Grade Xii Book III Final

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CHAPTER 9: RAY OPTICS
Rules for drawing ray diagrams
1. Concave mirror
2. Convex mirror
3. Convex lens
4. Concave lens
Copy right to: Shani V C, 0504702464, Dubai,UAE.shanivc@gmail.com

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Image formation
1. Concave mirror
a. Object at infinity
b. Object beyond 2F
c. Object at 2F (at center of curvature)

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d. Object between 2F and F
e. Object at F
f. Object between F and pole of the mirror

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Relative positions of image and object in concave mirror
2. Convex mirror
b. Object in front of the mirror
3. Convex lens

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b. Object beyond 2F
c. Object at 2F
d. Object between 2F and F

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e. Object between F and lens
4. Concave lens
a. Object in front of the lens
b. Object at infinity

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RAY OPTICS
Reflection: When light falls on a smooth and polished surface it bounces back to the same medium. This
phenomenon is known as reflection of light
Laws of reflection
1. Incident light, reflected light and the normal

at the point of incidence all lie in the same
plane
2. Angle of incidence is equal to angle of
reflection (i = r)
Note: 1. Laws of reflection are applicable to all mirrors (both for plane and spherical mirrors)
1. A line passing through a point and center of curvature of the mirror represent normal to that point
2. For a plane surface, radius of curvature (R) = infinity
1. When light is incident on a reflecting surface, reflected ray is found normal to the incident ray. Find
angle of incidence and angle of reflection.
Sign conventions
1. Pole in the case of mirrors and optical center in the case of lenses is the origin of all
measurements.
2. Distances measured from the pole/optical center in the direction of incident light rays is taken as
positive and that measured opposite to the incident light rays is taken as negative.
3. Distances measured upwards from the principal axis are taken as positive and that measured
downwards from the principal axis are taken as negative.

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Note:
a) R and f of a concave mirror is negative
b) R and f of a convex mirror is positive
c) For convex lens R1 is positive and R2 is negative
d) For concave lens R1 is negative and R2 is positive
e) For converging lens f and Power is positive
f) For diverging lens f and Power is negative
Relation between radius of curvature (R) and focal length (f) for spherical mirrors (concave)
Consider a concave mirror of focal length f and radius of curvature R. ( i = r =θ)
̂ 𝑃𝑋
For small aperture, 𝑃𝑋 ≈
̅̅̅̅ and tanθ ≈ θ
From figure tani = PX/PC and tan2i = PX/PF
For small aperture, tani = i and tan2i = 2i
i = PX/PC and 2i = PX/PF
𝑖 𝑃𝐹 1 𝑓
2𝑖
= 𝑃𝐶
, 2
=𝑅 , R = 2f

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Relation between radius of curvature (R) and focal length (f) for spherical mirrors (convex)
Consider a convex mirror of focal length f and

radius of curvature R. ( i = r = θ)
̂ 𝑃𝑋
For small aperture, 𝑃𝑋 ≈
̅̅̅̅ and tanθ ≈ θ
From figure tani = PX/PC and tan2i = PX/PF
For small aperture, tani = i and tan2i = 2i
i = PX/PC and 2i = PX/PF

𝑖 𝑃𝐹 1 𝑓
2𝑖
= 𝑃𝐶
, 2
=𝑅 ,
R = 2f (this formula is only applicable to mirrors not applicable to lenses)
Note: Focal length of a mirror depends only on the radius of curvature. It is independent of the
colour of incident light, nature of the medium in which mirror is placed. Even the mirror is
broken in to pieces focal length of mirror will not change.
By covering the mirror (or lens) with an opaque material, the area of the reflecting surface has been
halved. Therefore, the intensity of the image is reduced to half.
2. Suppose the lower half of the concave mirror’s reflecting surface is covered with an opaque (non-
reflective) material. What effect will this have on the image of an object placed in front of the mirror?
3. A mobile phone lies along the principal axis of a concave mirror, with half before 2F and half between
2F and F. Show by suitable diagram, the formation of its image. Explain why the magnification is not
uniform. Will the distortion of image depend on the location of the phone with respect to the mirror?
MIRROR FORMULA
Case I: concave mirror forming real image
Consider a concave mirror of focal length f . OB is an object and IM is the real image formed. PO = u is the
object distance and PI = v is the image distance and PF = f is the focal length
̂ 𝑃𝐴
For small aperture, 𝑃𝐴 ≈
̅̅̅̅ .

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In figure triangles OBF and PNF are similar, PN/OB = PF/OF, since PN = IM, IM/OB = PF/OF ……… (1)
Triangles IMF and PAF are also similar, IM/PA = IF/PF, since PA = OB, IM/OB = IF/PF ……….. (2)
From (1) and (2), PF/OF = IF/PF
f v−f
= , f 2 = uv – uf – fv + f 2
u−f f
uf + fv = uv
1 1 1
Divide by uvf, + =
v u f
Applying sign conventions, u, v and f all are negative

1 1 1
+ =
−v −u −f
1 1 1
+ =
v u f
Case II: concave mirror forming virtual image
Consider a concave mirror of focal length f . OB is an object and IM is the virtual image formed. PO = u is
the object distance and PI = v is the image distance and PF = f is the focal length

̂ 𝑃𝐴
̅̅̅̅ .
In figure triangles OBC and IMC are similar, IM/OB = IC/OC … (1)
From (1) and (2), IC/OC = IF/PF

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v+2f v +f
= , fv +2f 2 = -uv - uf +2 fv + 2 f 2
2f−u f
uf - fv = -uv
1 1 1
Divide by uvf, + =
v −u −f
Applying sign conventions, u and f are negative but v is positive

1 1 1
+ =
𝑣 −(−𝑢) −(−𝑓)
1 1 1
𝑣
+ 𝑢
= 𝑓
4. A small candle, 2.5 cm in size is placed at 27 cm in front of a concave mirror of radius of curvature 36
cm. At what distance from the mirror should a screen be placed in order to obtain a sharp image?
Describe the nature and size of the image. If the candle is moved closer to the mirror, how would the
screen have to be moved?
Case III: convex mirror (forming virtual image)
Consider a convex mirror of focal length f . OB is an object and IM is the virtual image formed. PO = u is
the object distance and PI = v is the image distance and PF = f is the focal length

̂ ̅̅̅̅
𝑃𝐴 .
In figure triangles OBC and IMC are similar, IM/OB = IC/OC … (1)
From (1) and (2), IC/OC = IF/PF
2f−v f−v
= , - fv +2f 2 = -uv + uf -2 fv + 2 f 2
2f+u f

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-uf + fv = -uv
1 1 1
Divide by uvf, + =
−v u −f
Applying sign conventions, u is negative but v and f are positive
1 1 1
+ =
−v −u −f
1 1 1
+ =
v u f
ℎ𝑖
Magnification (m) is defined as the ratio of height of the image to height of the object. m=
ℎ𝑜
𝐼𝑀 𝑃𝐼 −ℎ𝑖 −𝑣 ℎ𝑖 −𝑣 −𝒗
From the ray diagram ∆IMP and ∆OBP are similar. 𝑂𝐵 = 𝑃𝑂 or ℎ𝑜
= −𝑢 or ℎ𝑜
= 𝑢
or m =
𝒖
5. Obtain expressions for magnification in terms of (i) u and f (ii) v and f

6. Draw u, v graph for a concave mirror for real images and explain how to find focal length from
the graph
1 1
7. Draw 𝑢 , 𝑣 graph for a concave mirror for real images and explain how to find focal length from
the graph
8. A 4.5 cm needle is placed 12 cm away from a convex mirror of focal length 15 cm. Give the location of
the image and the magnification. Describe what happens as the needle is moved farther from the
mirror.
9. Use the mirror equation to deduce that: (a) an object placed between f and 2f of a concave mirror
produces a real image beyond 2f. (b) a convex mirror always produces a virtual image independent of
the location of the object. (c) the virtual image produced by a convex mirror is always diminished in
size and is located between the focus and the pole. (d) an object placed between the pole and focus
of a concave mirror produces a virtual and enlarged image.
10. A 5cm long needle is placed 10cm from a convex mirror of focal length 40cm. find the position nature
and size of the image formed. What happens to the size of the image if the needle is moved away from
the mirror?

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REFRACTION
Bending of light at the surface of separation, when light travels

obliquely, from one transparent medium to another of different optical density is
known as refraction
Refraction from rarer medium to denser medium
When light travels obliquely from rarer medium to denser medium,

wavelength of light in denser medium is less than that in rarer medium.
Hence speed of light in denser medium is also less than that in rarer
medium. Light bend towards the normal to cut short the length of the path. Angle of
refraction is less than angle of incidence. Angle of deviation, d = i – r
r < i and d = i – r i=0,r=0
Note: light rays travelling normal to surface of separation ( i = 0) does not undergo refraction
Refraction from denser medium to rarer medium
When light travels obliquely from denser medium to rarer

medium, wavelength of light in rarer medium is more than that
in denser medium. Hence speed of light in rarer medium is also
more than that in denser medium. Light bend away from the
normal. Angle of refraction is more than angle of incidence. Angle
of deviation, d = r – i
λrarer medium > λdenser , vrarer > vdenser r > I and d = r – i
Laws of refraction
1. Incident ray refracted ray and the normal at the point of incidence all lie in the same plane
2. Ratio of sine of angle of incidence to sine of angle of refraction is a constant for a pair of media
and for a given colour of light. This constant is known as refractive index of second medium with
respect to first medium
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑖 𝑛2
= . Note: refractive index depends nature of the pair of media and colour of light (λ).
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑟 𝑛1
Absolute refractive index of a medium (nm ) is defined as the ratio of speed of light in vacuum (c) to
speed of light in that medium (vm )
nm = c/vm , nm α 1/vm
nm = λ air /λmedium , nm α 1 /λmedium

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𝐵
11. Refractive index 𝜇 of a the material of a prism depends on the wavelength 𝜆 as 𝜇 = 𝐴 + 𝜆2
.
(i) Plot a graph to show variation of refractive index with wavelength.
(ii) Identify a pair of variables to get a straight line variation between the above variables
Note:
1. During reflection, wavelength, speed and

frequency remain unchanged
2. During refraction, wavelength and speed changes
but frequency remains unchanged
Examples /Applications of refraction
1. Object placed in denser medium, when observed

from rarer medium appears close to the surface of separation
O – Object, I – image, i – angle of incidence, r – angle of refraction

OB = t = real (actual) depth, IB = apparent depth, OI = OB – IB = shift
Sini =AB/OA , Sinr = AB/IA
Applying Snell’s law nr/nd = Sini/Sinr

nr/nd = IA/OA = IB/OB. ( for small aperture OA = OB and IA = IB)
nd/nr = OB/IB
nd/nr = actual depth/ apparent depth
Shift, s = OI
s = OB – IB
s = OB (1 – IB/OB)
s = t (1 – nr/nd). if rarer medium is air, s = t (1 – 1/nd)
For multiple media, S = S1 + S2 + ……
Note: refractive index of air = 1

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Object placed in rarer medium, when observed from denser medium appears far away from the surface
of separation
12. Monochromatic light of wavelength 589 nm is incident from air on a water surface. What are the
wavelength, frequency and speed of (a) reflected, and (b) refracted light? Refractive index of water is
1.33.
13. (a) The refractive index of glass is 1.5. What is the speed of light in glass? (Speed of light in vacuum is
3.0 × 108 m/s) (b) Is the speed of light in glass independent of the colour of light? If not, which of the
two colours red and violet travels slower in a glass prism?
14. A tank is filled with water to a height of 12.5 cm. The apparent depth of a needle lying at the bottom
of the tank is measured by a microscope to be 9.4 cm. What is the refractive index of water? If water
is replaced by a liquid of refractive index 1.63 up to the same height, by what distance would the
microscope have to be moved to focus on the needle again?
15. Light of wavelength 5000 Å falls on a plane reflecting surface. What
16. are the wavelength and frequency of the reflected light? For what angle of incidence is the reflected
ray normal to the incident ray?
17. A small pin fixed on a table top is viewed from above from a distance of 50cm. By what distance
would the pin appear to be raised if it is viewed from the same point through a 15cm thick glass slab
held parallel to the table? Refractive index of glass = 1.5. Does the answer depend on the location of
the slab?
18. Light of wavelength 5000 Å falls on a plane reflecting surface. What are the wavelength and frequency
of the reflected light? For what angle of incidence is the reflected ray normal to the incident ray
Early sun rise and late sun set
Sun is visible two minutes before the actual sunrise and even two minutes after the actual sun
set due to atmospheric refraction .Light rays from sun towards the earth are entering from a
rarer medium (vacuum) to a denser medium (atmosphere). Even when the sun is below the
horizon, these light rays bend towards the normal (earth’s surface) and reach the observer’s eye
making a feeling of the apparent position of the sun above the horizon

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Refraction through glass slab
1. Emergent light rays are parallel to the direction of

incident light rays (angle of emergence = angle of
incidence)
2. Emergent light rays are laterally shifted away from
direction of incident light rays
Lateral shift (d) is defined as the perpendicular distance between

emergent light ray and the incident light ray
d = t Secr Sin (i – r)
TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION
When light travel from denser medium to rarer medium, it bends away from the normal (r > i). As angle
of incidence (i) increases the angle of refraction(r) also increases. At a particular angle of incidence (known
as critical angle, C) refracted ray becomes parallel to the surface of separation, r = 900. If angle of incidence
is greater than the critical angle (I > C), angle of refraction will be more than 900. That means complete
light rays get reflected back to the denser medium. This phenomenon is known as total internal reflection.
Critical angle (C): when light travel from a denser medium to rarer medium, that particular angle of
incidence at which refracted ray in air becomes parallel to the surface of separation (r = 900) is known
critical angle.
Total internal reflection: when light travel from denser medium to rarer medium with angle of incidence
greater than critical angle of the denser medium, complete light rays will be reflected back to the denser
medium by obeying the laws of reflection. This phenomenon is known as total internal reflection
Conditions for total internal reflection
1. Light should travel from denser medium to rarer medium

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2. Angle of incidence must be greater than critical angle of the denser medium(i > C)
Relation between refractive index and critical angle of the denser medium(refer above diagram)
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑖 nr
Applying Snell’s law, =
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑟 nd
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝐶 nr
When i = C, r = 900 , =
𝑆𝑖𝑛90 nd
nr 1
SinC= , if rarer medium (second medium) is air nr = 1, SinC=
nd nd
19. Complete the path of the light rays through the prism rays are falling normally on one isosceles
face of a right angled isosceles prism (refractive index of the material of the prism for the
colours are nred = 1.39, ngreen = 1.44 and nblue = 1.49)
20. Refer to Qn 8 and complete the path if the light rays are falling normal to one face of an
equilateral prism.
21. A ray of light is incident on glass slab from air is deviated by 150. If the angle of incidence is 600,
calculate the critical angle of glass air interface. (CASE 2006)
22. A point light source is placed at the bottom of a transparent medium of refractive index μ. If the
light rays are refracted in to air, calculate the area of the denser medium through which
light emerges out.
23. A small bulb is placed at the bottom of a tank containing water to a depth of 80cm. What is the area
of the surface of water through which light from the bulb can emerge out? Refractive index of water is
1.33. (Consider the bulb to be a point source.)
Applications of total internal reflection
1. Total reflecting prisms: a right angled isosceles prism with critical angle less than 450 can be
used as a total reflecting prism.

