Construction and Building Materials 304 (2021) 124623

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Assessment of self-healing asphalt pavement fatigue life using analytical Jc

approach and laboratory results
Kevork Micael Nalbandian , Álvaro González *
Department of Construction Engineering and Management, School of Engineering, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Avenida Vicuña Mackenna 4860, Santiago,
Chile

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Self-healing asphalt pavements are an alternative and sustainable road infrastructure. Through a literature re­
Asphalt pavement view and laboratory tests, the authors aimed to develop a methodology to study the efficiency of asphalt
Healing efficiency method pavement self-healing techniques. Results showed that Healing Indexes based on peak loads could be misleading
Self-healing
to estimate the effectiveness of self-healing techniques. A novel methodology using the semicircular bending test
Healing index
J-integral
and the fracture mechanics parameter Jc is proposed to estimate pavement fatigue life extension when self-
Fatigue Cracking healing techniques are applied. Following this novel methodology, results show that one cycle of microwave
Fracture energy heating of conventional asphalt pavement achieves a 20% fatigue life extension.

1. Introduction techniques for asphalt mixtures include the incorporation of microcap­

Facing the threat of climate change resulting from the increase in
greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions [1], various initiatives have emerged
to mitigate its effects, as well as to prevent it from continuing to deepen.
Road transport is a sector with broad responsibility in the generation of
GHG [2,3]. In particular, the construction and maintenance of roads is
responsible for more than 13% of the worldwide emissions related to
construction [4].
Pavement is the central element of the road infrastructure that re­
quires maintenance. Thus, techniques have been developed to make
pavements more sustainable, such as the use of sustainable materials
[5], recycling on site [6], developing and using long-lasting pavements,
and recycled and stabilized granular materials [7], using porous con­
crete pavements [8], and developing assisted or self-healing techniques
[9,10]. Asphalt is the most widely used material for paving worldwide
[11]: for instance 90% of paved roads in China [12], 92% in the US, and
90% in the European Community [13] are built with asphalt materials.
Therefore, it is important to study and develop techniques and materials
with less environmental impact. Self-healing asphalt pavements recover
their mechanical properties under specific conditions slowly and pro­
gressively [14]. Enhancing this ability to obtain faster healing results
and achieve a greater recovery of the original properties would reduce
the use of raw materials, traffic congestion, and greenhouse gas emis­
sions resulting from maintenance [9]. The most recent self-healing
sules with binder rejuvenating agents [15–18]. In addition, external
heating techniques by means of electromagnetic induction [19,20] or
microwaves [21–23] are ‘assisted-healing’ techniques that can heal
asphalt pavements because they require an external heating source.
However, they are normally described in the literature as ‘self-healing’
techniques, being the term self-healing preferred in this article. The joint
effect of these techniques has been studied, showing excellent syner­
gistic potential [24].
The knowledge production in this area has been growing in recent
years, reaching a record in the number of indexed scientific publications
in 2020 [25]. In recent decades, research evolved from understanding
the fundamentals and factors that affect the phenomenon of self-healing
to studying the effectiveness of self-healing techniques that seek to
enhance this phenomenon. However, the majority of these published
studies are based on the analysis of laboratory experimental results; with
few exceptions, these studies do not clearly show the potential positive
effect of self-healing techniques in the field [25]. One of these exceptions
is the investigation by Lizasoain-Arteaga et al. [26], in which a Life Cycle
Analysis (LCA) is carried out to demonstrate the sustainability of in­
duction healed asphalt mixtures developed in the HEAL-ROAD project.
In this case, laboratory data and multiple databases were used in addi­
tion to field data collected from the construction of a pilot section where
an induction heater prototype was used. Literature shows that there are
two possible methods to validate the effectiveness of such novel

