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1.2. Monosaccharides and

1. Molecules, Transport and Disaccharides
Health Monosaccharides are made up of Carbon, Hydrogen, and
Oxygen.
They have the general formula
Cn(H2O)n where n
1.1. The Chemistry of Life
represents the
number of carbon atoms.
Water is liquid at normal temperatures, while other small Due to their structure, they are able to be broken down
molecules, like CO2 and O2, are gas. quickly by
living organisms to produce ATP energy.
Properties of Monosaccharides:
Features of water and its significance to life:
Sweet
Hydrogen bonding: The weak electrostatic
Soluble in water
intermolecular force between a partially positive
They have an osmotic effect
hydrogen that is bonded to a partially negative
Crystalline in nature
oxygen and other polar molecules nearby.
Examples of Monosaccharides:
α-glucose
Fructose
Galactose

Disaccharides form when two monosaccharides join in a

condensation reaction.
Condensation reaction is the process in which two OH
groups of two monosaccharides eliminate 2 Hydrogen
atoms and 1 Oxygen atom, releasing water and forming a
Partially positive regions in water like Hydrogen are glycosidic bond.
represented with δ+ and partially positive negative
regions in water like Oxygen are represented with δ-.
Solvent: Water is an effective solvent because of it’s
polarity and so can form electrostatic interactions
with other
polar molecules and ions. Thus it is a
transport medium and
reagent for metabolic and
other reactions in plant and animal
cells.
High surface tension and cohesion: Cohesion refers to
Properties of Disaccharides are similar to
the
attraction of one water molecule to each other.
Monosaccharides.
Water molecules
have strong, cohesive forces due to
The bond formed between the two monosaccharides is
hydrogen bonds, thus having
high surface tension.
called a
glycosidic bond.
High specific heat capacity: The amount of heat
energy
required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of
Disaccharide Forming Units
water by 1 °C.
Water has high SPC due to its hydrogen
bonds. The temperature
within organisms remains Maltose α-glucose + α-glucose
constant compared to external
temperature, and Sucrose α-glucose + Fructose
water bodies also have a slow change in
temperature, Lactose α-glucose + Galactose
providing stable aquatic habitats.
High latent heat of vaporisation: A measure of the Disaccharides can also be broken down in a hydrolysis
heat
energy needed to vaporise a liquid. Water has a reaction.
high LHV due to
its high SPC as H bonds need to be Hydrolysis reaction is the process in which a water
broken before water can be
vapourised, cooling the molecule is reintroduced into a glycosidic bond which
surrounding environment. Sweating is a
good cooling breaks it.
mechanism.
Density and freezing properties: Ice is less dense than
water and floats on it, insulating water and preventing
it from
freezing, preserving aquatic life underneath it.
Changes in the
density of water with temperature
causes currents, which helps
to maintain the
circulation of nutrients in the oceans. 1.3. Polysaccharides

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Polysaccharides are made up of monomers joined

together by glycosidic bonds in condensation reactions.
Properties of Polysaccharides:
They are macromolecules with a large molecular mass
Formed from a large number of monomers
Contains Glycosidic bonds between monomers
No sweet taste
No Osmotic effect/insoluble in water
Starch: is a polysaccharide that is found in plant cells and
is
made up of two components, amylose and
amylopectin. These components
are made from α-
glucose molecules and contain glycosidic bonds.
Starch is
Role of triglyceride:
highly compact and stores energy.
Better energy reserves than carbohydrates as more
CH bonds
Acts as an insulator and provides buoyancy
A metabolic source of water as gives CO2 and
H2O on
oxidation in respiration

1.5. Proteins
Proteins are made of amino acids which only differ in the R-
groups/
variable side chains and will always contain an amine
group (basic),
carboxyl group (acidic) and a hydrogen atom
attached to the central
carbon atom.

Amylose Amylopectin
1,4 and α 1,6 glycosidic
Structure 1,4 glycosidic bonds bonds, giving its branched
structure
Helical and more
Shape Branched
compact

Glycogen: is a Polysaccharide that is used for the storage

A peptide bond is formed by condensation between 2
of
energy is animal cells and is also made from α glucose
amino acids,
forming a dipeptide. Many amino acids that
molecules.
The structure of glycogen is very similar to
join together by peptide
bonds form a polypeptide.
that of amylopectin.
However, it is much more branched,
allowing it to be hydrolysed
rapidly.

1.4. Lipids
Triglyceride: forms by the condensation of 3 fatty acid
chains
and one glycerol molecule, forming ester bonds.
Fatty acid chains
are long hydrocarbon chains with a
carboxylic head. Glycerol is an
alcohol-containing 3 OH Peptide bonds are broken when hydrolysed into amino
groups. acids.
Structure of Proteins:
Unsaturated fatty acid Saturated fatty acid
Primary Structure: The sequence of amino acids held
Bond At least 1 C=C double bond No C=C double bond together
by polypeptide bonds in a polypeptide chain.
Structure Contains bent chains (kinks) Straight chain
H:C Ratio Lower H:C ratio Higher H:C ratio

Secondary Structure: the structure of a protein

molecule
resulting from the regular coiling or folding
of the chain of
amino acids.