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(a) To turn light rays (image) by 900: object is placed in such a way that light rays enter normal
to one of the isosceles sides of the prism. At AB, since i = 0 r is also zero. No refraction takes
place at AB. At AC light tend to go from denser medium to rarer medium with an angle of
incidence of 450. As i >C light undergo total internal reflection and comes out normal to BC
(page322, figure9.15(a))
(b) To turn light rays by 1800: inversion with deviation(draw diagram page322,figure9.15(b))
and add explanation as previous one)
(c) To turn light rays by 1800: inversion without deviation(draw diagram page322,
figure9.15(c)page322, and add explanation as previous one)
1. Mirage is an optical illusion
produced by total internal
reflection. During hot day’s
layers of air near to the ground
becomes hot and act as rarer
medium compared to layers
above. Light coming from top to
bottom is travelling through a
medium of continuously
decreasing refractive index. At
each layer light rays bend away
from the normal. After travelling
a particular distance, angle of incidence becomes greater than the
critical angle and total internal reflection takes place. Reflected light
rays reaching observer’s eye produce the feeling of pool of water
on the ground (diagram, page 321, figure 9.14(b))
2. Optical fiber consists of a glass core of high refractive index and an
outer covering called cladding of low refractive index. Light enters
the fiber through the area of cross section such that angle of
incidence on the core – cladding boundary is greater than the
critical angle. Multiple total internal reflections at the core- cladding
boundary direct the light rays to the other end without much loss of
intensity. (diagram, page 322, figure 9.16)
Optical fiber is used as (a) diagnostic tool in medical examination of
internal body organs and (b) as a light pipe for the transmission of
electrical signals converted in to light signals.
3. Brilliance of diamond is due to multiple total internal reflections
taking place within a properly cut diamond. Refractive index of
diamond is very high (2.4) and hence it has very low critical angle
(230). Sides of diamond are cut in such a way once light enter
inside it undergo multiple total internal reflections and get
trapped inside. Light rays with angle of incidence less than 230
coming out from diamond to air give sparkling appearance

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REFRACTION THROUGH PRISM
ABC is the principal section of the prism with A as the refracting angle of prism, AB and AC as refracting
surfaces. i - the angle of incidence on AB,
r1 - angle of refraction on AB ,
r2 - angle of incidence on AC and e - angle of emergence
From quadrilateral AQMR, A + AQM + M + ARM = 3600 . But AQM = ARM = 900 normal)
A + M = 1800 …(1)
From ∆QMR, r1 + r2 + M = 1800 …..(2)
Comparing (1) and (2) , A = r1 + r 2 …..(3)
From ∆QNR, d = (i – r1 ) + (e – r2 ) or d = (i + e ) – (r1+ r2 )
d = (i + e) – A …..(4)
For a given prism and given colour of light d changes with i only. Variation of d with i is as shown in the
graph.

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From the graph it is seen that as i increases d first decreases, reaches a minimum value c(dm = D)called
angle of minimum deviation and then increases. Angle of minimum deviation is defined as that
particular angle of deviation at which the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of emergence
(refracted ray becomes parallel to the base of the prism).
At minimum deviation d = D , i=e and r1 = r2 = r ……..(5)
Using (5) in (3) , A = 2r1 or r1 = A/2 …(6)

𝑨+𝑫
Using (5) in (4) ,D = 2i – A or A + D = 2i or i= 𝟐
…(7)
𝑛2 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑖
Applying (6) and (7) in Snell’s law =
𝑛1 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑟
𝑨+𝑫
𝒏𝟐 𝑺𝒊𝒏( 𝟐 )
= 𝑨
𝒏𝟏 𝑺𝒊𝒏( 𝟐)
𝑨+𝑫
𝑺𝒊𝒏( 𝟐 )
If glass prism is placed in air n1 = 1 and n2 = nglass, nglass = 𝑨
𝑺𝒊𝒏( )
𝟐
𝐴+𝐷 𝒏
Note: For a thin prism sinθ ≈θ , n = 𝐴
or n A = A + D or n A – A = D or (𝒏 𝒈 – 1 )A = D
𝒎
24 Show that the angle of minimum deviation produced by a thin prism is reduced to ¼ th with respect to
𝑔 3 4
air when it is immersed in water. 𝑛𝑎 = 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛𝑎𝑤 = 3
25
26
27 Show that angle of minimum deviation for a glass prism decreases when shifted from air to water

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28
29
30
31 How does the angle of minimum deviation of prism change on replacing violet light by red light?
32 A prism is made of glass of unknown refractive index. A parallel beam of light is incident on a face of the
prism. The angle of minimum deviation is measured to be 40°. What is the refractive index of the material of
the prism? The refracting angle of the prism is 60°. If the prism is placed in water (refractive index 1.33),
predict the new angle of minimum deviation of a parallel beam of light.
33 At what angle should a ray of light be incident on the face of a prism of refracting angle 60° so that it just
suffers total internal reflection at the other face? The refractive index of the material of the prism is 1.524.

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REFRACTION AT SPHERICAL SURFACE
1. Convex surface with object in rarer medium forming real image
Consider a convex refracting surface XPY of radius of curvature R separating two media of refractive index
n1 and n2 where n2 >n1.
Assumptions
1. A point object is placed on the principal axis

2. Aperture of the refracting surface is small.
Object distance = u, Image distance = v, radius of curvature = R
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑖 n2
Applying Snell’s law, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑟 =
𝑛1
For small aperture sini ≈ I and sinr ≈ r
n1 x i = n2 x r
From ΔOAC i = α + β and r = β – θ
n1 (α + β) = n2 (β – θ)
n1 α + n1 β = n2 β – n2θ
n1 α + n2θ = n2 β – n1 β
n1 α + n2θ = β (n2– n1 )
𝑃𝐴 𝑃𝐴 𝑃𝐴
For small aperture, α ≈ tanα = β ≈ tanβ = θ ≈ tanθ =
𝑃𝑂 𝑃𝐶 𝑃𝐼
𝑃𝐴 𝑃𝐴 𝑃𝐴
n1 𝑃𝑂
+ n2 𝑃𝐼
= 𝑃𝐶
(n2– n1 )

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𝑛1 𝑛2 (𝑛2 − 𝑛1)
+ =
𝑃𝑂 𝑃𝐼 𝑃𝐶
Applying sign conventions, PO = -u, PI = v and PC = R
𝑛1 𝑛2 (𝑛2 − 𝑛1)
+ =
−𝑢 𝑣 𝑅
This formula is applicable to both convex and concave surfaces with suitable sign conventions
34. Convex surface with object in rarer medium forming virtual image (hw)
35. Convex surface with object in denser medium forming real image (hw)
36. Light from a point source in air falls on a spherical glass surface (n = 1.5 and radius of curvature = 20
cm). The distance of the light source from the glass surface is 100 cm. At what position the image is
formed?
LENS MAKER’S FORMULA
Assumptions
1. Object is point sized and is placed on the principal axis
2. Thickness of the lens is very small.
n1 – refractive index of the medium in which lens is placed, n2 – refractive index of the lens, R1- radius of
curvature of the first surface of the lens and R2 - radius of curvature of the second surface of the lens.
If the second surface were absent first surface of the lens forms the image at I 1. Considering refraction
from n1 to n2 (obj dist = u, img dist = v1
𝑛1 𝑛2 (𝑛2−𝑛1)
+ = ………(1)
−𝑢 𝑣1 𝑅1
Image formed by first surface act as the virtual object for the second surface, and final image is formed at
I by the second surface. Considering refraction from n2 to n1

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𝑛2 𝑛1 (𝑛1−𝑛2)
−𝑣1
+ 𝑣 = 𝑅2
𝑛2 𝑛1 −(𝑛2−𝑛1)
−𝑣1
+ 𝑣 = 𝑅2
……..(2)
𝑛1 𝑛1 (𝑛2−𝑛1) −(𝑛2−𝑛1)
(1) + (2) ⟹ + = +
−𝑢 𝑣 𝑅1 𝑅2
1 1 1 1
n1 ( + ) = (𝑛2 − 𝑛1)( - )
−𝑢 𝑣 𝑅1 𝑅2
1 1 𝑛2−𝑛1 1 1
+ =( ) ( - ) …..(a)
−𝑢 𝑣 𝑛1 𝑅1 𝑅2
If the object is at infinity image is at the principal focus, ie if u = ∞ , v = f
1 1 𝑛2−𝑛1 1 1
+ =( ) ( - )
−∞ 𝑓 𝑛1 𝑅1 𝑅2
𝟏 𝒏𝟐−𝒏𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
=( ) ( - ) …..(b)
𝒇 𝒏𝟏 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐
The above equation is known as lens maker’s formula
Note: lens formula from lens maker’s formula
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
Comparing (a) and (b) = − . this relation is known as thin lens formula.
𝐟 𝐯 𝐮
Note: If the refractive index of a transparent substance is same as that of the surrounding medium, the
substance will not be seen (will disappear) in the medium.
37 A magician during a show makes a glass lens with n = 1.47 disappears in a trough of liquid. What is the
refractive index of the liquid? Could the liquid be water?
38 Double-convex lenses are to be manufactured from a glass of refractive index 1.55, with both faces of
the same radius of curvature. What is the radius of curvature required if the focal length is to be 20cm?
39
40

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41
42
43

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LENS FORMULA
Case I convex lens forming real image.
Consider a convex lens of focal length f. u is the object distance and v is the image distance.
𝐼𝑀 𝐼𝐶
∆OBC is similar to ∆IMC, 𝑂𝐵
= 𝑂𝐶 ….(1)
𝐼𝑀 𝐼𝐹 𝐼𝑀 𝐼𝐹
∆CAF is similar to ∆IMF, = or = ….(2)
𝐶𝐴 𝐶𝐹 𝑂𝐵 𝐶𝐹
𝐼𝐶 𝐼𝐹 𝑣 𝑣−𝑓 𝑣 𝑣
From (1) and (2), = 𝑂𝐶 = 𝐶𝐹 or = or = −1
𝑢 𝑓 𝑢 𝑓
1 1 1 1 1 1
= − or + = .
𝑢 𝑓 v 𝑢 v 𝑓
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
Applying sign conventions, u is –ve, v and f are +ve, + = or 𝟏𝐯 − 𝒖
= 𝟏𝒇
−𝒖 𝐯 𝒇
𝒉𝒊
Magnification (m) is defined as the ratio of height of the image to height of the object. m = 𝒉𝒐
𝐼𝑀 𝐼𝐶 −ℎ𝑖 𝑣 ℎ𝑖 𝑣 𝒗
From the ray diagram ∆IMC and ∆OBC are similar. 𝑂𝐵 = 𝑂𝐶 or = −𝑢 or = 𝑢 or m =
ℎ𝑜 ℎ𝑜 𝒖
44 Obtain expressions for magnification in terms of (i) u and f (ii) v and f
45

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46
47
Case II convex lens forming virtual image
Consider a convex lens of focal length f. CO = u is the object distance and CI = v is the image distance.
𝐼𝑀 𝐼𝐶
∆OBC is similar to ∆IMC, = ….(1)
𝑂𝐵 𝑂𝐶
∆CAF is similar to ∆IMF, = or = ….(2)
𝐶𝐴 𝐶𝐹 𝑂𝐵 𝐶𝐹
𝐼𝐶 𝐼𝐹 𝑣 𝑣+𝑓 𝑣 𝑣
From (1) and (2), =
𝑂𝐶
=
𝐶𝐹
or = or = +1
𝑢 𝑓 𝑢 𝑓
1 1 1 1 1 1
= + or − = .
𝑢 𝑓 v 𝑢 v 𝑓
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
Applying sign conventions, u and v are–ve, f is +ve, − = or + =
−𝒖 −𝐯 𝒇 −𝒖 𝐯 𝒇

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𝟏
𝟏
𝐯
− 𝒖
= 𝟏𝒇
Case III concave lens (forming virtual image)

Consider a concave lens of focal length f. CO = u is the object distance and CI = v is the image distance.
𝐼𝑀 𝐼𝐶
∆OBC is similar to ∆IMC, = ….(1)
𝑂𝐵 𝑂𝐶
∆CAF is similar to ∆IMF, 𝐶𝐴
= 𝐶𝐹 or 𝑂𝐵
= 𝐶𝐹 ….(2)
𝐼𝐶 𝐼𝐹 𝑣 𝑓− 𝑣 𝑣 𝑣
From (1) and (2), = 𝑂𝐶 = 𝐶𝐹 or = or =1−
𝑢 𝑓 𝑢 𝑓
1 1 1 1 1 1
= − or − =− .
𝑢 v 𝑓 𝑢 v 𝑓
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
Applying sign conventions, u v and f are –ve , − =− or + =
−𝒖 −𝐯 −𝒇 −𝒖 𝐯 𝒇
𝟏
𝟏
𝐯
−
𝒖
= 𝟏𝒇
Note: If the focal length/ Power of a lens is positive it is converging and if the focal length/ Power of a
lens is negative it is diverging.
If the focal length/ Power of a mirror is positive, it is diverging and if the focal length/ Power of a mirror
is negative it is converging.
48 Find the position of the image formed (a) convex lens (b) concave lens (c) concave mirror (d)
convex mirror when the object is placed in front of the lens/mirror at a distance equal to half the
focal length.