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: knalbandian@uc.cl (K.M. Nalbandian), algonzav@ing.puc.cl (Á. González).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.124623
Received 28 February 2021; Received in revised form 29 June 2021; Accepted 18 August 2021
Available online 27 August 2021
0950-0618/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
K.M. Nalbandian and Á. González
pavement techniques: full-scale accelerated testing of asphalt pave­
ments, or long-term testing of trial sections. The main drawback of both
of these methods is the large amount of resources required in addition to
the testing time required to obtain reliable results [27].
The literature review on self-healing asphalt mixtures indicates that
studies focus on the comparison between the strength of mixes before
and after healing. However, few studies have focused on the effect of the
healing process on the fracture energy or resistance to cracking [28,29],
which would allow the prediction of pavement fatigue life and
performance.
This work aims to identify a material parameter obtained from
simple laboratory tests using analytical methods that are performed on
asphalt mixtures to estimate the fatigue life of self-healing asphalt
pavements in the field. The results of this study can be used to estimate
the benefits of adopting self-healing materials based on the fatigue life of
asphalt pavements and to define maintenance strategies that include
self-healing techniques such as microwave external heating, as further
detailed in this article.
2. Asphalt mixtures healing evaluation and fracture mechanics
In the last decade, researchers have developed laboratory tests to
evaluate the effectiveness of various self-healing techniques. The most
common method to assess healing performance is by healing indexes
(HI) that relate a mechanical property of a mixture before damage and
the same mechanical property after damage and i-th cycles of healing.
The HI is normally expressed using the general equation form:
ζi
HI i (%) = .100%
ζ0
where HIi is the healing index after the i-th cycles of damage and sub­
sequent healing, ζ0 is the value of the mechanical property measured on
an undamaged test sample, and ζi is the same mechanical property
measured after the i-th cycles of damage and subsequent healing (see
example on semicircular bending samples in Fig. 1).
For the modelling of pavement field cracking, researchers have
proposed two phases based on experimental observations [30]. The first
is the initiation phase, in which the surface cracked area is less than
0.5%, and the second is the progression phase in which cracking in­
creases steadily from 0.5% up to 100%. Laboratory tests aim to study the
behavior of asphalt mixtures in the two phases of pavement cracking
[28]. For example, the fatigue three-point bending test (FTPB), which
relates the applied stress or strain applied with the number of loading up
to material failure, simulates the fatigue crack initiation of the mixture.
Conversely, fracture tests such as the Semicircular Bending test (SCB) or
the disk shape compact tension test (DCT) are used to study the propa­
gation of cracking from an initial crack [28].
Fig. 1. Example of testing sequence for the measurement of the healing index in semicircular bending samples.
Construction and Building Materials 304 (2021) 124623
Fracture mechanics studies the generation and propagation of
cracks. To describe the cracking behavior of materials, three critical
parameters are measured experimentally. These include: the stress in­
tensity factor Kc, based on the intensity of the stress; the rate of release
of energy Gc or J-integral (Jc) based on the concepts of energy release
and consumption; and the Crack-Tip Opening Displacement (CTOD (δc ))
based on the correlation between the resistance to fracture and the crack
tip geometry [31]. Each of these fracture parameters are appropriate for
analysis according to the mechanical behavior of the material (linear
elastic or elasto-plastic) and the size of the cracked area.
Tang [31], analyzed in detail which of the three critical parameters
mentioned above is more suitable for describing cracking in asphalt
mixtures. Particularly, the author shows that J-integral and CTOD have
a greater range of application as parameters that describe cracking
behavior and are applicable to analyze materials with linear elastic or
elasto-plastic behavior with small or large-scale deformations. Zhu &
Joyce, [32], had previously indicated that in the case of asphalt mixtures
subjected to intermediate temperatures, J-integral and CTOD are the
most appropriate choices. Furthermore, due to their elasto-plastic or
viscoelasto-plastic nature, linear elastic models do not correctly describe
the behavior of asphalt mixtures, and the J-integral concept is the most
appropriate for the modelling of asphalt cracking. In addition, several
authors have used J-integral to study the propagation of fatigue cracking
in asphalt mixtures, proving that it is possible to use this J-integral to
describe cracking behavior [33,34].
Mohammad et al. [35], studied the correlation of Jc with field
cracking of asphalt pavements. These authors quantified the alligator
cracking, as well as the transverse cracks in nine study sections in the
(1) state of Louisiana, United States, finding that there is a good correlation
between this parameter and the measured cracks, verifying that the
lower values of Jc correspond to the higher level of cracking. Moreover,
Kim et al. [36], found that Jc values obtained from SCB tests show a
good correlation with field cracking performance data, demonstrating
the suitability of Jc parameter for estimating pavement cracking per­
formance at intermediate service temperatures. Subsequently, Louay N.,
Mohammad Minkyum, Kim Harshavardhan [37], confirmed that the Jc
obtained from SCB tests has a good correlation with the cracking index
with an R2 of 0.73, accounting for the potential use of this parameter to
predict the cracking behavior of asphalt pavements. On the other hand,
West et al. [38], despite stating that they could not find a relationship
between Jc obtained from SCB tests and field cracking, confirm the trend
that shows higher Jc values provide better fatigue cracking resistance.
These studies suggest that Jc is a suitable parameter to describe the
cracking behavior of asphalt mixtures, which leads to the conclusion
that the healing index calculated from Jc constitutes a good tool for
evaluating the performance of the self-healing techniques and their ef­
fect on pavement cracking resistance.
The use of laboratory tests that measure the resistance until failure of
2
K.M. Nalbandian and Á. González Construction and Building Materials 304 (2021) 124623

