Use of form in Macbeth

The form of a text is the type of text you are reading or watching. The
form of Macbeth is a dramatic play. More specifically, it is a tragedy.
The simplest definition of a tragedy would be "a play with an
unhappy ending". While this is true, it is probably just a bit too
simple.

Tragic plays can be traced back all the way to the beginnings of
drama in Ancient Greece. In Poetics, one of the first books of literary
criticism, Aristotle set out the key features of tragedy. He stated that
tragic plays would involve a protagonist (the leading central figure)
who is usually of royal or noble birth. In the course of the play, the
protagonist reveals a fatal flaw (a character defect) which causes him
or her to go from success and happiness to failure, misery and, often,
death at the hands of an antagonist (his opposite). Tragedy set out to
stir up feelings of fear and pity in the audience – this is known as
catharsis.

All of these things can be seen at work in Macbeth. The protagonist is

clearly Macbeth himself, a thane of the Scottish nobility. His fatal
flaw is his ambition and this drives the action forward. Macbeth is
basically a good man who goes wrong. He is driven by a need for
power which eventually sets him on a path to his own destruction. His
wife shares this fatal flaw with him.
While Macbeth clearly achieves his ambition to become king, it is at
the expense of his happiness. He feels he needs to murder, lie and
behave brutally to others in order to keep his power. Eventually he
goes too far when he slaughters Macduff's family. This causes
Macduff to take up a position as the play's antagonist – Macbeth's
opposite. Eventually Macduff kills Macbeth in face-to-face combat.
While exciting to watch, all of this should cause feelings of horror and
regret in the audience.

Use of structure in Macbeth

The structure of a text refers to the way in which events are organised
inside the play as a whole. In the case of Macbeth, the structure is
strictly chronological. This is where events are revealed to the
audience/reader in the order in which they have happened. Sometimes
events are described rather than shown (eg Macbeth becoming king).
Others happen offstage (out of sight of the audience) for example,
Duncan's murder.

The events of this play are organised into five acts, each containing a
number of scenes. However, it is important to note that Shakespeare
himself almost certainly did not organise the play in this way and that
this structure would have been added later during the editing process
when the plays were turned into published text after being performed
that way.
The idea of the five-act structure is a useful one, though, as it follows
the model designed by Gustav Freytag, a German author from the
19th-century. Having carefully studied classical drama, he suggested
there were five stages in a tragic dramatic structure.

He named these stages: exposition, rising action, climax, falling

action and catastrophe.

Freytag's pyramid shows how a drama is divided into five acts

How this applies to Macbeth is shown in the table:

Stages What? When?

Act 1: Main characters are

Introduces the characters, introduced; the Witches
Exposition setting, events and key make their predictions;
ideas. thoughts of murder start to
form.

Act 2: Macbeth keeps

A series of related events changing his mind; Lady
Rising action occur leading up to the key Macbeth takes control; King
moment in the plot. Duncan’s murder (key
moment).

Climax Marks the turning point of Act 3: Macbeth becomes

the play. Up to this point King; Banquo is murdered
 Stages What? When?

things have gone well for

and Fleance escapes;
the main character – now
Macduff joins Malcolm in
things will go rapidly
England.
downhill.

The main conflict between

Act 4: Macbeth returns to the
the protagonist (the central
Falling Witches; Macduff’s family is
character – Macbeth) and
action slaughtered; Malcolm and
the antagonist (his opposite
Macduff plan their invasion.
– Macduff) is established.

Act 5: The invasion is carried

The protagonist is defeated out and Malcolm becomes
by the antagonist and King; the Witches' predictions
Catastrophe
events return to a state of come true in unexpected
normality. ways; both Macbeth and
Lady Macbeth die.

Examining poetic structure

In a play such as Macbeth, examining structure might also refer to the

poetic structure which is used. As you will have observed, the
majority of the writing in Macbeth is in poetic form, though
sometimes prose is used. There are three areas to look out for:

 lines with a five-beat rhythm

 lines with a four-beat rhythm

 lines written in prose

Lines with a five-beat rhythm

This is how the majority of the play is written. It is often called blank

verse or iambic pentameter. Each line has five beats with an
unstressed (x) syllable followed by a stressed (/) syllable:

eg

x/x/x/x/x/

So fair - and foul - a day - I have - not seen

Try saying this aloud while tapping out the rhythm of the five beats to
see how it works. The ends of lines are not generally rhymed which
helps to maintain the flow of the speech and carry through the
meaning of what the character is saying.

Sometimes a character is given an unfinished line to say. This is

called a half line (even if it is less or more than half the five beats). It
makes us think about why the line is incomplete – for instance, is it a
hesitation or an interruption? Two (or more) characters may have
a shared line where the five beats are divided up between them. This
tends to quicken the pace of the speeches as characters overlap their
words.

eg

x/x/
LADY MACBETH: Did not you speak?

