data per-
low operational carbon emissions, the embodied carbon
taining to the performance of various ventilation system types.
could be much higher than the pressurized corridor sys-
Moreover, most studies did not focus on high-rise MURBs11–15 or
11–15,17 tem due to an increased amount of material/equipment.
cold climates. Therefore, reviewing the state of the art and in
situ performance of high-rise MURB ventilation system design and
operation in cold climates is an area that requires increased atten-
tion and is addressed in this article. interest, such as capital and operational cost, we augmented the
This review article complements a previous review that summa- findings from the meta-analysis through a series of interviews with
rized knowledge regarding inter-zonal airflow in MURBs18 and fills a HVAC industry professionals and thought leaders.
significant gap in the literature through a comprehensive literature
review, interviews with heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning
(HVAC) professionals and thought leaders, and by synthesizing the 2.1 | Literature search
current state of knowledge of high-rise MURB ventilation system
design and operation in cold climates. The article begins with an In July 2022, we conducted a literature search using Scopus and
overview of the methodology used for the literature review and Web of Science. The search included peer-reviewed English journal
interviews. Next, we synthesize the performance of ventilation articles and conference papers in the engineering, energy, computer
systems through a meta-analysis. The review article closes with rec- science, social sciences, immunology and microbiology, multidisci-
ommendations for future work and a description of a new frame- plinary, and environmental science disciplines (or similar) that con-
work for the “Design of MURB ventilation system studies,” which tained the search terms outlined in Table 1.
aims to increase the comparability of studies in this area by aligning Documents were selected based on meeting the inclusion crite-
measurement, analysis, and reporting methods for each identified ria listed below:
performance metric.
1. Field study criteria—Studies were included provided they con-
tained either analysis of field study data or a field-validated
2 | M E TH O D O LO G Y model.
2. Building height criteria—High-rise MURBs were considered to
We searched for scientific literature that assessed ventilation sys- be seven or more storeys, following the United States Census
tem performance in cold climate, high-rise MURBs through either Bureau designation.19
field studies or field-validated modeling studies. However, as the 3. Climate criteria—Cold climates were considered to be any climate
scientific literature did not address all the performance metrics of region found in Canada, as defined by the Köppen–Geiger climate
BERQUIST et al. |
3 of 24
TA B L E 1 Search terms used in Scopus

Boolean
and Web of Science
operator Search terms
apartment* OR condo* OR multi- family OR high- rise residential OR HRB*

OR multi*stor*y residential OR multi- unit residential OR MURB* OR
MRB* OR council hous* OR flat* OR social housing OR tenement* OR
tower*
AND ventilat* OR HVAC
AND NOT tropical OR hot OR humid OR subtropical OR Hong Kong OR Bangkok OR
Barcelona OR Singapore OR Mexico OR Central America OR South
America OR Africa OR Middle East OR Turkey OR Greece OR Australia
OR Thailand OR Mediterranean OR Malaysia OR Cuba OR Bahamas
classification system (marine west coast, humid continental, tun- 2.3 | Meta-analysis
dra, and ice cap climates).20
We performed quantitative and qualitative meta-analyses across the
If it was unclear whether an article fulfilled the inclusion crite- set of 32 field study and field-validated modeling papers. We then
ria, a follow-up email was sent to the corresponding author seeking augmented the meta-analyses through interviews with six industry
the required information. In the end, the review was informed by HVAC professionals/thought leaders by incorporating their insight
32 unique field study and field-validated modeling papers and seven on performance metrics that were not extensively covered in the
literature review articles. reviewed literature.
Nowadays, the development of sustainable solutions is at the
forefront of engineering. Therefore, we assessed the performance
2.2 | Interviews of ventilation systems based on the three pillars of sustainabil-
ity. The three pillars of sustainability (or sustainable development)
We identified six industry professionals/thought leaders in can be understood as the balance between maintaining economic
Canada for interviews, each of whom have a breadth of experi- growth (economic sustainability), supporting social progress (social
ence working with various HVAC systems in high-rise MURBs. 21–26 sustainability), and protecting the environment (ecological sustain-
Their experience ranged between 10 and 25 years and spanned ability). 27 In general terms, economic sustainability can be described
across most regions in Canada, providing them with design ex- as practices that support long-term economic growth, social sustain-
perience in the majority of climate zones studied in this review ability can be described as practices that support continued satis-
article. Moreover, multiple interviewees work for international faction of basic human needs, and ecological sustainability can be
organizations and, thus, have experience designing HVAC sys- described as practices that conserve/protect natural resources and
tems in high-rise MURBs outside of North America. The six indus- global ecosystems. 28
try professionals/thought leaders had experience working as an In this article, we describe the three pillars of sustainability in the
HVAC technician, HVAC engineer, and/or building operator and context of ventilation system performance using the performance
were drawn from previous partnerships or mutual contacts of the metrics encountered in the reviewed literature. Figure 1 shows how
Building Energy and Indoor Environment Lab at the University of we related the ventilation system performance metrics used in our
Toronto. meta-analysis to the three pillars of sustainability. Economic sus-
The University of Toronto Research Ethics Board approved tainability refers to the monetary and time investment required to
the interview procedures (protocol number 42031). We asked the own and operate ventilation systems (capital and operational cost);
participants both qualitative and quantitative questions related to social sustainability refers to the control of airflows, indoor envi-
HVAC systems and gathered information about the participant's ronmental quality (IEQ), and the resulting occupant behavior and
background, including how many MURBs and what types of sys- interactions; and ecological sustainability refers to the energy con-
tems they had experience working with or designing. We also sumption and carbon emissions of ventilation systems both pre- and
asked them whether they had noticed any trends during their ca- post-construction.
reer, especially toward or away from different types of systems or
strategies. Most of the questions concerned the metrics missing
from our meta-analysis of the academic literature, where we asked 3 | V E NTI L ATI O N S YS TE M
them to compare cost, complexity, noise, and other performance CO N FI G U R ATI O N S
and design variables for a series of ventilation systems. For more
details, the full interview procedure is included as supplementary Ventilation is the intentional supply of outdoor air to and removal of
material. indoor air from a space by mechanical (through electrical power) or
|
leads to a rooftop exhaust (Figure 2c). 21–26 Note that centralized

ventilation systems can incorporate HRV/ERV equipment to reduce
energy consumption, though designers must consider the static
pressure of the system when adding this to an existing system to
avoid any unintended negative consequences (e.g., reduced/insuffi-
cient delivery of ventilation to suites).
Decentralized ventilation systems rely on suite-based fans and
duct networks to supply and/or exhaust air from individual suites.
Decentralized supply systems rely on supply fans (SFs) to directly
deliver outdoor air to one specific suite (Figure 2D). Decentralized
kitchen and/or bathroom exhaust systems rely on exhaust fans to di-
rectly remove indoor air from one specific suite and can be com-
bined with centralized supply systems (Figure 2E). 21–26 Decentralized
HRV/ERV systems are commonly used to directly deliver outdoor
air to and remove indoor air from one specific suite while simulta-
neously recovering sensible/latent heat (Figure 2F). 21–26 Buildings
with in-suite outdoor air supply and exhaust also typically include a
centralized supply system to provide the corridors with outdoor air
F I G U R E 1 Venn diagram showing the relationship between the and for pressurization purposes. However, this air is not intended to
ventilation system performance metrics described in this article provide outdoor air for suites, and therefore, a lower central MAU
and the three pillars of sustainability
capacity is required.
Figure 3 is a flow chart of the various mechanical ventilation
natural means (by leveraging natural forces). 29 This section provides system types that are used within high-rise MURBs and the corre-
details on both mechanical and natural ventilation systems. Note sponding number of papers and buildings studying these systems in
that while mechanical and natural ventilation systems are discussed the literature. Centralized and decentralized bathroom/kitchen ex-
separately in this section, they can be implemented in combination haust systems are grouped together in this figure since distinguish-
or independently in high-rise MURBs. ing between the two was not possible on multiple occasions.
3.1 | Mechanical ventilation systems 3.2 | Natural ventilation systems
Mechanical ventilation systems can be categorized as centralized Natural ventilation systems have been in use for thousands of
and decentralized systems. Depending on their control or design years, but only more recently have modern high-rise buildings
(either alone or combined with another system), they can be catego- began shifting their designs toward leveraging these ventilation
rized into one of three approaches: (1) exhaust-only, (2) supply-only, approaches. 31,32
30
or (3) balanced. It is important to note that exhaust- and supply- Some systems, such as solar chimneys or wind catchers, enhance
only systems can be paired together; however, unless there is a natural ventilation effects through geometry or material choice.
supervisory control system that simultaneously controls the equip- However, these systems were seldomly covered in the reviewed
ment in each system, the combined ventilation system will typically literature. Instead, systems that open additional airflow pathways
remain unbalanced. Figure 2 shows a schematic representation of (operable windows, trickle vents, and gravity vents) were primarily
the six mechanical ventilation systems used within high-rise MURBs. found. Trickle vents are usually very small penetrations through an
Centralized ventilation systems can serve an entire building enclosure. They may or may not have a control mechanism with a
with one make-up air unit (MAU) or can use one MAU for each floor grille or door. Operable windows are usually much larger and are
or vertical riser to serve multiple suites; although the latter is less often an expectation in the building code in many locations. 26
21,22
common. Centralized pressurized corridor ventilation systems Gravity vents are penetrations through an enclosure that operate
are designed to positively pressurize each corridor so that outdoor through natural buoyancy of air. Gravity vents, trickle vents, and op-
air enters each suite through the undercut of the entrance door erable windows allow additional air into the interior, without imple-
(Figure 2A). 21–26 On the contrary, centralized direct-to-suite ducted menting elements that amplify natural forces.
supply systems directly supply outdoor air to corridors and suites Figure 4 is a flow chart of the various natural ventilation system
(Figure 2B). 21–26 Meanwhile, centralized kitchen and/or bathroom ex- types that are used within high-rise MURBs and the correspond-
haust systems rely on one or a few centralized exhaust fans (EFs) to ing number of papers and buildings studying these systems in the
remove the indoor air from each suite through a vertical shaft that literature.
BERQUIST et al. |
5 of 24
F I G U R E 2 Schematic representation
of the six mechanical ventilation systems
used within high-rise MURBs
4 | LO C ATI O N S S T U D I E D A N D is acceptable, the reader should refer to the corresponding standard.