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α- helix: the polypeptide chain twists into a regular by hydrogen bonds where each polypeptide chain is
spiral and is maintained by hydrogen bonds made up of a repeating sequences of the amino acids
between the (-NH)
group of one amino acid and glycine, hydroxyproline and proline.
the (CO-) group.

β- pleated sheet: the chain is not tightly coiled and

lies in a looser, straighter shape.

Tertiary Structure: the precise folding and coiling of 1.6. The Principles of Circulation
alpha-helices and beta-pleated sheets of an amino
acid chain.
They are held together by: In small organisms, diffusion is sufficient for gaining
Hydrogen bonds between a wide variety of R- nutrients
and excreting waste due to:
groups The short distance of diffusion between the deepest
Disulfide bridges between two cysteine molecules part of the
organism and the outside
Ionic bonds between R groups containing amine The high SA:V ratio allowing for fast diffusion
and carboxyl
groups. Usually, small organisms have a low metabolism.
Hydrophobic interactions between non-polar R Therefore, they
don’t use much oxygen and food
groups. Larger organisms are unable to rely solely on diffusion
due to their
low SA:V ratio. Thus, to overcome their
limitations:
They have a transport system that carries substances
by mass
flow from one part of the body to another.
They increase the surface area of parts of the body
involved in
an exchange with the environment, e.g.
Alveoli.
Features of Mass transport include:
Quaternary Structure: the three-dimensional A medium of transport, e.g. blood
arrangement of two or
more polypeptides, or a A system of vessels
polypeptide and a non-protein component such
as A pump
haem, in a protein molecule. The polypeptide chains A way to ensure substances moved in the right
are held
together by bonds in the tertiary structure. direction
The mammalian circulatory system is a closed double
Globular proteins: curl up into a spherical shape with
circulation.
This is because blood passes through the
their
hydrophobic regions pointing into the centre of the
heart twice in one
circulation of the body (pulmonary
molecule and
hydrophilic regions pointing outwards.
circuit and systemic circuit),
contained inside blood
They are soluble in water,
e.g. enzymes and haemoglobin.
vessels.
Haemoglobin: a globular protein that has a
Advantages of a double circulatory system:
quaternary structure with 4 polypeptide chains, 2 α-
Maintaining different pressures to the lungs and the
globin and 2 β-globin chains, each connected by
rest of the
body. The lungs require a low blood
disulfide bridges. Each chain has one prosthetic haem
pressure to prevent damage
to the capillaries in the
group containing an iron atom that reversibly binds to
alveoli, while the rest of the body
requires a high
an oxygen molecule. Oxyhaemoglobin is bright red
blood pressure to provide blood to all tissues
when the haem group is combined with oxygen.
Maximise the rate of diffusion by sending
Otherwise, it is purplish. Haemoglobin is an example
deoxygenated blood to
the lungs and sending
oxygenated blood to the rest of the body.
This creates
a steep concentration gradient which increases the
rate of diffusion
of a conjugated protein.
Fibrous proteins: form long strands, are insoluble in 1.7. The Roles of the Blood
water and have structural roles, e.g. collagen, hair, nails.
Collagen: a fibrous protein that is made up of three Blood is composed of 4 components:
polypeptide chains in a helical structure held together

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Plasma: This is the liquid part of the blood. It is a would otherwise. Shown below is an oxygen dissociation
dilute
solution of salts, glucose, amino acids, vitamins, curve.
urea,
protein, and fats.
Leukocytes (white blood cells): Involved in the
immune
system.
Platelets: Involved in blood clotting.
Erythrocytes (red blood cells): Involved in carrying
oxygen
and carbon dioxide.