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49
50
51 A double convex lens made of glass of refractive index 1.6 has its both sides of equal
radii of curvature 30 cm each. If an object of size 5 cm is placed 12.5 cm from it, calculate
the (i) position (ii) nature and (iii) magnification of the image formed
52 An object and screen are placed at a constant distance of D from each other. A convex lens forms
two real images by keeping the same lens at different positions separated by distance d, show
𝐷 2 −𝑑2
that focal length of the lens, f = 4𝐷
.
53 Derive the thin lens formula for a concave lens using necessary ray diagram. Two lenses of
powers 10D and -5D are placed in contact. Calculate the power of the lens combination. Where
should be an object held from the lens, so as to obtain a virtual image of magnification 2?
54

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55
56 A beam of light converges at a point P. Now a lens is placed in the path of the convergent beam 12cm
from P. At what point does the beam converge if the lens is (a) a convex lens of focal length 20cm,
and (b) a concave lens of focal length 16cm?
57 An object of size 3.0cm is placed 14cm in front of a concave lens of focal length 21cm. Describe the
image produced by the lens. What happens if the object is moved further away from the lens?
58 The image of a small electric bulb fixed on the wall of a room is to be obtained on the opposite wall 3m
away by means of a large convex lens. What is the maximum possible focal length of the lens required
for the purpose?
59 A screen is placed 90cm from an object. The image of the object on the screen is formed by a convex
lens at two different locations separated by 20cm. Determine the focal length of the lens.
POWER OF A LENS is defined as the tangent of angle of deviation for

a light ray which is incident on the lens parallel to the principal axis
unit distance from the optic center.
ℎ 𝟏
P = tanδ = or P =
𝑓 𝒇
Power is the reciprocal of focal length in meters. S I unit of power is

dioptre (D)
COMBINATION OF THIN LENSES
Consider two thin lenses L1 and L2 of focal lengths f1 and f2 arranged coaxially in contact. If the second lens
were absent image is formed at I1by the first lens. Applying thin lens formula for refraction through L1 ,

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1 1 1
− = …..(1)
v1 𝑢 𝑓1
Image formed by the first lens act as the virtual object for the second lens, and the final image is formed
at I. . Applying thin lens formula for refraction through L2 ,
1 1 1
− = …..(2)
v v1 𝑓2
1 1 1 1
(1) + (2) ⟹ − = + …(3)
v 𝑢 𝑓1 𝑓2
If the two lenses were replaced by a single equivalent lens of focal length f ,
1 1 1
For the equivalent lens, − = …..(4)
v 𝑢 𝑓
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
From (3) and (4) + = or in terms of power P = P1 + P2
𝐟𝟏 𝒇𝟐 𝒇
v1 v v1 v
Magnification of L1, m1 = Magnification of L2, m2 = , m1 x m2 = x
𝑢 v1 𝑢 v1
v
or m1 x m2 = …..(1)
u
v
for the equivalent lens, m= ….(2)
u
from (1) and (2), m=m1 x m2

60. What is the focal length of a convex lens of focal length 30cm in contact with a concave lens of focal length
20cm? Is the system a converging or a diverging lens? Ignore thickness of the lenses.
61. A convex lens of focal length f = 10cm is made of glass of refractive index 3/2. Find focal length of
the lens when placed in(a) water of refractive index 4/3 (b) in CS2 of refractive index 8/5 (c) a
medium of refractive index of 3/2. Explain the nature of the lens in each case.
62. Can a convex lens act as a diverging lens in any situation? Justify
63. Can a concave lens act as a converging lens in any situation? Justify
64. Explain the change (if any) in power of a convex lens of focal length f, if cut into two (a) identical
planar - convex lenses (b) identical sections parallel to the principal axis.
65. Explain the change in focal length of (a) convex lens (b) concave mirror (if any) when (i)frequency
of light falling on it is increased (ii) wavelength of incident light is increased.
66. A lens of refractive index n1is placed in a medium of refractive index n2. Complete the path of the
light ray when a parallel beam of light is incident on (a) a convex lens (b) concave lens
if (i) n1 = n2 (ii) n1 > n2 (iii) n1 < n2
67. An object is placed 15 cm from a convex lens of focal length 10cm. Find the distance from convex
lens where a concave mirror of radius of curvature 20cm is to be placed to get the final image at
the same point of the object.

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68. A convex lens / concave mirror forms a real image of an object. If the upper/lower half of a
concave mirror/convex lens is painted black, what is the expected change in the image formed?
69. If an equi – convex lens of focal length f is cut in to (i) 2 identical plano – convex lenses (ii) 2
identical pieces perpendicular to its plane what change is expected in the power and focal length?
70. A convex lens of focal length 10 cm is placed 5cm from a concave mirror of radius of curvature
10cm. For an object placed in front of the lens, light rays reflected from the concave mirror again
passes through the convex lens to form final image coinciding with the object itself. Calculate the
position of the object with respect to the convex lens (ans: -10/3cm)
Ans: To get the final image coinciding with the object, the image formed by the lens will act as
the object for the mirror and the image formed by the mirror should coincide with the object of
the mirror itself (image formed by the lens and has to be same as object and image of the
concave mirror, Vlens +5cm = 2fm)
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 3 10
Vlens=10 – 5 = 5cm, ( − = , − − = , = − − = − − = − , 𝑢 = − )
𝑣 𝑢 10 5 𝑢 10 𝑢 5 10 10 10 10 3
71. An equi convex lens (made of glass of refractive index = 3/2) is placed on the top of a plane mirror.
An object needle is moved up and down to get inverted image of the needle at the same position
of the object. If this distance is measured as 30cm, what is the focal length of the convex lens?
The experiment is repeated by keeping a layer of liquid between the convex lens and the plane
mirror and image is obtained coinciding with the object needle at 45cm. calculate the focal length
of the planar - concave liquid lens formed between the lens and the plane mirror? Also calculate
the refractive index of the liquid
OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
Least distance of distinct vision (D) is the minimum distance of an object from the eye lens so that a clear
image is formed on the retina. This point is known as near point of the eye. For a healthy eye, D = 25cm
and far point is infinity.
SIMPLE MICROSCOPE (MAGNIFYING GLASS)
A short focal length convex lens can be used as a simple microscope.
Case I. image formed at near point
Principle
If an object is placed within the focus of a convex

lens, an enlarged virtual and erect image is
formed on the same side.
Expression for magnifying power
Magnifying power of a microscope forming

image at near point is defined as the ratio of
angle (θi ) subtended at the eye by image at

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near point seen through the microscope to angle ( θo ) subtended at the eye by object at near point seen
without microscope
𝜃𝑖
M = θo
tanθi
M ≈ tanθo
𝑂𝐵 𝐼𝐵’
Form figure tan θi = 𝐶𝑂
and tan θo = 𝐶𝐼
(𝑂𝐵/𝐶𝑂)
M= (𝐼𝐵’/𝐶𝐼)
(IB’ = OB),
𝐶𝐼 𝑣
M = 𝐶𝑂 M=𝑢
1 1 1 𝑣 𝑣
We have 𝑓 = 𝑣
− 𝑢 𝑓
=1− 𝑢
𝑣 𝑣
𝑢
=1− 𝑓
v = (-D)
−𝐷
M=1−
𝑓
𝐷
M = 1+ . Decrease f leads to increase in M
𝑓
Case II. Image formed at Infinity (Normal adjustment)
Principle
If an object is placed at the focus of a convex lens, an enlarged virtual and erect image is formed at infinity
Expression for magnifying power: Magnifying power of a microscope forming image at infinity is
defined as the ratio of angle (θi ) subtended at the eye by image at infinity seen through the microscope
to angle ( θo ) subtended at the eye by object at near point seen without microscope
𝜃𝑖
M = θo
tanθi
M ≈ tanθo
𝑂𝐵 𝑂′𝐵’
Form figure tan θi = and tan θo =
𝐶𝑂 𝐶𝑂′
(𝑂𝐵/𝐶𝑂)
M = (𝑂′𝐵’/𝐶𝑂′) (O’B’ = OB),
𝐶𝑂′ 𝐷
M= 𝐶𝑂
M=𝑓
Note: 1. Magnifying power of a microscope is inversely

proportional to focal length of the convex lens used
Note: 2. Image formed infinity is normally preferred to image

formed at near point because in this case image can be seen without any strain on the eye and hence this
arrangement is known as normal adjustment

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72. A convex lens of focal length 5cm is used as a simple microscope in a) normal adjustment b) near point
adjustment. Find the magnifying power in both the cases
COMPOUND MICROSCOPE
A compound microscope is preferred over simple microscope for the following reasons
Lens combination can provide more magnification and b) lens combination can minimize lens defects like
chromatic aberration and spherical aberration
A compound microscope consists of two convex lenses (lens combinations) fixed at the opposite ends of
two co-axial tubes. Distance between the lenses can be adjusted.
Convex lens near the object, known as objective lens must be of short focal length and small aperture.
Convex lens near the eye, known as eye lens (or eye piece) must be of short focal length (fe > fo) and
medium aperture
Case I: image formed at near point
Principle
Object is placed slightly beyond the focus of objective lens. Objective lens forms an enlarged real and
inverted image beyond 2Fo on the other side. Image formed by the objective lens is (which act as the
object for the eye lens) adjusted to be within the focus of the eye lens so that eye lens act as a simple
microscope and forms enlarged virtual image at near point. This image is inverted with respect to the
actual object.
Magnifying power of a microscope forming image at near point is defined as the ratio of angle (θi )
subtended at the eye by image at near point seen through the microscope to angle ( θo ) subtended at
the eye by object at near point seen without microscope
𝜃𝑖
M = θo
tanθi
M ≈ tanθo
𝐼𝐵′ 𝐼𝑀
Form figure tan θo = 𝐶2𝐼
and tan θi = 𝐶2𝐼
(𝐼𝑀/𝐶2𝐼)
M = (𝐼𝐵′/𝐶2𝐼) (IB’ = OB),
𝐼𝑀 𝐼𝑀 𝐼′𝑀′
M = 𝑂𝐵 M = 𝑂𝐵 X 𝐼′𝑀′
𝐼′𝑀′ 𝐼𝑀
M= X
𝑂𝐵 𝐼′𝑀′
M = m o x me
vo
mo = uo
and

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ve 𝐷
me = ue = (1+ 𝑓𝑒 ) (since eye lens act as simple microscope forming image at near point)
vo 𝐷
M= −uo
x (1+ 𝑓𝑒 ) –ve sign means final image is inverted with respect to the actual object
Since object is placed just beyond F0, uo = fo. Since image formed by objective lens is very close
to eye lens vo = L, length of the microscope tube
𝐿 𝐷
M= −fo
x (1+ 𝑓𝑒 ) –ve sign means final image is inverted with respect to the actual object
Magnifying power of compound microscope can be increased by using short focal length objective lens
and eye lens
Length of the tube L =I vo I + I u e I
Case II: image formed at infinity (normal adjustment)
Principle
Object is placed slightly beyond the focus of objective lens. Objective lens forms an enlarged real and
inverted image beyond 2Fo on the other side. Image formed by the objective lens is (which act as the
object for the eye lens) adjusted to be at the focus of the eye lens so that eye lens act as a simple
microscope and forms enlarged virtual image at infinity. This image is inverted with respect to the actual
object.
Magnifying power of a microscope forming image at infinity is defined as the ratio of angle (θi ) subtended
at the eye by image at infinity seen through the microscope to angle ( θo ) subtended at the eye by
object at near point seen without microscope.
𝜃𝑖
M = θo
tanθi
M ≈
tanθo
𝑂′𝐵′ 𝐼𝑀
Form figure, tan θo = 𝐶2𝑂′
and tan θi = 𝐶2𝐼
M = (𝑂′𝐵′/𝐶2𝑂′) (O’B’ = OB),
𝐼𝑀 𝐶2𝑂′
M = 𝑂𝐵
X 𝐶2𝐼
(C2O’ = D) and C2 I = fe
𝐷
M = mO X fe
vo 𝐷
M= −uo
x (𝑓𝑒 )
Since object is placed just beyond F0, uo = fo. Since image formed by objective lens is very close
to eye lens vo = L, length of the microscope tube

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𝐿 𝐷
M= −fo
x ( 𝑓𝑒 ) –ve sign means final image is inverted with respect to the actual object
Magnifying power of compound microscope can be increased by using short focal length objective lens
and eye lens
Length of the tube L = I vo I + I fe I
For best viewing the eye should be held slightly behind the eye lens (not on the eye lens) of compound
microscope. This help to increase the field of view. Light rays after refraction through the eye lens, passes
through a small region slightly behind the eye lens, known as eye ring. If the eye is positioned here
complete field of view is visible. If the eye is positioned before or after this point some field of view will
be missing.
73
74
75 A compound microscope consists of an objective lens of focal length 2.0cm and an eyepiece of focal
length 6.25cm separated by a distance of 15cm. How far from the objective should an object be placed
in order to obtain the final image at (a) the least distance of distinct vision (25cm), and (b) at infinity?
What is the magnifying power of the microscope in each case?
76 A person with a normal near point (25cm) using a compound microscope with objective of focal length
8.0 mm and an eyepiece of focal length 2.5cm can bring an object placed at 9.0mm from the objective
in sharp focus. What is the separation between the two lenses? Calculate the magnifying power of the
microscope.
77

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78
79
80
TELESCOPE
Telescope is an optical instrument to view distant objects with angular magnification
Telescope used to observe heavenly objects is known as astronomical telescope and the image formed
by this telescope may be erect or inverted. Telescope used to observe objects on the earth’s surface is
known as terrestrial telescope and the image formed by this telescope must be erect.
If the objective of the telescope is a convex lens it is known as refracting telescope. If the objective of the
telescope is a concave mirror it is known as reflecting telescope
REFRACTING TELESCOPE
Convex lens which receive light rays from the object, known as objective lens must be of large focal length
and large aperture (large aperture of objective lens increases the light gathering power of telescope
and forms a bright image. It even help to increase the resolving power of the telescope.) Convex lens
near the eye, known as eye lens (or eye piece) must be of short focal length and small aperture
Case: I Refracting telescope (normal adjustment, image at infinity)

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Principle
Light rays from distant object fall on

the objective lens of the telescope.
Objective lens forms real inverted
image at its focus. Image formed by
the objective lens is adjusted to be at
the focus of the eye lens. Eye lens act
as a simple microscope and forms final
image at infinity.
Magnifying power of a telescope forming image at infinity is defined as the ratio of angle (θi ) subtended
at the eye by image at infinity seen through the telescope to angle ( θo ) subtended at the eye by object
at infinity seen without the telescope
𝜃𝑖
M = θo
tanθi
M ≈ tanθo
𝐼𝑀 𝐼𝑀
Form figure, tan θo = and tan θi =
𝐶1𝐼 𝐶2𝐼
M=
𝐶1𝐼
M= −𝐶2𝐼
(C1I = fO) and C2 I = fe
−fo
M= –ve sign means final image is inverted with respect to the actual object
fe
Length of the tube L = fo + fe
Magnifying power of telescope can be increased by using large foal length objective and short focal length
eye piece.
Case: II Refracting telescope (image at near point)
Principle
Light rays from distant object fall on the

objective lens of the telescope. Objective lens
forms real inverted image at its focus. Image
formed by the objective lens is adjusted to be
within the focus of the eye lens. Eye lens act as
a simple microscope and forms final image at
near point

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Magnifying power of a telescope forming image at near point is defined as the ratio of angle (θi )
subtended at the eye by image at near point seen through the telescope to angle ( θo ) subtended at the
eye by object at infinity seen without the telescope
𝜃𝑖
M = θo
tanθi
M ≈ tanθo
𝐼′ 𝑀′ 𝐼′ 𝑀′
Form figure, tan θo = and tan θi =
𝐶1 𝐼′ 𝐶2 𝐼′
𝐼′ 𝑀′
𝐶2 𝐼′
M= 𝐼′ 𝑀′
𝐶1 𝐼′
𝐶1 𝐼′
M= 𝐶2 𝐼′
(= 𝐶1 𝐼 ′= fO) and 𝐶2 𝐼 ′ = ue
fo
M= −ue
1 1 1 1 1 1
We have 𝑓𝑒 = 𝑣𝑒
− 𝑢𝑒 −𝑢𝑒
= 𝑓𝑒 − 𝑣𝑒
1 1 𝑓𝑒 1 1 𝑓𝑒
= (1 − ), = (1 − ) ve = (-D)
−𝑢𝑒 𝑓𝑒 𝑣𝑒 𝑢𝑒 −𝑓𝑒 𝑣𝑒
𝑓𝑜 𝑓𝑒
M= −𝑓𝑒
(1 − −𝐷)
𝑓𝑜 𝑓𝑒
M= (1+ ) –ve sign means final image is inverted with respect to the actual object.
−𝑓𝑒 𝐷
81
82 A small telescope has an objective lens of focal length 144cm and an eyepiece of focal length 6.0cm.
What is the magnifying power of the telescope? What is the separation between the objective and the
eyepiece? Give two reasons to the objective of a telescope need to be of large aperture?
83

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84
Reflecting telescope
In reflecting telescope, the objective lens of refracting telescope is replaced by a concave mirror
(parabolic). Light rays from distant object falls on the large parabolic concave mirror. Concave mirror
converge the light rays to its focus.
In a Cassegrain telescope a convex mirror placed before the

focus reflect these light rays to eye piece (placed behind the
objective mirror) through a hole at the pole of the objective
mirror. Final image is observed through the eye piece.
In a Newtonian reflector, a plane mirror placed inclined to

the axis before the focus, reflect these light rays to eye piece (placed
on the side of the objective mirror) through a hole on the side of the
objective mirror. Final image is observed through the eye piece.
85. Draw the diagram of a reflecting telescope and write its

advantages over refracting telescope
Terrestrial telescope.
An astronomical telescope can be converted in to

terrestrial telescope by placing a third convex lens
called erecting lens between the objective and the
eye piece such that inverted image formed by the
objective lens is at 2F of the erecting lens. Erecting
lens forms an erect image of same size at 2F on the
other side. This image is adjusted to be at the focus
(within the focus) of eye lens so that eye lens forms
the final image at infinity (near point)
Advantage of reflecting telescope over refracting telescope
1. Chromatic aberration can be eliminated by replacing the objective lens by a concave mirror
2. Spherical aberration can be minimized using a parabolic concave mirror instead of lens objective
3. Construction and mounting of mirror objective is easy compared to lens objective.
4. Image formed by reflecting is brighter compared to that formed by a refracting telescope.
SCATTERING
Scattering is the irregular reflection of light

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Rayleigh’s law of scattering states that intensity of scattered light is inversely proportional to fourth
power of wavelength of incident light.
Intensity of scattered light α 1/λ4
Short wavelength colours like violet indigo and blue undergo more scattering compared to longer
wavelength colours like yellow orange and red
Blue colour of sky is due to scattering of sunlight by atmosphere. As sunlight pass through atmosphere,
short wavelength colours like violet indigo and blue undergo more scattering compared to longer
wavelength colours like yellow orange and red. Since intensity of blue colour is more in the short
wavelength region scattered light reaching observer’s eye produce bluish appearance for sky.
Blue colour of ocean is due to scattering of sunlight by water molecules.

