3.

Water Treatment Methods

Definitions
Aesthetic - perceived by senses (odor,taste, color and clarity)
Capillary action  - the force that allows a porous material to soak up a liquid.
Cistern – a water tight tank used to store water
Coliform Organism – any rod shaped, non spore forming, gram negative bacteria capable of
growth in the presence of bile salts, other surface active agents with similar growth inhibiting
properties which are cytochrome-oxydae negative and able to ferment lactose at either 35 deg
C or 37 deg C with the production of acid, gas and aldehyde within 24-48 hours.
Complete Treatment – a series or combination of water treatment processes
Drinking Water - direct human consumption or for use in food preparation
Ground Water – portion of the rainwater which has percolated into the earth to form
underground deposits (aquifer)
Polluted Water – water whose physical, chemical, bacteriological, biological and radioactive
properties have been altered due to the presence of domestic sewage. e.g. industrial waste.
Raw water -  untreated, undisinfected surface or groundwater.
Reservoir – a pond, lake or basin, either natural or artificial, designed for storage, regulation
and control of water.
Surface Water – a mixture of surface run-off and groundwater. e.g. rivers, lakes, streams,
ponds and impounding reservoirs.
Standard Methods - Methods of analysis prescribed by American Public Health Association,
American Waterworks Association, Water Pollution Control Federation or US Environmental
Pollution Control Federation or USE environmental Protection Agency; accepted by authority
Water Quality - used to define those bacteriological, chemical, physical, biological or
radiological characteristics which evaluates the acceptability of the water.
 
Basic Methods of Water Treatment and Purification
o Reverse Osmosis - removes dissolved minerals by forcing the water, under pressure,
through a synthetic membrane.; membrane contains microscopic pores allowing only
molecules of a certain size to pass through; water will squeeze through the membrane
leaving the mineral salts behind; RO unit capable of removing 90 % of the dissolved
mineral salts from water supply.
o Ozonation - is a chemical water treatment technique based on the infusion of ozone
into water. Ozone is a gas composed of three oxygen atoms (O3), which is one of the
most powerful oxidants.
o Coagulation - treated with compounds that make small suspended particles stick
together and settle out of the water. This particle conglomerate is removed from the
water prior to filtration.
o Sedimentation - passed through a settling basin or clarifier allowing time for mud, sand,
metals and other sediment to settle out.
o Sand Filtration - passed through a dual media (sand and anthracite) filter, which
removes many remaining pollutants.
o Aeration - process of increasing the oxygen saturation of the water.
o Chlorination - the process of adding the element chlorine to water (method of water
purification to make it fit for human consumption as drinking water)
o Disinfection - This is the most important health-related water treatment. Although
chlorination had become the standard approach to removing harmful organism from
water, there are other alternatives: ultraviolet light, bromine, iodine, and heat
treatment among others. Although chlorine affects the taste and odor of water, it is also
effective in removing less desirable tastes and odors.
o Distillation - This is a simple approach to purification that produces the equivalent of
bottled water for drinking, cooking and laboratory uses. In this process, water is heated
to allow condensation. As the water turns to vapour, virtually all pollutants are left
behind. When this vapour encounters cooler surfaces, it condenses, and pure water
although flat in tastes can be collected from this surface.
o Fluoridation - The advantage of fluoridation is that children who drink fluoridated water
have lower rates of tooth decay. Its disadvantages are that only children need the
fluoride, not adults, and that in amounts above those used in water treatment, fluoride
is toxic and cause mottled teeth. Small water systems can be equipped with fluoridation
units. However, fluoride levels in the water supply must be carefully monitored.
o Ultraviolet Irradiation - Exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation is a method of treating
relatively small-scale water supplies. In this process, the water is exposed to ultraviolet
radiation after it has been filtered. Only momentary exposure is required to kill
bacteria, but this condition may not be fulfilled if the bacteria are shielded by particles
of sediment in the water.
o Water Desalination - The procedure is done by heating seawater and then pumping
water into allowed pressure tank, where the water partially vaporized. The water
vapour is then condensed and removed as pure water. The process is repeated many
times. The remaining liquid, called brine contains a large amount of salt and is removed
and often processed as minerals.
 