Adaptations of red blood cells to carry out its function: The sigmoidal shape of the oxygen dissociation curve can
Biconcave, allowing for a greater surface area to be explained:
volume ratio
to carry oxygen As we know, a haemoglobin molecule is composed for
No nucleus nor mitochondrion, allowing more space 4 sub-units (2 alpha and beta globins).
for
haemoglobin It is difficult for the first oxygen molecule to bind with
Small diameter to allow it to squeeze through a haem group in a globin, causing a slow increase in
capillaries the curve.
Haemoglobin (Hb): is a red oxygen-carrying pigment After this, it becomes easier for additional oxygen
found in RBCs
and is a globular protein. It is made of 4 molecules to bind with the rest of the haem groups
polypeptide chains each
containing an iron ion. due to conformational changes, causing a steeper
Partial pressure: pressure exerted by a type of gas in a increase in the curve.
mixture of gases, usually represented with “p”. Example: As haemoglobin becomes saturated, less oxygen
pO2 means partial pressure of oxygen molecules can bind to it, causing the curve to flatten
In respiring tissues: The pCO2 is high, and the
pO2 is Fetal Haemoglobin: It is present in the blood of a
low. developing
fetus. It has a higher affinity to oxygen
CO2 from the cells diffuses into the plasma. compared to adult
haemoglobin. Allowing it to “absorb”
CO2 combines with Hb to form oxygen from the mother’s blood,
ensuring proper growth.
carbaminohaemoglobin. (10%
carried this way) The blood clotting mechanism:
Most CO2 combines with water (catalysed by Upon injury, the platelets break
This releases several chemicals that aid in the blood
carbonic
anhydrase) to form carbonic acid, which
clotting
process, causing a cascade of reactions
then dissociates into
H+ and HCO3- ions.
Serotonin: is a chemical that causes smooth muscles
to
contract, narrowing blood vessels
Thromboplastin: is a globular protein that catalyses
the
reaction of prothrombin to thrombin in the
presence of
Ca2+ ions
Prothrombin and thrombin are both soluble globular
proteins in
the blood. Prothrombin is present in the
plasma
H+ ions combine with Hb to form Haemoglobinic
Thrombin catalyses the reaction of Fibrinogen to
acid (HHb).
Fibrin
In the lungs: pO2 ­high and pCO2 low.
Fibrinogen is a soluble globular protein, while Fibrin is
CO2 in plasma diffuses from the blood into the an
insoluble protein.
alveoli, and oxygen diffuses into the blood from Fibrin forms a mesh-like structure that traps red
the alveoli. blood cells
allowing the clot to dry up and form a scab
Carbaminohaemoglobin dissociates to form CO2 Benefits of blood clotting include:
and Hb Preventing excess blood loss
Hb then picks up O2, and HHb (haemoglobinic Preventing the entry of pathogens
acid)
dissociates to form H+ and Hb.
The H+ ions combine with HCO3- to form
carbonic 1.8. Circulation in the Blood vessels
acid, which dissociates to form CO2 and
water
(catalysed by carbonic anhydrase). Arteries and veins contain three layers of tissues known
CO2 diffuses into alveoli. as the
tunica intima, tunica media, and tunica adventitia.
Tunica intima: endothelium, smooth lining allowing
The presence of a high pCO2 causes Hb to release the
easiest possible blood flow
oxygen.
This is called the Bohr Effect. High pCO2 are Tunica media: containing mainly smooth muscle and
found in actively respiring tissues that need oxygen. This elastic
fibres with some collagen
causes Hb to release oxygen even more readily than it Tunica adventitia: containing mostly collagen, with
some
elastic fibres.

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Arteries: These blood vessels transport oxygenated blood Vessel Adaptations

swiftly
to the tissues at high pressures. They have thick Thin wall making it permeable to small
walls to withstand
this high pressure. The exception to substances
this is the pulmonary artery,
carrying deoxygenated
blood to the lungs. As arteries reach tissues,
they branch
into smaller vessels called arterioles. 1.9. The Mammalian Heart
Veins: Many capillaries join to form venules, which then
join to
form veins. These blood vessels carry External structure : Blood vessels that leave the heart are
deoxygenated blood back to the
heart. The exception is the
Aorta and pulmonary artery. Blood vessels that enter
the pulmonary vein, carrying oxygenated
blood from the the heart are
the superior vena cava, the inferior vena
lungs to the heart. cava, and the pulmonary
vein. The septum separates the
Tunica media is thinner in veins when compared to left and right sides of the heart.
arteries, as
the blood in veins is at a lower pressure. Internal structure: The human heart has four chambers:
Valves are also present to prevent the backflow of Atria: 2 upper chambers are known as atria. They are
blood. thin-walled
and receive blood at low pressure.
To keep blood flowing upwards from legs, veins are Ventricles: 2 lower chambers are known as ventricles.
usually near
muscles, so the pressure is increased They are
thick-walled, receive blood from atria, and pump
when muscles contract. it out through
arteries.
Veins also have a much larger lumen than arteries. The left ventricle has a thicker muscular wall, as it has
Capillaries: Arterioles continue to branch into capillaries. to
pump blood into the systemic circuit, which has a
These are the smallest blood vessels and they take the higher
resistance to blood flow than the pulmonary
blood as
close as possible to the cells. This allows for circuit. The
systemic circuit is also longer and requires
rapid transfer of
substances between cells and the blood. more pressure.

Due to the very small

diameter of these blood vessels,
blood travels very slowly. This
increases the opportunity
for diffusion to occur.
Walls of capillaries are made of a single layer of
endothelial
cells with pores between individual cells
present to allow some
components of blood to pass
through into the cells and tissues
of the body.
Tissue fluid: It has almost the same components as
plasma but
lacks large plasma proteins that are too large
to diffuse through
pores in capillaries. Osmotic pressure
causes tissue fluid to move
into and out of capillaries

Vessel Adaptations The cardiac cycle is divided into 3 stages:

Tough collagen fibre wall prevents it from Atrial Systole: This occurs when muscles in the atria
bursting contract and blood passes on to the ventricles. 70% of
Elastic fibres allow it to stretch and recoil, the blood
flows passively down to the ventricles. The
maintaining blood pressure bicuspid and
tricuspid valves open while the
Artery Smooth endothelium lining reducing semilunar valves are closed.
resistance Ventricular systole: After Atrial Systole, the ventricles
contract increasing the blood pressure and pushing it
Small lumen aids to maintain high pressure
out of the
heart. The blood passes through the Aorta
Smooth muscles constrict and dilate to and pulmonary
arteries. The semilunar valves open
keep the blood at a high pressure and the bicuspid and
tricuspid valves are closed.
Large lumens to carry more blood Diastole: All muscles of the heart relax, and the
Thins walls allowing skeletal muscles to pressure
inside ventricles becomes lower than the
Vein compress and pump blood towards the atria. When this
happens, most of the blood starts to
heart flow from the atria to the
ventricles even though the
Valves to prevent backflow of blood atria is not contracting. However,
the atria contracts
towards the end to push out the last bit of
blood into
Capillaries Narrow allowing it to reach tight places
Forms a dense network increasing the
surface area
Pores allowing substances to move in and
out of tissue fluid

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the ventricles, and the cycle begins all over again.