Atmosphere appears dark in moon due to the absence of atmosphere (hence scattering for sunlight in
moon). Large obstacles like clouds scatter all colours equally. Hence clouds appear white
Red colour of sunrise and sunset
During sunset and sunrise light rays from the sun has to travel longer distance through the atmosphere.
On the way short wavelength colours are lost due to scattering by atmosphere. Only longer wavelength
colours like red and yellow is able to reach
observer’s eye to produce reddish appearance to
sky.
DISPERSION
Splitting of composite light in to its constituent

colours is known as dispersion.
Reason for dispersion: white light consists of

seven colours (wave lengths). When white light
enter prism, refractive index of the material of the prism is different for different colours. Hence
deviation produced (d = (n-1) A) is also different for different colours. Hence white light split in to
different colours when passed through the prism. Since wavelength of violet is less than that of red,
refractive index of the material and hence deviation is more for violet colour compared to red colour.
Angular dispersion for two colours is the difference in angles of deviation for those two colours
For violet and red, angular dispersion = dv - dr
= (nv – 1) A – (nr – 1) A
= A (nv – nr)

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86
87
Dispersive power (w) of medium is defined as the ratio of angular dispersion to the deviation of mean
colour
A(nv – nr )
Dispersive power (w) = 𝐴(𝑛−1)
(nv – nr )
Dispersive power (w) = 𝑛−1
Rainbow is formed due to refraction, dispersion and

internal reflection of light rays that enter raindrops.
A rainbow is seen when the sun, observer’s eye and
the centre of the rainbow are all in straight line with
the observer’s back facing the sun. There are two
types of rainbows primary rainbow and secondary
rainbow
In primary rainbow parallel light rays entering a
raindrop undergo dispersion with violet rays
deviating most and red rays least. Dispersed light
rays undergo internal reflection and emerge out
after refraction. It is found that violet emerges out
at 400related to direction of incident light rays and
red light emerges out at an angle of 420 and the
other colours in between (figure 9.27(b) ). In a
primary rainbow red colour is on the outer arc and
violet is on the inner arc
If the light rays
undergo two internal reflections inside the drop
instead of one as in a primary rainbow a secondary
rainbow is formed. In secondary rainbow outer arc
is violet (at an angle of 530with direction incident
light) and inner arc is red (at an angle of 500with direction incident light). Brightness of secondary
rainbow is less than that of primary rainbow. (fig 9.27©)
DEFECTS OF EYE

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1. Myopia (short- sightedness) Defect of the eye in which light from a distant object arriving at the
eye lens may get converged at a point in front of the retina. As result eye is not able to see distant
objects clearly. For myopic eye far point is less than infinity. This defect arises due to elongation
of the eye ball along the length of incident ray. This defect can be corrected by using a diverging
lens of suitable focal length.

2. Hypermetropia: (far -sightedness)
Defect of the eye in which light from
a nearby object arriving at the eye
lens may get converged to a point
behind the retina. As result eye is not
able to see nearby objects clearly.
For a hypermetropic eye near point is
more than 25cm. This defect arises
due to shortening of the eye ball
along the length of incident ray. This
defect can be corrected by using a
converging lens of suitable focal
length.
3. Astigmatism occurs when cornea is not spherical in shape. As a result objects in one direction get
well focused while those in perpendicular direction may appear distorted. Astigmatism can be
corrected by using cylindrical lens of desired radius of curvature with an appropriately directed
axis.
4. Presbyopia. Least distance of distinct vision for normal eye is 25cm. This distance increases with
age because of the decreasing effectiveness of the ciliary muscles and loss of flexibility of the eye
lens. So the image formed in the eye for nearby objects appears blurred. This defect of the eye is
known as presbyopia. This defect can be corrected by using converging lens of suitable focal
length.
88. A spherical convex surface of radius of curvature 20 cm, made of glass (µ = 1.5) is placed in air.
Find the position of the image formed, if a point object is placed at 30 cm in front of the convex
surface on the principal axis.

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89. (a)Draw a ray diagram of compound microscope for the final image formed at least distance of
distinct vision?
(b) An angular magnification of 30X is desired using an objective of focal length 1.25 cm and an
eye piece of focal length 5 cm. How will you set up the compound microscope for the final
image formed at least distance of distinct vision?
90. (a) Draw a ray diagram of an astronomical telescope for the final image formed at least distance
of distinct vision?
(b) An astronomical telescope has an angular magnification of magnitude 5 for distant objects.
The separation between the objective and an eye piece is 36 cm and the final image is formed at
infinity. Calculate the focal length of the objective and the focal length of the eye piece.
91. A convex lens, of focal length 20cm, has a point object placed on its principle axis at a distance
of 40cm from it. A plane mirror is placed 30cm behind the convex lens. Locate the position of
the final image formed by the combination. Is the image real or virtual? Draw a ray diagram
showing the image formation. (10 cm in front of the plane mirror, real )
92. A convex lens is placed in contact with a plane mirror. An axial point object, at a distance 20cm
from this combination, has its image coinciding with itself. What is the focal length of the convex
lens? (20 cm)
93. A convex lens and convex mirror (radius of curvature 20cm) are placed coaxially with the convex
mirror placed 30cm from the lens. For a point object at a distance 25cm from the lens, the final
image due to this combination coincides with the object itself. What is the focal length of the
convex lens? (50/3 cm)
94. A convex lens, of focal length 20cm, is placed co – axially with a convex mirror of radius of
curvature 20cm. If the distance between them are 15c, find the position of the image formed by
this combination for an object placed 60 cm in front of the convex lens (30cm behind the convex
mirror)
95. A convex lens of focal length of 20 cm and a concave mirror of focal length 10cm are placed co
axially 50cm apart from each other. Locate the position of the final image formed by this
system, for a parallel beam incident on the convex lens, parallel to the principal axis.
96. A point object is placed 60cm in front of a convex lens of focal length 30cm. A plane mirror is
placed 10cm behind the convex lens. Where is the final image formed by the system? (at the
optic center of convex lens)
97. A convex lens of (f= 15cm) and a concave mirror (R =20cm) are placed co-axially placed 10cm
apart. An object is placed in front of the convex lens so that there is no parallax between the
object and its image formed by the combination. Find the position of the object. (30 cm from
the lens)

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98. If the angle of the prism(A) is greater than twice the critical angle(C) show that no light passes
through the prism.
Ans: if i = 0, r1 = 0 r2 = A ( r1 + r2 = A). given A > 2C, A/2 > C , A > C, r2 > C TIR takes place.
If i = 90, r1 = C , r2 = A – r1 , r2 = A – C, given A > 2C , A – r1 > 2C – r1 , r2 > C TIR takes place.
EXPRESSIONS
1. Relation between R and f for mirrors
𝑅
f = 2 . Focal length of a mirror depends only on focal length. Focal length of a mirror will not
change with (i) colour of incident light (ii) immersed in water or other liquid (iii) broken in to
pieces or (iv) lower/upper half is painted black
2. Radius of curvature of plane surface is Infinity
3. Relation between angle of incidence and angle of reflection
Angle of incidence = angle of reflection
4. Mirror formula (law of distances for a mirror)
1 1 1
+ =
v u f
5. u,v graph( for convex lens and concave mirror) when u = = ∞ , v = f and when v = ∞, u = f . As u
increases v decreases. When u = v, u = v =2f. OA = OB = 2f . OA + OB = 2f + 2f
𝑂𝐴+𝑂𝐵
OA + OB = 4f or f = 4
U (-ve) Infinity Beyond 2F 2F Between 2F & F At F
V (-ve) focus Between F & 2F 2F Beyond 2F At infinity
1 1
6. v
, u
graph for convex lens and concave mirror ( with sign convention draw in proper quadrant)

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1 1 1 1 1 1 1
7. When u = 0 ,v = f = OB = f and when v = 0 , u = f = OA = f . OA = OB =f . The relation
1 1 1 1 1
between u
𝑎𝑛𝑑 v
, v
= − u + f 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑎 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 (𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 +
1
𝐶), 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 𝑚 = −1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 , 𝐶 = f
1 1 2 2
OA + OB = f + f = f f = 𝑂𝐴+𝑂𝐵
8. Thin Lens formula ( law of distances for a lens
1 1 1
v
− u
= f
9. The minimum distance(D) between an object and its real image formed by a convex lens of focal
length (f) is, D = 4f
10. For a constant distance (D) between an object and a screen, the maximum focal length to get a
real image on the screen, fmaximum = D/4
11. If D is the constant distance between an object and a screen, d the distance between two
positions of a convex lens to get clear images on the screen, focal length of the convex lens ,
𝐷 2 −𝑑 2
f=
4𝐷
12. Magnification of mirror
𝑣 𝑓 𝑓− 𝑣 −𝑣
𝑚 = −𝑢 = 𝑓− 𝑢
= 𝑓
or m = 𝑓
+ 1 (equation of straight line)
13. Magnification of lens
𝑣 𝑓 𝑓− 𝑣 −𝑣
𝑚=𝑢= 𝑓+𝑢
= 𝑓
or m = 𝑓
+ 1 (equation of straight line)
14. Snell’s law
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑖 𝑛2
=
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑟 𝑛1
𝐶 𝜆𝑎𝑖𝑟
15. Absolute refractive index 𝑛𝑚 = 𝑣 = 𝜆𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚𝑚
𝑚
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ
16. 𝑛𝐷𝑅 =
𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ
1
17. Shift in the position of the object, 𝑠 = 𝑡 (1 − 𝑛 ) . t = thickness of denser medium.
𝐷𝑅
1
18. Relation between refractive index and critical angle, SinC=
nd
19. For a prism ,
a. A = r1 + r2
b. d = (i + e) – A
𝑨+𝑫
𝒏𝟐 𝑺𝒊𝒏( 𝟐 )
c. = 𝑨
𝒏𝟏 𝑺𝒊𝒏( 𝟐)
d. For an equilateral prism, A =600
20. At minimum deviation
a. d = D
b. i = e
c. r1 = r2 = r
d. A = 2r1
𝑨+𝑫
e. i = 𝟐

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f. refracted ray becomes parallel to the base of the prism

21. For a thin prism (small angled prism) d = (n – 1 )A
22. Refraction at spherical surface ,
𝑛1 𝑛2 (𝑛2 − 𝑛1)
+ =
−𝑢 𝑣 𝑅
𝟏 𝒏𝟐 𝟏 𝟏
23. Lens maker’s formula, = ( − 𝟏) ( - )
𝒇 𝒏𝟏 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐
24. Power of a lens P = 1/f
25. For two lenses in contract
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
a. Focal length + =
𝐟𝟏 𝒇𝟐 𝒇
b. Power P = P1 + P2
c. Magnification m = m1 X m2
𝜃 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
26. Optical instruments , angular magnification (magnifying power) = 𝜃 𝑖 ≈ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 𝑖
𝑜 𝑜
27. Simple microscope ( D = 25cm, least distance of distinct vision
𝐷
a. Image at near point M = 1 + 𝑓
𝐷
b. Image at infinity ( normal adjustment ) , M= 𝑓
28. For human eye
a. Near point, D = 25cm for healthy eye
b. Far point = infinity
29. Compound microscope
𝑉0 𝐷 𝐿 𝐷
a. Image at near point, M = − (1 + ) ≈ |M| = (1 + )
𝑈𝑜 𝑓𝑒 𝑓𝑜 𝑓𝑒
b. Image at near point , length of the tube, L = |𝑣𝑜 | + |𝑢𝑒 |
𝑉0 𝐷 𝐿 𝐷
c. Image at infinity( normal adjustment ), M = − ( ) ≈ |M| = ( )
𝑈𝑜 𝑓𝑒 𝑓𝑒 𝑓𝑒
d. Image at infinity( normal adjustment ) , length of the tube, L = |𝑣𝑜 | + |𝑓𝑒 |
𝟐𝒏𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜷
e. Resolving power =
𝟏.𝟐𝟐𝝀
30. Telescope
𝑓 𝑓0
a. Refracting telescope, image at infinity ( normal adjustment ), M = − 𝑓0 ≈ |M| = 𝑓𝑒
𝑒
b. Refracting telescope, image at infinity ( normal adjustment ) L = f0 + fe
𝑓 𝑓 𝑓 𝑓
c. Refracting telescope, image at near point, M = − 𝑓0 (1 + 𝐷𝑒 ) ≈ |M| = 𝑓0 (1 + 𝐷𝑒 )
𝑒 𝑒
d. Refracting telescope, image at near point, L = f0 + | ue|
𝑨
e. Resolving power =
𝟏.𝟐𝟐𝝀

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Comparison of compound microscope and telescope.
Sr. No. Compound microscope Telescope
1 Objective lens has small aperture Objective lens is large aperture
2 Short focal length(large power) of Large focal length(small power ) of

objective lens is used objective lens is used
3 Microscope magnifies Telescope resolves
PREVIOUS YEARS BORAD QUESTIONS ON OPTICS
1. The focal length of a convex lens(n=1.5) made of glass is 20 cm. What will be its new focal length
when placed in a medium of refractive index 1.25?
2. The following data was recorded for values of object distance and the corresponding values of
image distance in the experiment on study of real image formation by a convex lens of power +
5 D. One of these observations is incorrect. Identify this observation and give reason for your
choice.
Sr. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6
Object 25 30 35 45 50 55
distance
(cm)
Image 97 61 37 35 32 30
distance
(cm)
3. Draw a labelled ray diagram of an astronomical telescope in the normal adjustment position and
find the magnitudes of
a) The length of the telescope
b) The magnification of the telescope.
if the focal length of the objective lens is = 15 m and the focal length of an eye lens is 5 cm.
4. State the conditions for total internal reflection to occur. (2)
b) A right angled isosceles prism of refractive index n has a plate of refractive index n1 so that n1
< n, cemented to its diagonal face. The assembly is in air. A ray is incident on AB. i. Calculate the
angle of incidence at AB for which the ray strikes the diagonal face at the critical angle. ii.
Assuming n = 1.352, calculate the angle of incidence at AB for which the refracted ray passes
through the diagonal face undeviated.
5. For same value of angle of incidence, the angles of refraction in three media are 15o, 20o and 25o
respectively. In which medium, the velocity of light will be minimum? (2) b) Derive the
relationship between angle of incidence, angle of prism and angle of minimum deviation for an
equilateral prism.
6. A right angle prism is placed as shown in the figure. Given that the prism is made of glass with
critical angle 40°, trace the path of the ray P incident normal to the face.

