The Eye : Special Sense Organs

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 Eyes: The Photoreceptor System

• The eye is a complex and highly developed

photosensitive organ that analyses the form, intensity,
and color of light reflected from objects, providing the
sense of sight.
• The eyes are located in protective areas of the skull,
the orbits

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 Eyes…
• Each eye is composed of three layers:
– A tough external layer consisting of the sclera and the
cornea
– A more vascular middle layer consisting of the choroid,
ciliary body and iris
– An inner sensory layer, the retina, which consists of:
• an outer pigmented epithelium and an inner retina proper.
• The photosensitive inner layer of the retina communicates
with the cerebrum through the optic nerve on the eye's
posterior side
• its anterior edge is called the ora serrata

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 The lens of the eye
• Is a biconvex transparent structure held in place by a
circular system of zonular fibers which extend from the lens
into:
– a thickening of the middle layer, the ciliary body and
– by close apposition to the vitreous body on its posterior
side
• Partly covering the anterior surface of the lens is an opaque
pigmented expansion of the middle layer called the iris.
• The round hole in the middle of the iris is the pupil

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 Fluid-filled Cavities of the Eye
• The eye contains two fluid-filled cavities:
– the anterior chamber, which occupies the space between
the cornea and the iris
– the posterior chamber, between the iris, ciliary processes,
zonular attachments, and lens
– Interconnected at the pupil, these contain a clear fluid
called aqueous humor.
– The vitreous chamber lies behind the lens and its
zonular attachments and is surrounded by the retina.
– This chamber is filled with a transparent, gelatinous mass
of connective tissue called the vitreous body 7
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 Fibrous Layer
• This layer includes two major regions, the posterior sclera
and anterior cornea, joined at the limbus.
 Sclera
– External layer of the eyeball protects the more delicate internal
structures
– Provides sites for muscle insertion
– The opaque white posterior five-sixths of the external layer is the
sclera w/c forms a segment of a sphere with a diameter of
approximately 22 mm in adults.
– The sclera averages 0.5 mm in thickness
– is relatively avascular, and consists of tough, dense connective
tissue containing flat type I collagen
– Posteriorly the sclera thickens to approximately 1 mm and joins
with the epineurium covering the optic nerve. 9
 Cornea
• Make up the anterior one-sixth of the eye
• Is colorless, transparent, and completely avascular
• It consists of five layers:
1. An external stratified squamous epithelium
2. An anterior limiting membrane (Bowman's membrane, the
basement membrane of the stratified epithelium)
3. The thick stroma,
4. A posterior limiting membrane (Descemet's membrane, the
basement membrane of the endothelium)
5. An inner simple squamous endothelium
• The stratified surface epithelium is nonkeratinized, with five or six cell
layers of cells comprising about 10% of the corneal thickness.
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 Cornea…
• The basal cells
– have a high proliferative capacity important for renewal and
repair of the corneal surface
– emerge from stem cells in the corneoscleral limbus that
encircles the cornea.
• The flattened surface cells have microvilli protruding into a
protective tear film of lipid, glycoprotein, and water.
• As another protective adaptation, the corneal epithelium
also has one of the richest sensory nerve supplies of any
tissue.
• The basement membrane of this epithelium:
– often called Bowman membrane,
– is very thick (8-10 μm) and contributes to the stability and
strength of the cornea,
– helping to protect against infection of the underlying stroma.11
 Cornea…
• The thick stroma, or substantia propria:
– Makes up 90% of the cornea’s thickness
– Is formed of approximately 60 layers of parallel
collagen bundles that align at approximately right angles
to each other and may cross the complete corneal
diameter.
– The uniform orthogonal array of collagen fibrils
contributes to the transparency of this avascular tissue.
– Between the collagen lamellae are cytoplasmic extensions
of flattened fibroblast-like cells called keratocytes
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 Cornea…
• Descemet’s membrane
– Bound posterior surface of the stroma
– supports the internal simple squamous corneal
endothelium
– This endothelium maintains Descemet᾽s membrane and
includes the most metabolically active cells of the cornea
– Na+/K+ ATPase pumps in the basolateral membranes of
these cells are largely responsible for regulating the
proper hydration state of the corneal stroma to provide
maximal transparency and optimal light refraction.

