7.

1 Sensor fundamentals and characteristics, Sensors

and transducers

Module 7: Sensors and Transducers

Course: BECE101L – Basics Electronics Theory

7.1 Sensor fundamentals and characteristics, Sensors and

transducers
 7.1 Sensor fundamentals and characteristics, Sensors and
transducers
https://github.com/Apt3kStudio/Phone/wiki/Sensors-on-Smartphones
1. Transducer
• For any closed loop industrial control system, there are three steps
applying the input (reference value), control the process and
feedback (negative feedback) that measuring the output and applying
it back to the input stage.
• In the measuring stage we need special devices which can sense
changes in the controlled physical quantity such devices are Sensors.

7.1 Sensor fundamentals and characteristics, Sensors and

transducers
 1. Transducer
• A transducer is a device that converts one type of energy to another.
• A transducer can transforms a non-electrical physical quantity (i.e.
temperature, sound or light) into an electrical signal (i.e. voltage, current,
capacity…)
• Structure:
Three blocks of Transducer are:
1. Input interface
2. Sensor
3. Output interface

7.1 Sensor fundamentals and characteristics, Sensors and

transducers
1. Transducer
• The conversion can be to/from electrical, electro-mechanical,
electromagnetic, photonic, photovoltaic, or any other form of energy.
• While the term transducer commonly implies use as a
sensor/detector, any device which converts energy can be considered
a transducer.
• Transducers may be categorized by application: Sensor, actuator, or
combination

7.1 Sensor fundamentals and characteristics, Sensors and

transducers
1.1 Transducer: Applications
a) Electromagnetic
• Antenna - converts electromagnetic waves into electric current and vice
versa.
• Cathode ray tube (CRT) - converts electrical signals into visual form
• Fluorescent lamp, light bulb - converts electrical power into visible light
• Magnetic cartridge - converts motion into electrical form
• Photodetector or Photoresistor (LDR) - converts changes in light levels into
resistance changes
• Tape head - converts changing magnetic fields into electrical form
• Hall effect sensor - converts a magnetic field level into electrical form only.
7.1 Sensor fundamentals and characteristics, Sensors and
transducers
1.1 Transducer: Applications
b) Electrochemical:
• pH probes
• Electro-galvanic fuel cell
• Hydrogen sensor
c) Electrostatic: Electrometer
d) Photoelectric:
• Laser diode, light-emitting diode - convert electrical power into forms of
light
• Photodiode, photoresistor, phototransistor, photomultiplier tube - converts
changing light levels into electrical form
7.1 Sensor fundamentals and characteristics, Sensors and
transducers
1.1 Transducer: Applications
e) Electromechanical: • Load cell converts force to mV/V
• Electroactive polymers electrical signal using strain gauge
• Galvanometer • Accelerometer
• Microelectromechanical systems • Strain gauge
• Rotary motor, linear motor • String Potentiometer
• Vibration powered generator • Air flow sensor
• Potentiometer when used for • Tactile sensor
measuring position

7.1 Sensor fundamentals and characteristics, Sensors and

transducers
1.1 Transducer: Applications
f) Thermoelectric:
• RTD Resistance Temperature Detector
• Thermocouple
• Peltier cooler
• Thermistor (includes PTC resistor and NTC resistor)

7.1 Sensor fundamentals and characteristics, Sensors and

transducers
1.1 Transducer: Applications
g) Electroacoustic:
• Loudspeaker, earphone - converts electrical signals into sound
(amplified signal → magnetic field → motion → air pressure)
• Microphone - converts sound into an electrical signal (air pressure →
motion of conductor/coil → magnetic field → signal)
• Pick up (music technology) - converts motion of metal strings into an
electrical signal (magnetism → electricity (signal))
• Gramophone pick-up - (air pressure → motion → magnetic field →
signal)

7.1 Sensor fundamentals and characteristics, Sensors and

transducers
1.2 Transducer: Classification
• Transducers may be categorized by application:

Sensor,

actuator, or

combination

7.1 Sensor fundamentals and characteristics, Sensors and

transducers
1.3 Typical Primary-Transducer elements

7.1 Sensor fundamentals and characteristics, Sensors and

transducers
1.3 Typical Primary-Transducer elements

7.1 Sensor fundamentals and characteristics, Sensors and

transducers
1.3 Typical Primary-Transducer elements

7.1 Sensor fundamentals and characteristics, Sensors and

transducers
1.3 Typical Primary-Transducer elements

7.1 Sensor fundamentals and characteristics, Sensors and

transducers
1.3 Typical Primary-Transducer elements

7.1 Sensor fundamentals and characteristics, Sensors and

transducers
 2. Sensors
• A sensor is a device that detects a parameter in one form and reports it in
another (typically electrical and/or digital) form of energy.
• A pressure sensor, for example, might measure pressure (a mechanical
type of energy) and convert it to electrical for display on a distant gauge.
• A sensor is a device that detects and transforms a physical quantity into a
signal that can be read by an observer or instrument.
• A mercury-in-glass thermometer, for example, turns observed
temperature into liquid expansion and contraction, which may be viewed
on a calibrated glass tube.
• A thermocouple transforms temperature into an output voltage that a
voltmeter can read. All sensors must be calibrated to recognised standards
for accuracy.
7.1 Sensor fundamentals and characteristics, Sensors and
transducers
2. Sensors
• Sensors are used in everyday objects such as touch-sensitive elevator
buttons (tactile sensor) and lamps which dim or brighten by touching
the base.
• There are also innumerable applications for sensors of which most
people are never aware. Applications include cars, machines,
aerospace, medicine, manufacturing and robotics

7.1 Sensor fundamentals and characteristics, Sensors and

transducers
 2. Sensors
• Sensors and their
applications

7.1 Sensor fundamentals and characteristics, Sensors and

transducers
3. Electric transducer
• In order to measure non-electrical quantities a detector is used:
converts the physical quantity into a displacement.
• This displacement actuates an electric transducer, which acting as a
secondary transducer, gives an output that is electrical in nature.
• The result (electrical output) gives the magnitude of the physical
quantity or condition being measured.
• The electrical signal: current or a voltage or a frequency.
Production of these signals is based upon, resistive, capacitive,
inductive effects etc.

7.1 Sensor fundamentals and characteristics, Sensors and

transducers
3. Electric transducer
• Transducer may be defined as a device which converts a physical
quantity or a physical condition into an electrical signal. Another
name for a transducer is pick up.

7.1 Sensor fundamentals and characteristics, Sensors and

transducers
3.1 Electric transducer: Advantages
By converting physical quantities into analogous electrical quantities:
• Easy Electrical amplification and attenuation
• The mass-inertia effects are minimized.
• The effects of friction are minimized.
• Can controlled electrical or electronic systems with a very small
power level.
• The electrical output can be easily used, transmitted and processed.
• Telemetry applications
• Easy miniaturization using IC(integrated circuits)

7.1 Sensor fundamentals and characteristics, Sensors and

transducers
3.2 Electric transducer: Parts
1. Sensing or Detector Element
• responds to a physical phenomenon or a change in a physical
phenomenon.
• The response of the sensing element must be closely related to the
physical phenomenon.
2. Transduction element. transforms the output of a sensing element
to an electrical output.
acts as a secondary transducer.

7.1 Sensor fundamentals and characteristics, Sensors and

transducers
3.3.A Classification of Electrical Transducers
A. Classification based on interaction with physical phenomenon
1. Primary transducers: These sense physical phenomenon.
Example: Thermocouple’s hot junction sense the radiant heat
energy and directly converts into analogous electrical output
(voltage)
2. Secondary transducers:
First a detector senses physical phenomenon and mostly converts
to analogous output. Secondary transducers convert this analogous
output to an electrical signal.
LVDT along with Bourdon tube is used to measure pressure.
7.1 Sensor fundamentals and characteristics, Sensors and
transducers
3.3.B Classification of Electrical Transducers
B. Classification based on power
1. Active transducers: Self generating type
These transducers develop their own voltage or current.
Energy required for generation of output signal is obtained from
physical phenomenon(which is being measured). Example:
Piezoelectric transducer.
2. Passive transducers: Externally powered transducers
These transducers derive power required for energy conversion
from external power source.
Some energy may be absorbed from physical phenomenon under
study.
7.1 Sensor fundamentals and characteristics, Sensors and
transducers
 3.3.C Classification of Electrical Transducers
C. Classification based on the type of Output
1. Analogue transducers:
These transducers convert input physical phenomenon into analogous
output which is continuous function of time.
Examples: Strain gauge, LVDT, Thermocouple or Thermistor.
2. Digital transducers: Physical phenomenon is converted to electrical
output in the form of pulses
Example: Digital displacement transducer
This uses digital code marks to identify
the position of movable piece (by binary
system of notation).
T
7.1 Sensor fundamentals and characteristics, Sensors and
transducers
 3.3.D Classification of Electrical Transducers
D. Classification based on the Electrical Phenomena used in transducer
• Based on the principle employed by their transduction elements to
convert the physical phenomenon (input) into output electrical signals.
The electrical phenomena combined with appropriate primary sensing
elements(detectors) produce a variety of transducers.
• 1. Resistive. 2. Inductive. 3. Capacitive. 4. Electromagnetic. 5. Piezoelectric.
6. Ionization. 7. Photoelectric or Photo·emissive. 8. Photoconductive or
Photoresistive. 9. Photovoltaic.
10. Potentiometric. 11. Thermo-electric or Thermo-voltaic. 12.
Electrokinetic.