the test samples, prior to and after self-healing, make it possible to Table 1
identify whether healing occurs or not, and to compare the effectiveness Tests and indicators used to quantify the healing degree.
of the techniques or additives used to increase the healing capacity of the Title Healing Laboratory Healing index/ Reference
material. However, they do not make it possible to clearly establish the method test healing
effect on the extension of pavement life or on the behavior of the evaluating
method
pavement with regard to the progression of deterioration, in particular,
cracking progression. In addition, as explained by Mull et al. [34], A novel self-healing EMIH1/ SCB maximum [24]
standard tests that evaluate ultimate strength and elastic modulus, are system: Towards a MWH2 tensions ratio
sustainable porous
suitable for studying the behavior of homogeneous materials. Being a asphalt
heterogeneous material, asphalt pavements cannot be correctly studied Effects of asphalt EMIH SCB maximum force [39]
by these means, and fracture resistance characterization is more types and aging on ratio
adequate, enabling evaluation of crack propagation within the material. healing
performance of
As shown in Table 1, the most used test by researchers to evaluate the
asphalt mixtures
healing achieved through self-healing enhancing techniques is the using induction
monotonic SCB [11,22,24,39–45]. From the results of this test, re­ heating method
searchers had evaluated healing indexes (HI) for asphalt mixtures. Crack healing MWH SCB maximum force [40]
The first one has the following form: performance of hot ratio
mix asphalt
FmaxSCBi containing steel
HI SCBFi = .100% (2) slag by microwaves
FmaxSCB0
heating
Microwave Healing MWH ITS ITS ratio [46]
where FmaxSCB0 and FmaxSCBi are the peak loads reached on undamaged or Performance of
on damaged samples after the i-th healing cycle, respectively. Asphalt Mixture
Then, it is also possible to establish healing indexes from the calcu­ Containing Electric
lation of parameters that are more directly related to the fatigue Arc Furnace (EAF)
Slag and Graphene
cracking behavior of asphalt mixtures, related to fracture mechanics,
Nanoplatelets
and that are more suitable for describing asphalt pavement cracking (GNPs)
behavior [34]. Fan et al. [28], in their research proposed two other HI Fatigue–healing COH3 FFPBT Fatigue N ratio/ [47]
related to previously described concepts of fracture mechanics such as performance stiffness
the fracture energy and Jc, which as explained above is the most evaluation of modulus ratio
asphalt mixture
appropriate parameter to model the cracking of asphalt mixtures due to
using four-point
their elasto-plastic or viscoelasto-plastic nature. bending test
The authors herein propose the HISCBU healing index as follows: Evaluation of the EMIH FFPBT fatigue N ratio [48]
induction healing
Ui effect of porous
HI SCBUi = .100% (3)
U0 asphalt concrete
through four-point
where HISCBUi is the healing index related to the fracture energy, U0 and bending fatigue test
Self-healing MWH TPBT maximum force [49]
Ui are the initial fracture energy and the fracture energy after the i-th
performance of ratio
healing cycle, being the fracture energy the area under the force­ asphalt mixtures
–displacement curve. through heating
The other index is associated to the critical value of the J-integral: fibers or aggregate
Accelerated Healing MWH FFPBT ratio between [50]
Jci in Asphalt Concrete area under
HI SCBJci = .100% (4)
JC0 via Laboratory stiffness-N◦
Microwave Heating cycles curve/
where HISCBJci is the healing index related to the critical value of the J- fatigue life
extension ratio
integral, JC0 and Jci the critical value of J-integral of the test sample in
Evaluation of Self- MWH SCB maximum force [41]
the initial condition and in the test sample after the i-th healing cycle Healing ratio
obtained as explained in Section 3.1 from the SCB test for three different Performance of
notch sizes. Asphalt Concrete
for Macrocracks via
Researchers have studied the evolution of Jc with failure and healing
Microwave Heating
cycles. For instance, Fan et al., [28], evaluated the evolution of Jc Microwave self- MWH ITS/ITSM ITS ratio/ITSM [51]
through SCB testing, healing the samples at 100 ◦ C for eight hours in a healing technology ratio
conventional oven. Authors calculate the healing index with Jc, as airfield porous
HISCBJc1 = 95% for conventional asphalt mixture and HISCBJc1 = 86% asphalt friction
course repair and
for a SCB modified binder mixture. On the other hand, Jahanbakhsh
maintenance
et al., [29], carried out SCB tests at 25 ◦ C on asphalt mixtures samples system
healed with microwave heating. Healing indexes calculated with the Jc Low temperature self- rest ITS variation of the [52]
parameter obtained from data presented in the mentioned article, may healing character of resilient
asphalt mixtures modulus
be calculated for three cycles of microwave healing reaching the
under different
following values: HISCBJc1 = 56%, HISCBJc2 = 38%, and HISCBJc3 = 40%. fatigue damage
However, it is likely necessary to carry out more such experiments, degrees
since only the two previously mentioned set of experiments were Low temperature self- COH CTS comparing [52]
available in the literature. In addition, the tests found in the literature healing character of images
asphalt mixtures
were conducted on specimens with specific aggregates and bitumen, and
under different
it is necessary to expand the available database in order to reach more
(continued on next page)
general conclusions. Given the published research, more experimental