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• The anterior structure of the
eye, the cornea has five
layers.
• (a) The external stratified
squamous epithelium (E)
– is nonkeratinized,
– five or six cells thick, and
– densely supplied with sensory-
free nerve endings that trigger
the blinking reflex.
• The stroma (S)
– Comprises approximately 90%
of the cornea’s thickness,
– consisting of some
60 layers of long type I
collagen fibers
– is lined internally by
endothelium (EN). (X100; H&E)

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• (b) The corneal epithelium (E)
– rests firmly on the thick
homogeneous Bowman’s
membrane (B).
• The stroma (S)
– is completely avascular, and
– nutrients reach the keratocytes
and epithelial cells by
diffusion from the surrounding
limbus and aqueous humor
behind the cornea. (X400; H&E)
• (c) The posterior surface of
the cornea
– is covered by simple squamous
epithelium (EN) that rests on
another thick, strong layer
called Descemet’s membrane
(D) adjacent to the stroma (S).
(X400; H&E)
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 Limbus
• A transitional area where the transparent cornea merges
with the opaque sclera
• Here Bowman’s membrane ends and the surface epithelium
becomes more stratified as the conjunctiva that covers the
anterior part of the sclera (and lines the eyelids).
• Epithelial stem cells located at the limbus surface give rise
to rapidly dividing progenitor cells that move centripetally
into the corneal epithelium.
• The stroma becomes vascular and less well-organized at
the limbus, as the collagen bundles merge with those of the
sclera.
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 Limbus…
• Also at the limbus;
– Descemet's membrane and its simple endothelium are
replaced with a system of irregular endothelium-lined
channels called the trabecular meshwork, which
penetrate the stroma and allow slow, continuous drainage
of aqueous humor from the anterior cavity
– The fluid is pumped from these channels into the adjacent
larger space of the scleral venous sinus, or canal of
Schlemm - from which it drains into small blood vessels
(veins) of the sclera.

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• At the circumference of the cornea is
the limbus or corneoscleral junction
(CSJ),
• sclera (S).
• The epithelium of the limbus is slightly
thicker than the corneal epithelium,
containing stem cells for the latter, and
is continuous with the conjunctive (C)
• The stroma of the limbus contains the
scleral venous sinus (SVS), or canal
of Schlemm, which receives aqueous
humor from an adjacent trabecular
meshwork at the surface of the anterior
chamber (AC).
• Internal to the limbus, the middle layer
of the eye consists of the ciliary body
and its anterior extension, the iris (I).
• The smooth ciliary muscle (CM, the
ciliary processes (CP), and the ciliary
zonule (CZ), the lens (L) , Pieces of one
zonular fiber can be seen (arrow).
• Projecting into the posterior chamber
(PC), the vitreous chamber(VC). (X12.5;
H&E) 18
 Vascular Layer
• The eye's more vascular middle layer, also known as the
uvea
• Consists of three parts, from posterior to anterior:
– the choroid, the ciliary body, and the iris
 Choroid
– Located in the posterior two-thirds of the eye
– consists of loose, well-vascularized connective tissue and
contains numerous melanocytes
– The abundant melanocytes give the layer its characteristic
black color and block light from entering the eye except
through the pupil
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 Choroid…
• Two layers make up the choroid:
 The inner choroidocapillary lamina
– has a rich microvasculature important for nutrition of the outer
retinal layers.
• Bruch membrane,
– a thin extracellular sheet, is composed of collagen and elastic
fibers surrounding the adjacent microvasculature and basal lamina
of the retina’s pigmented layer.
– separates the choriocapillary layer from the retina
– This membrane extends from the ora serrata back to the optic
nerve

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• The lateral wall of an eye includes : Sclera, choroid, and retina
– dense connective tissue of the sclera (S) and
– the loose, vascular connective tissue of
the choroid (C).
– Melanocytes are prominent in the choroid,
especially in its outer region, the
suprachoroidal lamina (SCL).
• The choroid’s :
– inner region, the choroidocapillary lamina
(CCL),
– Bruch layer (B).
• The outer layer of the retina is the
pigmented layer (P).
• Adjacent to this are the packed
photoreceptor components of the rods and
cones (R&C),
whose cell bodies make up the outer
nuclear layer (ONL).
• outer limiting layer (OLL).
• outer plexiform layer (OPL)
• inner nuclear layer (INL).
• inner plexiform layer (IPL),
• ganglionic layer (GL).
• nerve fiber layer (NFL)
• inner limiting layer (ILL)
• vitreous body (VB). (X200; H&E)
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 Ciliary Body
• Is the anterior expansion of the uvea that encircles the lens,
lies posterior to the limbus
• Like the choroid, most of the ciliary body rests on the sclera.
• Important structures associated with the ciliary body include
the following:
• Ciliary muscle
– makes up most of the ciliary body’s stroma and consists of three
groups of smooth muscle fibers.
– Contraction of these muscles affects the shape of the lens and is
important in visual accommodation.

