MPS 30 – Aircraft Systems

Actuation Systems
for Aircraft Control Surfaces

Emilia Villani
Purpose

▪ Understand qualitatively the different actuating systems of the aircraft

control surfaces.

Vertical Stabilizer
Rudder
Horizontal (Yaw)
Stabilizer Elevator
Spoilers
(Pitch)

Flaps
Aileron
(Roll)

Slats

2
Purpose

What devices or components are

required to move a control surface
given the pilot command?

Pilot command input

Aircraft Actuating Control surface movement
System

??
????
??

3
 Purpose

▪ The actuating system is responsible for moving the surface in response to

the pilot's commands.
▪ Various configurations and degrees of complexity:
– Mechanical System. Not powered
– Mechanical-Hydraulic System.
– Electro-Hydraulic System: Hydraulically
powered
• EHS (Electro-Hydraulic System)
– Electro-Mechanical System
Fly-by-
• EMA (Electro-Mechanical Actuator).
Wire
– Electro-Hydrostatic System: Power-by-
wire
• EHA (Electro-Hydrostatic Actuator).
• IAP (Integrated Actuated Package).

4
Topics

1. Mechanical Actuation

2. Hydraulic-Mechanical Actuation

3. Redundancy in the Hydraulic System

4. Electro-Hydraulic System (EHS)

5. Electro-Mechanical Actuator (EMA)

6. Electro-Hydrostatic Actuator (EHA)

5
Topics

1. Mechanical Actuation

2. Hydraulic-Mechanical Actuation

3. Redundancy in the Hydraulic System

4. Electro-Hydraulic System (EHS)

5. Electro-Mechanical Actuator (EMA)

6. Electro-Hydrostatic Actuator (EHA)

6
Mechanical Actuation

▪ Operation principle:
❑ Components: cables, pulleys, bar mechanisms and levers.
❑ Command and power are transmitted from the pilot to the surface.

Pilot input
(displacement)

Bar mechanism

Elevator

Cables and pulleys Bar mechanism

transmission

7
Mechanical Actuation

▪ Disadvantage:
❑ Effort required to move the control surface is accomplished by the pilot, who
must overcome the aerodynamic forces, the frictional forces and inertia of the
mechanical chain.
❑ Use of trim tabs: relatively small surfaces positioned at the trailing edge of the
primary surfaces with the purpose of reducing the required manual effort.

Horizontal
Stabilizer Elevator

Trim tab

Trim tab generates force that tends to

keep the elevator bent

8
Mechanical Actuation

▪ In use in old and small aircrafts.

Embraer Phenom 100

Trim tabs electrically driven for

aileron, rudder and elevator.

9
Topics

1. Mechanical Actuation

2. Hydraulic-Mechanical Actuation

3. Redundancy in the Hydraulic System

4. Electro-Hydraulic System (EHS)

5. Electro-Mechanical Actuator (EMA)

6. Electro-Hydrostatic Actuator (EHA)

10
Hydraulic-Mechanical Actuation

▪ Hydraulic power and mechanical command.

Control column

Neutral position

Mechanical transmission
system

Reservoir Pressure line

Pressure line Reservoir

Elevator

Hydraulic
servo-actuator
Disconnection
of power system

11
Hydraulic-Mechanical Actuation

▪ Description:
❑ The force required to move the surface is provided by the hydraulic system.
❑ The movement of the pilot column is transmitted mechanically to the servo
valve. The displacement of the servo valve transmits pressure to the hydraulic
cylinder, which, then, moves the surface.
❑ Two separate sets of servo-valve and actuator are connected in tandem. Each
set is powered by an independent hydraulic system, providing redundancy to
the system.
❑ In case of emergency, such as the loss of the two hydraulic systems, the
surface movement mechanism can be disconnected from the hydraulic
actuation system and operated in a purely mechanical way.

12
Hydraulic-Mechanical Actuation

▪ Servo-valve with mechanical feedback.

How does this system work?

u
Pressurized
line
Ps Pr Return
line
x

Load
y
2 1

13
Hydraulic-Mechanical Actuation

▪ Servo-valve with mechanical feedback.