Conflicting Evidence
The graph shows death rates from coronary heart disease
(CHD) in men from 1970 to 1995 in 4 countries.

Another graph shows the percentage of men from these

countries in 1980 with high systolic blood pressure.

1.10. Atherosclerosis
Atherosclerosis: it is a disease in which artery walls are
caused to harden. It could eventually lead to coronary
heart disease
(CHD).
Atherosclerosis is caused by a series of events:
Endothelium lining is damaged due to several reasons
It has been suggested that there is a link between high
like high
blood pressure and smoking
blood pressure and death from CHD.
The damage to the endothelium lining causes an
i) Using both graphs, give 2 pieces of evidence to support
inflammatory
response
this hypothesis
This causes a buildup of cholesterol and calcium salt,
ii) Suggest how the data shown in the graphs do not fully
forming
plaque after hardening
support this hypothesis
Plaque causes the narrowing of the lumen, which
restricts blood
flow. Causing an increase in blood Answer:
pressure Part (i)
Reduced blood flow causes decreased oxygen supply 1) Finland has a high percentage of men with high blood
to tissues,
resulting in anaerobic respiration pressure and at the same time has high rates of CHD
Examples of Cardiovascular diseases: 2) UK has a high percentage of men with high blood
Hypertension: A rise in blood pressure caused by the pressure and at the same time has high rates of CHD.
formation of plaque in arteries Part (ii)
Coronary thrombosis: Platelets could stick to a It contains conflicting evidence. Italy has a high percentage
damaged
artery wall, causing it to release of men with high blood pressure but has low death rates
Thromboplastin, which
starts a cascade of reaction, from CVD.
forming a blood clot.
1.12. Investigating the Causes of CVDs
1.11. Risk, Correlation, and Cause
While evaluating studies, you need to check for the
Epidemiology: The study of disease patterns to find a following:
correlation between a disease and certain risk factors. Validity: Weather the experiment fulfils the intended
Risk: The probability of damage occurring question.
Actual risk: Factors increasing the probability of getting a Peer-review makes a study valid
disease. Randomly selecting samples to avoid bias
Perceived risk: Reliability: Similar results come back when the
Overestimating the risk of something happening due experiment is repeated. You can increase reliability
to the
unfamiliarity of the risk by:
Underestimating the risk of something happening due Having a large sample size
to it being
in the far-future Repeating the experiment under the same
Multifactorial diseases: A disease caused by interactions conditions
of
multiple factors. Risk factors for CVDs:
Causation: When a change in 1 variable is responsible for Non-lifestyle factors:
a
change in another variable. Genetic Factors: when there is a trend in the
Correlation: When a change in 1 variable is reflected by a family to develop CVD. Some reasons include:
change in another variable. Problems in balancing cholesterol
Tends to develop hypertension
Conflicting Evidence

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Easily damaged endothelium lining in the Treatment Mechanism Side effects

artery Diuretics: Increase
Age: The older a person gets, the less elastic their the volume of urine
arteries become. Therefore, there is a higher produced, causing
chance of them getting damaged, leading to CVD. the blood volume
Gender: Oestrogen in females lowers the levels of to decrease
cholesterol in the blood, reducing the buildup of therefore the blood Dizziness, nausea,
plaque. This is why females have a lower risk of Antihypertensives
pressure falls impotence
experiencing CVDs compared to males.
Beta-Blockers:
Lifestyle factors:
Blocks hormones
Smoking: Nicotine present in smoke causes the like adrenaline to
narrowing of
arteries, which raises the blood prevent strong
pressure leading to damaged
endothelium lining. contractions
Free radicals formed by smoking increase the
They work by
activation of platelets, increasing the risk of blood
inhibiting the
clots. Liver damage,
function of the
Inactivity: When the energy input is greater than Statins kidney failure,
enzyme in the liver
the energy
output, it causes the body to convert nausea
the extra energy to fat,
eventually leading to responsible for
obesity. Regular exercise strengthens the
heart producing LDLs
muscles, which decreases blood pressure. Could result in
Prevents blood clot
Hypertension: If a person has a blood pressure Anticoagulants uncontrolled
formation in the
higher than
120mmHg/80mmHg regularly, it’s a (warfarin) bleeding if dosage
artery
sign of atherosclerosis. When
the artery’s lumen is not monitored
decreases by the formation of plaque, it
increases They work by
the blood pressure. reducing the
stickiness of
Platelet inhibitory
1.13. Diet and Cardiovascular Disease platelets, which Rashes, diarrhoea
drugs (aspirin)
reduces the chance
Obesity indicators help raise awareness to individuals of blood clot
that might be
at a high risk of CVDs formation
Common obesity indicators include:
Body Mass Index (BMI): A conventional scale that
determines if
you have a healthy weight by comparing 2. Membranes, proteins, DNA,
your weight and height.
BMI doesn’t differentiate
between muscle and fat; therefore, it
can be and gene expression
misleading.