3
K.M. Nalbandian and Á. González Construction and Building Materials 304 (2021) 124623

Table 1 (continued ) Table 1 (continued )

Title Healing Laboratory Healing index/ Reference Title Healing Laboratory Healing index/ Reference
method test healing method test healing
evaluating evaluating
method method

fatigue damage Microwave

degrees Irradiation
Microwave crack MWH SCB maximum force [42] Effect of RAP and MWH SCB maximum force [11]
healing on ratio fibers addition on ratio
conventional and asphalt mixtures
modified asphalt with self-healing
mixtures with properties gained
different additives: by microwave
an experimental radiation heating
approach Effect of metallic MWH SCB maximum force [45]
Influence of the MWH SCB maximum force [43] waste addition on ratio
Microwave Heating ratio the electrical,
Time on the Self- thermophysical and
Healing Properties microwave crack-
of Asphalt Mixtures healing properties
Optimum moment to EMIC FTPBT Fatigue life [53] of asphalt mixtures
heal cracks in extension ratio Evaluation of Self- COH SCB maximum force [28]
asphalt roads by Healing ratio/fracture
means Performance of energy ratio/ Jc
electromagnetic Asphalt Concrete ratio
induction for Low-
The healing MWH TPBT bending [54] Temperature
properties of strength ratio Fracture Using
asphalt mixtures Semicircular
suffered moisture Bending Test
damage Induction heating and MWH SCB/ITS maximum force [29]
Snow and Ice Melting EMIH/ TPBT maximum force [55] healing of carbon ratio
Properties of Self- MWH ratio black modified
healing Asphalt asphalt concrete
Mixtures with under microwave
Induction Heating radiation
and Microwave
Heating (1) EMIH: Electromagnetic induction heating, (2) MWH: microwave heating, (3)
Self-healing EMIH/ SCB maximum force [22] COH: conventional oven heating.
properties of MWH ratio
recycled asphalt
investigations are warranted. Finally, the experimental results could be
mixtures
containing metal
used to calculate Jc and hence estimate fatigue life of asphalt pavements
waste: An approach (section 3.2). In other words, new results could be used to compare fa­
through microwave tigue life of healed asphalt mixtures. Thus, the authors decided to carry
radiation heating out a new set of laboratory tests to investigate the evolution of the Jc
Self-healing MWH FITS fatigue life [56]
parameter with cracking and healing cycles.
properties of extension ratio
ferrite-filled open-
graded friction 3. Methods and materials
course (OGFC)
asphalt mixture
3.1. Jc determination
after moisture
damage
Self-healing of EMIH/ SCB maximum force [44] The concept of the J-integral was initially proposed by Rice in 1968
asphalt mixture by MWH ratio [60] and consists of a mathematical expression (Eq.5) referring to a
microwave and homogeneous body subjected to a two-dimensional field of de­
induction heating
formations (plane) so that all the stresses σ ij are expressed in two Car­
Self-healing MWH FFPBT fatigue life [57]
efficiency of ferrite- extension ratio/ tesian axes x and y, being x parallel to the flat faces of the crack (Fig. 2).
filled asphalt stiffness
mixture after modulus ratio
microwave
irradiation
Microwave-healing MWH DCT maximum force [58]
performance of ratio
modified asphalt
mixtures with flake
graphite and
exfoliated graphite
nanoplatelet
High-Efficiency MWH FFPBT fatigue life [59]
Heating extension ratio/
Characteristics of stiffness
Ferrite-Filled modulus ratio
Asphalt-Based
Composites under
Fig. 2. Arbitrary contour around the crack tip used in the definition of the J-
integral. Adapted from [60].