Ps Pr

Case 1 - No pilot
command (u=0)

❑ When there is no input from the pilot (u=0), the load is on the central position (y=0), as
well as the servo-valve (x=0).
❑ The connections between the servo-valve and the actuator are closed. As a
consequence, there is no significant amount of fluid entering or leaving the actuator
chambers.

14
Hydraulic-Mechanical Actuation

▪ Servo-valve with mechanical feedback. Case 2 – Positive

command (u>0)
Ps Pr Ps Pr

2 1

❑ When the pilot provides a positive command (u>0), it results in a positive displacement of
the servo-valve (x>0), which connect chamber 1 of the actuator with the pressure line and
chamber 2 with the return line. As a consequence, the actuator starts to move on the
opposite direction (y<0).
❑ When the actuator moves, it also displaces the servo valve on the same direction. When it
reaches the desired position, the servo valve closes, maintaining the actuator position.

15
Hydraulic-Mechanical Actuation

▪ Servo-valve with mechanical feedback. Case 3 – Negative

command (u<0)
Ps Pr
Ps Pr

❑ Similarly, when the pilot provides a negative command (u<0), it results in a negative
displacement of the servo-valve (x>0), and the actuator starts to move on the opposite
direction (y>0).
❑ As a consequence, it displaces the servo valve on the same direction. When it reaches the
desired position, the servo valve closes, maintaining the actuator position.

16
Hydraulic-Mechanical Actuation

▪ Reversible Control:
❑ The pilot's column moves the control surface and vice versa. The pilot “feels”
the force applied to the aircraft surface.

Trimming

Actuator Tab

Mechanical connection Actuator

Tab

Hydraulic
Power
Tupolev Tu-140

17
 Hydraulic-Mechanical Actuation

▪ Irreversible Control:
❑ The movement of the pilot's column causes the movement of the aircraft
control surface, but the reciprocal is not true.
❑ An additional device is introduced so that the pilot "feels" the effort to which
the aircraft is being subjected and avoids damages.

Trimming

Hydraulic Actuator
Power Boeing 747
1 Mechanical connection

Actuator
Actuator

1 – Spring feel 2 Hydraulic

2 – Centralization Power

18
Hydraulic-Mechanical Actuation

▪ Irreversible Control:
❑ Device types:
– Spring Feel Unit: The movement of the column is performed against a
spring of certain rigidity. When the column moves, the pilot finds a
resistive force proportional to the displacement.

19
Hydraulic-Mechanical Actuation

▪ Irreversible Control:
❑ Device types:
– Q Feel Unit: More sophisticate, the resistance force is directly related to
flight conditions. The aerodynamic load increases according to the speed.
The Q Feel Unit receives the difference between the Pitot pressure and
the static pressure. This signal is used to modulate the feedback force.
Unlike the Spring Feel Unit, it only becomes effective at high speeds.

Not powered

Hydraulically powered

20
Hydraulic-Mechanical Actuation

▪ Example:
Rudder
Rudder PCU
Rudder spring feel unit
Tailplane
Rudder trim actuator tandem jack
Aileron
tandem jack Aileron Rudder Q feel unit
Tailplane
gearing
Aileron trim Aileron Idler levers Tailplane
actuator spring feel unit Aileron circuit
Aileron
Control
column Tailplane
trim actuator Aileron
Rod
Tailplane spring tandem jack
assembly Aileron idler
feel unit
levers
Rudder Rudder circuit Hawk 200
pedal
Tailplane circuit

Inertia weight

21
Topics

1. Mechanical Actuation

2. Hydraulic-Mechanical Actuation

3. Redundancy in the Hydraulic System

4. Electro-Hydraulic System (EHS)

5. Electro-Mechanical Actuator (EMA)

6. Electro-Hydrostatic Actuator (EHA)

22
Redundancy in the Hydraulic System

▪ Redundant actuators:
Parallel configuration

Tandem configuration

Valve 1

Valve 2
Valve 1 Valve 2

Control surface
Control surface
▪ Common configurations:
❑ Tandem configuration: actuators share the same rod. Common in military
aircrafts.
❑ Parallel configuration: actuators have independent rods but are connected to
the same surface. Common in civil aircrafts.