CO R R E S P O N D I N G S TA N DA R DS In addition, Sekhar et al.12,13 provide the details of additional interna-
tional standards not covered in Table 2.
The case studies used in the 32 identified papers came from 16 dif-
ferent countries, shown in Figure 5. It is important to note that many
papers included multiple case studies, some from the same country 5 | M E TA- A N A LYS I S
but not the same region. Four papers, including papers from Finland,
the UK, and Lithuania, contributed to a higher case study count than This section provides quantitative and qualitative meta-analyses
number of reviewed papers as each paper contained multiple case across the set of 32 unique field study and field-validated mod-
studies. eling papers and six interviews with industry HVAC professionals/
South Korea and Canada were studied the most frequently (9 thought leaders. A summary table of all literature included in the
and 6 papers, respectively). Overall, most papers came from Europe, meta-analyses is available for viewing as supplementary mate-
and only a few came from both the United States (3) and China (1). rial. Unfortunately, in many cases, it was not possible to determine
The limited number of papers from the United States and China is whether the reported instances of poor ventilation system perfor-
likely a result of the strict climate zone restrictions put on the liter- mance (within the reviewed literature) were a result of poor design
ature review as most of the United States and China are in climate or poor installation/maintenance. As a result, the two concepts are
zones that do not fit within this paper's definition of “cold climate.” frequently combined when discussing the performance of the vari-
Ventilation standards and code requirements specify the re- ous ventilation systems.
quired amount of outdoor air delivery and indoor air removal to
suites and from corridors. Table 2 summarizes the outdoor air de-
livery and indoor air removal requirements for suites in the var- 5.1 | Economic sustainability
ious countries of the studies analyzed in this review article. Note
that intermittent source control is often implemented for indoor There is limited information in the literature related to the economic
air removal; however, many standards do allow for continuous ex- sustainability of ventilation systems. Figure 6 shows the number of
haust. For additional detail pertaining to these standards, such as studies that covered the performance metrics captured under the
whether demand-controlled ventilation (DCV) or natural ventilation economic sustainability pillar. In total, only five papers provided
|
F I G U R E 3 Frequency of high- rise MURB mechanical ventilation system types in the literature
F I G U R E 4 Frequency of high- rise

MURB natural ventilation system types in
the literature
F I G U R E 5 Number of papers for

each location where ventilation system
performance in cold climate, high-rise
MURBs was studied. Unless otherwise
noted, only one building from the
respective location was studied
numerical data on the capital and operational cost of ventilation sys- ERV was the most expensive, followed closely by decentralized
tems and one additional paper provided a relative comparison. As room HRV/ERV, and then decentralized exhaust with mechanically
a result, the meta-analysis in this section is largely augmented with regulated trickle vents. Bohac42 provided retrofit cost details for ex-
details provided by industry professionals/thought leaders. haust systems that demonstrated installing new bathroom exhausts
or multipoint exhaust systems were 2.6 times greater than making
modifications to the central exhaust system (e.g., duct cleaning, in-
5.1.1 | Capital cost stalling a constant air regulator at the inlet register of each duct, and
removing adjustable louvers).
The capital cost associated with ventilation systems is difficult to The interviews provided a clearer overview of the capital cost
deduce based on the literature due to limited information (2 papers), of ventilation systems. Since costs are so variable, any quantitative
variations in the systems assessed, and reporting style. Koiv41 listed discussion in absolute dollars would be of limited value. Instead, we
the relative capital cost of three systems: Decentralized suite HRV/ asked participants to rank the five mechanical ventilation systems
BERQUIST et al. |
7 of 24
TA B L E 2 MURB suite ventilation standards and code requirements for various cold climate countries
Country Standard Outdoor air delivery Indoor air removal

a 33
Canada NBC Part 9.32-2020 10 L/s (master bedroom) 16 to 24 L/s (1 bedroom suite)
5 L/s (all other habitable rooms) 18 to 28 L/s (2 bedroom suite)
22 to 32 L/s (3 bedroom suite)
50 L/s (kitchen)
25 L/s (bathroom)
United States of ASHRAE Std 0.15Afloor + 3.5(Nbr + 1) (suite) Removal rates as per Table 5-1 in Standard
America 62.2-201929 Afloor—total suite floor area 62.2–2019.
Nbr—number of bedrooms 50 L/s (enclosed kitchen)
South Korea KMOCT 2006- 11- 51234 0.7 h−1 (suite) –
35 −1
China GB 50736-2012 0.45–0.7 h (suite) depending on floor area 3 h−1 (enclosed kitchen)
3 h−1 (bathroom)
GB/T 18883-200236 8.33 L/s/person (suite) –
−1
Design manual for 1 h (kitchen) 3 h−1 (enclosed kitchen)
heating and air 1 h−1 (bedroom) 3 h−1 (bathroom)
conditioning, 200837
Russia GOST 30494- 200338 Unoccupied vs. occupied Idle vs. operational
0.2 h−1 vs. 1 h−1 (living room) 0.5 h−1 vs. 25 m3/h (bathroom)
0.2 h−1 vs. 1 h−1 (bedroom) 0.5 h−1 vs. 60 m3/h (kitchen, electric stove)
1 h−1 vs. 1 h−1 + 100 m3/h (kitchen, gas stove)
SP 60.13330-201639 Minimum rate— 0.35 h−1 –
Over 20 m2 floor area/person—30 m3/h
Under 20 m2 floor area/person—3 m3/h/m2
European Union EN 16798-1:201940 0.7 h−1 (suite) 28– 56 L/s (enclosed kitchen)
Statesb,c Category I 10 L/s/person (bedroom) 14– 215 L/s (bathroom)
EN 16798-1:201940 0.6 h−1 (suite) 20– 4 0 L/s (enclosed kitchen)
Category II 7 L/s/person (bedroom) 10– 155 L/s (bathroom)
EN 16798-1:201940 0.5 h−1 (suite) 14– 28 L/s (enclosed kitchen)
Category III 4 L/s/person (bedroom) 7– 10.55 L/s (bathroom)
EN 16798-1:201940 0.4 h−1 (suite) 10– 20 L/s (enclosed kitchen)
Category IV 5– 7.55 L/s (bathroom)
a
NBC Part 9.32-2020 outlines exhaust rates for the principal ventilation system based on the number of bedrooms in the suite; however, suites must
still have a kitchen and bathroom exhaust fan. If the exhaust of the principal ventilation system is located in the kitchen or bathroom, it must be able
to be switched to a higher exhaust rate.
b
EN 16798-1:2019 is a non-obligatory standard, meaning European Union States have the option to adopt their own ventilation requirements.
c
Categories within EN 16798-1:2019 are based on the vulnerability of occupants that are likely to reside within the building. Lower categorical
numbers are for more vulnerable groups and have higher requirements.
commonly found in North America in order of increasing cost. Five them to be as they require material and installation for bulk heads
of the industry professionals estimated these costs, 21–25 and, inter- to route the ductwork outside, a cost that is ultimately incurred by
estingly, each ranked the supply and exhaust systems in the same the architectural budget, which removes it from the mechanical cost
way. For supply systems, pressurized corridors are the least expen- assessment. 21
sive, followed by decentralized HRVs/ERVs, and then centralized
direct-to-suite ducted. 21–25 However, every participant noted the
reason decentralized HRVs/ERVs are so clearly less expensive than 5.1.2 | Operational cost
centralized direct-to-suite ducted is because of very recent changes
to the Ontario Building Code that require smoke and fire dampers in- The operational cost associated with ventilation systems is also dif-
stalled through more partitions; however, they believe decentralized ficult to deduce based on the literature due to limited information
HRVs/ERVs still would have been less expensive prior to the recent (four papers), variations in the systems assessed, and reporting style.
code changes. 21–25 For exhaust systems, centralized systems are Koiv41 listed relative capital and total cost of three systems, which
more expensive than decentralized systems because of through-slab indicated decentralized exhaust with mechanically regulated trickle
penetrations and installation. 21–25 However, decentralized systems vents is the costliest operationally, followed by decentralized room
may not be as inexpensive as the mechanical industry perceives and suite HRV/ERV, respectively. Wang43 demonstrated a novel wind
|
F I G U R E 6 Metrics used to assess the