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7. Define power of a lens. Write its unit. Deduce the relation for focal length magnification and
power of two thin lenses kept in contact coaxially.
8. Trace the path of a ray of light passing through a glass prism (ABC) as shown in the figure. If the
refractive index of glass is √3, find out of the value of the angle of emergence from the prism.
9. You are given three lenses L1, L2 and L3 each of focal length 15 cm. An object is kept at 20 cm in
front of L1, as shown. The final real image is formed at the focus ‘I’ of L3. Find the separations
between L1, L2 and L3.
10. How does focal length of a lens change when red light incident on it is replaced by violet light?
Give reason for your answer.
13. Draw a labelled ray diagram of a reflecting telescope. Mention its two advantages over the
refracting telescope.
14. Complete the ray diagram showing the image formation of the object when object is placed
beyond C. (ii) How will the position and intensity of the image be affected if the lower half of the
mirror’s reflecting surface is painted black?
15. For the same value of angle incidence, the angles of refraction in three media A, B and C are 15°,
25° and 35° respectively. In which medium would the velocity of light be minimum?

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16. Define magnifying power of a telescope. Write its expression. A small telescope has an objective
lens of focal length 150 cm and an eye piece of focal length 5 cm. If this telescope is used to
view a 100 m high tower 3 km away, find the height of the final image when it is formed 25 cm
away from the eye piece.
17. Draw a ray diagram to show the passage of a ray of light through a triangular prism. Use this
diagram to obtain the relation for the refractive index of the material of the prism in terms of
the angle of minimum deviation and the angle of the prism. Plot the nature of the graph for the
angle of deviation versus the angle of incidence in a prism.
18. A convex lens is placed in contact with a plane mirror. A point object at a distance of 20 cm on
the axis of this combination has its image coinciding with itself. What is the focal length of the
lens?
19. (a) How is the focal length of a spherical mirror affected when it is immersed in water. (b) A
convex lens has 10 cm focal length in air. What is its focal length in water? (Refractive index of
air-water = 4/3, refractive index of air-glass =3/2).
20. A compound microscope uses an objective lens of focal length 4 cm and eyepiece lens of focal
length 10 cm. An object is placed at 6 cm from the objective lens. Calculate the magnifying
power of the compound microscope. Also calculate the length of the microscope.
21. A screen is placed 80 cm from an object. The image of the object is formed on the screen by a
convex lens at two different locations separated by 10cm. calculate the focal length of the lens
used.
22. A giant refracting telescope at an observatory has an objective lens of focal length 15 m. If an
eyepiece lens of focal length 1.0 cm is used, find the angular magnification of the telescope. If
this telescope is used to view the moon, what is the diameter of the image of the moon formed
by the objective lens? The diameter of the moon is 3.42 × 106m and the radius of the lunar orbit
is 3.8 × 108m.
23. An illuminated object and a screen are placed 90 cm apart. Determine the focal length and
nature of the lens required to produce a clear image on the screen, twice the size of the object.
24. How is the working of a telescope different from that of a microscope? The focal lengths of the
objective and eyepiece of a microscope are 1.25 cm and 5 cm respectively. Find the position of
the object relative to the objective in order to obtain an angular magnification of 30 in normal
adjustment.
25. A ray of light, incident on an equilateral glass prism (μ =√3) moves parallel to the base line of
the prism inside it. Find the angle of incidence for this ray.
26. Under what condition does a biconvex lens of glass having a certain refractive index act as a
plane glass sheet when immersed in a liquid?
27. Three light rays red (R), green (G) and blue (B) are incident on the right angled prism abc at face
ab. The refractive indices of the material of the prism for red, green and blue wavelengths are
respectively 1.39, 1.44 and 1.47. Trace the paths of these rays reasoning out the difference in
their behaviour.

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28. A ray of monochromatic light is incident on one of the faces of an equilateral triangular prism of
refracting angle A. Trace the path of ray passing through the prism. Hence, derive an expression
for the refractive index of the material of the prism in terms of the angle minimum deviation
and its refracting angle.
29. A converging lens has a focal length of 20 cm in air. It is made of a material of refractive index
1.6. It is immersed in a liquid of refractive index 1.3. Calculate its new focal length.
30. Find the position of the image formed of the object 'O’ by the lens combination given in the
figure.
31. Use the mirror equation to show that (a) an object placed between f and 2f of a concave mirror
produces a real image beyond 2f. (b) a convex mirror always produces a virtual image
independent of the location of the object. (c) an object placed between the pole and focus of a
concave mirror produces a virtual and enlarged image.
32. A convex lens made up of glass of refractive index 1.5 is dipped, in turn, in (i) a medium of
refractive index 1.65, (ii) a medium of refractive index 1.33. (a) Will it behave as a converging or
a diverging lens in the two cases? (b) How will its focal length change in the two media?
33. Draw a schematic diagram of a reflecting telescope (Cassegrane). Write two important
advantages that the reflecting telescope has over a refracting type.
34. A biconvex lens made of a transparent material of refractive index 1.5 is immersed in water of
refractive index 1.33. Will the lens behave as a converging or a diverging lens ? Give reason.
35. (a) Draw a ray diagram to show refraction of a ray of monochromatic light passing through a
glass prism. Deduce the expression for the refractive index of glass in terms of angle of prism
and angle of minimum deviation. (b) Explain briefly how the phenomenon of total internal
reflection is used in fiber optics.
36. (a) Obtain lens makers formula using the expression for refraction at a spherical surface. Here
the ray of light propagating from a rarer medium of refractive index (n1) to a denser medium of
refractive index (n2), is incident on the convex side of spherical refracting surface of radius of
curvature R. (b) Draw a ray diagram to show the image formation by a concave mirror when the
object is kept between its focus and the pole. Using this diagram, derive the magnification
formula for the image formed.
37. Two convex lenses of same focal length but of aperture A1 and A2 (A2 <A1), are used as the
objective lenses in two astronomical telescopes having identical eyepieces. What is the ratio of
their resolving power? Which telescope will you prefer and why? Give reason.
38. Why does the sky appear blue?
39. A convex lens is used to obtain a magnified image of an object on a screen 10 m from the lens. If
the magnification is 19, find the focal length of the lens.
40. In refraction through prism, If the refracted ray QR is parallel to the base BC, show that (i) r1 = r2
= A/2, (ii) angle of minimum deviation, Dm = 2i – A. (symbols have their usual meaning)
41. The image obtained with a convex lens is erect and its length is four times the length of the
object. If the focal length of the lens is 20 cm, calculate the object and image distances.

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42. (a) How is the focal length of a spherical mirror affected when the wavelength of the light used
is increased? (b) A convex lens has 20 cm focal length in air. What is its focal length in water?
(Refractive index of air-water = 4/3, refractive index of air-glass 3/2).
43. A ray of light falls on a transparent sphere with centre C as shown in the figure. The ray emerges
from the sphere parallel to the line AB. Find the angle of refraction at A if refractive index of the
material of the sphere is √3 .
44. (i) Draw a neat labelled ray diagram of an astronomical telescope in normal adjustment. Explain
briefly its working. (ii) An astronomical telescope uses two lenses of powers 10 D and 1 D. What
is its magnifying power in normal adjustment?
45. (i) Draw a neat labelled ray diagram of a compound microscope. Explain briefly its working. (ii)
Why must both the objective and the eye-piece of a compound microscope have short focal
lengths?
46. When light travels from a rarer to a denser medium, the speed decreases. Does this decrease in
speed imply a decrease in the energy carried by the light wave? Justify your answer.
47. A converging lens is kept co-axially in contact with a diverging lens – both the lenses being of
equal focal lengths. What is the focal length of the combination?
48. (i) Out of blue and red light which is deviated more by a prism? Give reason. (ii) Give the formula
that can be used to determine refractive index of material of a prism in minimum deviation
condition.
49. Find the radius of curvature of the convex surface of a plano-convex lens, whose focal length is
0.3 m and the refractive index of the material of the lens is 3/2.
50. Calculate the speed of light in a medium whose critical angle is 30°.
51. (i) Why does the Sun appear reddish at sunset or sunrise? (ii) For which colour the refractive
index of prism material is maximum and minimum?
52. A biconvex lens has a focal length 2/3 times the radius of curvature of either surface. Calculate
the refractive index of lens material.
53. Draw a schematic diagram of a reflecting telescope (Cassegrane). Write its two advantages over
a refracting telescope.
54. Draw a ray diagram to show the working of a compound microscope. Deduce an expression for
the total magnification when the final image is formed at the near point. In a compound
microscope, an object is placed at a distance of 1.5 cm from the objective of focal length 1.25
cm. If the eye piece has a focal length of 5 cm and the final image is formed at the near point,
estimate the magnifying power of the microscope.
55. (a) The bluish colour predominates in clear sky. (b) Violet colour is seen at the bottom of the
spectrum when white light is dispersed by a prism. State reason to explain these observations.
56. The radii of curvature of the faces of a double convex lens are 10 cm and 15 cm. If focal length
of the lens is 12 cm, find the refractive index of the material of the lens.
57. State the conditions for the phenomenon of total internal reflection to occur.
58. A glass lens of refractive index 1.45 disappears when immersed in a liquid. What is the value of
refractive index of the liquid?

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59. Draw a labelled ray diagram to show the image formation by an astronomical telescope. Derive
the expression for its magnifying power in normal adjustment. Write two basic features which
can distinguish between a telescope and a compound microscope.
60. (a) Draw a ray diagram for formation of image of a point object by a thin double convex lens
having radii of curvatures R1 and R2 and hence derive lens maker’s formula. (b) Define power of
a lens and give its S.I. units. If a convex lens of focal length 50 cm is placed in contact coaxially
with a concave lens of focal length 20 cm, what is the power of the combination?
61. State the conditions under which total internal reflection occurs. One face of a prism with a
refracting angle of 30° is coated with silver. A ray incident on another face at an angle of 45° is
refracted and reflected from the silver coated face and retraces its path. Find the refractive
index of the material of the prism.
62. (i) What is the relation between critical angle and refractive index of a material? (ii) Does critical
angle depend on the colour of light? Explain.
63. Two thin lenses of power +5 D and –2. 5 D are in contact. What is the focal length of the
combination? Is the combination converging or diverging? 1
64. (i) State the principle on which the working of an optical fiber is based. (ii) What are the
necessary conditions for this phenomenon to occur?
65. Two thin lenses of power + 4 D and –2 D are in contact. What is the focal length of the
combination? 1
66. (i) Draw a labelled ray diagram to show the formation of image in an astronomical telescope for
a distant object. (ii) Write three distinct advantages of a reflecting type telescope over a
refracting type telescope. (b) A convex lens of focal length 10 cm is placed coaxially 5 cm away
form a concave lens of focal length 10 cm. If an object is placed 30 cm in front of the convex
lens, find the position of the final image formed by the combined system.
67. (a) With the help of a suitable ray diagram, derive the mirror formula for a concave mirror.
68. Answer the following questions: (a) Optical and radio telescopes are built on the ground while X-
ray astronomy is possible only from satellites orbiting the Earth. Why? (b) The small ozone layer
on top of the stratosphere is crucial for human survival. Why?
69. Two thin lenses of power +6 D and – 2 D are in contact. What is the focal length of the
combination? 1Define refractive index of a transparent medium. A ray of light passes through a
triangular prism. Plot a graph showing the variation of the angle of deviation with the angle of
incidence.
70. Trace the rays of light showing the formation of an image due to a point object placed on the
axis of a spherical surface separating the two media of refractive indices n1 and n2 . Establish
the relation between the distances of the object, the image and the radius of curvature from the
central point of the spherical surface. Hence, derive the expression of the lens maker’s formula.
71. Draw the labelled ray diagram for the formation of image by a compound microscope. Derive
the expression for the total magnification of a compound microscope. Explain why both the
objective and the eye piece of a compound microscope must have short focal lengths.
72. You are given following three lenses. Which two lenses will you use as an eyepiece and as an
objective to construct an astronomical telescope? Find the magnifying power and length of the
telescope in formal adjustment.

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73. A ray of light passing through an equilateral triangular glass prism from air undergoes minimum
deviation when angle of incidence is 3/4th of the angle of prism. Calculate the speed of light in
the prism.
74. (a) For a ray of light travelling from a denser medium of refractive index n1 to a rarer medium of
1
refractive index n2 , prove that n = 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝐶 , where Cis the critical angle of incidence for the media.
(b) Explain with the help of a diagram, how the above principle is used for transmission of video
signals using optical fibers.
75. A converging lens of refractive index 1.5 is kept in a liquid medium having same refractive index.
What would be the focal length of the lens in this medium?
76. Draw a ray diagram of an astronomical telescope in the normal adjustment position. State two
draw backs of this type of telescope.
77. Calculate the distance of an object of height h from a concave mirror of focal length 10 cm, so as
to obtain a real image of magnification 2.
78. How does the power of a convex lens vary, if the incident red light is replaced by violet light?
79. Draw a ray diagram of a compound microscope. Write the expression for its magnifying power
80. An object is held at the principal focus of a concave lens of focal length f. Where is the image
formed?
81. Draw a plot showing the variation of power of a lens, with the wavelength of the incident light.
A converging lens of refractive index 1.5 and of focal length 15 cm in air, has the same radii of
curvature for both sides. If it is immersed in a liquid of refractive index 1.7, find the focal length
of the lens in the liquid.
82. Draw a labelled ray diagram of a compound microscope and write an expression for its
magnifying power. The focal length of the objective and eye-lens of a compound microscope are
2 cm, 6.25 cm respectively. The distance between the lenses is 15 cm. (i) How far from the
objective lens, will the object the be kept, so as to obtain the final image at the near point of the
eye? (ii) Also calculate its magnifying power.
83. Draw a labelled ray diagram of an astronomical telescope, in the normal adjustment position
and write the expression for its magnifying power. An astronomical telescope uses an objective
lens of focal length 15 m and eye-lens of focal length 1 cm. What is the angular magnification of
the telescope? If this telescope is used to view moon, what is the diameter of the image of
moon formed by the objective lens? (Diameter of moon =3.5 x 106m and radius of lunar orbit 3.8
x 108m).
84. A diverging lens of refractive index 1.5 and of focal length 20 cm in air has the same radii of
curvature for both sides. If it is immersed in a liquid of refractive index 1.7, calculate the focal
length of the lens in the liquid.
85. A diverging lens of focal length ‘F’ is cut into two identical parts each forming a Plano-concave
lens. What is the focal length of each part? In a single slit diffraction experiment, the width of
the slit is made double the original width. How does this affect the size and intensity of the
central diffraction band? Draw a plot of the intensity distribution.
86. (i) A thin lens, having two surfaces of radii of curvature r1 and r2, made from a material of
refractive index, is kept in a medium of refractive index. Derive the Lens Maker’s formula for this
‘set-up’(ii) A convex lens is placed over a plane mirror. A pin is now positioned so that there is no
parallax between the pin and its image formed by this lens-mirror combination. How can this
observation be used to find the focal length of the convex lens? Give appropriate reasons in
support of your answer.
87. (a)Draw an appropriate ray diagram to show the passage of a ‘white ray’, incident on one of the
two refracting faces of a prism. State the relation for the angle of deviation, for a prism of small