W eight (kg) 2.1. Cell Membranes

BM I = 
(Height)2  (m)
​

Fluid mosaic model: Two scientists, Singer and Nicolson,

put
together a cell membrane model based on the
Waist-to-Hip ratio: It is a scale that’s showing active
evidence available. The
term ‘fluid’ describes how
association with the increased risk of CVDs. It is the waist
individual phospholipid and protein
molecules move
circumference measured in cm divided by the hip
around within their monolayer. The word ‘mosaic’
circumference also measured in cm.
Dietary oxidants help reduce the risk for developing CVDs describes the pattern produced by scattered protein
molecules when
the surface of the membrane is viewed
because they reduce the formation of plaque as well as
from above.
reduce free radicals that roam in your body and cause
cell damage like damage to the endothelium.
Types of medicines that patients can take to prevent
cardiovascular diseases

Treatment Mechanism Side effects

Phospholipid: The hydrophilic head contains a phosphate
group
and glycerol, while the hydrophobic tail contains 2
fatty acid
chains. This is due to the partial negative charge
on the phosphate
group that gets attracted to the partial
positive charge on the
hydrogen atom of the water
molecule.

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Phospholipid bilayer: This provides the basic structure of

membranes; it is selectively permeable and acts as a
barrier to most
water-soluble substances.
The more unsaturated the tails, the more fluid the
membrane as
unsaturated fatty acid tails are bent
and therefore fit together
more loosely.
The longer the tail, the less fluid the membrane. Cytosis:
Micelle: phospholipid molecules that arrange themselves Exocytosis: The bulk movement of substances from
in a
spherical form in aqueous solutions.
inside the
cell to the outside using vesicles. Vesicles
fuse with the cell
membrane and release their
contents.
Endocytosis: The bulk movement of substances from
outside the
cell to the inside using vesicles formed by
the cell membrane.

2.3. Osmosis: A special case of diffusion

Cholesterol: regulates the fluidity of membranes. Its
Osmosis: The diffusion of water molecules down a water
hydrophobic region prevents polar molecules from
potential
gradient through a permeable membrane.
passing through the
membrane.
Isotonic Solution: The concentration of solute on both
sides is
equal.
2.2. Cell Transport and Diffusion Hypotonic Solution: The concentration of solute in the
solvent
is less than the cell.
Passive transport: Hypertonic Solution: The concentration of solute in the
Simple Diffusion: The net movement of molecules or solvent
is more than the cell.
ions from a
region of high concentration to a region of Osmosis in animal cells:
low concentration,
down the concentration gradient.

Facilitated diffusion: The net movement of molecules

down the
concentration gradient. Molecules go
through channel proteins or
carrier proteins instead
of passing through phospholipids. This
allows for the
passage of large polar ions and molecules e.g.
glucose, amino acids, Na+
Passive transport requires no ATP energy
′
F ick s Law of  Diff usion = 
Surf ace Area ×Diff erence in Concentration
Thickness of Exchange Surface ​

Active transport: Involves the use of carrier proteins to Osmosis in Plant Cells:
move
substances against the concentration gradient Protoplast: the living part of the cell inside the cell wall
using ATP energy. In pure water: water enters the cell by osmosis, and
the
cell wall pushes back against the expanding
protoplast, building
up pressure rapidly, becoming
turgid.
In concentrated solution: water will leave the cell by
osmosis. The protoplast gradually shrinks until it is
exerting
no pressure on the cell wall. The protoplast
continues to shrink
and pull away from the cell wall,
so the cell is plasmolysed.
The point at which
plasmolysis is about to occur is referred to
as
incipient plasmolysis.

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diaphragm and ribs.
How plasmolysis occurs:
contract or relax to adjust the diameter of these
due to the absence of cartilage. During
relax to allow a greater flow of
from collapsing or bursting as the air
breathing.
the air before it reaches the lungs. These
called epithelium. There are two
2.4. The Mammalian Gas Exchange
System
then moved out with the help of cilia.
Gross structure of lungs: lungs are in chest cavity
surrounded
by the pleural membranes, which enclose an
airtight space. This
space contains a small quantity of
fluid to allow friction-free
movement as the lungs are
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ventilated by the movement of the
Bronchi: branch to form smaller bronchioles.
Bronchioles are surrounded by smooth muscle, which
can
tiny airways
exercise, the muscles
air to the alveoli.
Cartilage: It is a connective tissue. It keeps airways in
trachea and bronchi open and air resistance low and
prevents them
pressure changes during
Epithelium: Air flows down the lungs through trachea and
bronchi, which are lined by cells adapted to remove
particles from
cells make up a tissue
main kinds:
Ciliated cells: They are responsible for the continual
movement of mucus towards the larynx.
Goblet cells: Secretes mucus that traps pathogens,
which are
Adaptations for efficient gas
exchange
A large number of alveoli is
Large surface area present to increase the surface
area
The wall of the alveolus is very
thin (single layer of squamous
Thin surface epithelium) to decrease the
diffusion distance. Also, the walls
of the capillaries are thin.
Deoxygenated blood is brought to
Steep concentration the alveoli which provides a steep
gradient concentration gradient for
diffusion
Moist surface Allowing dissolving of gases
Replacing alveolar air with air
Ventilation from outside the body. This helps
maintain the diffusion gradient.
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Factors Affecting Enzyme Action:

2.5. Enzymes
Temperature: As the temperature increases, the
An enzyme is a biological catalyst that accelerates kinetic
energy and the enzyme activity increases as
there’s more
collisions until optimal temperature is
metabolic
reactions. Enzymes are globular proteins as
reached (usually 40C).
At optimum temperature,
they have a roughly
spherical shape and are water-
maximum rate of reaction is achieved. If
the
soluble. Enzymes functioning inside a
cell are
intracellular, but those that are secreted by cells and temperature continues to increase beyond the
catalyse reactions outside cells are described as optimum
temperature, the rate of the reaction begins
to decrease as more
kinetic energy breaks the bonds
extracellular.
in the secondary and tertiary
structure of the enzyme.
Enzymes have specific active sites that are
This changes the shape of the enzyme
and it’s active
complementary to the
shape of the substrate. The
substrate is held in place at the active
site by weak site and causes the substrate to no longer fit.
The
hydrogen and ionic bonds. The combined structure is enzyme is denatured.
called the enzyme-substrate complex.
Activation energy is the energy required in any chemical
reaction to
break the bonds in reactant molecules so that
new bonds are formed
to make the product. An enzyme
lowers the activation energy required
for the reaction.
However, the overall energy released during the
reaction
is maintained.
Lock-and-key theory: the shape of the active site is exact
and substrates that are not complementary to the shape
of the active
site cannot bind. The enzyme-substrate
complexes formed to enable
the reaction to take place
more easily.

pH: Any change in the pH value of the medium

around the enzyme
will cause the bonds to be
damaged, this will change the 3-D shape
of the
enzyme and deform the active site. Therefore, the
substrate
will not be able to fit into active site thus the
reaction slows
down or stops. The enzyme gets
denatured.

Induced fit theory: the enzyme’s active site is not initially

an
exact fit to the substrate molecule. However, the
enzyme molecules
are more flexible and can change
shape slightly as the substrate
enters the enzyme. This
means that the enzyme molecule will undergo
conformational changes as the substrate combines with
the enzyme’s
active site, forming the enzyme-substrate
complex.

Enzyme concentration: As the concentration of

enzymes is
increased, there are more available active
sites for substrates to
fit into. More enzyme-substrate
complexes are formed, more products
are formed
and the rate of reaction is increased. At the beginning,
the limiting factor is the enzyme concentration. Once
all substrates
have formed enzyme-substrate
complexes, a further increase in enzyme
concentration will have no effect on the rate of
reaction. At this
point, the limiting factor is the
substrate concentration.

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Substrate concentration: As the concentration of nitrogenous

bases: Adenine, thymine, guanine, and
substrate
increases, the greater the chance of cytosine.
collision with enzymes, the
more enzyme-substrate Complementary base pairing: between Adenine and
complexes formed, the more products formed and thymine
(or Adenine and uracil in RNA) and between
the greater the rate of reaction. At the beginning, the guanine and
cytosine. Because of complementary
limiting
factor is the substrate concentration. Once all base pairing, the order of
the bases in one strand
the enzymes are
occupied and working at their determines the order of the bases in the
other strand.
maximum rate (vmax), a further
increase in substrate Therefore, the strands are complementary to each
concentration will have no effect on the rate
of other as well.
reaction. At this point, the limiting factor is the Purines are nitrogenous bases with double ring
enzyme
concentration. structures (Guanine and Adenine).
Pyrimidines are nitrogenous bases with single ring
Why do we measure the initial rate? structures (Thymine, Uracil, and Cytosine).
There are enough substrate molecules present to Adenine and Thymine form 2 hydrogen bonds,
ensure that
substrate concentration is not a limiting Guanine and
Cytosine, form 3.
reactant
The substrate concentration is only known at the
beginning of
the reaction

2.6. The Structure of DNA and RNA

Nucleic Acids:
Made up of Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, and
Phosphorus
Monomers called nucleotides make up nucleic acids RNA: a single stranded polynucleotide chain present in
They are made up of a pentose sugar, organic the
nucleus, cytoplasm and ribosome. It contains a
nitrogen base, and phosphate group pentose sugar
(ribose) and has 4 nitrogenous bases:
DNA molecules are double-stranded, RNA molecules Adenine, Uracil, Guanine and
Cytosine. The different
are
single-stranded types of RNA include:

mRNA (messenger RNA): carries the genetic information

in the
form of a template from the nucleus to the
ribosome for translation.
tRNA (transfer RNA): has a specific amino acid at one end
and an
anticodon at the other end. It fits onto the mRNA
at ribosomes at
complementary mRNA codon for protein
Polynucleotide: many nucleotides are linked together into synthesis.
a long
chain-forming polynucleotides DNA/RNA.
Phosphodiester bonds formed by condensation DNA RNA
reactions link the
5-carbon of one sugar molecule and Strands Double-Stranded Single Stranded
the 3-carbon of the next. The
polynucleotide strand is
Nitrogen
said to have 3΄and 5΄ends Contains Thymine Contains Uracil
Bases
Structure Helical Structure Linear Structure
Pentose Contains Deoxyribose Contains Ribose
Sugar sugar Sugar