economic sustainability of ventilation
systems in cold climate, high-rise MURBs
catcher, capable of self-regulating airflow rates to meet minimum it is difficult for occupants to tell whether their ventilation system is
requirements, can save heating costs by between 38 and 53%, de- working, unless they detect odors from other areas of the building.24,25
44
pending on the compared wind catcher. Zogla quantified the cost
of heating associated with various combinations of natural ventila-
tion systems (window operation and trickle vents) with an outdoor 5.2 | Social sustainability
air temperature of −5°C using measured air change rates. The most
pertinent calculations demonstrated that, due to increased outdoor Figure 7 shows the number of studies that covered the performance
air delivery rates, using a trickle vent would increase heating costs metrics captured under the social sustainability pillar. The social sus-
by 5 times compared to relying on just infiltration. Meanwhile, using tainability of ventilation system performance was frequently evalu-
an operable window would increase heating costs by 17 times com- ated; however, even though many papers covered this area, a detailed
45
pared to relying on just infiltration. Kim et al. found the average meta-analysis was only possible for two metrics: airflow rates and IAQ.
monthly cost of heating two MURBs employing natural ventilation The meta-analysis for the remaining metrics was augmented by details
via window operation differed by as much as 33%. This finding may provided by industry professionals/thought leaders.
provide evidence of the influence occupant behavior and interac-
tions with windows can have on heating costs; however, there are
other factors (e.g., differences in infiltration rates or heating setpoint 5.2.1 | Airflow control
temperatures) that may have also contributed to this difference.
The interviews focused primarily on the operational costs associ- The 17 papers evaluating airflow control did so by measuring the
ated with centralized vs. decentralized systems. They revealed main- airflow rates (15) and pressure differentials (5). As a result, a detailed
tenance costs are the most onerous aspect of the decentralized HRV/ meta-analysis was possible for the airflow rates associated with dif-
ERV system since repairs and monthly filter replacements are required ferent ventilation systems, but not for pressure differentials.
in every suite.21–26 Thus, if the building owner is responsible for the
equipment, this can become quite expensive.23 But, if residents are Airflow rates
responsible for the equipment, they may not ever change the filters— Figure 8 presents the results from the subset of studies that evalu-
surveys showed 39% of residents had never changed their HRV filter ated outdoor air delivery rates in suites47–53 and corridors,50,54 and
46
and 16% said the filter was too difficult to clean. To reduce the bur- Figure 9 presents the results from studies that evaluated outdoor air
den of replacing filters and repairing equipment, designs that increase delivery rates in living rooms53,55 and bedrooms.41,53,55,56
accessibility by making decentralized HRVs/ERVs accessible from the Figure 8 shows the minimum, maximum, and average ventilation
hallway are being incorporated.23 This is beneficial from a maintenance or combined ventilation and infiltration rates measured within suites
perspective since it allows access without disturbing residents, though and corridors. The reported ventilation rates from these studies
it can have energy implications as longer duct runs will generally be were converted and normalized to a volumetric air flow rate per floor
23
required to accommodate this design. Conversely, one of the big- area (L/s/m2) using the information available in each paper. Where
gest advantages to centralized systems is that they are much easier to ventilation rates were provided in air changes per hour (h−1) with-
maintain—there is one or a few large units located in a space that can out a specified ceiling height,48,49 a default ceiling height of 2.44 m
21–26
be serviced without requiring access to suites on a regular basis. (8 ft) was assumed. Horizontal dashed lines represent the outdoor
Another major topic of conversation in the interviews was the air delivery rates required per ASHRAE Standard 62.2-201929 for
alignment of cost to benefit, in other words ensuring those paying for the average-sized 2-bedroom suite floor area in Canada (80.5 m2
operation are the same as those receiving the benefit. Under certain [866 ft 2])57 with the design occupancy level (3 occupants), as well as
ownership structures (e.g., where the owner rents from a leasing com- with an assumed occupancy level that is common when considering
pany), the person receiving the benefit of these ventilation systems visitors and/or overcrowded homes (5 occupants).
(the occupant) is not the person paying or making decisions related to Figure 8 shows that pressurized corridor ventilation systems
the operation of that system.24,25 This type of ownership structure can are currently underperforming in Canada50,54 as the outdoor air
deter building owners from paying for improved ventilation,21 since delivered is typically insufficient to meet ASHRAE Standard 62.2
BERQUIST et al. |
9 of 24
F I G U R E 7 Metrics used to assess the