Factors affecting Chlorine’s ability to disinfect include:

o Chlorine Concentration

The higher the concentration the faster and more complete the rate of disinfection.

o Contact Time

The longer the chlorine contacts the organisms in water, the more complete the
disinfection.

o Water Temperature

The higher the temperature during contact, the more complete the disinfection.

o pH

The lower the pH, the more effective the disinfection

 

Chemical Disinfectants
Chlorine
This is the most widely used disinfectant in municipal water system in most parts of the world.
Chlorine has been under scrutiny because of its propensity to form possible carcinogens
(trihalomethanes) upon reaction with naturally occurring organic material such as humic acid
human made organic effluent. Bacteria can be maintained at low levels in the presence of 1 to 2
ppm (parts per million) free of available chlorine in the water supply; however, chlorine is
relatively ineffective against acid-fast bacteria such as nontuberculous mycobacteria and cysts
such as a result of its strong oxidation characteristics. Chlorine is normally pumped into the
system from a solution of sodium hypochloride or as a gas. Chloride is readily removed by
activated carbon filters, and can be monitored with simple test kits. It is easily rinsed out of the
system.
 Chloramines
These compounds, resulting from the reaction of ammonia with chlorine in water solution, are
commonly used in municipal water supply systems because of its superior stability of
chloramines compounds over chlorine. However, chloramines are not as strong as chlorine and
thus have less ability to kill bacteria.
Chlorine Dioxide
Chlorine dioxide exhibits stronger disinfecting characteristics than chloramines, but there is
little evidence of extensive use of the disinfectant.
Iodine
This common relative of chlorine has been used for years by campers for disinfecting drinking
water of unknown quality. Unfortunately certain gram-negative bacteria can become resistant
to iodine.
Ozone
This powerful chemical, which consists of oxygen in a three-atom form, is used to disinfect
some municipal water supply systems. It is a very effective bactericide; however, it must be
generated on site and had a relatively short life. It can be removed by irradiation or activated
carbon.
 

Corrosion Control
It is important to control corrosion in order to keep water systems operating freely and to
prevent corrosive water from increasing the concentration of hazardous materials (as from
copper pipes). Corrosion is a slow degradation of metal by a flow of electric current from the
metal to its surroundings.
Acidity
The more acid (low pH), the corrosive the water.
Conductivity
As dissolved mineral salts increase the water’s conductivity, they encourage the flow of electric
current of corrosion.
Oxygen Content
Dissolved oxygen destroys the thin protective hydrogen film on immersed metals, thus
promoting corrosion.
Carbon Dioxide Content
Carbon Dioxide forms carbonic acid, which attacks metal surfaces.
Water Temperature
Increased temperature increases corrosion.
 