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 Ciliary Body…
• Ciliary processes
– are a radially arranged series of about 75 ridges
extending from the inner highly vascular region of the
ciliary body.
– These provide a large surface area covered by a double
layer of low columnar epithelial cells, the ciliary
epithelium.
– The epithelial cells directly covering the stroma contain
much melanin and correspond to the anterior projection of
the pigmented retina epithelium.
– The surface layer of cells lacks melanin and is contiguous
with the sensory layer of the retina.
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• Epithelium of ciliary processes
– The surface epithelium of ciliary
processes is a double layer of
pigmented (PE) and
nonpigmented epithelial (NE) low
columnar or cuboidal cells.
– The two layers are derived
developmentally from the folded
rim of the embryonic optic cup.
• Beneath the double epithelium
is a core of connective tissue
with many small blood vessels
(V).
• Fluid from these vessels is
pumped by the epithelial cells
out of the ciliary processes as
aqueous humor. (X200; PT)

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 Iris
• Is the most anterior extension of the uvea (middle layer)
• Partially covers the lens, leaving a round central pupil
• The anterior surface of the iris,
– Exposed to aqueous humor in the anterior chamber,
– consists of a dense layer of fibroblasts and melanocytes with
interdigitating processes and
– is unusual for its lack of an epithelial covering.
• Deeper in the iris, the stroma consists of loose connective
tissue with melanocytes and sparse microvasculature.
• The posterior surface of the iris
– is smooth, with a two-layered epithelium continuous with that
covering the ciliary body and its processes but very heavily filled
with melanin
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 Iris…
• The highly pigmented posterior epithelium of the iris blocks
all light from entering the eye except that passing through
the pupil.
• Myoepithelial cells
– form a partially pigmented epithelial layer and extend contractile
processes radially as the very thin dilator pupillae muscle .
• Smooth muscle fibers form a circular bundle near the pupil
as the sphincter pupillae muscle.
• The dilator and sphincter muscles of the iris:
– have sympathetic and parasympathetic innervation, respectively,
for enlarging and constricting the pupil.

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The iris regulates the amount of light to which the retina is exposed.
(a) The low-power micrograph shows;
• a section of the central iris, near the pupil (P).
• The anterior surface, exposed to aqueous humor in the anterior chamber (AC),
• Cells of the external pigmented epithelium (PE), (DPM), sphincter pupillae muscle (SPM).
• The underlying stroma (S) contains many melanocytes with varying amounts of melanin.
(X140; H&E)
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 Lens
• Is a transparent biconvex structure immediately behind the iris
• Used to focus light on the retina
• Derived from an invagination of the embryonic surface epithelium (ectoderm)
• The lens is a unique avascular tissue
• It is highly elastic, a feature that is lost with age as lens tissue hardens.
• The lens has three principal components.
– Lens Capsule - composed of proteoglycans and type IV collagen
surrounds the lens
– Lens Epithelium:
• Subcapsular lens epithelium consists of a single layer of cuboidal
epithelial cells and is present only on the anterior surface of the lens
– Lens Fibers
• are highly elongated, terminally differentiated cells that appear as
thin, flattened structures
• are packed tightly together and form a perfectly transparent tissue
highly specialized for light refraction.
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• The lens is a transparent, elastic
tissue that focuses light on the
retina.
• Surrounding the entire lens is a
thick, homogenous external lamina
called the lens capsule (LC).
• The anterior surface of
the lens, beneath the capsule, is
covered by a simple columnar lens
epithelium (LE).
• Differentiating lens fibers (DLF) still
have their nuclei but are greatly
elongating and filling their
cytoplasm with proteins called
crystallins.
• The mature lens fibers (MLF) have
lost their nuclei and become
densely packed to produce a
unique transparent structure. (X200;
H&E)
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 Lens…
• The lens is held in place by fibers of the ciliary zonule,
which extend from the lens capsule to the ciliary body
• Together with the ciliary muscles, this structure allows the
process of visual accommodation,
– which permits focusing on near and far objects by changing the
curvature of the lens.
• When the eye is at rest or gazing at distant objects, ciliary
muscles relax and the resulting shape of the ciliary body
puts tension on the zonule fibers, which pulls the lens into a
flatter shape.

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 Lens…
• To focus on a close object the ciliary muscles contract,
causing forward displacement of the ciliary body, which
relieves some of the tension on the zonule and allows the lens
to return to a more rounded shape and keep the object in
focus.
• In the fourth decade of life presbyopia (Gr. presbyter, elder
+ L. opticus, relating to eyes) normally causes the lenses to
lose elasticity and their ability to undergo accommodation.

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Accommodation of the lens

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 Vitreous Body

• Occupies the large vitreous chamber behind the lens.

• It consists of transparent, gellike connective tissue that is
99% water (vitreous humor), with collagen fibrils and
hyaluronate, contained within an external lamina called the
vitreous membrane.
• The only cells in the vitreous body are a small mesenchymal
population near the membrane called hyalocytes, which
synthesize the hyaluronate and collagen, and a few
macrophages.