4
K.M. Nalbandian and Á. González
This expression represents the contour or surface integral around the tip
of the crack from one side of the crack to the other in a counterclockwise
direction. Rice shows that this integral is independent of the path and
enables study of the field of deformations and stresses around the crack.
Ricés proposed expression was:
∫ ( ) the asphalt sample in order to obtain all the necessary measurements.
∂ui
J = Γ wdy − Ti ds (5)
∂x
Where
w = strain energy density
Ti = components of the traction vector
ui = displacement vector components
ds = length increment along the contour Γ
The strain energy density is defined as:
∫ εij
w= σij dεij
0 researchers to obtain the critical value of the J-integral of asphalt mix­
where σ ij y εij are stress and strain tensors, respectively.
The components of the traction vector representing the stress acting
on the edges of the element surrounded by Γ in the case of making a free-
body diagram, are calculated at each point as
Ti = σij nj
With nj components of a unit vector normal to Γ.
Rice showed that this expression represents the rate of released en­
ergy or work done per unit fracture surface area in a non-linear elastic
body containing a crack [32].
The parameter Jc is defined as the critical value of the J-integral and
considers the energy until failure or the critical strain energy release
rate, that is, when the peak is reached in the force vs. displacement curve
Fig. 3. (a) Load vs displacement curve, value of U correspondent with Jc/SCB test sample, (b) SCB test method for Jc
Construction and Building Materials 304 (2021) 124623
(Fig. 3a). This concept (Jc) is pointed out by Wu et al., 2005 [61] as an
indicator of the fracture resistance of asphalt mixtures, and, in partic­
ular, of the initiation of cracking [31].
The value of the J-integral can be estimated by applying the defini­
tion of the Rice contour integral, but it is usually difficult to instrument
Also, it can be obtained through analysis with finite element models
[62]; however, researchers found that the Jc value can be determined
experimentally from load displacement tests [31]. In 1972, Begley and
Landes [63] described an experimental method to evaluate Jc toughness
for type I fracture by using multiple specimens with varying crack
lengths. Following this concept, researchers developed several labora­
tory tests to study the cracking resistance of asphalt mixtures, for
example: single-edge notched beam test, double-edged notched tension
test, disk shaped compact tension test, edge notched disc bend test, and
(6) semi-circular bending test [64]. The latter, has been extendedly used by
tures [33,34,61,65,66] due to the simplicity of its configuration in
comparison to other tests which are expensive and complex for regular
use [67]. Moreover, the test specimens can be easily prepared using the
SuperPave Gyratory Compactor or from field cores.
The Jc determination method consists in conducting the SCB test and
(7) applying the following equation originally used in rock mechanics [36]:
( )
1 ∂U
Jc = − (8)
B ∂a
Where Jc is the critical strain release rate (kJ / mm2), B is the
thickness of the specimen (mm), a is the notch depth (mm) (Fig. 3a), U is
the energy of deformation until failure (area under the curve force -
displacement to the peak) (Fig. 3a) and ∂∂Ua is the variation of strain
5
K.M. Nalbandian and Á. González
energy with the notch depth. The methodology proposed by the authors
then consists in performing the SCB test for at least three different notch
depths, calculating U and making the U vs a graph, from which through
( )
a linear regression the value of ∂∂Ua can be estimated (Fig. 3b). The
variability of results is estimated from the standard error of linear
regression.
3.2. Fatigue life extension determination
During recent decades pavement design methods have evolved from
empirical to mechanistic-empirical, such as the well-known method
published in the AASHTO Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design
Guide (MEPDG) [68]. The guide proposes the following fatigue rela­
tionship for asphalt layers:
Nf = kf 1 (C)(CH )(εt )kf 2 (E)kf 3 (9)
Where
Nf = Allowable number of axle-load applications for a flexible
pavement and HMA overlays, until cracked area reaches 20% of the total
area,
εt = Tensile strain at critical locations and calculated by the struc­
tural response model, in/in,
E = Dynamic modulus of the HMA measured in compression, psi
kf1, kf2, kf3 Global field calibration parameters (from the NCHRP 1-
40D re-calibration; kf1 = 0.007566, kf2 = –3.9492, and kf3 = –1.281)
C = 10 M (10)
( )
Vbe
M = 4.48 − 0.69 (11)
Va + Vbe
Where;
Vbe = Effective asphalt content by volume (%)
Va = Percent air voids in the HMA mixture
CH = Thickness correction term, dependent on type of cracking
For bottom-up cracking or alligator cracking
1 reached through microwave heating is higher than the softening point of
CH = 0.003602
(12)
0.000398 + 1+e(11.02− 3.49HHMA )
HHMA = Total thickness of asphalt layers
Based on the results of Louay N., Mohammad Minkyum, Kim Har­
shavardhan, [37], and considering that asphalt mixtures are a complex