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refracting angle. (b) It is known that the refractive index, of the material of a prism, depends on
the wavelength of the incident radiation as per the relation, μ = A + B/λ2 where A and B are
constants. Plot a graph showing the dependence of μ on λ and identify the pair of variables,
which can be used here, to get a straight line graph. 3
88. (a) Draw a labelled ray diagram of a refraction type telescope in normal adjustment. (b) Give its
two shortcomings over reflection type telescope. (c) Why is eyepiece of a telescope of short
focal length, while objective is of large focal length? Explain.
89. A convex lens of focal length 20 cm is placed coaxially with a convex mirror of radius of
curvature 20 cm. The two are kept 15 cm apart. A point object is placed 40 cm in front of the
convex lens. Find the position of the image formed by this combination. Draw the ray diagram
showing the image formation.
90. (a) Draw a labelled ray diagram of a compound microscope. (b) Derive an expression for its
magnifying power. (c) Why is objective of a microscope of short aperture and short focal length?
Give reason.
91. A thin convex lens having two surfaces of radii of curvature R1 and R2 is made of a material of
refractive index m2. It is kept in a medium of refractive index m1. Derive, with the help of a ray
diagram, the lens maker formula when a point object placed on the principal axis in front of the
radius of curvature R1 produces an image I on the other side of the lens.
92. (i) Draw a schematic labelled ray diagram of a reflecting type telescope. (ii) Write two important
advantages justifying why reflecting type telescopes are preferred over refracting telescopes.
(iii) The objective of a telescope is of larger focal length and of larger aperture (compared to the
eyepiece). Why? Give reasons.
93. A convex lens of focal length f1 is kept in contact with a concave lens of focal length f 2 . Find
the focal length of the combination.
94. Draw a labelled ray diagram of a refracting telescope. Define its magnifying power and write the
expression for it. Write two important limitations of a refracting telescope over a reflecting type
telescope.
95. A ray of monochromatic light passes from medium (1) to medium (2). If the angle of incidence in
medium (1) is θ and the corresponding angle of refraction in medium (2) is θ/2, which of the two
media is optically denser? Give reason.
96. A point object O is kept at a distance of 30 cm from a convex lens of power +4D towards its left.
It is observed that when a convex mirror is kept on the right side at a distance of 50 cm from the
convex lens, the image of the object O formed by the lens-mirror combination coincides with
the object itself. Calculate the focal length of the convex mirror. 3
97. Write the relationship between angle of incidence ‘i’, angle of prism ‘A’ and angle of minimum
deviation for a triangular prism.
98. (a) Write the necessary conditions for the phenomenon of total internal reflection to occur. (b)
Write the relation between the refractive index and critical angle for a given pair of optical
media.
99. A convex lens of focal length 25 cm is placed coaxially in contact with a concave lens of focal
length 20 cm. Determine the power of the combination. Will the system be converging or
diverging in nature?

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102. A mobile phone lies along the principal axis of a concave mirror. Show, with the help of a
suitable diagram, the formation of its image. Explain why magnification is not uniform. Suppose
the lower half of the concave mirror's reflecting surface is covered with an opaque material.
What effect this will have on the image of the object? Explain.
103. (a) Draw a labelled ray diagram showing the formation of a final image by a compound
microscope at least distance of distinct vision. (b) The total magnification produced by a
compound microscope is 20. The magnification produced by the eye piece is 5. The microscope
is focused on a certain object. The distance between the objective and eyepiece is observed to
be 14 cm. If least distance of distinct vision is 20 cm, calculate the focal length of the objective
and the eye piece.
104. Redraw the diagram given below and mark the position of the centre of curvature of the
spherical mirror used in the given set up. 1
105. (a) Explain, with the help of a diagram, how is the phenomenon of total internal reflection used
in (i) an optical fibre
106. (ii) a prism that inverts an image without changing its size (b) A right angled prism made from a
material of refractive index 𝜇 is kept in air. A ray PQ is incident normally on the side AB of the
prism as shown. Find (in terms of 𝜇) the maximum value of 𝜃 up to which this incident ray
necessarily undergoes total internal reflection at the face AC of the prism.
107. A ray PQ is incident normally on the face AB of a triangular prism of refracting angle of 60 0,
made of a transparent material of refractive index 2/√3 , as shown in the figure. Trace the path
of the ray as it passes through the prism. Also calculate the angle of emergence and angle of
deviation.
108. Draw a ray diagram showing the formation of the image by a point object on the principal axis of
a spherical convex surface separating two media of refractive indices n1 and n2, when a point

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source is kept in rarer medium of refractive index n1. Derive the relation between object and
image distance in terms of refractive index of the medium and radius of curvature of the
surface. Hence obtain the expression for lens-maker’s formula in the case of thin convex lens.
109. Use the mirror formula to show that the virtual image produced by a convex mirror is always
diminished in size and is located between the focus and the pole.
110. The radii of curvature of the faces of a double convex lens are 10 cm and 15 cm. Its focal length
is 12 cm. Calculate the refractive index of the material of the lens.
111. (a) A point object is placed in front of a double convex lens (of refractive index n = n2/n1 with
respect to air) with its spherical faces of radii of curvature R1 and R2. Show the path of rays due
to refraction at first and subsequently at the second surface to obtain the formation of the real
image of the object. Hence obtain the lens-maker’s formula for a thin lens.
112. (b) A double convex lens having both faces of the same radius of curvature has refractive index
1.55. Find out the radius of curvature of the lens required to get the focal length of 20 cm.
113. Why does sky appear blue?
114. (a) Draw a labelled ray diagram showing the image formation of a distant object by a refracting
telescope. Deduce the expression for its magnifying power when the final image is formed at
infinity. (b) The sum of focal lengths of the two lenses of a refracting telescope is 105 cm. The
focal length of one lens is 20 times that of the other. Determine the total magnification of the
telescope when the final
115. Give one reason for using a concave mirror, rather than a lens, as an objective in a reflecting
type telescope.
116. A convex lens of focal length 20 cm is placed coaxially with a convex mirror of radius of
curvature 20 cm. The two are kept at 15 cm from each other. A point object lies 60 cm in front
of the convex lens. Draw a ray diagram to show the formation of the image by the combination.
Determine the nature and position of the image formed.
117. A biconcave lens made of a transparent material of refractive index 1.25 is immersed in water of
refractive index 1.33. Will the lens behave as a converging or a diverging lens? Give reason.
118. (a) Draw a labelled ray diagram of an astronomical telescope to show the image formation of a
distant object. Write the main considerations required in selecting the objective and eyepiece
lenses in order to have large magnifying power and high resolution of the telescope. (b) A
compound microscope has an objective of focal length 1.25 cm and eyepiece of focal length 5
cm. A small object is kept at 2.5 cm from the objective. If the final image formed is at infinity,
find the distance between the objective and the eyepiece.
119. A small bulb (assumed as point source) is placed at the bottom of a tank containing water to a
depth of 80cm. find out the area of surface of water through which light from the bulb can
emerge. Refractive index of water is 4/3.
120. Why does the sun look reddish at sunset and sunrise?
121. How does the refractive index of a transparent medium depend on the wavelength of incident
light? Velocity of light in glass is 2 x 108 m/s. calculate the value of critical angle and polarizing
angle of glass.
122. An equi – convex lens of focal length f is cut in to two identical Plano convex lenses. how will the
power of each part be related to focal length of original lens? A double convex lens of power
+5D is made of glass of refractive index 1.55 with both the faces of equal curvature. Calculate
the value of radius of curvature of the lens
123. Draw ray diagram showing image formation of a distant object by an astronomical telescope.
Define its magnifying power and write two important factors that help to improve the
magnifying power. Describe briefly two main limitations and explain how far these can be
minimized in a reflecting telescope

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124. Draw a ray diagram showing image formation by a compound microscope. Define the term limit
of resolution and name the factors on which it depends. How is it related to resolving power of a
microscope? Suggest two ways by which the resolving power of a microscope can be increased.
“A telescope resolves whereas a microscope magnifies” Justify this statement.
125. When an object is placed between f and 2f of a concave mirror, would the image formed be (i)
real or virtual and (ii) diminished or magnified?
126. A ray of light passes through an equilateral glass prism such that the angle of incidence is equal
to the angle of emergence and each of these angles is equal to 3/4 of angle of prism. Find the
angle of deviation.
127. Calculate the speed of light in a medium whose critical angle is 450. Does critical angle for a
given pair of media depend on the wavelength of incident light? Give reason.
128. Why does white light disperse when passed through a glass prism? Using lens maker’s formula,
show how the focal length of a given lens depends upon the colour of light incident on it.
129. A biconvex lens with its two faces of equal radius of curvature R is made of a transparent
medium of refractive index μ1. It is kept in contact with a medium of refractive index μ2 as
shown in the figure.
(a) Find the equivalent focal length of the combination. (b) Obtain the condition when this
combination acts as a diverging lens. (c) Draw the ray diagram for the case μ1 > (μ2 + 1) / 2,
when the object is kept far away from the lens. Point out the nature of the image formed by the
system.
130. (i) A giant refracting telescope has an objective lens of focal length 15 m. If an eye piece of focal
length 1.0 cm is used, what is the angular magnification of the telescope? (ii) If this telescope is
used to view the moon, what is the diameter of the image of the moon formed by the objective
lens? The diameter of the moon is 3.48 × 106 m and the radius of lunar orbit is 3.8 × 108 m.
131. Define the term ‘critical angle’ for a pair of media. A point source of monochromatic light ‘S’ is
kept at the centre of the bottom of a cylinder of radius 15.0 cm. The cylinder contains water
(refractive index 4/3) to a height of 7.0 cm. Draw the ray diagram and calculate the area of
water surface through which the light emerges in air.
132. A screen is placed 90 cm away from an object. The image of the object on the screen is formed
by a convex lens at two different locations separated by 20 cm. Determine the focal length of
the lens.
133. Why does bluish colour predominate in a clear sky?
134. (a) State the essential conditions for the phenomenon of total internal reflection to take place.
(b) Draw a ray diagram to show how a right isosceles prism made of crown glass can be used to
obtain the inverted image. (c) Explain briefly with the help of a necessary diagram, how the
phenomenon of total internal reflection is used in optical fibers. Illustrate giving an example
how optical fibers can be employed for transmission of optical signals.

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135. (a) A ray ‘PQ’ of light is incident on the face AB of a glass prism ABC (as shown in the figure) and
emerges out of the face AC. Trace the path of the ray.
Show that i + e = A + 𝛿 .where 𝛿 and e denote the angle of deviation and angle of emergence
respectively. Plot a graph showing the variation of the angle of deviation as a function of angle
of incidence. State the condition under which 𝛿 is minimum. (b) Find out the relation between
the refractive index (μ) of the glass prism and refracting angle of prism (A) for the case when the
angle of prism (A) is equal to the angle of minimum deviation (𝛿m). Hence obtain the value of
the refractive index for angle of prism A = 600.
136. You are given two converging lenses of focal lengths 1·25 cm and 5 cm to design a compound
microscope. If it is desired to have a magnification of 30, find out the separation between the
objective and the eyepiece.
137. A small telescope has an objective lens of focal length 150 cm and eyepiece of focal length 5 cm.
What is the magnifying power of the telescope for viewing distant objects in normal
adjustment? If this telescope is used to view a 100 m tall tower 3 km away, what is the height of
the image of the tower formed by the objective lens?
138. (a) Two thin convex lenses L1 and L2 of focal lengths f1 and f2 respectively, are placed coaxially
in contact. An object is placed at a point beyond the focus of lens L1. Draw a ray diagram to
show the image formation by the combination and hence derive the expression for the focal
length of the combined system. (b) A ray PQ incident on the face AB of a prism ABC, as shown in
the figure, emerges from the face AC such that AQ = AR. Draw the ray diagram showing the
passage of the ray through the prism. If the angle of the prism is 600 and refractive index of the
material of the prism is √3 , determine the values of angle of incidence and angle of deviation.
139. (a) A ray of light is incident normally on the face AB of a right-angled glass prism of refractive
index ag = 1·5. The prism is partly immersed in a liquid of unknown refractive index. Find the
value of refractive index of the liquid so that the ray grazes along the face BC after refraction
through the prism. (b) Trace the path of the rays if it were incident normally on the face AC.

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140. When light travels from an optically denser medium to a rarer medium, why does the critical
angle of incidence depend on the colour of light?
141. (a) A point object ‘O’ is kept in a medium of refractive index n1 in front of a convex spherical
surface of radius of curvature R which separates the second medium of refractive index n2 from
the first one, as shown in the figure. Draw the ray diagram showing the image formation and
deduce the relationship between the object distance and the image distance in terms of n1, n2
and R. (b) When the image formed above acts as a virtual object for a concave spherical surface
separating the medium n2 from n1 (n2 > n1), draw this ray diagram and write the similar (similar
to (a)) relation. Hence obtain the expression for the lens maker’s formula.
142. Which two of the following lenses L1, L2 and L3 will you select as objective and eyepiece for
constructing best possible (i) telescope (ii) microscope? Give reason to support your answer.
143. A ray of light incident on one of the faces of a glass prism of angle ‘A’ has angle of incidence 2A.
The refracted ray in the prism strikes the opposite face which is silvered, the reflected ray from
it retracing its path. Trace the ray diagram and find the relation between the refractive index of
the material of the prism and the angle of the prism.
144. An object is placed 40 cm from a convex lens of focal length 30 cm. If a concave lens of focal
length 50 cm is introduced between the convex lens and the image formed such that it is 20 cm
from the convex lens, find the change in the position of the image.
145. Use the mirror equation to show that an object placed between f and 2f of a concave mirror
produces a real image beyond 2f.
146. A concave lens of refractive index 1.5 is immersed in a medium of refractive index 1.65. What is
the nature of the lens?
147. The focal length of an equiconvex lens is equal to the radius of curvature of either face. What is
the refractive index of the material of the lens?