2.7. DNA Replication

Pentose Sugars:
Semi-conservative replication of DNA: The DNA separates
Ribose (C5H10O5) present in RNA
nucleotides
into two
strands, and each strand acts as a template.
Deoxyribose (C5H10O4) present
in DNA nucleotides
Each new DNA molecule
consists of one old strand and a
DNA is made up of two antiparallel polynucleotide complementary new strand.
strands lying
side by side, held together by hydrogen A template is a length of polynucleotide chain on to
bonds. These strands are
arranged into a ladder-like
which
nucleotides attach to start the synthesis of a
structure called a double helix. The
phosphate and the
complementary
sequence
deoxyribose sugar form the backbone of the DNA
The DNA double helix unwinds and ‘unzips’ as the
molecule while the base pairs form the rings. It has 4 hydrogen bonds
between the bases break by DNA

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helicase. Made up of a Triplet code: There are 20 different

In the nucleus, there are free nucleotides that pair up amino acids,
and 4 Nitrogen Bases. Therefore
by
complementary base pairing on each of the old minimum code length must be 3.
42 = 16 | 43 = 64
DNA Non-overlapping: e.g. AGGTCA will be read as AGG
DNA polymerase links adjacent nucleotides to each and TCA only
and not AGG, GGT, GTC, TCA
other by
catalysing phosphodiester bonds. Degenerate: Multiple Triplet codes code for 1 amino
Hydrogen bonds form within the structure, allowing it acid
to coil up
into a double helix Gene: A sequence of bases on a DNA molecule coding for

a
sequence of amino acids that control body
characteristics of an
organism.
Codon: A sequence of 3 bases in DNA or mRNA
(messenger RNA) .
Sense Strand: The DNA strand carrying the code for the
protein
being coded
Antisense Strand: The DNA strand acting as a template
for the mRNA molecule
Transcription:
DNA Helicase breaks the Hydrogen bonds in the gene
Meselson and Stahl’s experiment: forming the sense and antisense strands.
Stahl and Meselson devised an experiment to prove RNA nucleotides line up with their complimentary
the theory of
semi-conservative replication base on the Antisense strand.
They grew a culture of bacteria in a medium of Heavy Phosphodiester bonds formed between sugar
Nitrogen
(15N) only phosphate groups with the help of RNA polymerase.
Hydrogen bonds between the DNA and mRNA strand
The bacteria culture used the heavy Nitrogen to
are then broken.
produce DNA and
different proteins, and after many
generations, all of the DNA
within the bacteria mRNA strand is formed then leaves the nucleus
through the nuclear pores.
contained heavy Nitrogen only
Bacteria were then moved into a medium of Normal
Nitrogen
(14N)
Bacteria were grouped and left to divided for one
generation,
two generations, and three generations
Bacterial DNA was extracted and placed in a
centrifuge
In a centrifuge, the heavier the item, the lower its
position is
The original bacteria formed a single band of DNA at Translation:
the bottom mRNA is attached to a ribosome.
The 1st generation formed a single band at the tRNA (transfer RNA) carries one amino acid on it and
middle has an anticodon
The 2nd generation formed two bands, one at the The anticodon of the tRNA complementary to the
centre and one
up the top, of equal thicknesses codons on the mRNA gets attached.
The 3rd generation also formed two bands similar to Each mRNA has a start codon “AUG” which is
the 2nd
generation, but the top band was thicker than complementary to the anticodon UAC which carries
the middle the Methionine amino acid.
If conservative replication were taking place, the 1st A second tRNA attaches to the next codon on the
generation would contain 2 bars upon centrifugation. mRNA similarly.

The amino acids join together through a peptide bond
The first tRNA is removed and leaves behind the
amino acid.
The ribosome moves the mRNA to the next codon.
A third tRNA attaches to the next codon on the mRNA
similarly as the first and second.
The process repeats until a stop codon is reached.
Stop codons: UAA, UGA, UAG.
2.8. Protein Synthesis The mRNA and the polypeptide chain pulls away from
the ribosome.
Nature of genetic code:

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Drawing Genetic Diagrams

A red-green colour blind father and an unaffected
heterozygous mother had a child.Determine the probability
of this child being red-green colour blind. Use a genetic
diagram to support your answer.
Answer: \n