MACBETH: When?

LADY MACBETH: Now?

x/x/

As I descended?

Lines with a four-beat rhythm

To separate the Witches from other characters, they often speak with a
different rhythmic pattern which only has four beats with (this time) a
stressed (/) syllable followed by an unstressed (x) syllable:

eg

/x/x/x/

Fair - is foul - and foul - is fair

Again, try saying this aloud while tapping out the rhythm of the four
beats to see how it works. Generally this structure tends to speed up
the rhythm in which the words are spoken and gives the whole thing a
more "sing-song" quality – this is, of course, very appropriate for the
Witches' chanting.
 Prose

This type of speech is generally reserved for the more common

characters (such as the Porter) or to indicate an extreme emotional
state. When Lady Macbeth is sleepwalking and she is starting to lose
her mind, Shakespeare does not use blank verse as he would normally
do for a noble character but uses straightforward prose instead:

eg

Here’s the smell of the blood still; all the perfumes of Arabia will not
sweeten this little hand. O, O, O.

Use of language in Macbeth

Language refers to the choices of style and vocabulary made by the
author. When analysing the language Shakespeare uses you should
think about:

 What? - the playwright's choice of specific words and literary

devices

 Where/how? - the way in which the writer uses them

 Why? – the effect on the reader

Social and historical context

William Shakespeare

Shakespeare was a genius with words. It is estimated that he had a

vocabulary of 17,000 words (four times that of the average educated
person of the time). Of these it has been calculated that he brought
over 1,700 new words to the English language as well as inventing
many of the phrases and sayings which we still use today. For
instance, 'be all and end all', 'at one fell swoop' and 'crack of doom' all
first appeared in Macbeth.

Evidence and explanation of the language used

Here are some examples of language choices which Shakespeare

makes: key words and literary devices such as animal imagery.

1. Key words

There are a number of key words in Macbeth which are used over and
over again. This repetition reinforces their importance in the mind of
the audience or reader and adds strongly to the overall atmosphere of
the play. Three of the most important key words in the play
are blood, night and time.
Blood

What relevance does the word 'blood' have in the play?

The word 'blood' appears numerous times in the play

Blood appears as a real substance all through the play. In one of

the first scenes a blood-stained Captain reports on the battle to
Duncan. Blood is evident when Duncan, Banquo and Lady Macduff
are murdered and the Witches use animal blood as part of their
potions. The play also finishes with real blood as Macbeth's severed
head is displayed for all to see.

The word 'blood' also appears a number of times as a symbol of

the guilt that runs through the play. For instance, Macbeth sees a
vision of a bloodstained dagger before he kills Duncan and Lady
Macbeth tries to wash away imaginary bloodstains during her guilt-
ridden sleepwalking.

The table shows some examples of the use of the key word blood:

How? Who? Where?

'What bloody man is After the first Act 1

How? Who? Where?

battle, the blood-

stained Captain
that?' Scene 2
reports to King
Duncan.

Lady Macbeth calls

on spirits to take
Act 1
'Make thick my blood' away any feelings
Scene 5
of pity she may
have.

Macbeth sees a
'And on thy blade and vision of a blood-
Act 2
dudgeon gouts stained dagger
Scene 1
of blood' before he murders
Duncan.

'Will all great Neptune's Macbeth feels Act 2

ocean wash this blood / great guilt about Scene 2
Clean from my hand?' murdering Duncan
and realises he is
never going to get
rid of these
How? Who? Where?

feelings.

Macbeth alerts one

of Banquo's
'There's blood upon thy murderers to the Act 3
face.' fact that he has his Scene 4
victim's blood on
his face.

Macbeth recalls an
old saying that
blood shed through
violence seeks
'It will have blood they
more blood in Act 3
say: blood will
revenge, creating a Scene 4
have blood.'
cycle of bloodshed;
he feels trapped in
the inevitability of
this violence.

'I am in blood / Stepp'd Macbeth realises Act 3

in so far that, should I that he has been Scene 4
wade no more, / responsible for so
Returning were as many acts of
How? Who? Where?

violence already
that it's impossible
tedious as go o'er' to undo them and
he may as well
keep killing.

'Cool it with a
The Witches use
baboon's blood, / Then Act 4
blood as part of
the charm is firm and Scene 1
one of their spells.
good.'

Lady Macbeth
sleepwalks and
'Here's the smell of Act 5
imagines she has
the blood still' Scene 1
blood on her
hands.

Why does Shakespeare use the word 'blood' so often in the play?