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148. Explain the basic differences between the construction and working of a telescope and a
microscope.
149. A ray of light incident on an equilateral glass prism propagates parallel to the base line of the
prism inside it. Find the angle of incidence of this ray. Given refractive index of material of glass
prism is √3.
150. A biconvex lens of glass of refractive index 1·5 having focal length 20 cm is placed in a medium
of refractive index 1·65. Find its focal length. What should be the value of the refractive index of
the medium in which the lens should be placed so that it acts as a plane sheet of glass?
151. The line AB in the ray diagram represents a lens. State whether the lens is convex or concave?
152. (a) A concave mirror produces a real and magnified image of an object kept in front of it. Draw a
ray diagram to show the image formation and use it to derive the mirror equation. (b) A beam
of light converges at a point P. Now a lens is placed in the path of the convergent beam 12 cm
from P. At what point does the beam converge if the lens is (i) a convex lens of focal length 20
cm,(ii) a concave lens of focal length 16 cm ?
153. For the same angle of incidence, the angle of refraction in two media A and B are 250 and 350
respectively. In which medium is the speed of light less?
154. (a) State two main considerations taken into account while choosing the objective in optical
telescopes with large diameters. (b) Draw a ray diagram for the formation of image by a
reflecting type telescope. What is its magnifying power? (c) What are the advantages of a
reflecting type telescope over the refracting type?
155. (a) Draw a ray diagram for the formation of image by a compound microscope in normal
adjustment. (b) Obtain the expression for the minimum separation between the two points seen
as distinct in a microscope. What is its relation with the resolving power? Mention the factors by
which the resolving power of a microscope can be increased.
156. The radii of curvature of both the surfaces of a lens are equal. If one of the surfaces is made
plane by grinding, how will the focal length and power of the lens change?
157. (a) Give two reasons to explain why reflecting telescopes are preferred over refracting type.
158. (b) Use mirror equation to show that convex mirror always produces a virtual image
independent of the location of the object.
159. (a) A point-object is placed on the principal axis of a convex spherical surface of radius of
curvature R, which separates the two media of refractive indices n1 and n2 (n2 > n1). Draw the
ray diagram and deduce the relation between the distance of the object (u), distance of the
image (v) and the radius of curvature (R) for refraction to take place at the convex spherical
surface from rarer to denser medium.
160. (b) Use the above relation to obtain the condition on the position of the object and the radius of
curvature in terms of n1 and n2 when the real image is formed.
161. (a) Draw a labelled ray diagram showing the formation of image by a compound microscope in
normal adjustment. Derive the expression for its magnifying power. (b) How does the resolving
power of a microscope change when (i) the diameter of the objective lens is decreased; (ii) the
wavelength of the incident light is increased? Justify your answer in each case.

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162. (a) Draw a ray diagram showing the image formation by a compound microscope. Obtain
expression for total magnification when the image is formed at infinity. (b) How does the
resolving power of a compound microscope get affected, when (i) focal length of the objective is
decreased. (ii) the wavelength of light is increased? Give reasons to justify your answer.
163. An object is placed in front of convex lens made of glass. How does the image distance vary if
the refractive index of the medium is increased in such a way that still it remains less than the
glass?
164. Show that a convex lens produces a n N times magnified image when object distance from the
𝑓
lens have magnitudes (𝑓 ± 𝑁
). Where f is the magnitudes of focal length. Hence find two
values of object distance, for which a convex lens of power 2.5D, will form an image magnified
four times as that of object.
165. A compound microscope consists of an objective of focal length 1cm and eye piece of focal
length 5cm separated by 12.2cm. (a) At what distance from the objective should an object be
placed so that the final image is formed at least distance of distinct vision? (b) Calculate the
angular magnification in this case.
166. (a) Draw a ray diagram to show the formation of the real image of a point object due to a
convex spherical refracting surface, when a ray of light is travelling from a rarer medium of
refractive index μ1 to a denser medium of refractive index μ2. Hence derive the relation
between object distance, image distance and radius of curvature of the spherical surface. (3)
(a) An object is placed in front of right angled prism ABC in two positions as shown. The prism is
made of crown glass with critical angle of 410. Trace the path of the two rays from P & Q.
167. (a)Draw a graph showing the variation of angle of deviation ‘δ’ with that of angle of incidence ‘i’
for a monochromatic ray of light passing through a glass prism of refracting angle ‘A’. What do
you interpret from the graph? Write a relation showing the dependence of angle of deviation on
angle of incidence and hence derive the expression for refractive index of the prism.
(b) Calculate the value of θ, for which light incident normally on face AB grazes along the face
BC. μg = 3/2 and μw = 4/3.

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168. An object ‘O’ is placed 15cm from a convex lens L1 of focal length of 20cmand final image I is
formed at 80cm from the second lens L2. Calculate the focal length of L2.(2016M)
169. Draw a labelled diagram of astronomical telescope in normal adjustment. Which two
aberrations do the objective of the telescope suffer from? How are these overcome in a
reflecting telescope? How the resolving power of a telescope change on increasing the aperture
of the objective lens? Justify. (2016M)
170. Does the magnifying power of a microscope depend on the colour of the light used? Justify your
answer. (1)
171. Use the mirror equation to show that an object placed between f and 2f of a concave mirror
forms image beyond 2f (2)
172. State the condition under which lrge magnification can be obtained from an astronomical
telescope. Give two reasons explain why s reflecting telescope is preferred over a refracting
telescope. (2)
173. A point object is placed on the principal axis of a convex spherical surface of radius of curvature
R, which separates two media of refractive indices n1 and n2 (n2>n1). Draw ray diagram and
deduce the relation connecting object distance, image distance and radius of curvature, so that
refraction takes place from rarer to denser medium. A converging lens (n =1.6) has a focal length
of 20cm in air. Find its new focal length when immersed in a liquid of refractive index 1.3. (5)
174. With the help of a labelled diagram, derive an expression for refractive index of the material of
the prism. Determine the value of angle of incidence for a ray of light travelling from a medium
of refractive index 1.414 in to air just grazes along the surface of separation. (5)
175. (a) Calculate the distance of an object of height h from a concave mirror of radius of curvature
20 cm, so as to obtain a real image of magnification 2. Find the location of image also. (b) Using
mirror formula, explain why a convex mirror always produces a virtual image.
176. Draw a schematic ray diagram of reflecting telescope showing how rays coming from a distant
object are received at the eye-piece. Write its two important advantages over a refracting
telescope.
177. i) Plot a graph to show variation of the angle of deviation as a function of angle of incidence for
light passing through a prism. Derive an expression for refractive index of the prism in terms of
angle of minimum deviation and angle of prism. (ii) What is dispersion of light? What is its
cause? (iii) A ray of light incident normally on one face of a right isosceles prism is totally
reflected as shown in fig. What must be the minimum value of refractive index of glass? Give
relevant calculations.

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178. A ray of monochromatic light is incident on one face of an equilateral prism at an angle 3/4th of
the angle of prism. If the ray passes symmetrically through the prism, find:
(i)angle of minimum deviation and
(ii)refractive index of the material of the prism
179. (i)Why is a compound microscope preferred over a simple microscope? (ii)Why should the
objective and eyepiece have short focal lengths in a compound microscope? (iii)Define the
magnifying power of a compound microscope.
180. Why does sun appear at sunrise and sunset?
181. (i)Derive the mathematical relation between refractive indices n1 and n2 of two radii and radius
of curvature R for refraction at a convex spherical surface. Consider the object to be a point
since lying on the principle axis in rarer medium of refractive index n1 and a real image formed
in the denser medium of refractive index n2. Hence, derive lens maker’s formula.
(ii)Light from a point source in air falls on a convex spherical glass surface of refractive index 1.5
and radius of curvature 20 cm. The distance of light source from the glass surface is 100 cm. At
what position is the image formed?
182. A ray PQ incident normally on the refracting face BA is refracted in the prism BAC made of
material of refractive index 1.5. Complete the path of ray through the prism. From which face
will the ray emerge? Justify your answer.
183. (a)Draw a labelled ray diagram to obtain the real image formed by an astronomical telescope in
normal adjustment position. Define its magnifying power.
(b)You are given three lenses of power 0.5 D, 4 D and 10 D to design a telescope.
(i)Which lenses should he used as objective and eyepiece? Justify your answer.
(ii)Why is the aperture of the objective preferred to be large?
184. (a)Draw a schematic diagram of a reflecting telescope. (b)State the advantages of reflecting
telescope over refracting telescope.
185. (i)Draw a schematic ray diagram of a compound microscope when image is formed at distance
of distinct vision. (ii)Write the expression for resolving power of a compound microscope. How
can the resolving power of a microscope be increased?
186. (i)What is total internal reflection? Under what conditions does it occur?
(ii)Find a relation between critical angle and refractive index.

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(iii)Name one phenomenon which is based on total internal reflection.

187. (a)A point object O on the principle axis of a spherical surface of radius of curvature R separating
two media of refractive indices n1 and n2 forms an image ‘I’ as shown in the figure.
(b)Use this expression to derive lens maker’s formula. Draw the necessary diagram and prove,
(c)A convex lens is placed over a plane mirror. A pin is now positioned so that there is no
parallax between the pin and its image formed by this lens-mirror combination. How will you
use this observation to find focal length of the lens? Explain briefly.
188. Why can’t we see clearly through fog? Name the phenomenon responsible for it.
189. A ray PQ incident on the refracting face BA is refracted in the prism BAC as shown in the figure
and emerges from the other refracting face AC as RS such that AQ = AR. If the angle of prism A =
600 and refractive index of material of prism is √3 , calculate angle θ.
190. (i)A screen is placed at a distance of 100 cm from an object. The image of the object is formed
on the screen by a convex lens for two different locations of the lens separated by 20 cm.
Calculate the focal length of the lens used.
(ii)A converging lens is kept coaxially in contact with a diverging lens - both the lenses being of
equal focal length. What is the focal length of the combination?
191. (i)For a glass prism (µ =√3 ) the angle of minimum deviation is equal to the angle of the prism.
Calculate the angle of the prism. (ii)Draw ray diagram when incident ray falls normally on one of
the two equal sides of a right angled isosceles prism having refractive index,𝜇 = √3.
192. (i)Name the phenomenon on which the working of an optical fibre is based. (ii)What are the
necessary conditions for this phenomenon to occur? (iii)Draw a labelled diagram of an optical
fibre and show how light propagates through the optical fibre using this phenomenon.
193. (i)Draw a ray diagram showing the geometry of formation of image of a point object situated on
the principal axis and on the convex side of a spherical surface of radius of curvature R. Taking
the rays as incident from a rarer medium of refractive index n1 to a denser medium of refractive

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index n2, derive the relation connecting n1, n2,v, u and R, where symbols have their usual
meaning.
(ii)Explain briefly how the focal length of a convex lens changes with increase in wavelength of
incident light.
(iii)What happens to the focal length of convex lens when it is immersed in water? Refractive
index of the material of lens is greater than that of water.
194. Explain briefly the working of an astronomical telescope. The magnifying power of a telescope in
its normal adjustment is 20. If the length of the telescope is 105 cm in this adjustment, find the
focal lengths of the objective and eyepiece of the telescope.
195. A symmetric biconvex lens of radius of curvature R and made of glass of refractive index 1·5, is
placed on a layer of liquid placed on top of a plane mirror as shown in the figure. An optical
needle with its tip on the principal axis of the lens is moved along the axis until its real, inverted
image coincides with the needle itself. The distance of the needle from the lens is measured to
be x. On removing the liquid layer and repeating the experiment, the distance is found to be y.
Obtain the expression for the refractive index of the liquid in terms of x and y.
196. The figure shows a ray of light falling normally on the face AB of an equilateral glass prism
having refractive index 3/2, placed in water of refractive index 4/3. Will this ray suffer total
internal reflection on striking the face AC? Justify your answer
197.

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WAVE OPTICS
Wave front: is defined as surface of constant phase. (The locus of all points which are in the same phase
of vibration)
Types of wave front:
a) Spherical wave front (a point source gives rise to spherical wave fronts)
Light rays
Wave front
b) Plane wave front: if the source or observer is at infinite distance with respect to the other the wave
front will become planar. Wave fronts from sun reaching the earth will appear as plane
Note: 1. Light rays always normal to the wave fronts

2. Time taken by light rays from primary wave front to reach corresponding points of secondary wave
front will be the same
3. Angle of incidence for a wave front is the angle between the incident wave front and the surface.
Angle of refraction for a wave front is the angle between the refracted wave front and the surface.
Angle of reflection for a wave front is the angle between the reflected wave front and the surface.

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1 Draw the shapes of wave fronts incident and emerging out if waves are incident (a )on a glass
slab with light rays normal to the surface (b) on a glass slab obliquely (c) on a prism (d) convex
lens (e) concave lens (f) convex mirror (g) concave mirror (h) plane mirror
2 What is the shape of the wave front in each of the following cases:
(a) Light diverging from a point source.
(b) Light emerging out of a convex lens when a point source is placed at its focus.
(c) The portion of the wave front of light from a distant star intercepted by Earth
3 A point source of light is placed at the focus of a convex lens. Draw the nature of the emergent
wave front.
HUYGENS PRINCIPLE
According to Huygens principle, each point on the primary

wave front is the source of secondary disturbances and the
wavelets emanating from these points spread out in all
directions with the speed of the wave. A common tangent to
these secondary wavelets at any instant gives the new wave
front at that instant.
PROOF OF SNELL’S LAW USING HUYGENS PRINCIPLE
Case I: Refraction from rarer to denser medium

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Let v1and v 2 & n1 and n2 represent the velocities of light and refractive indices of first and second
medium respectively. AB is the incident wave front. To find the refracted wave front, draw a sphere of
radius AD = v2t with A as centre. Tangent of this sphere to the point C gives the refracted wave front CD.
𝐵𝐶 𝐵𝐶 𝐴𝐷
From ∆ABC, Sini = 𝐴𝐶 =𝐴𝐶 , From ∆ADC, Sinr = 𝐴𝐶 . we have BC = v1t and AD = v2t
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑖 𝑣1 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑖 𝑛2
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑟
= 𝑣2
, n = c/v ,n1 = c/v1 and n2 = c/v2 , 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑟 = 𝑛1
, which is Snell’s law
Case II: Refraction from denser to rarer medium
Let v1 – speed of light in medium I, v2 – speed of light in medium II, n1 – refractive index of light in
medium I,n2 – refractive index of light in medium II,BC = v1t, where t is the time taken by light to reach C
from B. To find the refracted wave front, draw a sphere of radius AD = v2t with A as centre. Tangent of
this sphere to the point C gives the refracted wave front CD.
From ∆ABC, Sini = 𝐴𝐶 =𝐴𝐶 , From ∆ADC, Sinr = 𝐴𝐶 . we have BC = v1t and AD = v2t
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑖 𝑣1 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑖 𝑛2
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑟
= 𝑣2
, n = c/v ,n1 = c/v1 and n2 = c/v2 , 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑟 = 𝑛1
, which is Snell’s law

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To show that frequency remains same in refraction
If BC = λ1, wavelength of light in first medium, then AD = λ2 , will be the wavelength in second medium.
𝐵𝐶 𝜆1 v1 𝑡 𝜆1
= or = or
𝐴𝐷 𝜆2 v2 𝑡 𝜆2
v1 𝜆1 v1 v2
v2
= 𝜆2
or 𝜆1
= 𝜆2
o r 𝜗1 = 𝜗2. Even velocity and wavelength changes frequency remains the same.
PROOF OF LAW OF REFLECTION USING HUYGENS PRINCIPLE

BC = vt, where t is the time taken by light to reach C from B. To find the reflected wave front, draw a
sphere of radius AD = vt with A as centre. Tangent of this sphere to the point C gives the reflected wave
front CD.
From ∆ABC, Sini = = , From ∆ADC, Sinr = . we have BC = vt and AD = vt
𝐴𝐶 𝐴𝐶 𝐴𝐶
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑖 𝑣 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑖
= , = 1, Sini = Sinr or i = r, which is known as law of reflection.
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑟 𝑣 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑟
EXPLANATION OF TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION (USING HUYGENS PRINCIPLE).
When light travels from denser medium to rarer medium, r >i. as I increases r also increases. At a
particular angle of incidence known as critical angle, the refracted wave front becomes normal to the

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surface of separation (refracted ray becomes parallel to the surface of separation). If angle of incidence
is greater than critical angle, no refracted wave front will be present, complete wave front will be
reflected back to the denser medium. This phenomenon is known as total internal reflection.
4. When monochromatic light is incident on a surface separating two media, the reflected and refracted
light both have the same frequency as the incident frequency. Explain why? (b) When light travels from
a rarer to a denser medium, the speed decreases. Does the reduction in speed imply a reduction in the
energy carried by the light wave? (c) In the wave picture of light, intensity of light is determined by the
square of the amplitude of the wave. What determines the intensity of light in the photon picture of
light.
COHERENT SOURCES OF LIGHT.