2.9. Gene Mutation

Mutation: a change in the nucleotide sequence of a gene,
which
may then result in an altered polypeptide.
Substitution: 1 nucleotide is replaced by another
Deletion: 1 nucleotide is removed from the sequence 2.11. Cystic Fibrosis
Insertion: 1 nucleotide is added to the sequence
Frameshift: Occurs in insertion and deletion mutation. Cystic fibrosis is caused by a recessive allele that codes
They
cause all the triplet codes to change due to the for a
transport protein called CFTR, causing the
nature of the
genetic code being non-overlapping. production of abnormal
thick mucus that is difficult to be
Some mutations can cause cancer or genetic disorders, removed
while many
mutations have no observable effect, this is Other body parts such as pancreatic duct can become
due to the degenerate
nature of the genetic code and the blocked as well
as reproductive ducts causing infertility
presence of introns (Non-coding
genes). CFTR effects on lungs:
Due to mucus not being moved effectively by cilia,
2.10. Patterns of Inheritance bacteria and
dust accumulate, causing infections
Reduces gaseous exchange, by making it a longer
Alleles: are different varieties of a gene occupying the diffusion
pathway
same
locus. Causes difficulty in breathing
Genotype: the genetic make-up of an organism formed by Lungs may be scarred
The CFTR gene normally codes for a transport protein
alleles,
e.g. the alleles HbA HbS form the genotype:
that allows
chloride ions to pass out of cell.
HbAHbS, HbSHbS,
HbAHbA
Phenotype: The observable features of an organism
resulting from
interactions between its genotype and
environment
Heterozygote: An individual carrying 2 different alleles
coding
for a certain characteristic.
Homozygote: An individual carrying 2 identical alleles
coding
for a certain characteristic.
A dominant allele is one whose effect on the phenotype
of a
heterozygous is identical to one of a homozygote.
A recessive allele is one who does not express itself when
a
dominant gene is present.
Codominance: Both alleles are expressed in the Chloride ions are essential to be transported out so that
they
cause a concentration gradient outside, hence
phenotype of a
heterozygous organism.
causing water to move
out of cells by osmosis.
A monohybrid cross is a mating between two individuals
with
different alleles at one genetic locus of interest. The water mixes with the mucus making it easily removed
by the
sweeping movement of cilia.
A test cross is a genetic cross in which a dominant allele is
crossed with a homozygous recessive organism; the The recessive allele codes for a faulty version of this
offspring
phenotypes can determine whether the parent protein,
not allowing Cl- ions to pass out of the cell, so
is homo/hetro dominant water
doesn’t move out and mucus remains thick.

Drawing Genetic Diagrams 2.12. Genetic Screening

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Genetic screening is the analysis of a person’s DNA to ratio for each character shown in the table below is
check for
the presence of a particular allele. 9:3:3:1. Two heterozygous individuals were crossed
Preimplantation genetic diagnosis: At the 8-cell stage and the phenotype of their offsprings recorded.
during an
IVF, one cell can be removed and checked for If the results of the test conclude that the expected
diseases; if embryo is
healthy, then it is implanted, if not and observed results are significantly different then
it is then discarded. the null hypothesis can be rejected, otherwise it is
Prenatal Screening: testing embryo and the fetus supported.
Amniocentesis: performed at 15-17 weeks, a sample
of
amniotic fluid is taken and cells are checked for any Phenotype
genetic
abnormalities - black fur, black fur, grey fur, grey fur,
Chorionic Villi Sampling (CVS): performed at 10-12 blue eyes brown eyes blue eyes brown eyes
weeks, a
small sample of tissue is taken from the Ratio 9 3 3 1
placenta then cells are
checked for genetic
Expected
abnormalities 90 30 30 10
Result (E)
CVS Amniocentesis Observed
82 30 26 22
Culture of cells is not needed Cell culture is required for 2-3 Result (O)
due to large sample size weeks O-E -8 0 -4 12
Test carried out much earlier Carried out later in (O-E)² 64 0 16 144
during pregnancy pregnancy (O-E)²/E 64/90 0 16/30 144/10
Results achieved faster Needs time due to culture χ² (64/90) + 0 + (16/30) + (144/10) = 15.6444...

Ethical Views: Comparing the Chi-squared (χ²) value to the

Parents are able to know whether they are carriers or Critical value
not.
Allowing them to make informed decisions
regarding having
children Comparing the Chi-squared value to the Critical value is
Parents can make an informed decision about important to determine whether there is a significant
abortion of an embryo
carrying a genetic disease change or not.
False positives/negatives could result in decisions The critical value is the probability that the difference
being made
based on wrong information e.g. Loss of a between observed and expected results are due to
healthy life chance.
Fear of social stigma could force parents to abort an The critical value is only looked at 0.05 (5%) probability.
affected
embryo If the chi-squared value is greater than the critical value
Many religious groups stand against abortion. Stating then there is a significant change between the results,
that who
chooses whether someone gets to live or die therefore the null hypothesis is rejected.
If the chi-squared value is smaller than the critical value,
2.13. Chi-Squared (χ²) Tests then there is no significant change between the results,
therefore the null hypothesis is supported.
The Chi-squared test is a statistical test that is used to Example:
compare the observed results to the expected results to From the previous example, we got the chi-squared
see if there is a significant change. value of 15.6444…
Null Hypothesis: If there is no significant change, then it We need to determine the degrees of freedom, which
can be concluded that the results are due to chance. is the number of classes (or number of phenotypes)
The Chi-squared test is used to support or reject the null subtract 1.
hypothesis. So, since we had 4 phenotypes, our degrees of
freedom is 3.
Calculating for the Chi-squared (χ²) value Using the table below, we can conclude that the
critical value for the chi-squared value is 7.82.
The formula for statistical test (it will be given in the Since the chi-squared value (15.6444…) is greater than
exam): the critical value (7.82), we can reject the null
hypothesis.
(O−E)2
χ2 = ∑ E ​

Example:
An investigation was conducted about the inheritance
of two characteristics in Siberian Husky dogs: fur and
eye colour. Using a dihybrid cross, it is found that the

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Biology

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