social sustainability of ventilation systems
in cold climate, high-rise MURBs
F I G U R E 8 Min, max, and average ventilation or ventilation and infiltration rate measurements (normalized based on suite/floor/building
area) in seven cold climate, high-rise MURB field-study papers. Markers represent average ventilation or ventilation and infiltration rate
measurements and error bars represent the corresponding minimum and maximum value (where applicable). Numbers below each reference
illustrate the number of suites, floors, and buildings the above data point(s) represent. † Study47 only provided a range (minimum/maximum),
not an average or individual values, of measured ventilation rates to the 17 suites in the building. In addition, neither the floor area nor a
city for the field study building was provided; however, the building is located in Northeastern United States, and one of the authors was
affiliated with an organization residing in Brooklyn, New York. As a result, an average apartment floor area for Brooklyn, New York,58 was
assumed. Although the resulting normalized air flow rate is well above ASHRAE Standard 62.2, this was deemed acceptable as the study
found the building was significantly oversupplying ventilation to the building relative to this standard.47
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F I G U R E 9 Min, max, and average ventilation or ventilation and infiltration rate measurements (h−1) in living rooms and bedrooms from
six cold climate, high-rise MURB field-study papers. Markers represent average ventilation or ventilation and infiltration rate measurements
and error bars represent the corresponding minimum and maximum value (where applicable). Numbers below each reference illustrate
the number of suites analyzed in the study, as well as the space evaluated in the study, denoted by an ‘x’. Note each paper studied just
one building. † Study55 used occupant- generated CO2 as a tracer gas for estimating the total outdoor air delivered to suites, a more
recent method that has yet to be validated. While this method is feasible, the results presented in this study showed the mechanically
delivered outdoor air measured via airflow sensors exceeded the total outdoor air delivery rate estimated by the occupant- generated CO2
concentrations, a result which is not possible but was not discussed in the paper. The misalignment between these two measurements could
be a result of uncertainties associated with the occupant- generated CO2 method (CO2 measurement errors, uncertain occupancy levels, etc.)
but could also be due to measurement errors associated with anemometers and using the average of three spot measurements to determine
mechanical ventilation rates. Regardless, the use of occupant- generated CO2 concentrations for estimating the total outdoor air delivery
rates within building spaces is a method that requires experimental studies dedicated to its validation.
requirements for all suites on the corresponding floor. The lowest bedrooms and living rooms. It was not possible to convert and nor-
floor did not receive sufficient outdoor air in any of the studied malize to a volumetric air flow rate per floor area (L/s/m2) as most of
50,54
buildings, regardless of the season. On the contrary, as a result these studies used tracer gas tests to measure the ventilation rates
of stack effect, the top floor generally received sufficient outdoor in air changes per hour (h−1) and did not provide sufficient informa-
54
air in the studied buildings with the most outdoor air delivered tion regarding room geometry (floor area and ceiling height).52,53,55
50,54
during the winter season, when stack effect is most prominent. Instead, Figure 9 displays horizontal dashed lines representing the
However, delivering sufficient outdoor air to floors does not guar- ventilation rates required per ASHRAE Standard 62.2 in air changes
antee sufficient outdoor air is delivered to each suite—tracer gas per hour (h−1) using the same suite size and occupancy level from
testing showed that suites on the same floor can experience signif- Figure 8. These values were converted from air flow rate (L/s [cfm])
icant variation in outdoor air delivery rates.50 In addition, corridor to air changes per hour (h−1) by assuming a standard ceiling height
blower door tests showed that only 20% of the leakage was in the of 2.44 m (8 ft) and the same assumed floor area. Also included is a
boundary between the corridor and the suite,50 which is problem- dashed horizontal line representing the ventilation rates required by
atic considering the design intent of pressurized corridor ventila- the Korean Building code34 (0.7 h−1) since the majority of bedroom
tion is to drive outdoor air from the corridor into the suite, not to and living room ventilation rate measurements were from buildings
other pathways such as stairwells or elevators shafts. Furthermore, in South Korea.
even if the ventilation system delivers outdoor air through the cor- Decentralized HRV/ERV systems are capable of performing as
ridor and into the suite, it may short-circuit through the bathroom per design targets. While Figure 9 shows this system type did not
exhaust or window. 21,24,25 For these reasons, there are concerns in meet the newest Korean building code requirements in some living
industry about whether pressurized corridor systems meet code re- rooms and bedrooms,53,55 at the time of these studies, they were
21,22,24,25
quirements. However, one industry expert did mention the compliant with the current code requirements of 0.5 h−1. Contrary
pressurized corridor system can manipulate the location of the neu- to this empirical evidence from the literature, an industry expert in-
tral pressure plane by adjusting air delivery rates to each floor, which dicated this system type might deliver inconsistent amounts of out-
is beneficial in buildings where stack effect is more prevalent. 26 door air and under ventilate because of stack and wind effects. 26
Figure 9 shows the minimum, maximum, and average ventila- Specifically, they noted that one-way dampers in decentralized
tion or combined ventilation and infiltration rates measured within HRV/ERV systems can end up being completely shut or opened
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11 of 24
(depending on the suite's location relative to the neutral pressure the corridor and adjacent suites, instead of across the building en-
plane) because of stack effect, and wind effect may overwhelm this velope. 50 As a result of poor pressure control, occupants can experi-
26
system if the corridor is not sufficiently pressurized. ence issues opening or closing elevator doors, suite doors, or front
The error bars in Figure 9 demonstrate how natural ventilation entrance doors. 24–26
via window operation can yield substantial variability in outdoor Difficulties associated with controlling pressure in high-rise
air delivery rates to suites.52,55 As mentioned in previous studies, MURBs are not limited to those employing pressurized corridor sys-
this variation can be attributed to the impact that wind effect and tems though. In a high-rise MURB employing a decentralized HRV/
window operation have on natural ventilation rates in high-rise ERV system, stack effect led to a pressure differential between the
MURBs,55 of which, the latter can vary drastically from country to elevator shaft and corridor of 60 Pa on the top floor and −10 Pa on
country or even suite to suite due to variations in occupant behav- the ground floor during winter,60 both of which can cause occupants
ior.49 In addition, depending on the level of suite airtightness, this to experience issues opening or closing elevator doors, 24–26 and, in
26
variation can also be attributed to stack effect. high-rise MURBs employing mechanical exhaust systems, depres-
Two studies not presented in Figure 8 and Figure 9 evaluated surization of the indoors relative to the outdoors could reach up to
the exhaust air flow rates through centralized exhaust systems −95 Pa,61 which, as mentioned earlier, will generally have negative
and demonstrated the challenges and importance of controlling consequences on energy, IEQ, and the building envelope in cold
airflow rates in centralized exhaust systems. One study showed climates due to infiltration. In addition, a validated model of a cen-
exhaust air flow rates through the centralized exhaust system var- tralized exhaust system showed the performance of kitchen range
ies depending on weather conditions (stack effect) and operation hoods vary as a result of differences in the location of maximum
of kitchen range hoods (number being used at one point in time). 59 static pressure.59 Furthermore, depending on the height of the
In addition, this study showed the exhaust air velocity (exhaust air exhaust shaft, weather conditions, and range hood operation, the
flow rate times cross-sectional area of exhaust shaft) varies with static pressure in the exhaust shaft may be slightly higher than in
height in centralized exhaust systems—the air velocity was ap- the branch exhaust flue inlet, leading to the potential for reverse
proximately 1 m/s at the bottom floor and 14 m/s at the top floor. flow to arise.59
However, this is likely to be because the exhaust shaft consisted
of a constant cross-sectional area. As a result of the exhaust shaft
consisting of a constant cross-sectional area, the authors rec- 5.2.2 | Indoor environmental quality
ommended using kitchen range hoods with higher total pressure
near the low-middle storeys relative to the middle-high storeys, Of the 22 papers that evaluated the IEQ associated with ventilation
but a similar result can also be attained by gradually increasing systems, 20 assessed IAQ, 14 reported thermal comfort or condi-
the cross-sectional area of the exhaust shaft with height. Another tions, and two assessed acoustic comfort or conditions. However,
study incorporated a novel wind catcher, with self-regulating a detailed meta-analysis was only possible for IAQ using measured
airflow speeds, into a centralized exhaust system.43 The study CO2 concentrations. A reduced analysis of thermal comfort and
showed the novel wind catcher was able to maintain required ex- conditions was required due to variations in the reported data. In
haust airflow rates without over-exhausting –280 m3/h compared addition, acoustic comfort and conditions had to be almost entirely
to a typical ventilator that exhausted ~400 m3/h. based on details provided by industry professionals due to the lim-
ited amount of literature in this area.
Pressure differentials
Pressurized corridor systems in high-rise MURBs can experience dif- Indoor air quality
ficulties controlling pressure between zones, leading other building It is well known that ventilation impacts IAQ, but to what extent
systems to malfunction. Wind effect can cause pressure differen- ventilation system type impacts IAQ and residents' perceptions of
tials between the corridor and adjacent suites to vary by as much as IAQ in cold climate, high-rise MURBs is not well understood. For ex-
30 Pa in a single day. 50 Meanwhile, stack effect can cause pressure ample, poor IAQ/ventilation system performance has been reported
differentials between the top floor's corridor and adjacent suites to by residents regardless of ventilation system type—residents in a
vary by as much as 20 Pa throughout the year50 and depressurize building relying on an exhaust-only system related odor transmission
the ground floor throughout the entire winter. 54 In general, depres- from cooking, bathrooms, and smoking to the ventilation system62
surization will have negative consequences on energy, IEQ, and and in two MURBs with a pressurized corridor ventilation system,
the building envelope in cold climates as unconditioned and unfil- residents' perceptions of poor IAQ coincided with low ventilation air
tered air enters the building through infiltration. However, depres- flow results.63 That being said, one study did make a direct compari-
surization is particularly concerning at the ground level of high-rise son of perceived IAQ when using two ventilation systems. In a build-
MURBs as contaminants from underground parking garages can ing with a decentralized HRV system, residents that did not operate
enter suites leading to poor IAQ and potential health concerns.50 their HRV, and instead used operable windows, reported higher
Furthermore, building envelope airtightness (or lack thereof) can satisfaction with the IAQ than those who primarily relied on their
cause up to 69% of stack effect to act across the boundary between HRV.46 Regardless, the limited findings in this area suggest further
|
studies are required to understand the impact ventilation system studied.41,44,46,48,51,52,55,56,66–68 Moreover, the one field study46 that
type has on residents' perceptions of IAQ. did not report values exceeding ASHRAE's only provided average
In addition to a few survey studies, the literature search revealed CO2 and, therefore, could have also had temporary levels that ex-
20 papers that measured several IAQ- related parameters: CO2 (11 ceeded this guideline. Notably, studies that measured CO2 concen-
papers), particulate matter (5), VOCs (4), TVOCs (1), radon (2), cul- trations throughout a suite52,56 always measured the maximum CO2
turable fungi and bioaerosols (1), and respiratory diseases (1). The concentration to be within the bedrooms, which typically exceeded
following subsections present and compare the results for these ASHRAE's guideline. This occurrence is likely a result of closed doors
IAQ-related parameters. and windows restricting airflow to and from the bedroom at night.
In addition, the highest CO2 concentrations were obtained in stud-
Carbon dioxide. Figure 10 shows the minimum, maximum, and ies conducted during the winter52,56 and during the shoulder sea-
average CO2 concentration measurements from the eleven papers son/winter,41,56 when occupants are less likely to use their operable
that evaluated the impact of ventilation on CO2 concentration. It also windows.
shows the season of the field study and type of ventilation system.
In addition, the figure displays ASHRAE's guideline for indoor Particulate matter (PM). The five publications 46–48,55,67 that measured
64
CO2 concentration, which is 700 ppm above atmospheric levels. PM generally did so for a range of particle sizes 47,48,55,67; however,
Ambient CO2 concentrations will vary depending on weather Brown and Gorgolewski46 only measured PM2.5 concentrations.
patterns and location of the field study; however, an atmospheric In addition to absolute PM concentrations, two studies reported
CO2 concentration of 412.5 ppm was assumed for all locations for PM indoor to outdoor (I/O) ratios.47,55 Differences in indoor PM
simplicity in this article as it represents the global average.65 concentrations and I/O ratios from system to system are largely
Figure 10 shows that acceptable indoor CO2 concentrations dependent on outdoor air conditions and occupant behavior and
are often not maintained in cold climate, high-rise MURBs. The interactions. For this reason, the following analysis and conclusions
CO2 concentration exceeded ASHRAE's guideline of 700 ppm are based on the average and median concentrations reported from
above atmospheric (1112.5 ppm) within the majority of the suites studies on buildings in the same location and time of year. Focusing
F I G U R E 1 0 Minimum, maximum, and average CO2 concentration measurements in the eleven obtained high-rise MURB field study
papers. Markers represent average CO2 concentration measurements, and error bars represent the corresponding minimum and maximum
value (where applicable). In addition, one dash for a particular study represents the maximum CO2 concentration within the corresponding
space. Unless otherwise labeled, natural ventilation was studied. Numbers below each reference illustrate the number of suites and buildings
analyzed in the study, as well as the space evaluated in the study, denoted by an ‘x’. † the location of the studied MURB in Ref. [68] was not
provided; instead, it was assumed the MURB was in the same country as the lead author's affiliation.
BERQUIST et al. |
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on the same location during the same time of year provides us with • more ventilation may be required to maintain similar IAQ levels in
confidence that outdoor air conditions are held relatively constant. energy-efficient high-rise MURB designs (airtight buildings) com-
Meanwhile, focusing on average and median concentrations from pared with less efficient, leakier MURBs;52,66,70
studies allows for the impact of outliers in occupant behavior and • high-rise MURBs can be susceptible to radon issues, even in suites
interactions (variations in cooking, cleaning, candle burning, and on upper floors;69
smoking habits, etc.) to be reduced. • ventilation system type may not have a significant effect on the
Buildings relying on mechanical ventilation typically had lower presence of indoor culturable bacteria within MURBs, but may
PM concentrations within suites than natural ventilation via window have a significant effect on indoor culturable fungi;71 and
3
operation. The median PM2.5 concentration was 18 μg/m in suites • infectious diseases, such as SARS-CoV-2, may be transmitted
relying on a centralized ventilation system compared to 25 μg/m3 in through central bathroom exhaust systems that rely on buoyancy
suites relying on natural ventilation and local exhaust.47 Moreover, to drive airflow;72 however, transmission could result for a mul-
the average of several spot measurements showed that PM2.5 con- titude of reasons, including cross-contamination driven by stack
centrations are lower in suites where occupants used their HRVs effect.
(3 μg/m3) compared to suites where occupants did not use their
HRVs and instead used their operable windows (14 μg/m3).46 It is im- In addition, it should be noted that carbon monoxide (CO) con-
portant to note that the aforementioned studies all dealt with concentrations were not measured in the reviewed literature. Therefore,
stant mechanical ventilation, as opposed to intermittent mechanical CO is a contaminant that also requires field measurements since one
ventilation through occupant on/off control. This is an important study mentioned it is a contaminant that can be problematic in build-
distinction to make as intermittent operation of mechanical ven- ings with parking garages.50
tilation was found to temporarily suspend particles leading to pe-
riods of increased PM concentrations.48 Intermittent operation of Thermal comfort and conditions
mechanical ventilation allows for particles to deposit onto surfaces While thermal comfort and conditions are generally addressed
(during periods with no operation). These particles can then be re- by separate heating and cooling systems, they are important con-
suspended into the air (during periods with operation). This can lead siderations when designing ventilation systems—both drafts and
to increased PM concentrations in indoor spaces compared to con- outdoor air humidity levels can impact thermal comfort and con-
tinuous mechanical ventilation as continuous mechanical ventilation ditions if not properly considered. 21 Residents in four buildings
allows for the room air to be constantly filtered (provided the venti- relying on pressurized corridor systems illustrate this point. 63,73
lation effectiveness in the space is sufficient). Generally, residents reported thermal discomfort in both heating
Buildings relying on natural ventilation via window operation and cooling seasons63,73— 48% and 53% in the heating and cool-
may experience higher PM I/O ratios than constant mechanical ven- ing season, respectively.73 The residents tended to report feeling
tilation. The median PM2.5 I/O ratio was 0.5 in suites relying on a cen- “too warm,”63,73 with the residents in two buildings speculating it
tralized direct-to-suite ducted ventilation system compared to ~1.4 was caused by very warm air entering their suites from the corri-
in suites relying on natural ventilation and local exhaust.47 Moreover, dor73—an effect that is largely driven by the pressurized corridor
the average PM2.5 I/O ratios in suites relying on decentralized HRV/ system. Furthermore, many residents noted their thermal discom-
ERV systems and decentralized supply systems with trickle vents for fort during the heating (66%) and cooling (32%) season was a re-
the exhaust were 0.58 and 0.5, respectively, compared to 0.61 in sult of dry air, which may have been a result of not humidifying the
suites relying entirely on natural ventilation.55 outdoor air supply at the central MAU.73 Another case of a lack
of humidification potentially causing discomfort was by a resident
Other indoor contaminants. It is not possible to make definitive relying on natural ventilation via a trickle vent and operable win-
conclusions regarding the impact of ventilation system types on dows, who complained about a sore throat (a symptom related to
other indoor contaminants due to the limited number of field dry air).44
studies that evaluated them: VOCs (4 papers), TVOCs (1), radon Thirteen studies reported indoor thermal conditions (relative
(2), culturable fungi and bioaerosols (1), and infectious diseases humidity and temperature [RH&T]), of which nine evaluated natural
(1). Further research is required before drawing conclusions on the ventilation systems 41,44,46,49,51,52,55,56,66,74 and eight evaluated me-
prevalence of these contaminants within high-rise MURBs and the chanical ventilation systems.41,46,48,52,53,55,66,73,74 As expected, the
ability of ventilation system types to maintain acceptable indoor range of thermal conditions for cold climate, high-rise MURBs em-
concentrations. That being said, these studies did show that: ploying natural ventilation systems appeared to be larger than those
employing mechanical ventilation systems. There is, however, one
• decentralized HRVs/ERVs may be a viable option for reducing in- important aspect to note regarding the pressurized corridor ventila-
door contaminants within high-rise MURBs;46,53,69 tion system. Relative humidity levels decreased with an increase in
• natural ventilation via window operation may be a viable option floor level (lower floor average of 32 %RH and upper floor average
for reducing indoor contaminants, such as radon, within high-rise of 28 %RH), which was hypothesized to be a result of delivering less
MURBs;69 dry outdoor air to the lower floors.73
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Acoustic comfort and conditions behavior and occupant perceptions of IAQ. Brown and Gorgolewski
Only two studies assessed acoustic comfort or acoustic condi- described how residents' perceptions shape HVAC interactions.46
tions in the context of ventilation systems in cold climate, high-rise For example, they found HRV operation did improve IAQ, but those
MURBs.46,74 However, this is not because they are unrelated or who used a window instead of an HRV were more satisfied with their
unimportant. In fact, acoustic comfort is an important topic that is IAQ. They attributed this dissonance to the sentiment they heard
growing in popularity within industry. 22 Furthermore, 39% of resi- from many occupants—that window air is “fresher” than HRV air.
dents in one field study building were dissatisfied with the noise However, this reported satisfaction with the outdoor air does not
generated by HVAC equipment.46 necessarily correlate with improved IAQ.
MURBs employing central ventilation systems are less likely to Control seems to be an important factor for occupants. One
encounter acoustic comfort complaints since the equipment is not study discussing centralized ventilation strategies noted that oc-
in the suite. 24 However, pressurized corridor ventilation systems can cupants were frustrated they could not control their suite ventila-
cause whistling in the ductwork if the airflow rate is too high. 26 In tion and directly linked control to greater occupant satisfaction. 54
addition, centralized rooftop fans caused occupants on top floors When occupants do not have enough control of their environment,
to complain about noise transfer to their suite25 and led occupants they seek alternative means to control their thermal comfort. For
to close their windows at night in one building (in addition to noise example, 25% of residents opted to leave the corridor door open
from people and transportation).74 Still, acoustic comfort issues are at least once a day to allow more cool air to enter the suite and
more common when mechanical equipment is located in the suite. 14% continued this behavior in the winter.73 Others chose to use
Bathroom exhaust fans were found to generate between 5 and fans to control their comfort: 33% used portable fans in the sum-
20 dB in two buildings,46 which represent marginal (5–10 dB) and mer and 12% in the winter, and 11% used ceiling fans in the sum-
75
objectionable (>10 dB) noise levels to the average occupant. In mer.73 Occupants may also choose more drastic options to achieve
addition, residents may stop using their HRV/ERV because of noise thermal or acoustic comfort—for example, 27% of the residents
generation—27% of respondents that disabled their HRV did so be- disconnected their HRV exhaust fan from the bathroom due to
cause of noise.46 uncomfortable noise levels.46
Since centralized systems cannot be turned off by occupants, a
benefit is their constant operation. However, centralized systems
5.2.3 | Occupant behavior and interaction cannot be easily controlled to meet the needs of residents at the
suite level. Conversely, decentralized systems can be turned off by
Occupant behavior is one of the biggest variables in HVAC design. occupants, but can also be used to meet the needs of residents at
Occupants are unpredictable and always find creative ways to use the suite level. For example, more ventilation may be required during
equipment incorrectly. 23 Many papers found in the literature review periods when combustion appliances or candles/incense are in use
examined the relationship and interactions people have with ventila- or cooking or smoking is occurring, which centralized systems can-
tion systems (eight papers). The majority of papers assessed window not easily accommodate for.
operation (seven papers), but two papers also discussed HRV opera-
tion, and one paper mentioned auxiliary devices residents used to
control their indoor environment. 5.3 | Ecological sustainability
Occupants operate their windows throughout the year to
control various aspects of IEQ, such as noise, insects, and tem- Figure 11 shows the number of studies that covered the perfor-
perature74 and IAQ.46 During the summer, many occupants will mance metrics captured under the ecological sustainability pillar. In
use their windows at least once or twice during the day45,52,63,73 terms of the ecological sustainability of ventilation systems, previ-
and also use their windows at nighttime. 52 Meanwhile, during the ous research focused on energy consumption (seven papers) and
winter, occupants will continue to use their windows for many operational carbon emissions (1 paper).
of the same reasons, albeit, to a lesser extent than during the
summer.49,63,73
Conversely, occupants commonly limit HRV/ERV opera- 5.3.1 | Energy consumption
tion—11.4% of participating residents preferred not to use them,
30.7% used them while cooking, and 21.9% while dining53—or fully The seven papers that assessed the energy consumption associated
disconnect them in favor of acoustic or thermal comfort.46 This with ventilation systems examined centralized pressurized corridor
reported reluctance of occupants to use HRVs/ERVs is worry- systems, decentralized HRVs/ERVs, and natural ventilation via win-
ing, especially considering the growing prevalence of HRVs/ERVs dow operation. One study used airflow measurements to analyti-
according to the interviews with industry professionals/thought cally assess the energy required to temper −5°C outdoor air supplied
leaders. through natural means.44 Two studies collected sub-metering data
While IAQ may be expected to influence occupant's behav- for an entire year to assess suite heating, cooling, and electricity
ior, only one study discussed the relationship between occupant requirements—one studied two high-rise MURBs employing natural
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F I G U R E 1 1 Metrics used to assess