The word 'blood' appears over 40 times in Macbeth – not to mention

appearances by related words such as 'bloody', 'bleeding' and so on.
Shakespeare's constant repetition of the word 'blood' stresses to his
audience or readers the full horror of what is happening. This was
especially true for the play's original audiences. For them the
shedding of a king's blood would have been just about the worst crime
that could be committed. It was not only a crime but also a deadly
sin. The references to actual blood are a constant reminder of the
direct consequences of the Macbeth's actions. This is further
reinforced by the images of blood which are used throughout the
character's speeches and makes what they are saying all the more
frightening or horrific.

Night

What relevance does the word 'night' have in the play?

Repetition of the word 'night' also features heavily in the play

Night time is traditionally associated with evil and so it is in

Macbeth. Many of the most horrifying scenes of the play take place at
night and under the cover of darkness. Even when it is daylight
sometimes it seems more like night. The image of night time is also
used by the characters to show the darkness of their feelings and
the evil of what they are doing.

The table shows some examples of the use of the key word night:
How? Who? Where?

Lady Macbeth calls on spirits

'Come, thick night, / And pall
to bring on night time in Act 1
thee in the dunnest smoke of
order to 'cover up' the Scene 5
hell'
murder she is planning.

'By th'clock 'tis day' / And yet

Ross talks to an old man
dark night strangles the
about unnatural events
travelling lamp. /
following Duncan's murder.
Is't night's predominance, or Act 2
Although it is daytime in this
the day's shame, / That Scene 4
scene there is a mysterious
darkness does the face of
darkness covering the land
earth entomb / When living
as though it is night.
light should kiss it?'

Banquo tells Macbeth that

he will return at night time
'I must become a borrower of
an hour or two after sunset. Act 3
the night / For a dark hour,
This will give Macbeth the Scene 1
or twain.'
perfect cover to have
Banquo murdered.

'Come, seeling night, / Scarf Macbeth calls on night time Act 3

up the tender eye of pitiful to come quickly in order to Scene 2
day' cover up Banquo's murder. It
How? Who? Where?

echoes Lady Macbeth's

earlier speech.

Why does Shakespeare use the word 'night' so often in the play?

The constant repetition of the word 'night' highlights the sense of

darkness in the play and at the heart of some of the characters. It had
another particularly practical use in Shakespeare's day. Plays were
regularly performed out of doors and during daylight. Therefore it
was important to keep reminding the audience that some of the play's
most important scenes were actually meant to be taking place in the
dark.

Time

What relevance does the word 'time' have in the play?

References to 'time' often crop up in Macbeth

References to time are an important aspect of Macbeth and as time

passes in the play, events become more intense and consequences
more significant. Being able to see into the future, as Macbeth
believes the Witches are able to do, gives a sense of power to his
actions. Both he and his wife seem in a hurry to realise their
ambitions before time catches up with them.

The table shows some examples of the use of the key word time:

How? Who? Where?

'If you can look into

the seeds of time / Banquo asks the Witches to
And say which grain look into the future to see
Act 1 Scene 3
will grow and which what predictions they can
will not, / Speak then make for him.
to me'

Lady Macbeth advises her

'To beguile the time, / husband how to behave
Act 1 Scene 5
Look like the time' when he greets King Duncan
as a guest.

'The worm that's fled / Macbeth has just been told Act 3 Scene 4
Hath nature that that Banquo has been
in time will venom murdered but that his son,
breed, / No teeth for Fleance, has escaped.
th'present.' Macbeth realises that in the
future Fleance will come to
be as big a threat as his dead
How? Who? Where?

father.

'There would have

been a time for such a
The news of his wife's death
word. / Tomorrow, and
makes Macbeth think about
tomorrow, and
the whole concept of time
tomorrow, / Creeps in Act 5 Scene 5
and how it moves every
this petty pace from
person on earth towards the
day to day / To the last
moment of their death.
syllable of
recorded time'

Macduff presents Malcolm

'Behold where stands /
with Macbeth's severed
Th'usurper's cursèd Act 5 Scene 9
head and declares that his
head. The time is free.'
tyranny is over.

Why does Shakespeare use the word 'time' so often in the play?

As with the other key words, the main effect of repetition is to

make sure that the audience or reader knows that this aspect is
important. Time seems to pass more quickly as the play progresses
and this adds to the tension as the play moves towards its final climax.

Some other key words which feature repeatedly in the play

are: sleep, fear and nature.
 2. Literary devices – animal images

Imagery

Imagery is the general term covering the use of literary devices which
encourage us to form a mental picture in our mind about the way
something or someone looks, sounds, behaves, etc. The language used
often relates to one or more of our five senses.

The three most common literary devices which come under this
heading are simile, metaphor and personification.

Images of many different mammals, birds and insects appear

throughout the play. Two key groups are:

 birds

 wild animals

Birds

What is the significance of bird imagery in the play?