composite material that shows a behaviour difficult to fully describe
using a single parameter, Cao et al., [69] proposed a fatigue equation
based on the MEPDG fatigue relationship (Eq. (9)) including Jc, as
follows:
Nf = kf 1 (C)(CH )(εt )kf 2 (E)kf 3 (Jc )kf 4 (13)
Where kf4 is a calibration parameter corresponding to Jc, and the rest
of the parameters were defined above. In their work, the authors cali­
brated the model using data from 11 study sections tested at the pave­
ment Accelerated Loading Facility (ALF) of the Federal Highway
Administration (FHWA) of the United States (US) Department of
Transportation and obtained the following values:
kf1 = 3.57E12; kf2 = − 2.141; kf3 = − 4, 327; kf4 = 1.587
The authors found that the results obtained from this newly devel­
oped fatigue equation had a better correlation with the results of the ALF
field measurements than the original MEPDG equation (Eq. (9)).
Summarizing, from the previous sections, it is shown that a param­
eter known as the critical value of the J-integral (Jc), which represents
the fracture resistance of asphalt mixtures, and is easily determinable
from SCB tests, correlates well with the field cracking of asphalt pave­
ments. Furthermore, researchers have successfully incorporated this
parameter into a fatigue equation, which correlates well with field
cracking. Hence, if Jc is obtained from the crack and healing laboratory
6
Construction and Building Materials 304 (2021) 124623
tests, it is possible to assess the extension of the field fatigue life of
asphalt pavements with self-healing capabilities.
As mentioned above, the purpose of using Jc to study the effects of
self-healing is the correlation between this parameter and the fatigue
behavior of asphalt mixtures. Using Eq. (13) and assuming that the
dynamic modulus and critical strain of the asphalt layer remain rela­
tively constant, the increase of the fatigue life is calculated from the
laboratory tests as follows:
Where, Nf0 and Nfi are the allowable number of 80 kN axle-load
repetitions for the undamaged pavement and the pavement after the i-
th healing cycle respectively, and JC0 and JCi are the Jc value for the
undamaged mixture and the mixture after the i-th healing cycle,
respectively. Therefore, the ratio between Nfi and Nf0 is the increase of
fatigue life of the asphalt pavement after the i-th healing cycle estimated
using Jc from laboratory results. The proposed index is called the Fa­
tigue Life Extension Healing Index (HIFLE). For calculating this life
extension, a crucial assumption is made: the applied healing technique
heals uniformly for the full depth of the treated asphalt concrete layer.
Thus, the healed asphalt pavement mechanical properties (e.g., Jc) are
constant throughout the pavement depth.
3.3. Jc evolution determination
In the present study, semicircular asphalt samples were tested
following the ASTM D8044-16 semi-circular bending test standard to
evaluate asphalt mixture cracking resistance which is used to obtain the
Jc value (Fig. 4a). The tests were conducted in a multispeed universal
loading testing machine, with a load cell of 50kN. The average testing
temperature was 22.8 ◦ C (SD = 0.7 ◦ C), and the load was applied in
displacement control mode with a speed of 0.5 mm/min and continued
until applied load was reduced to 50% of the peak load (Fig. 4b). After
testing, semicircular specimens were heated in a 700 W and 2450 MHz
microwave oven for 90 s reaching an average temperature of 70.2 ◦ C
(SD = 5.5 ◦ C), and then let to cool down and heal at room air temper­
ature, approximate 20 ◦ C-23 ◦ C for 18 h. This process was repeated five
times for each test sample. It should be highlighted that the temperature
the binder, which according to various authors [10,70] is recommended
to activate the self-healing process.
3.3.1. Aggregates and bitumen
A standard dense asphalt mixture was used for preparing the labo­
ratory test samples (Table 2). The aggregate was formed by blending
four different fractions; crushed granitic rock 5 mm-14 mm (54%),
crushed dust from the same granitic rock (36%), natural siliceous sand
(9%), and Portland cement as mineral filler (1%). The particle size
distribution curve is presented in Fig. 5. The bitumen used was a con­
ventional asphalt cement AC30 delivered by ANCAP (National Refinery
Company of Uruguay), and the hot mix asphalt (HMA) was prepared by
IDALAR S.A. in Montevideo, Uruguay.
(+) Voids in the mineral aggregate
3.3.2. Preparation of asphalt mixture specimens
The Marshall cylindrical specimens (100 mm in diameter, 60 mm
thick) were compacted with 75 blows on each face following ASTM
D6926 – 20 standard. Four semicircular specimens (50 mm radius, 30
mm height) were obtained by cutting one Marshall specimen, first with a
3 mm saw through the plane parallel to the flat face at half of the height
(Fig. 6b) and later through the 100 mm diameter (Fig. 6c). Finally, a
straight vertical notch was cut along the symmetrical axis of each
semicircular specimen with a 2 mm circular saw (Fig. 6d). Seven sam­
ples were prepared for each notch size (10 mm, 15 mm, and 20 mm).
K.M. Nalbandian and Á. González Construction and Building Materials 304 (2021) 124623