the ecological sustainability of ventilation
systems in cold climate, high-rise MURBs
ventilation via window operation45 and the other studied three high- the centralized system, thereby reducing the energy required to
rise MURBs employing decentralized HRVs/ERVs.46 The remain- thermally condition the outdoor air. In addition, study76 did not re-
ing studies are based on annual simulations that were validated port cooling energy consumption because the study focused on a
either with utility bills76 or a short-term (up to a few months) field MURB located in British Columbia, a province in Canada that typ-
study.53,56,77 It is important to note, however, that while one study56 ically does not incorporate air-conditioning in buildings. However,
reported their model was in agreement with measured results, it was due to recent heatwaves, building practices are changing to in-
done in a very limited manner and was therefore, excluded from this corporate cooling systems in this province. Therefore, this study
analysis. should be expanded to assess the cooling energy requirements of
Limited conclusions can be made regarding the energy consump- the studied ventilation systems.
tion associated with ventilation systems due to the limited number Decentralized HRVs/ERVs are likely to increase the electrical en-
of studies and variability in reported information. While studies gen- ergy required to distribute outdoor air compared to the centralized
erally used space heating and cooling energy consumption as a proxy pressurized corridor system. An increase in air distribution energy is
for assessing the energy ventilation systems require to thermally expected because buildings relying on decentralized HRVs/ERVs for
condition outdoor air, one study76 evaluated the energy required to delivering outdoor air to suites will still require a central system to
heat outdoor air at the MAU. In addition, just two studies evaluated deliver outdoor air to and pressurize the corridors, though further
the energy required to distribute outdoor air—one through simu- studies are required to support this hypothesis. One study found
lations76 and the other analytically.46 That being said, the heating, air distribution energy would increase from 2.2 to 5.3 kWh/m2 by
cooling, and fan energy consumption of decentralized HRVs/ERVs transitioning from the pressurized corridor system to the decen-
can be assessed relative to natural ventilation via window operation tralized HRV/ERV system.76 However, another study46 reported air
and pressurized corridor ventilation. distribution energy for the decentralized HRV/ERV system that was
Whether decentralized HRVs/ERVs result in an increase or de- substantially less (1.8 vs. 5.3 kWh/m2). That being said, in study46
crease in heating/cooling depends on whether outdoor air deliv- the electricity requirement to operate the HRVs was analytically cal-
ery rates change. When residents that infrequently operated their culated and did not include a similar calculation for the centralized
windows (on average 20 minutes per day) transitioned to HRVs, pressurized corridor system. As a result, this analytical calculation
the space heating and cooling energy consumption increased from is an underestimation of the air distribution energy required for the
23.0 to 26.2 and 12.6 to 16.5 kWh/m2 , respectively, due to in- entire ventilation system, a limitation that was acknowledged by the
creased outdoor air delivery.46 Conversely, when outdoor air deliv- authors.
ery rates remained at similar levels, HRVs/ERVs decreased energy
consumption due to the heat exchange process. Transitioning
from natural ventilation via window operation to a decentralized 5.3.2 | Carbon emissions
HRV/ERV system decreased space heating and cooling energy
consumption from 53.3 to 48.3 and 17.1 to 15.3 kWh/m2 , respec- Some of the industry professionals/thought leaders interviewed
tively, in one MURB, and from 47.6 to 43.7 and 17.1 to 15.3 kWh/ noted that building owners are prioritizing carbon emission reduc-
m2 , respectively, in another. 53,77 These studies also explored the tions, 21,23,24 both in new construction24 and retrofits. 23 However,
energy savings potential of decentralized HRVs/ERVs further by only one study evaluated the operational carbon emissions associ-
simulating various operational scheduling strategies; however, we ated with ventilation systems.76 Using calibrated models, this study
have excluded these results from this discussion as they are not showed that transitioning from a centralized pressurized corridor
comparable to the other studies. Transitioning from a centralized system to a compartmentalized decentralized HRV/ERV system
pressurized corridor system to a decentralized HRV/ERV system reduced the carbon emissions associated with MAU natural gas by
decreased space heating energy consumption from 215.2 to 110.5 87%.76 This was a result of reducing the amount of outdoor air re-
2 76
kWh/m . This study showed substantial energy savings asso- quired to pressurize the corridor. The load for conditioning the out-
ciated with this transition; however, it is important to note that door air delivered to suites (and corresponding emissions) is then
alternatively, a heat/enthalpy exchanger can be retrofitted to transferred to electric baseboards.
|
5.4 | Synthesis of ventilation system performance needs to be developed to track the outdoor air delivered from the
corridor supply ducts to the suites.
Given the distribution of literature related to each ventilation system
type, a synthesis of performance was only possible for the central- Decentralized HRV/ERV systems
ized pressurized corridor system, decentralized HRV/ERV system, With the growing popularity of decentralized HRV/ERV systems,
and natural ventilation via operable windows. Table 3 synthesizes there is an increased need to better understand and improve per-
the performance of these three ventilation systems in cold climate, formance. While there are several studies (10) assessing HRV/ERV
high-rise MURBs across the three pillars of sustainability. performance, there are very few studies examining the effects of
stack and wind on this system type. Studies have shown the pressur-
ized corridor system is susceptible to the effects of stack and wind,
6 | D I S CU S S I O N but there is no evidence to support whether decentralized HRV/ERV
systems are better at managing stack and wind effects. Specifically,
Analysis of the literature and interviews provides the basis for two an industry expert suggested studies are needed to determine what
discussion points: the identification of research gaps and recom- level of corridor pressurization is required when using decentralized
mended future field study work and an outline of a newly developed HRVs/ERVs to ensure they do not get overwhelmed by stack and
framework for the “Design of MURB ventilation system perfor- wind effects. 26 Additionally, studies are needed to determine what
mance studies”. level of corridor pressurization is required when using decentral-
ized HRVs/ERVs to reduce odor/contaminant transmission. 21 While
there are existing rules of thumbs related to these requirements,
6.1 | Research gaps these were derived based on previous suite door air leakages, and
modern buildings employing decentralized HRVs/ERVs are often ac-
Based on this review, it is clear future field study research is required companied by more airtight, weather-stripped doors. 21
to support the development of energy and airflow models and en-
hance ventilation system performance in cold climate, high-rise Centralized and decentralized exhaust systems
MURBs. There is limited field study research in this area (32) with Further research is required to understand and improve the perfor-
few used to calibrate/validate energy and airflow simulation models mance of centralized and decentralized exhaust systems. Field stud-
(5). This section presents research gaps specific to each ventilation ies found that high PM mass concentrations arise during cooking
system, as well as general ventilation system research gaps as they events,47,67 suggesting kitchen exhaust systems are underperform-
relate to specific performance metrics. ing. In fact, one of the industry experts noted centralized constant
flow kitchen exhaust systems do not make sense since they are
managing a point source but the alternative approach, intermittent
6.1.1 | Ventilation system- specific research gaps exhaust, is quite difficult to successfully design. 25 Therefore, future
research is required to assess the performance of kitchen exhaust
Research gaps pertaining specifically to centralized pressurized cor- systems and improve their performance in practice.
ridor, decentralized HRV/ERV, and centralized and decentralized In addition, with the recent rise of concerns related to infectious
exhaust systems are the focus of this subsection. The centralized disease transmission, there is an increased need to understand the
direct-to-suite ducted and various natural ventilation systems were various connections between suites. A calibrated model showed re-
infrequently evaluated in the literature and therefore require fur- verse flow can occur in central exhaust systems depending on the
ther field studies to assess their performance across all performance height of the exhaust shaft, weather conditions, and range hood op-
metrics. eration.59 Furthermore, the potential for reverse flow within central-
ized exhaust systems in MURBs has been hypothesized to result in
Pressurized corridor system the transmission of viruses between occupants in different suites.72
There is a need to better understand how much outdoor air the That being said, future field studies should measure the frequency
pressurized corridor system needs to supply to each floor. While of reverse flow events in centralized exhaust systems to discern
recommendations and guidelines do exist, industry experts have whether transmission is more likely to occur as a result of reverse
found there is a lot of variability in designed outdoor air delivery flow through the central exhaust system or cross-contamination
rates—ranging from 30 to 100 cfm per door. 21,25 Part of this variabil- through the separating partition.
ity can be attributed to the uncertainty in the air transfer between
the corridor and suite, which directly impacts the effectiveness of
this ventilation system type. Specifically, testing is required in mod- 6.1.2 | Performance metric- specific research gaps
ern buildings to determine what rule of thumb is most appropriate
in buildings abiding by recent fire code changes related to the gap Research gaps related to specific performance metrics are outlined
around suite doors. 21 To precisely quantify these airflow rates, a in this subsection and are applicable to all ventilation systems cov-
tracer gas methodology that can be deployed in occupied buildings ered in this review.
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TA B L E 3 Synthesis of ventilation system performance in cold climate, high- rise MURBs for three systems with sufficient coverage in the
literature
Ventilation system Economic sustainability Social sustainability Ecological sustainability
Centralized • Lowest capital cost of • Commonly under-delivers the required • Unnecessarily consumes energy and
pressurized mechanical systems. 21–25 amount of outdoor air and provides associated carbon to distribute and
corridor • One of the cheapest inconsistent amounts of outdoor air temper outdoor air that never serves
and easiest systems to from floor to floor and suite to suite its purpose. For example, outdoor air
maintain. 21–25 (when on the same floor). 50,54 intended for suites commonly exits the
• IEQ tends to suffer—reports of poor corridor through other airflow paths,
IAQ,63 thermal discomfort,73 and such as the stairwell and elevator
acoustic discomfort, 26 which were all shaft. 50
related to outdoor air delivery or lack
thereof.
• Occupant behaviors and interactions
with other building components add to
the variability of outdoor air delivery
since suites are coupled together
through the corridor. 50
Decentralized HRV/ • Highest capital cost since • Can deliver the required amount of • Of the mechanical systems, likely
ERV it requires more equipment outdoor air53,55; however, this system has the lowest energy consumption
and labor to install. 21–25 may deliver inconsistent amounts of and carbon emissions per unit of
• Highest operating costs outdoor air if stack and wind effects delivered outdoor air but may not have
since it is challenging to are not sufficiently considered. 26 the lowest in absolute terms—total
repair and maintain. 21–25 • Perceived IAQ and acoustic discomfort energy is generally reduced by this
may cause residents to disconnect system, 53,76 with the exception being
their HRV/ERV and rely on window when substantially more outdoor air is
operation instead.46 Thermal delivered to suites.46
discomfort caused by improper control
of supply air temperature during the
winter could lead to similar issues;
but was not reported in the reviewed
literature.
• Suite compartmentalization will
improve system performance26 and
reduce the impact occupant behavior
and interactions in one suite have on
system performance in other suites.46
Natural ventilation • Minimal to no additional • Substantial variability in outdoor • No energy consumption or carbon
via window capital cost since operable air delivery rates,44,49,52,55 which emissions associated with delivering
operation windows are, in many increases if suites are not decoupled outdoor air.
countries, a requirement in from the rest of the building. 50 • Potentially substantial energy and
MURBs. • Substantial variability in CO2 carbon required to thermally condition
• Minimal to no additional concentrations,44,52,67,68 PM the delivered outdoor air, depending on
operating cost since window concentrations, 55 and RH&T. 52 operation and season.
maintenance is a pre-existing • Residents are generally more satisfied
cost. with suite IAQ when operating their
windows as opposed to relying on
mechanical ventilation;46 however,
acoustic discomfort from outdoor
sources can deter residents from using
their window(s).74
Economic sustainability Social sustainability