An owl - the bird of prey most associated with the character of

Macbeth
In Shakespeare's day there were many myths and folk tales
surrounding birdlife. Different species of bird were thought to have
specific characteristics - some, for instance, were specifically
thought to bring bad luck. Shakespeare uses this to link birds and
their habits to the human characters and how they behave.

The table shows some examples of the many references to birds in the
play:

How? Who? Where?

At the moment of Duncan's

'It was the owl that
death, Lady Macbeth hears an
shrieked, the fatal
owl shrieking. Macbeth
bellman / Which gives Act 2 Scene 2
himself is most often
the stern'st good-night.
associated with an owl - a bird
He is about it.'
of prey.

An old man tells Ross that an

owl (unusually) has flown
On Tuesday last, /
upwards then attacked and
A falcon tow'ring in her
killed a falcon. This exactly
pride of place / Was by a Act 2 Scene 4
mirrors what has happened
mousing owl hawked at
with Macbeth and Duncan. A
and killed.'
falcon is generally regarded as
a royal bird.
How? Who? Where?

Macbeth hints to his wife that

'Light thickens, / And
something evil is about to
the crow makes wing to Act 3 Scene 2
happen. He has, in fact, just
th'rooky wood'
ordered Banquo's murder.

'Augures, and It was thought that magpies

understood relations, (maggot-pies), jackdaws
have / By maggot-pies, (choughs) and rooks could be
and choughs, taught to speak a few words. Act 3 Scene 4
and rooks brought Macbeth is concerned that
forth / The secret'st man nature will turn against him
of blood.' and reveal his secrets.

'He wants the natural

touch, for the Lady Macduff complains that
poor wren, / The most her husband has left her
diminutive of birds, will defenceless. Even a tiny wren Act 4 Scene 2
fight, / Her young ones will fight an owl if its young
in her nest, against are threatened.
the owl.'

Why does Shakespeare use bird imagery in the play?

Shakespeare would have known that his audience would make the
necessary connections between the birds he mentions and the actions
and thoughts of his characters. They are used to highlight things that
have happened, that are happening or that will happen and
therefore create both expectation and tension.

Wild animals

What is the significance of wild animal imagery in the play?

Nature has often been described as 'red in tooth and claw' and it is this
idea that Shakespeare uses in his references to wild animals. They are
savage and untameable and share certain characteristics with
people in the play. The table shows some examples of the many
references to wild animals in the play:

How? Who? Where?

Macbeth uses a metaphor to

'O, full of scorpions is explain that his guilty
Act 3 Scene 2
my mind, dear wife!' conscience is attacking and
stinging him.

Macbeth uses a simile to say

'Approach thou like the
that he would rather deal
rugged Russian bear, /
with wild animals than Act 3 Scene 4
The armed rhinoceros,
Banquo's ghost which he has
or th'Hyrcan tiger'
just seen.

'Be lion-mettled, proud, One of the Witches' Act 4 Scene 1

and take no care' apparitions uses a simple
How? Who? Where?

metaphor to advise Macbeth

about being brave.

Why does Shakespeare use wild animal imagery in the play?

Most of Shakespeare's original audience would never actually have

seen these creatures (possibly not even pictures of them) but their
characteristics would have been understood. The references help to
create mental pictures in the audience's mind of the way the characters
in the play are and how they behave.

In addition to the above, the famous scene (Act 4 Scene 1) where the
Witches create their magic potion features virtually a whole zoo of
animals. The following are listed: cat, hedge-pig (hedgehog), toad,
snake, newt, frog, bat, dog, adder, blind worm, lizard, howlet (young
owl), dragon, wolf, shark, goat, baboon and sow. All of these had
associations with evil and/or witchcraft.

Glossary
1. blank verse
Lines in a poem that don't rhyme, usually in iambic
pentameter - five two-syllable feet per line.
2. chronological
The logical order of events in time, from beginning to middle
to end.
3. fatal flaw
In tragedy this refers to a defect in someone's character that
leads them to a bad end.
4. iambic pentameter
Line of verse written in five pairs of syllables each made up
by an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable.
5. imagery
The use of language to create images and pictures in the
reader's mind.
6. literary device
Any method an author uses to add meaning or interest to a
text, such as metaphors, similes or alliteration.
7. metaphor
A comparison made without using 'like' or 'as', eg 'sea of
troubles' and 'drowning in debt'.
8. personification
A type of imagery in which non-human objects, animals or
ideas are given human characteristics.
9. prose
Unrhymed - like everyday talk.
10.simile
A comparison using 'like' or 'as' to create a vivid image, eg
as big as a whale; float like a butterfly, sting like a bee.
11.syllable
Each individual part of a word which is pronounced when
the word is said aloud.