4. Water Storage & Distribution Systems

Methods of water distribution vary. For towns and cities, municipally or privately owned water
companies treat and purify water collected from wells, lakes, rivers, and ponds and distribute it
to individual buildings. In rural areas water is commonly obtained directly from individual wells.
     In most cities, water is forced through the distribution system by pumps, although, in rare
instances, when the source of water is located in mountains or hills above a city, the
pressure generated by gravity is sufficient to distribute water throughout the system. In other
cases, water is pumped from the collection and purification facilities into elevated storage tanks
and then allowed to flow throughout the system by gravity. But in most municipalities water is
pumped directly through the system; elevated storage tanks may also be provided to serve as
pressure-stabilization devices and as an auxiliary source in the event of pump failure or of
a catastrophe, such as fire, that might require more water than the pumps or the water source
are able to supply.
     The pressure developed in the water-supply system and the friction generated by the water
moving through the pipes are the two factors that limit both the height to which water can be
distributed and the maximum flow rate available at any point in the system.
     Domestic water-supply systems for low-rise residential buildings have two sources, either
municipal water-distribution systems or, where these are not available, wells that are drilled to
underground aquifers which are free of contamination. Water is drawn from the wells with
small submersible electric pumps, which are lowered through the well casing to the intake.
Underground exterior water-supply pipes are usually cast-iron with threaded connections to
contain the pressures applied to the fluid, which is typically sufficient to raise it four stories.
Within the building, copper tubing with soldered connections is used for distribution because of
its corrosion resistance and ease of fabrication; in some areas plastic pipe is also used. The
domestic water supply is divided into cold and hot systems, the cold water being piped directly
to the fixtures. The hot-water system first draws the supply through a hot-water heating tank,
which raises its temperature to about 60 °C (140 °F) using electric resistance or gas heat.
Domestic water heaters that use solar radiation to heat water in coils exposed to the sun on a
glass-covered black metal plate (flat-plate solar collectors) are found in areas where there is
ample sunshine and relatively high energy costs. The hot water is then distributed from the
heater to the fixtures in a recirculating loop pipe system, in which gravity and temperature
differentials maintain a constant temperature in period of low demand.
Source: https://www.britannica.com/technology/plumbing (Links to an external site.)
 
Types of Well
Well – man made hole for recovering ground water from the water bearing strata by digging,
boring, drilling
                Types of Well:

1. Artesian Well
2. Bored Well
3. Deep Well
4. Drilled Well
5. Driven Well
6. Dug Well
7. Shallow Well
8. Test Well

1. Artesian Well  - confined under hydrostatic pressure between two rock formations
2. Bored Well – constructed by manually driven augers into the ground
3. Deep Well – with depth greater than 20 meters constructed in areas characterized
by aquifers
4. Drilled Well – constructed by percussion or rotary drills.
5. Driven Well – constructed by driving an iron pipe with a well point at lower end into
the ground water bearing stratum
6. Dug Well – normally circular or rectangular in shape, with diameter from 1 to 1.5
meters; a lining is placed made of masonry, brickworks of reinforced concrete to
protect against surface or outside contamination.
7. Shallow Well - measured from the ground surface with a depth of not more 20
meters
8. Test Well – an excavation made to determine the quality and quantity of water.

 
Cold Water Distribution System
Parts of the Cold Water Distribution System

Definitions

o Service Pipe- pipe from the street water main or other source of water supply to the
building served.
o Water Meter- device used to measure in liters or gallons the amount of water that
passes through the water service.
o Horizontal Supply Main- the principal water distribution pipe running from the water
meter from which the various branches and risers to the fixtures are taken.
o Riser - a water supply pipe extending vertically to one full story or more to convey
water into pipe branches or plumbing fixtures.
o Fixture Branch- the water supply pipe between the fixture supply pipe and the water-
distributing pipe.
o Valves- used for control, isolation and repair of the water distribution system.
o Storage Tanks
o Air Gap (Water Distribution) -An unobstructed vertical distance through the free
atmosphere between the lowest opening from any pipe or faucet conveying potable
water to the flood-level rim of any tank, vat or fixture.
 o Backflow - The flow of water or other liquids, mixtures or substances into the
distributing pipes of a potable supply of water from any source other than from its
intended source.
o Battery of Fixtures - Any of two or more similar adjacent fixtures which discharge into a
common horizontal soil or waste branch.
o Cross- Connection - Any connection or arrangement between a potable water supply
system and any plumbing fixture or any tank, receptacle, equipment or device through
which enables contaminated water or other substances to enter into any part of the
system.
o Fixture Branch - The water supply pipe between the fixture supply pipe and the water
distributing pipe.
o Flood Level - The level in a fixture at which water begins to overflow over the top or rim
of the fixture.
o Gooseneck - A flexible tubing connection between a service pipe and water main; A
return bend of small-sized pipe commonly used as a faucet.
o Roughing in - The installation of all piping and fitting parts of the plumbing system, this
can be completed prior to the installation of fixtures and accessories. These include
sanitary and storm drainage, tap, hot and chilled water supplies, gas pipings and the
necessary fixture supports.
o

Upfeed System
1. Direct Upfeed
Water is provided by the city water companies using normal pressure from public water
main
 2. Air Pressure System (Pneumatic)

Used when pressure supplied by city water supply is inadequate. Compressed air is
. used to raise and push water into the system.