23
Redundancy in the Hydraulic System

▪ Redundant actuator configurations:

Valve 1 Valve 2
Valve 1 Valve 2

Active-active
Active-bypass or
Active-damped
▪ Under normal operation, i.e. without failures, the redundant system can
assume two different operation modes:
❑ Active-active: both systems are commanded and both actuators are
pressurized. Advantage: minor transient in the occurrence of failure.
Disadvantage: it generates the so called force-fight, which consumes energy.
❑ Active-bypass or active-damped: only one system is pressurized. Advantage:
no force-fight. Disadvantage: significant transient.

24
Redundancy in the Hydraulic System

▪ Fault Tolerance:
❑ At least 3 independent hydraulic systems.
❑ Primary systems powered from multiple hydraulic systems and using multiple
valves.
❑ Use of multiple pumps.
❑ PTU (Power Transfer Unit): motor + pump, allows transfer between sub-
systems.
❑ Power generation from multiple turbines,
motors and the APU (Auxiliary Power Unit).
❑ RAT (Raw Air Turbine): generation of electric
power in case of emergency.

25
Redundancy in the Hydraulic System
Boeing 737

26
Topics

1. Mechanical Actuation

2. Hydraulic-Mechanical Actuation

3. Redundancy in the Hydraulic System

4. Electro-Hydraulic System (EHS)

5. Electro-Mechanical Actuator (EMA)

6. Electro-Hydrostatic Actuator (EHA)

27
Electro-Mechanical-Hydraulic Actuation

Trim Hydraulic
Servo Power
Mechanical connection
Electronic interference in
Actuator
the mechanical-hydraulic
ACS
Servo
C connection
SAS Actuator
C
Servo
ACS Hydraulic
Power

SAS Sensors

▪ SAS - Stability Augmentation System: improves aircraft controllability

(stabilizes pitch, yaw, roll derivatives)
▪ ACS - Automatic Control Systems: stabilizes aircraft movement (pitch, yaw,
roll angles, speed and altitude).

28
Electro-Hydraulic Actuation

Sensor signals
Actuator
Servo-valve

Potência
Processing Units hidráulica
Command Control signal
signal

▪ The pilot's mechanical input are converted into electronic signals and
transmitted to processing units.
▪ Processing units (digital computers or analog circuits), based on pilot
commands and signals from sensors, generate electrical signals for the
activation of electrohydraulic servo valves.
▪ The servo-valves modifies the position of the hydraulic actuators.

29
Electro-Hydraulic Actuation

▪ Servo-valve double stage:

How does this system work?
1. Electronic signal (pilot
Control input)
signal
2. Comparator circuit
Reservoir 3. Servo-valve
4. Actuator
5. Actuator Piston
6. Position sensor (LVDT)

Pressure
7. Connection for
feedback
8. Solenoid

30
Electro-Hydraulic Actuation

▪ Servo-valve double stage:

CASE 1: No pilot command
❑ When there is no pilot
command, the flapper is on the
central position, equalizing the
PA PB
nozzle pressures (PA and PB).
PR
❑ As a consequence, pressures at
the second stage (PC and PD) are
PC PD also equilibrated and the spool is
on the central position.
PS ❑ The connections between the
actuator and the pressure and
supply lines are closed and the
actuator does not move.

31
Electro-Hydraulic Actuation

▪ Servo-valve double stage:

CASE 2: Positive command
❑ When the solenoid command
the flapper toward the left side
of the nozzle, PA increases,
increasing also PC.
PA PB
PR ❑ At the same time, PB and PD
decreases.
PC PD ❑ The spool moves to the right
opening the connections
PS between the actuator chambers
and the pressure and supply
lines.

PE PF
❑ As a consequence, the actuator
moves to the right.

32
Electro-Hydraulic Actuation

▪ Servo-valve double stage:

CASE 3: Negative command
❑ When the solenoid command
the flapper toward the right side
of the nozzle, PB increases,
increasing also PD.
PA PB
PR ❑ At the same time, PA and PC
decreases.
PC PD ❑ The spool moves to the left
opening the connections
PS between the actuator chambers
and the pressure and supply
lines.

PE PF ❑ As a consequence, the actuator

moves to the left.