Fig. 4. (a) Test sample, (b) Example of test measurement (F1,5D is the name of the test sample; F = type of mixture, 1.5 = notch size in cm, D name of the sample).

with literature findings for asphalt mixtures without additives that

Table 2
promote external microwave heating [11,28,41,42]. In addition, results
Asphalt binder AC30 physical properties and asphalt mixture properties.
from Fig. 7a show that the peak load decreases with increasing notch
Bitumen Physical Properties size, which was expected because larger notches decrease the cross-
Softening point (◦ C) 54.9 section of the asphalt sample, increasing the tension produced by the
Flash Point (◦ C) >240 bending of the sample during the test for the same load applied [28].
Penetration 25 ◦ C (1/10 mm) 36 However, Fig. 7b suggests that HISCBF is independent from the notch size
Absolute Viscosity at 60◦ (Poises) 3220
Cinematic Viscosity at 135◦ (cSt) 426
and remains near 0.6 for all the samples, as mentioned above, because
this healing index is a ratio of relative strength obtained from the various
Asphalt Mixture and Marshall Specimen Properties
peak loads. The coefficient of variation (standard deviation / mean) for
Asphalt content (%) 5.2 HISCBF is on average 17% for all the samples tested.
Bulk density (g/cm3) 2.355
Air voids (%) 4.2
VMA+ (%) 14.8 4.2. Evolution of the Jc and HISCBJc
Stability (kg) 1550
Flow (mm) 390
As described above, Jc is related to the cracking behavior of asphalt
pavement. Hence, Fan et al. 2018 [28] proposed a healing index based
4. Results on Jc. Fig. 8a shows the Jc calculated from the undamaged and damaged
samples for the first to fourth healing cycle. As expected from the peak
4.1. Evolution of the HISCBF load and healing index results detailed in the previous section, Jc for the
undamaged samples (1.22 kJ/m2) is higher than for the damaged and
Fig. 7a shows the average peak load achieved by the SCB samples healed specimens. In addition, and similar to the previous results, Jc
with different notch sizes and Fig. 7b shows the healing index HISCBF, remains relatively constant from the first to the fourth healing cycle
which is one of the most used healing indexes according to the literature (between 0.36 and 0.53 kJ/m2). Fig. 8b shows a comparison with results
(Table 1). Fig. 7a illustrates that the peak load applied to all the un­ calculated from the literature [29] presenting Jc up to the third damage
damaged samples, regardless their notch size, decreases approximately and healing cycle. The comparison shows that the obtained Jc values are
40% after the first healing cycle. However, after the first and until the within the same range as those obtained from the literature [29], with an
4th healing cycle, the peak load remains relatively constant. Fig. 7b undamaged Jc of 0.96 kJ/m2, and damaged and healed Jc between 0.36
shows that HISCBF is relatively constant in the order of 0.6 for all the and 0.54 kJ/m2. The coefficient of variation of Jc results is on average
healing cycles. Both results show that after breaking the original bonds 19%, slightly higher than HISCBF coefficient of variation (17%). This is
of the undamaged sample, the strength of the new bonds formed in the explained by the linear regression method used in the calculation of Jc.
healing process remains constant despite the number of break and Fig. 8a shows error bars (one standard deviation), while results from the
healing cycles applied up to the 4th cycle. These results are consistent literature [29] did not include variability analysis (Fig. 8b).

Fig. 5. Particle size distribution of aggregates used in the HMA.