Capital and operational costs are almost entirely missing from the Airflow control. While some national codes require the delivery of
academic literature; however, industry professionals know and use outdoor air to all occupiable rooms within suites, many standards do
this information to make or verify decisions or choose between al- not. Studies reporting CO2 concentrations in bedrooms showed the
ternatives. Therefore, we recommend further work to integrate importance of ensuring sufficient outdoor air delivery to all spaces
industry perspectives into the academic literature, through inter- as CO2 concentrations oftentimes exceed recommended guidelines.
views, surveys, and quantitative data collection. Therefore, ventilation standards, such as ASHRAE 62.2, should
|
consider adaptations that ensure sufficient delivery of outdoor air undetectable pollutants arise. Further research is needed to de-
to all rooms within suites, rather than simply requiring an outdoor air termine whether occupants use folk logic to control pollutant con-
delivery rate for the entire suite. centrations. For example, if occupants open their window because
the air “feels” more polluted due to some internal experience-
Indoor environmental quality. The impact of ventilation systems based logic. Occupants do not follow the technical guidelines that
on IEQ is an area that requires further research. Ventilation has a ventilation systems are designed to meet, instead reacting to a
direct impact on IAQ, yet there is insufficient evidence showing combination of temperature, noise, insects, the “freshness” of air,
which ventilation system type is most beneficial when considering and other stimuli.74 Further research understanding the reasoning
changing impacts and magnitudes of stack and wind effects and the behind these behaviors will be valuable for successful design of
potential for cross-contamination. The reviewed field studies on ventilation systems. In addition, providing feedback/insights to
CO2 concentrations were only conducted during 1 or 2 seasons and occupants based on the findings from research studies can help
did not capture the annual variation of indoor CO2 concentrations. occupants make informed decisions, thereby improving the opera-
Since it is difficult to make intercomparisons between seasons from tion of ventilation systems.
different field study buildings of various locations, long-term field
studies covering all seasons are recommended. In addition, studies Ecological sustainability
reporting CO2 concentrations primarily evaluated natural ventilation Detailed field studies measuring both the thermal and electrical en-
systems, with just four studies on mechanical ventilation systems. ergy associated with all ventilation system types are required to de-
Therefore, more field studies should be conducted to assess the termine their impact on operational carbon emissions. Furthermore,
impact of mechanical ventilation systems on CO2 concentrations. the typical embodied carbon emissions associated with designing
If long-term field studies are not possible, focus should be given and installing/retrofitting ventilation systems need to be better un-
to the wintertime, when the use of natural ventilation via window derstood and considered during the decision-making process.
operation is less desirable.
There are also a limited number of studies evaluating the impact
of ventilation systems on PM concentrations and distributions. Given 6.2 | Design of MURB ventilation system studies
the adverse health effects PM2.5 can have on humans,78 additional
field studies should be conducted within this area to determine the Despite the availability of academic literature for certain topics (e.g.,
most effective way to design and operate ventilation supply and ex- airflow control and IAQ), the conclusions we could draw by synthe-
haust systems to limit PM mass concentrations. sizing the literature were limited by inconsistencies in the reported
In addition, ventilation can have a direct impact on thermal and data. Comparability is exceptionally important when studying ven-
acoustic conditions. While this impact is unintentional, it can have tilation in high-rise MURBs because long-term side-by-side meas-
negative consequences on resident comfort and, therefore, needs urements are an extremely complex and costly endeavor. Therefore,
to be studied further. Only two studies evaluated acoustic comfort using examples of where studies lacked comparability, we propose a
or noise levels related to ventilation systems and while eleven stud- new data collection and reporting framework that is applicable to all
ies reported RH&T, these were generally complementary measure- MURB ventilation system studies and aims to increase the compa-
ments with only three providing insights into the associated thermal rability of studies in this area by aligning measurement, analysis, and
comfort. reporting methods for each identified performance metric.
Occupant behavior and interactions. There are large research gaps