33
Electro-Hydraulic Actuation

▪ Redundancy in the electro-hydraulic system:

HS1 HS2

Hydraulic system: x2 Valve (3 and 4): x2

Input signal (1): x4 Hydraulic cylinder (5): x2
Servo (2): x4 Displacement Sensor (6): x4

34
Fly-by-wire

▪ Some definitions:
❑ “Aircraft where the pilot's control commands are processed by a computer and
sent to the flight control surface actuators using electrical rather than
mechanical signals. FBW technology primarily includes Feedback Control
Systems and Control Laws.”
❑ “System whereby the movement of an aircraft's control stick is sensed and
converted into digital electronic signals.”
❑ “Replacement of mechanical operation devices by electrical signals. The
necessary force or torque is generated on the spot and is not transferred.”
❑ “The use of electrical signals to connect the pilot's control devices with the
aircraft control surfaces; or the use of electrical control connections with no
mechanical backup linkages and providing the pilot direct control of aircraft
motion rather than control surface position.”
❑ “Fly-by-wire is a means of computer-aided aircraft control.”

35
Fly-by-wire

▪ Benefits:
❑ Weight reduction due to elimination of mechanical connection.
❑ Digital control enables the use of complex algorithms and control laws.
❑ Greater maneuverability, faster and more accurate response.
▪ Disadvantages:
❑ Discretization of the signals sent to the actuators.
❑ Discretization of the signals coming from the sensors: aliasing problem.
❑ Introduction of delays: sampling, processing time, filters.
❑ Higher complexity, safety issues.
▪ Advantages are more significant than disadvantages!

36
Fly-by-wire

▪ Analog Fly-by-Wire - examples:

Avro Vulcan
1952
Concorde
1969

ERJ 175

F-16
1976

37
Fly-by-wire

▪ Digital Fly-by-Wire - examples:

Airbus 320
1988

Nasa F8-C
1972

Boeing 777
1988

38
Fly-by-wire

▪ Airbus x Boeing - different philosophies for automatic protection and

degree of pilot autonomy:

❑ “In 1995, a Boeing 757 crashed into a mountain while trying to land at Cali
airport in Columbia, killing 159 people on board. In this accident, the warning
system on board had alerted the crew that they were about to crash onto the
mountain. The Captain executed a climb but forgot to retract the speed
brake. On an A320, Airbus points out, the protection in the computer would
have retracted the speed brakes automatically.”

❑ “One of the very first Airbus A320 jets crashed shortly after the jet entered
service in 1988, raising many questions about the Airbus philosophy. The pilots
were making a low-and-slow fly-pass during an air show in Habsheim, France.
They were supposed to fly by with the gear down at about 100 feet. Instead,
they came in at less than 30 feet off the ground. When the plane gets below
50 feet, the computer assumes the pilots were trying to land. The plane did
exactly what it was supposed to do and crash-landed onto the trees!”

39
Fly-by-wire

▪ Different characteristics:
❑ Mixed Architectures: Analog (ACE) vs. Digital (FCC)

❑ FCC (Flight Control Computer) or FCM (Flight Control Module): autopilot,

increase operating envelope, aircraft protection, better flight quality.
❑ ACE (Actuator Control Electronics): electronic feedback loop between actuator
and servo-valve.

40
Fly-by-wire

▪ Different characteristics:

Digital

Analog

41
Topics

1. Mechanical Actuation

2. Hydraulic-Mechanical Actuation

3. Redundancy in the Hydraulic System

4. Electro-Hydraulic System (EHS)

5. Electro-Mechanical Actuator (EMA)

6. Electro-Hydrostatic Actuator (EHA)

42
 Hydraulic Power Distribution

What are the advantages

and drawbacks of
hydraulic power
distribution?

Power-by-wire
solutions
Source: Maré, JC; Fu, J. Review on signal-by-wire and power-by-wire actuation for
more electric aircraft. Chinese Journal of Aeronautics, vol. 30, n. 3, pp. 857-870, 2017.

43
Power-by-wire

▪ Power-by-wire
❑ Distribution of power from turbines to actuators and across all aircraft as
electric power.
▪ Configurations:
❑ EMA - Electro-Mechanical Actuator.
❑ EHA - Electro-Hydrostatic Actuator.
❑ IAP - Integrated Actuated Package.