Downfeed /Overheadfeed /Gravity System

Water is pumped into a large tank on top of the building and is distributed to the
fixtures by means of gravity.
 ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Upfeed System
1. Pressure from water main is inadequate to
1. Eliminates extra cost of pumps & tanks
supply tall buildings.
2. Water supply is affected during peak load hour.
Air Pressure System
1. Water supply is affected by loss of pressure
1. With compact pumping unit
inside the tank in case of power interruption.
2. Sanitary due to airtight water chamber 2. Maximum zoning for each system is 10 floors
3. Oxygen in the compressed air serves as purifying
agent
4. Less initial construction and maintenance cost
5. Adaptable air pressure
Overhead-feed System

1. Water is not affected by peak load hour 1. Water is subject to contamination

2. Not affected by power interruption 2. High Maintenance cost
3. Time needed to replace broken parts does not
3. Occupies valuable space
affect water supply.
4. Requires stronger foundation and other
  structure to carry additional load of tank and
water.

Hot Water Distribution System

Convey heated water storage unit to fixtures
Three Types of Installations:

1. Upfeed and Gravity Return – small residential/industrial installations; constant circulation

of hot water within the piping arrangement.

o With a continuing network of pipes to provide constant circulation of water.

o Hot water rises on its own & does not need any pump for circulation.
o Hot water is immediately drawn from the fixture any time.
o Provided economical circulating return of unused hot water.
 o Larger pipe is installed at the top of the riser & the diminishing sizes passes through
the lower floors of the building.

2. Overhead Feed and Gravity Return System – buildings of extreme height; in the closed
system of piping water rises when heated. As it reach the high point of the system, gravity
return it to the storage unit.

o Hot water rises on to the highest point of the plumbing system and travels to the
fixtures via gravity (closed pipe system).
o Water distribution is dependent on the expansion of hot water & gravity.
o Larger pipe is installed at the bottom of the riser & the diminishing sizes passes through
the upper floors of the building
3. Pump Circuit System – circulation of hot water to by means of mechanical device; larger
buildings. For a more efficient circulation of hot water to the upper floor levels of multi-
storey buildings.

4. The Indirect and Direct Plumbing System

 Indirect - has only the amount of pressure from the gravity created from the cold water
storage tank.
  Direct - has the same cold water pressure that is available from the mains water in the
street.

Domestic Hot-Water Supply

STORAGE TANK/WATER HEATING DEVICES
            Two Types of Tanks:
          1. Range Boiler – small hot-water tank; 12 – 24”Ф/6’ long
 2.  Storage Tank – large hot-water tank; 24 – 54”Ф/15’ long

Things to Consider in Sizing the Hot Water Tank:

 Design of the building

 Number of occupants
 Heating capacity of the supply device

Water Heating Devices:

 Water back – installed in a range

 Furnace coil – placed in the fire box directly above the live coil fire
 Coal heater – large heating surface
 Gas heater – gas burner placed below the coil
 Instantaneous water heater – operates by gas and water valves which open and close by
turn as the water is drawn
 Automatic storage water heater – thermostatic control; magnesium rod to control rust and
corrosion. gas-operated type (LPG)
 Steam heater
 Under water-line heater – the inlet and outlet of the coil are connected to the boiler of the
heating plant below its water line
 Electric heater –controlled by a thermostat
 Solar heater