in predicting occupant behavior. In most cases, the prediction of 6.2.1 | Principles of framework
occupant behavior is too difficult and inaccurate, causing industry
professionals to ignore occupant behavior entirely. 24,25 That We have derived three principles we believe are key to the design of
being said, there is historical research from parallel fields that MURB ventilation system studies, all with the aim of ensuring data
may be useful in understanding why occupants undertake certain and results are as context independent as possible.
ventilation-related actions.
Brown and Gorgolweski 46 refer to the concept of “folk logic” 1. Follow methods used in other studies or described in
when talking about occupants' decision to use a window or an HRV. standards
Folk logic is a concept presented by Kempton79 to describe two
mental models used by occupants for thermostat control—useful A good practice to promote comparability is to follow the meth-
theories based on lived experiences that reflect the actual behav- ods used in previous studies or methods that have significant histor-
ior closely enough for an occupant to make rational decisions. Folk ical precedent, such as those from existing standards. Mirroring the
logic may be necessary for occupants to successfully manage IAQ measurement methodology used in previous papers is not guaran-
since occupants generally only detect IAQ issues based on odors teed to produce a comparable analysis, as that depends on the way
and as a result, may not operate their ventilation systems when the results are reported; however, it should increase the likelihood
BERQUIST et al. |
19 of 24
of easier comparisons. For example, the location of sensors within applicable. Table 4 provides a description of the information that
suites has an impact on the comparability of studies since airflow should be reported in all ventilation system performance studies,
patterns and occupant behavior within specific rooms of a suite vary. such as details of the ventilation system type, building, climate,
Specifically, studies measuring the CO2 concentration in bedrooms and occupants. Researchers can obtain the details presented in
cannot be compared to studies measuring CO2 concentration in liv- Table 4 using as-built drawings or building surveys (ventilation sys-
ing rooms as occupancy and bedroom door and window operation tem type and building details), monitoring (climate and occupant
create substantially different indoor environments. Ideally, studies details), and occupant surveys (occupant details). Table 5 provides
would take IEQ measurements in multiple locations as they are best a description of the information that should be reported depend-
suited to evaluate the efficacy of a ventilation system in the entire ing on the performance metric used to assess ventilation sys-
suite; however, this is not common due to budget limitations. If bud- tem performance. Researchers can obtain the details presented
get limitations are present, researchers should abide by the second in Table 5 through monitoring campaigns (all details), utility bills
principle and clearly indicate sensor location and position to allow (operational cost and energy consumption), and occupant surveys
sufficient comparisons and conclusions to be drawn between studies. (occupant behavior and interactions). The information presented
in Tables 4 and 5 was derived based on common inconsistencies
2. Provide as much detail about assumptions and local context and missing data that particularly impacted the ability to compare
as possible the studies reviewed in this article.
Providing more detail about the methodology and assumptions