7
K.M. Nalbandian and Á. González
Fig. 6. (a) Marshall specimen, (b) specimen sawed in two halves by the plane parallel to the flat face, (c) halves sawed by the diameter, (d) sawing of the notches.
Fig 7. Results from semicircular bending tests: (a) peak loads and (b) HISCBF. (Note 1 error bar = 1 standard deviation, N = 5 for each bar).
The HISCBJc ranges from 0.29 to 0.44 (Fig. 8c) for the damage and
healing cycles applied, confirming that the healing index remains rela­
tively constant. However, these are slightly lower than the results from
the literature [29] (Fig. 8d), which range from 0.38 to 0.56. The dif­
ference is explained by the different mixture composition (e.g., carbon
black modified binder), size of test samples, and testing temperature
differences between this research and the research reported in the
literature [29]. For the calculation of HISCBJc variability, shown in
Fig. 8c, an error propagation formula used in statistics and analysis of
scientific data was used [71].
4.3. Evolution of the fatigue life extension
Results in Fig. 9 show that the calculated fatigue life extension using
the test data after each healing cycle ranges from 0.19 to 0.27, which is
less than one half of the healing index obtained from peak load results
(HISCBF, Fig. 7b). The average coefficient of variation for HIFLE is
approximately 20%, similar to that obtained from Jc and HISCBF. In
addition, results show that the fatigue life of asphalt pavements
8
Construction and Building Materials 304 (2021) 124623
increases approximately 19% after the first healing cycle, and then 12%,
27%, and 19% after the second, third, and fourth healing cycles. In other
words, if the expected fatigue life of an asphalt pavement is 1x106 80 kN
axle-load repetitions, the fatigue life of the asphalt pavement increases
to 1.19 × 106, 1.12 × 106, 1.27 × 106, and 1.19 × 106, respectively. For
comparison, the fatigue life extension was calculated from Jahanbakhsh,
et al. [29], and included in Fig. 9b showing a 40% fatigue life increase
after the first healing cycle and between 21 and 24% for the second and
third healing cycle. Conversely, the fatigue life extension observed in
laboratory fatigue four-point bending tests (FFPBT) range between 20%
and 60% [47,48,50]. The diverse laboratory testing and healing condi­
tions applied to FFPBT explain the difference between results for
instance, the researchers who adopted FFPBT applied different healing
temperatures and different damage levels to asphalt specimens to esti­
mate the fatigue life extension [47,48,50]. Nevertheless, the fatigue life
extensions reported by authors who adopted FFPBT for testing condi­
tions similar to the present study (asphalt mixture without additives,
healing temperature of 70 ◦ C) range between 35% and 46% for the first
healing cycle [47,48,50], higher than those calculated using the
K.M. Nalbandian and Á. González
Fig. 8. Results from semicircular bending tests: (a) Jc (b) Jc calculated from results reported in the literature (c) HISCBJc (d) HISCBJc calculated from results reported
in the literature. (Note: 1 error bar = 1 standard deviation, N = 15 for each bar).
Fig. 9. Fatigue life extension index (HIFLE) of asphalt pavements versus healing cycles (Note: 1 error bar = 1 standard deviation, N = 15 for each bar).
proposed approach used in this article.
4.4. Healing indexes comparison
As previously mentioned, many researchers have used the HISCBF
index to quantify the healing effect of self-healing techniques because it
is a simple parameter for comparing different healing techniques.
However, the use of the HISCBF index to assess the fatigue life extension
of a pavement could be misleading as shown in Fig. 10. Fig. 7 shows that
HISCBF using the results obtained from the laboratory study fluctuate
between 58% and 60% for each healing cycle. Conversely, the calculated
HISCBJc index ranges between 29% and 44% for each healing cycle,
considerably lower than the healing indexes calculated using HISCBF. The
difference is higher for the calculation of the fatigue life extension,
9
Construction and Building Materials 304 (2021) 124623
which is approximately one third of the HISCBF. This difference is
explained by the methodology adopted to calculate HISCBF, which is the
ratio between peak loads applied to SCB samples. Because the peak force
is not clearly linked with asphalt pavement fatigue performance, the
current research recommends the use of the fatigue life extension ratio
calculated with Eq. 14. HIFLE links the damaged and healed laboratory
results from SCB specimens with field performance using fracture me­
chanics, although these results must be confirmed with full scale testing
of asphalt pavements and rigorous analytical methods [27].
5. Conclusions
This paper presents different alternatives from those typically used to
quantify the efficiency of self-healing techniques and instead assesses
K.M. Nalbandian and Á. González
Fig. 10. HI value comparison (Note: 1 error bar = 1 standard deviation, N = 5
for HISCBFi, N = 15 for HISCBJc and HIFLE).
pavement fatigue life of asphalt pavements with self-healing properties
using analytical methods based on fracture mechanics and laboratory
results. Based on the analysis and discussion of results, the following
conclusions are presented:
• Several HI have been used to quantify the healing performance of
self-healing techniques; however, they provide little information
about the increase of the fatigue life in order to define the application
frequency of self-healing maintenance techniques or to assess the
increase of pavement fatigue life in the field.
• HISCBF, a common healing index calculated with the peak force in
SCB tests could be misleading, since it does not describe the fatigue
performance of asphalt pavements. Jc is a fracture mechanics
parameter related to field crack initiation and propagation in asphalt
pavements and pavement fatigue life. Hence, HI elaborated from the
Jc parameter or the fatigue life extension of pavements is proposed.
• Experimental results from the current research were used to calcu­
late Jc in asphalt mixtures healed by external microwave heating and
to assess pavement fatigue life. Results indicate that the fatigue life of
asphalt pavements increases 20% after the application of microwave
heating.
• Overall, the SCB-Jc-fatigue proposed methodology provides a valu­
able tool for investigating the performance of asphalt concrete self-
healing techniques through a simple laboratory experiment until
self-healing field experiments are carried out.
Based on the findings, future research should focus on the develop­
ment of distress models for self-healing asphalt pavements that could
predict the material performance in the field. To make this possible, it is
fundamental to develop devices that could apply electromagnetic
external heating to full-scale asphalt pavements.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Kevork Micael Nalbandian: Conceptualization, Methodology,
Validation, Data curation, Formal analysis, Funding acquisition, Inves­
tigation, Validation, Visualization, Writing - original draft, Writing -
review & editing. Álvaro González: Conceptualization, Data curation,
Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Supervision, Vali­
dation, Visualization, Writing - review & editing.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
10
Construction and Building Materials 304 (2021) 124623
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgments
The authors extend their gratitude to the Chilean International
Cooperation Agency (AGCID) and its Scholarship Program for interna­
tional students. We give special thanks to the staff of the Instituto de
Estructuras y Transporte of the Facultad de Ingeniería of the Universidad
de la República of Uruguay, Gonzalo Cetrángolo, Ph.D. Director, Daniel
Hasard, M.Sc. Chief of Geotechnical Department, and to Professors,
Álvaro Gutiérrez, Ph.D., Agustín Spalvier, Ph.D., Luis Segura, Ph.D.,
Mariano Nemes, M.Sc., and especially to Javier Belsito for permission to
use their laboratory and for their invaluable help. Also, we want to thank
Eng. Diego Charle from IDALAR S.A for providing the asphalt mixture
samples and Anne Bliss, Ph.D. for her assistance in the final review of the
manuscript. Finally, the correspondent author is grateful for the finan­
cial support given by the Chilean National Agency for Research and
Development (ANID), through the Research Project FONDECYT Regular
2021 N◦ 1211009 during the final revision of this manuscript.
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