7.1 Sensor fundamentals and characteristics, Sensors and

transducers
 3.4 Passive transducers
Electrical parameter and class Principle of operation
of transducer
Resistance:
a) Potentiometer device
b) Resistance strain gauge
c) Pirani gauge or bot wire
meter
d) Resistance thermometer
e) Thermistor
f) Resistance hygrometer
g) Photoconductive cell
Typical applications
Positioning of the slider by an external force varies the resistance in a Pressure,
potentiometer or a bridge circuit. displacement.
Resistance of a wire or semiconductor is changed by elongation or Force, torque,
compression due to externally applied stress. displacement.
Resistance of a heating element is varied by convection cooling Gas flow, gas pressure
of a stream of gas.
Resistance of pure metal wire with a large positive temperature co- Temperature, radiant
efficient of resistance varies with temperature. heat
Resistance of certain metal oxides with negative temperature Temperature, flow
coefficient of resistance varies with temperature
Resistance of a conductive strip changes with moisture content. Relative humidity
Resistance of
7.1the cell
Sensor as a circuit
fundamentals element varies
and characteristics, with incident light
Sensors and Photosensitive relay
transducers
 3.4 Passive transducers
Electrical parameter Principle of operation Typical applications
and class of transducer

Capacitance: Distance between two parallel plates is varied by an externally applied Pressure, displacement.
a) Variable capacitance force
pressure gauge
b) Capacitor Sound pressure varies the capacitance between a fixed. plate Speech, music. noise.
microphone and a movable diaphragm
c) Dielectric gauge Variation in capacitance by changes in the dielectric. Liquid level, thickness.
Voltage and Current A potential difference is generated across a semiconductor plate Magnetic flux, current.
a) Hall effect pickup (germanium) when magnetic flux interacts with an applied current.
b) Ionization chamber Electron flow induced by ionization of gas due to radio-active radiation. Particle counting,
radiation.
c) Photoemissive cell Electron emission due to incident radiation upon photo-emissive surface. Light and radiation.
d) Photomultiplier- Secondary electron emission due to incident radiation on Light and radiation,
tube photosensitive cathode. photosensitive relays
7.1 Sensor fundamentals and characteristics, Sensors and
transducers
 3.4 Passive transducers
Electrical parameter Principle of operation Typical applications
and class of transducer

Inductance: Self-inductance or mutual inductance of a.c. excited coil is varied by Pressure, displacement.
a) Magnetic circuit changes in the magnetic circuit.
transducer
b) Reluctance pickup Reluctance of the magnetic circuits is varied by changing the Pressure, displacement
position of the iron core of a coil. vibration, position.
c) Differential The differential voltage of two secondary windings of a transformer is Pressure, force,
transformer varied by positioning tbe magnetic core through an externally applied displacement, position.
force.
d) Eddy current gauge Inductance of a coil is varied by the proximity of an eddy current plate. Displacement, thickness.

e) Magnetostriction Magnetic properties are varied by pressure and stress Force, pressure, sound.
gauge

7.1 Sensor fundamentals and characteristics, Sensors and

transducers
 3.5 Active transducers (Self generating)
Electrical parameter and class Principle of operation Typical applications
of transducer
a) Thermocouple and An emf is generated across the junction of two dissimilar Temperature, beat
thermopile metals or semiconductors when that junction is heated. flow, radiation.

b) Moving coil generator Motion of a coil in a magnetic field generates a voltage Velocity, vibration

c) Piezoelectric pickup
d) Photovoltaic
An emf is generated when an external force is applied to Sound, vibration,
certain crystalline materials, such as quartz. acceleration,
pressure changes.
A voltage is generated in a semiconductor junction device when Light meter, solar cell
radiant energy stimulates the cell.

7.1 Sensor fundamentals and characteristics, Sensors and

transducers
7.1 Sensor fundamentals and characteristics, Sensors and
transducers
7.1 Sensor fundamentals and characteristics, Sensors and
transducers
7.1 Sensor fundamentals and characteristics, Sensors and
transducers
7.1 Sensor fundamentals and characteristics, Sensors and
transducers
7.1 Sensor fundamentals and characteristics, Sensors and
transducers
7.1 Sensor fundamentals and characteristics, Sensors and
transducers
7.1 Sensor fundamentals and characteristics, Sensors and
transducers
7.1 Sensor fundamentals and characteristics, Sensors and
transducers
7.1 Sensor fundamentals and characteristics, Sensors and
transducers
7.1 Sensor fundamentals and characteristics, Sensors and
transducers
7.1 Sensor fundamentals and characteristics, Sensors and
transducers
 Home Appliances
https://m.pulsenews.co.kr/view.php?no=440920&year=2016

7.1 Sensor fundamentals and characteristics, Sensors and

transducers
7.1 Sensor fundamentals and characteristics, Sensors and
transducers