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 Retina
• Is the inner layer of the eye
• Is derived from the embryonic optic cup
• Consists of two major layers:
– The inner one, the neural retina,
• Contains the neurons and photoreceptors.
• This layer's visual region extends anterior only as far as the ora
serrata
– The outer pigmented layer
• is an epithelium resting on Bruch's membrane just inside the
choroid
• This pigmented, cuboidal epithelium also lines the ciliary body
and posterior iris
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 Retina…
• Between the rod and cone cell layer and the bipolar cells is
a region called the outer plexiform layer that contains
fibers and synapses connecting the neurons in these two
cellular layers.
• The similar region of synapses between the bipolar and
ganglion cells is called the inner plexiform layer
• The retina has an inverted structure, with the light first
passing through the ganglion layer and then the bipolar
layer to reach the rod and cone cells.
• The rods and cones, named for the shape of their outer
segments, are polarized neurons.
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• The lateral wall of an eye includes : Sclera, choroid, and retina
– dense connective tissue of the sclera (S) and
– the loose, vascular connective tissue of
the choroid (C).
– Melanocytes are prominent in the choroid,
especially in its outer region, the
suprachoroidal lamina (SCL).
• The choroid’s :
– inner region, the choroidocapillary lamina
(CCL),
– Bruch layer (B).
• The outer layer of the retina is the
pigmented layer (P).
• Adjacent to this are the packed
photoreceptor components of the rods and
cones (R&C),
whose cell bodies make up the outer
nuclear layer (ONL).
• outer limiting layer (OLL).
• outer plexiform layer (OPL)
• inner nuclear layer (INL).
• inner plexiform layer (IPL),
• ganglionic layer (GL).
• nerve fiber layer (NFL)
• inner limiting layer (ILL)
• vitreous body (VB). (X200; H&E)
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 Retina…
• At one pole is a single photosensitive dendrite and at the
other are synapses with cells of the bipolar layer.
• The rod and cone cells can be divided into outer and inner
segments, a nuclear region, and a synaptic region
• The outer segments are modified primary cilia and contain
stacks of membranous saccules shaped as flattened disks.
• The photosensitive pigments of the retina are located in the
membranes of these saccules.
• Both rod cells and cone cells pass through a thin layer, the
outer limiting layer, which consists of a series of junctional
complexes between the photoreceptors and the organizing
glial cells of the retina called Müller cells 40
 Other Neurons and Glia

• The inner nuclear layer of bipolar cells consists mainly of

various bipolar neurons which have processes extending
into the inner and outer plexiform layers and forming
synaptic connections with neurons in all layers of the retina.
• Also having their nuclei in the inner nuclear layer are
horizontal cells and amacrine cells

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 Specialized Areas of the Retina
• The posterior area of the retina where the optic nerve leaves the
retina is devoid of photoreceptors and is known as the blind spot of
the retina, or the optic disc
• On the temporal side of the optic disc, at the posterior pole of the
optical axis, lies a specialized area of the retina called the fovea
centralis
• The fovea (L. fovea, a small pit) is a shallow depression having only
cone cells at its center, with the bipolar and ganglion cells located only
at the periphery
• Surrounding the fovea centralis is the macula lutea (L. macula, spot;
lutea, yellow), or macula

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 Accessory structures of the eye

• Conjunctiva (transparent mucous membrane)

– lines the eyelids and is reflected onto the anterior portion
of the eyeball up to the cornea, where it becomes
continuous with the corneal epithelium.
– It is a stratified columnar epithelium possessing many
goblet cells.
– It is separated by a basal lamina from an underlying
lamina propria of loose connective tissue.

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 Eyelids

• Are lined internally by conjunctiva and externally by skin

that is elastic and covers a supportive framework of tarsal
plates.
• Contain highly modified sebaceous glands (meibomian
glands), smaller modified sebaceous glands (glands of Zeis),
and sweat glands (glands of Moll).

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 Lacrimal apparatus
 Lacrimal gland
– is a compound tubuloalveolar gland with secretory units
that are surrounded by an incomplete layer of
myoepithelial cells.
– Lacrimal fluid (tears) is mostly water, and contains
lysozyme, an antibacterial enzyme.
– Tears drain from the lacrimal gland via 6 to 12 ducts into
the conjunctival fornix, from which the tears flow over the
cornea and conjunctiva, keeping them moist.
– Tears then enter the lacrimal puncta, leading to the
lacrimal canaliculi.
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 Lacrimal apparatus…

 Lacrimal canaliculi
– are lined by a stratified squamous epithelium and unite to
form a common canaliculus, which empties into the lacrimal
sac.
• The lacrimal sac
– is lined by a pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium.
• The nasolacrimal duct
– is the inferior continuation of the lacrimal sac and is also
lined by a pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium.
– The duct empties into the floor of the nasal cavity.

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Thank You!

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