44
Electro-Mechanical Actuation

▪ EMA – Electro-Mechanical Actuator:

❑ It uses an electric motor to drive the control surface.
❑ Technologies that made possible the use of electric motors:
– High voltages (270 VDC motors).
– Permanent magnet motors built with rare materials that allow for weight and
volume reduction.
– Electronic switching (brushless), with better thermal performance.
– Solid state switching devices that support high currents (peaks up to 50-75
amperes).
– Micro-processed control that allows the use as servo-actuators, besides
incorporating fault detection and other facilities.

45
Electro-Mechanical Actuation

▪ EMA – Electro-Mechanical Actuator:

▪ Gear couplings perform

rotational reduction.
▪ In the case of linear movement,
bearings are used.

46
Electro-Mechanical Actuation

▪ EMA – Electro-Mechanical Actuator:

❑ Low cost approach to low power applications that do not require redundancy.
❑ Presence of gaps and delays cause vibrations limit the use for primary control.
❑ Applications: spoilers, flaps and slats. Example: Horizontal stabilizer of the ERJ-190
family.

ERJ-195

ERJ-195

47
Topics

1. Mechanical Actuation

2. Hydraulic-Mechanical Actuation

3. Redundancy in the Hydraulic System

4. Electro-Hydraulic System (EHS)

5. Electro-Mechanical Actuator (EMA)

6. Electro-Hydrostatic Actuator (EHA)

48
Electro-Hydrostatic Actuation

▪ IAP – Integrated Actuator Package:

❑ Constructive variation of EHA. Uses bi-directional fixed-speed induction motor (AC) to
drive a variable displacement pump.

❑ Eliminates the need for high-

power drive.
❑ Main disadvantage: when the
actuator is in the desired
position, the pump rotates in
the null position, wasting
power.

49
Electro-Hydrostatic Actuation

▪ IAP – Integrated Actuator Package:

❑ Variation with mechanical feedback.

50
Electro-Hydrostatic Actuation

▪ Example: Avro Vulcan B-2 - use of 8 IAPs for primary elevator control
(elevator + aileron).

51
Electro-Hydrostatic Actuation

▪ EHA – Electro-Hydrostatic Actuator:

❑ Interposes a small scale hydraulic system between the electric motor and the actuator.
❑ Main features:
– Brushless, variable speed and bi-directional electric motor transforms electrical
energy into mechanical.
– Mechanical energy is used to drive a fixed displacement hydraulic pump.

52
Electro-Hydrostatic Actuation

▪ EHA – Electro-Hydrostatic Actuator:

❑ Ensures redundancy without major disadvantage. Allows arrangements of tandem or
duplex / triplex type actuators using bypass valves.
❑ Gap problems are similar to conventional electro-hydraulic systems.
❑ Low power consumption and quick response.
❑ Applications: primary and secondary control surfaces.

Used as a back-up, it allowed the

reduction of 4 to 2 hydraulic
systems.

Airbus 380

53
 Evolution of Actuating Systems

Source: Maré, JC; Fu, J. Review on signal-by-wire and power-by-wire actuation for
more electric aircraft. Chinese Journal of Aeronautics, vol. 30, n. 3, pp. 857-870, 2017.

54
 Evolution of Actuating Systems

Source: Maré, JC; Fu, J. Review on signal-by-wire and power-by-wire actuation for
more electric aircraft. Chinese Journal of Aeronautics, vol. 30, n. 3, pp. 857-870, 2017.

55
 Appendix - Brushless DC Motors Review

▪ Conventional DC Motors
Operation principle: F = K.B.i

Stator
S The Switch reverses the contact
F Armature with the sliding Brushes every
current 180 °, reversing the current
i
direction and ensuring the
rotation of the DC motor.
Rotor
B

i
N
i F
Comutator

i
Brushes
(sliding contact)

57
Appendix - Brushless DC Motors Review

▪ Brushless DC Motors: better thermal performance

Stator

Rotor

Permanent magnet
DC - BRUSHLESS DC - CONVENCIONAL

58
Appendix - Brushless DC Motors Review
▪ Brushless DC Motors: less maintenance
DC - CONVENTIONAL

DC - BRUSHLESS

Commutator Logical
Brushes
Circuit

Position Sensors

59
Thank you!