used in the study means that future readers can decontextualize 7 | CO N C LU S I O N
results afterward. For example, providing the floor area and ceiling
height of a studied suite would allow a reader to calculate a volumet- This review article synthesized the current state of knowledge of
ric flow rate from air changes per hour and vice versa. This example high-rise MURB ventilation system design and operation in cold
is particularly important in the context of comparing ventilation sys- climates through a review of 32 unique field and field-validated
tem performance since, depending on the method used to measure modeling studies as well as six interviews with industry HVAC pro-
airflow rates (airflow sensor vs. tracer gas measurements), the units fessionals/thought leaders. We assessed the overall performance
of the results and the parameter obtained will generally vary (L/s vs. of ventilation systems in terms of the three pillars of sustainability:
h−1), making their direct comparison challenging, and unfortunately, economic, social, and ecological. In the context of ventilation sys-
in the case of measuring airflow rates, aligning the measurement tem performance, we described economic sustainability as the mon-
method (Principle 1) may not always be possible since tracer gas etary and time investment required to own and operate ventilation
decay tests are necessary for assessing outdoor air delivery rates in systems (capital and operational cost); social sustainability as the
suites using windows for natural ventilation, for example. control of airflows, indoor environmental quality, and the resulting
occupant behavior and interactions; and ecological sustainability as
3. Favor fundamental units over combined metrics the energy consumption and carbon emissions of ventilation sys-
tems both pre- and post-construction.
Metrics that combine multiple measurements into one number, This review assessed the performance of both mechanical and
while useful for analysis, are less comparable as they combine sev- natural ventilation systems; however, due to the available data, a
eral assumptions into one context-specific measurement. A good complete synthesis of results was only possible for three ventila-
rule of thumb is the closer to base units, the more comparable the tion systems: centralized pressurized corridor, decentralized HRV/
results will be. For example, air changes per hour (ACH) is used to ERV, and operable windows. The centralized pressurized corridor
express the amount of air that enters and exits a room. This value system is the most popular ventilation system due to its affordabil-
3
combines airflow rate (e.g., in m /h) and normalizes it to the volume ity (economic sustainability); however, it has its limitations when it
of the room (e.g., in m3), and is reported as one number (with units of comes to promoting a healthy indoor environment for occupants
h−1). A study designed for comparability should report the volumet- (social sustainability). Meanwhile, the decentralized HRV/ERV sys-
ric flow rate and the volume of the room separately. This will ensure tem is becoming a more popular selection despite its higher cost
future studies understand the conditions under which the airflow due to the expectation that it has a positive influence both so-
rate measurement was taken, while providing enough information cially and ecologically. Finally, operable windows are valuable to
for researchers to recombine them into ACH should they so desire. incorporate into high-rise MURB design but should act as a com-
plementary system since the resulting economic sustainability (op-
erational costs), social sustainability, and ecological sustainability
6.2.2 | Application of framework is highly dependent on how/when they are used and the outdoor
environment.
Future studies assessing ventilation system performance in Recommendations for future work related to specific ventilation
MURBs should apply the three principles of this framework, where systems were conceptualized through this literature review:
|
TA B L E 4 Details that should be provided in all ventilation system performance studies, regardless of the performance metric under
investigation
Study details Description of required information Rationale
Ventilation system details • Type of supply system studied (centralized • Allows performance of different ventilation system types to be
vs. decentralized, pressurized corridor vs. assessed and considered in comparisons.
direct-to-suite, etc.). • Allows ventilation system control strategies to be assessed and
• Outdoor air delivery rate in units of L/s, considered in comparisons.
cfm, or h−1. • Allows various parameters to be related and normalized to the
• Type of exhaust system studied (centralized amount of outdoor air ventilation systems deliver (kWh/(L/s),
vs. decentralized, whole dwelling vs. local $/(L/s), etc.).
source exhaust, etc.)
• Indoor air removal rate in units of L/s, cfm,
or h−1.
• Ventilation control strategy (constant,
DCV, manual, etc.).
Building details • Building geometry (number of floors, • Allows for measurements to be normalized or converted to
floor of interest, area and ceiling height of similar units.
building, floor, suite, or room of interest, • Allows differences in building age to be better understood and
and window size and operable window considered in comparisons.
area).
• Air tightness or leakage (total suite air
tightness or leakage, building envelope air
tightness or leakage, etc.)
• Year of construction and year of retrofit (if
applicable).
Climate details • Building location, time range/dates of field • Allows differences in temporal conditions to be better
study. understood and considered in comparisons. For example, I/O
• Min, max, and average weather PM ratios allow more conclusive comparisons between studies
conditions—temperature, relative as atmospheric PM concentrations can vary daily, seasonally,
humidity, wind speed, CO2, and PM (when and geographically.80
applicable).
• Heating and cooling degree days (18°C
reference).
Occupant details • Number of occupants and approximate • Allows differences in occupant behaviors and interactions to
schedule (home or away, awake, or asleep). be better understood and considered in comparisons.
• Demographic of occupants (single, couple,
or family, age, etc.)
• Study permissions or restrictions on
occupant behavior (smoking, etc.) and
interactions (opening windows, etc.).
• The amount of outdoor air that the centralized pressurized corridor reverse flow events within centralized exhaust systems should be
system must supply to each floor to ensure sufficient outdoor air is monitored to determine its prevalence in the field.
delivered to each suite in MURBs abiding by more recent changes
to fire codes should be quantified. To support this, a tracer gas Additional recommendations for future work as they relate to all
methodology that can be deployed in occupied buildings needs to ventilation systems were also conceptualized through this literature
be developed to track the amount of outdoor air delivered from review and categorized based on the three pillars of sustainability:
the corridor supply ducts to suites.
• As the prevalence of decentralized HRV/ERV systems increase, • The economic sustainability associated with ventilation systems
increased attention should be given to assessing and improving in cold climate, high-rise MURBs was seldomly assessed within
their in situ performance. In particular, the level of corridor pres- the literature. Future studies should seek to integrate details re-
surization required to reduce/eliminate odor/contaminant trans- lated to the cost of systems when applicable—capital costs (new
mission between suites and ensure decentralized HRVs/ERVs do and retrofit) and operational costs (thermal conditioning and air
not get overwhelmed by stack and wind effects is required. distribution).
• Distinguishing between centralized and decentralized exhaust sys- • The social sustainability of ventilation systems is most frequently
tems was often not possible in the literature. Therefore, research addressed in the literature, in large part due to the influence that
studies are required to assess and compare the in situ perfor- ventilation has on occupant wellbeing. The increased body of
mance of centralized vs. decentralized exhaust systems. In addi- literature in this area demonstrated that further efforts are re-
tion, the potential for cross-contamination to occur as a result of quired to improve the design and control of ventilation systems to
BERQUIST et al. |
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TA B L E 5 Details that should be provided in ventilation system performance studies depending on the performance metric under
investigation
Metrics Description of required information Rationale
Capital cost • Currency in $USD. • Allows the capital and operational costs of ventilation system
• Type of cost studied (material, labor, types in various countries to be compared.
etc.). • Capital and operational costs are often neglected in the academic
Operational cost • Currency in $USD. literature but are major design considerations that impact
• Type of cost studied (maintenance, performance.
utilities, etc.).
Airflow rates • Min, max, and average airflow rate in • Average values allow the typical ventilation system performance
units of L/s, cfm, or h−1. to be determined and, in the case of IEQ parameters, whether
Pressure differentials • Min, max, and average pressure any long-term adverse health effects may result.
differential measurements in Pa. • Min and max values allow the entire range of ventilation system
performance to be determined and whether local guidelines/
IAQ • Min, max, and average pollutant recommendations are periodically exceeded.
concentration (indoor and outdoor • Sensor location and position allow room specific discrepancies to
measurements). be considered in comparisons (occupant behavior/varying airflow
• Sensor location and position (in space patterns).
and ventilation system).
Thermal comfort and • Min, max, and average dry bulb
conditions temperature in °C, °F, or K, moisture
content in kgmoist air/kgdry air, and air
speed in m/s or ft/s.
• Sensor location and position.
Acoustic comfort and • Min, max, and average decibel
conditions measurements in dB associated with
specified system operation states (e.g.
on, off, high, and low).
• Sensor location and position.
Occupant behavior and • Frequency of source generation • Allows the occupant behaviors and interactions that resulted
interactions behavior (cooking, smoking, candle in certain ventilation system performance to be identified and
use, etc.). related to performance metrics.
• Frequency of interactions with
ventilation systems (opening/closing
windows, etc.).
Energy Consumption • Type of energy load studied • Allows for a higher resolution of the energy required to operate
(conditioning or distributing). ventilation systems.
• Energy consumption in units of kWh or
GJ.
• Indoor temperature and RH (if
applicable) setpoint.
Carbon emissions • Type of emissions studied (embodied • Allows for a higher resolution of the carbon emissions associated
and/or operational carbon) with designing or operating ventilation systems.
• Type of energy load studied • Allows for the corresponding operational carbon emissions to be
(conditioning or distributing). extrapolated to different energy sources.
• Indoor temperature and RH (if
applicable) setpoint.
• Type of energy source (diesel, natural
gas, etc.).
• Carbon emissions in units of CO2e.
ensure acceptable IAQ, thermal comfort/conditions, and acous- methods that promote positive occupant behaviors and interac-
tic comfort/conditions, as well as effectively manage stack and tions for the overall sustainability of these systems.
wind effects and avoid potential cross- contamination. One way • The ecological sustainability associated with ventilation systems
to accomplish this is by improving our understanding of occupant in cold climate, high-rise MURBs was seldomly assessed within
behavior and interactions in MURBs as this will help HVAC engi- the literature. Future studies need to monitor the thermal and
neers and building operators make informed decisions. Moreover, electrical energy and carbon emissions associated with oper-
improving our understanding of occupant behavior and inter- ating ventilation systems. Moreover, studies need to calculate
actions in MURBs can facilitate the development of innovative the embodied carbon associated with designing and installing/
|
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High-rise residential building ventilation in cold climates:

Justin Berquist1,2 | Noah Cassidy3 | Marianne Touchie1,3 | William O'Brien4 |

1 | I NTRO D U C TI O N portion of housing units in countries in the northern hemisphere

Indoor Air. 2022;32:e13158. |

Supplying ventilation in cold climates, such as the marine west

TA B L E 1 Search terms used in Scopus

apartment* OR condo* OR multi- family OR high- rise residential OR HRB*

leads to a rooftop exhaust (Figure 2c). 21–26 Note that centralized

3.1 | Mechanical ventilation systems 3.2 | Natural ventilation systems

4 | LO C ATI O N S S T U D I E D A N D is acceptable, the reader should refer to the corresponding standard.

F I G U R E 4 Frequency of high- rise

F I G U R E 5 Number of papers for

Country Standard Outdoor air delivery Indoor air removal

F I G U R E 6 Metrics used to assess the

F I G U R E 7 Metrics used to assess the

F I G U R E 1 1 Metrics used to assess

Ventilation system Economic sustainability Social sustainability Ecological sustainability

Economic sustainability Social sustainability

Occupant behavior and interactions. There are large research gaps

Providing more detail about the methodology and assumptions

Study details Description of required information Rationale

Metrics Description of required information Rationale

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