Two light sources producing light waves of same frequency and same phase or constant phase
difference are known as coherent sources of light.
Two independent sources of light cannot be coherent, because even they emit light waves of same
frequency there will not be any constant phase relation between the light waves.
Young’s double slit (light from a single slit is split in to two beams by screen with two slits) is an example
for coherent light sources.
Doppler Effect in light is the apparent change in frequency of light due to the relative motion of source
and observer. When the source moves away from the observer there is a decrease in the frequency or
an increase in the wavelength. Since wavelength show a shift towards the red (longer wave length) end
of the spectrum, this shift is known as red shift. When the source moves towards the observer there is a
increase in the frequency or a decrease in the wavelength. Since wavelength show a shift towards the
blue (shorter wave length) end of the spectrum, this shift is known as blue shift.
∆𝜗 −∆𝜆 V (radial)
𝜗
= 𝜆
= 𝑐
, applicable only if V<<c. V (radial) is the component of source velocity along the
line joining the observer to the source relative to the observer and is positive when source move away
from the observer.
This method is used to measure radial velocities of distant galaxies.
PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION

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At a particular point in the medium, the resultant displacement produced by a number of waves is the
vector sum of displacements produced by individual waves.
⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦 𝑦1 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦2 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦3 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑦4 + …….
Note: Intensity of a wave is directly proportional to square of amplitude I ∝ 𝐴2 or I = kA2

𝝀
Relation between path difference and phase difference, path difference (δ) = phase difference (ф) x 𝟐𝝅
COHERENT ADDITION OF LIGHT WAVES

Case I with same amplitude
𝑨+𝑩 𝑨−𝑩
Note: Sin A + Sin B = 2 Sin ( 𝟐
) Cos (𝟐
)
Let y1 = a Sinωt and y2 =a Sin(ωt+ф) be light waves from two coherent sources with same amplitude (a),
but with a phase difference (ф) meeting at any point on a screen. Intensity of individual light waves,
I1 = I2 = ka2.
According to principle of superposition the resultant wave at any point on the screen,
y = y1 + y2 = a[ sinωt + sin(ωt+ф)] = a[2Sin(ωt+ф/2)]Cos(ф/2) = [2a Cos(ф/2 ) ] Sin(ωt+ф/2)
y = A Sin(ωt+ф/2) , where A = 2a Cos(ф/2 ) is the amplitude
Resultant intensity at any point on the screen, I= kA2 = k [2a Cos(ф/2 ) ]2 = 4ka2 [Cos(ф/2)]2
I =4 I1[Cos(ф/2)]2
Note: 1.If the waves are in phase (totally constructive superposition, ф = 0), I =4 I1.
2. If the waves are totally out of phase (totally destructive superposition, ф = 180), I =0
5. Considering intensity of single source as I0, Calculate the intensity of points on the screen where
𝜆 𝜆 4𝜆
path difference between light from two coherent sources are (i) 2 (ii) λ (iii) 6 (iv) 6λ (v) 3
Condition for maximum intensity (bright bands)

For maximum intensity, [Cos(ф/2)]2 = 1,
Cos(ф/2) =± 1 or ф/2 = nπ, where n= 0,1,2,3,….. or ф = 2nπ
𝜆 𝜆
or in terms of path difference, δ = (ф) x 2𝜋
= 2nπ x 2𝜋
or δ= n λ, where n = 0,1,2,3,…….
n = 0 corresponds to the central bright band,
For constructive super position, path difference must be integral multiple of λ or even multiple of λ/2
Condition for minimum intensity (dark bands)
For minimum intensity, [Cos(ф/2)]2 = 0,
𝜋
Cos(ф/2) = 0 or ф/2 = (2n – 1 ) 2 , where n= 1,2,3,….. or ф = (2n – 1 )π
𝜆 𝜆 𝝀
or in terms of path difference, δ = (ф) x 2𝜋 = (2n – 1 )π x 2𝜋 or δ= (2n – 1 ) 𝟐 , where n =1,2,3,……
𝝀
or δ= (2n - 1) 𝟐 , where n = 1,2,3,…… (This is preferred)

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For destructive super position, path difference must be odd multiple of λ/2
Case II with different amplitude [Note : Sin (A + B) = Sin A Cos B + Cos A Sin B ]
Let y1 = a Sinωt and y2 =a2 Sin(ωt+ф) so that I1 = ka1 2 and I2 = ka2 2 be their intensities
According to principle of superposition the resultant wave at any point on the screen,
y = y1 + y2 = a1 sinωt + a2 sin(ωt+ф) = a1 sinωt + a2 sinωt Cosф + a2 Cosωt Sinф]
y = sinωt(a1 + a2Cosф) + Cosωt (a2Sinф) .
Let (a1 + a2Cosф) = A Cosθ……….(1) and (a2Sinф)= A Sinθ, ……….(2) then A2 = (a1 + a2Cosф)2 + (a2Sinф)2
y = A sinωt Cosθ + ACosωt Sinθ or y= A [sinωt Cosθ + Cosωt Sinθ]
y = A sin(ωt + θ).
Intensity of the resultant wave I = k A2 = k[ (a1 + a2Cosф)2 + (a2Sinф)2 ]

I = k[ (a12 +2a1 a2Cosф + (a2 Cosф )2 + (a2Sinф)2 ] = k (a12 + 2a1 a2Cosф + a22 ( Cos2ф + Sin2ф) ]
I = ka12 + 2a1 a2 k Cosф + ka22 or
I = I1 +I2 + 2Cosф√𝑰𝟏 𝑰𝟐
For maximum amplitude, ф =0, IMAX = k (a12 + 2a1 a2 + a22 ) or IMAX = k (a1 + a2 )2
For minimum amplitude ф =180, IMIN = k (a12 - 2a1 a2 + a22 ) or IMIN = k (a1 - a2 )2
𝟐
𝑰
𝟐 𝟏 +√ 𝟐
𝐈𝐦𝐚𝐱 𝐚𝟏 +𝐚𝟐 𝟐 𝐈𝐦𝐚𝐱 √𝑰𝟏 +√𝑰𝟐 𝑰𝟏
=[ ] or =[ ] =[ ]
𝐈𝐦𝐢𝐧 𝐚𝟏 −𝐚𝟐 𝐈𝐦𝐢𝐧 √𝑰𝟏 − √𝑰𝟐 ) 𝑰
𝟏 −√ 𝟐
𝑰𝟏
6. The maximum and minimum intensity of interference bands are 25 : 1 calculate the ratio of
intensities of individual sources
7. The ratio of light intensities of two sources producing interference are 1 : 16. Calculate the ratio
of maximum to minimum intensity on the screen.
Note: Intensity ∝ area of slit, for circular slits, intensity ∝ (diameter)2 and
for rectangular slit, intensity ∝ width
𝟏+ 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝜽
INCOHERENT ADDITION OF LIGHT WAVES (Note: 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐 𝜽 = 𝟐
)
Light waves from two independent sources will not have any constant phase relation. Every point on
the screen, phase and hence intensity is continuously changing. The observed intensity is the average
intensity. Observed intensity = < 4 I1[Cos(ф/2)]2 > = < 4 I1[1 + Cosф]/2 > = < 2I1[1 + Cosф] > =
observed intensity = 2I1< 1 + Cosф > , since < Cosф > = 0

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Observed intensity = 2I1, which is the practical observation.
INTERFERENCE OF LIGHT: is defined as the

redistribution of light energy to form alternate dark
and bright bands due to the superposition of two or
more light waves.
The phenomenon of interference is according to law
of conservation of energy. During interference there
is no loss or gain of energy. Only redistribution of
energy takes place, energy lost from dark regions is
present in the bright regions.
The beautiful colours seen on oil films or soap bubbles are due to interference of light reflected from top
and bottom surfaces of the film. As the thickness of the film is different at different points, some colours
satisfy condition for constructive superposition and will be present with more brightness and some
other colours which satisfy the condition for destructive superposition will be absent from the reflected
light.
S is a source of monochromatic light. S1 and S2 are two slits equidistant from S which act as coherent
sources. S1 S2 = d is the distance between coherent slits; D is the distance from the plane of coherent
slits to the screen.
Observation:
when the slit is illuminated by monochromatic source of light, alternate dark and bright bands (fringes)
are seen on the screen, with the central band being bright.
Light from S1 and S2 reach the center (O) of the screen with zero path difference. This satisfies condition
for constructive superposition and a bright band is formed at O. Other points on the screen appear
𝝀
dark or bright according to the path difference of light reaching these points [δ= (2n – 1 ) 𝟐, for dark
bands , n= 1, 2,3,…. and δ= n λ, for bright bands, where n = 0,1,2,3]
Expression for fringe width (linear)(β) or band width: Band width is defined as the distance between
two consecutive dark bands or the distance between two consecutive bright bands,

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β = yn+1 - yn , where yn+1 is the distance from center of the screen(O) to (n+1)th bright/dark band and yn
is the distance from center of the screen(O) to(nth bright/dark band.
Path difference, δ = S2P – S1P

𝑑 2
Form ∆𝑆2MP, (S2P)2 = D2 + (MP)2 = D2 + (yn + 2
)
𝑑 2
Form ∆𝑆1NP, (S1P)2 = D2 + (NP)2 = D2 + (yn – 2
)
𝑑 2 𝑑 2
(S2P)2 – (S1P)2 = (yn + ) - (yn – ) (a + b)2 -(a - b)2 = 4ab
2 2
𝑑
(S2P – S1P)( S2P + S1P) = 4 yn( 2 ) = 2ynd
S2P – S1P = 2ynd/( S2P + S1P), if the point P is close to O, S2P ≈ S1P = D, S2P + S1P≈2D
δ = 2ynd/2D or δ = ynd/D
For bright bands δ = n λ ,

𝑛𝐷𝜆 (𝑛+1)𝐷𝜆
nλ= ynd/D ,or yn = 𝑑
and yn+1 = 𝑑
(𝑛+1)𝐷𝜆 𝑛𝐷𝜆 𝐷𝜆
Width of dark band βd = yn+1 - yn = 𝑑
- 𝑑
= 𝑑
(𝑛 + 1 − 𝑛),
𝑫𝝀
βd = 𝒅
𝝀
For dark bands δ = (2n - 1) ,
𝟐
𝝀 (2𝑛−1)𝐷𝜆 (2𝑛+2−1)𝐷𝜆
(2n - 1) 𝟐 = ynd/D ,or yn = 2𝑑 and yn+1 = 𝑑
(2𝑛+1)𝐷𝜆 (2𝑛−1)𝐷𝜆 𝐷𝜆
Width (linear) of bright band βb = yn+1 - yn = - = (2𝑛 + 1 − 2𝑛 + 1),
2𝑑 2𝑑 2𝑑
𝟐𝑫𝝀 𝑫𝝀
βb = 𝟐𝒅
or βb= 𝒅
Width of dark band is same as width of bright band in interference.
Condition for sustained interference
1. Presence of coherent sources
𝑠 𝜆
2. 𝑆 ≤ 𝑑 , where s = width of main slit, S = distance main slit and coherent slits, λ= wavelength of light
and d = distance between coherent slits. ( if d (distance between coherent slits) is decreased,
λ(wavelength of light used) is increased, S is more or s is small the condition for interference will be
satisfied)
Angular width of interference band (θ) is defined as the angle subtended by the central bright band at
𝛽 𝐷𝜆 𝝀
the center of the coherent slits. θ = 𝐷 = 𝐷𝑑 or θ = 𝒅 , angular width is independent of D

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𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ
Angular width = 𝐷
𝒚 𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
Note: N = 𝜷 , 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒃𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒔 = 𝒘𝒊𝒅𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒃𝒂𝒏𝒅
8. In a double-slit experiment the angular width of a fringe is found to be 0.2° on a screen placed 1 m
away. The wavelength of light used is 600 nm. What will be the angular width of the fringe if the
entire experimental apparatus is immersed in water? Take refractive index of water to be 4/3.
Note: If the complete set up is completely immersed in liquid of refractive index n
𝐷 𝐷 𝛽(𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑) 𝜆(𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑) 𝛽(𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑) 𝜆(𝑎𝑖𝑟) 𝛽(𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑) 1
βAIR = 𝑑 λAIR , βLIQUID = 𝑑 λLIQUUID , β(air)
= 𝜆(𝑎𝑖𝑟)
or β(air)
= 𝑛 𝜆(𝑎𝑖𝑟) , β(air)
=𝑛 ,
βliquid =βair/n. βliquid < βair . Similarly, θliquid =θair/n
9. Two slits are made one millimetre apart and the screen is placed one meter away. What is the fringe
separation hen blue green light of wavelength 500 nm is used?
10. In a Young’s double-slit experiment, the slits are separated by 0.28 mm and the screen is placed 1.4
m away. The distance between the central bright fringe and the fourth bright fringe is measured to be
1.2 cm. Determine the wavelength of light used in the experiment.
11. In Young’s double-slit experiment using monochromatic light of wavelength λ, the intensity of light at
a point on the screen where path difference is λ, is K units. What is the intensity of light at a point
where path difference is λ/3?
12. A beam of light consisting of two wavelengths, 650 nm and 520 nm, is used to obtain interference
fringes in a Young’s double-slit experiment. (a) Find the distance of the third bright fringe on the
screen from the central maximum for wavelength 650 nm. (b) What is the least distance from the
central maximum where the bright fringes due to both the wavelengths coincide? (D = 1.2m and
d=1mm)
𝜆
13. In Young’s double slit experiment (refer the above experimental set up) if SS2 - SS1 = (i) state
4
the condition for constructive and destructive interference in terms of path difference of the
light from S1 and S2 to any point on the screen P. (ii) obtain an expression for fringe width of the
system (iii) locate the position of the central fringe.
14. What is the effect on the interference fringes in a Young’s double-slit experiment due to each of the
following operations:
(a) the screen is moved away from the plane of the slits;
(b) the (monochromatic) source is replaced by another (monochromatic) source of shorter λ;
(c) the separation between the two slits is increased;
(d) the source slit is moved closer to the double-slit plane;
(e) the width of the source slit is increased;
(f ) the monochromatic source is replaced by a source of white light?

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15. Two wavelengths 𝜆1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜆2, 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑢𝑝. If mth
band of 𝜆1 is coinciding with nth band of 𝜆2 show that m𝜆1 = 𝑛𝜆2
Explain the change in width of the interference band if violet light

is replaced by red light
16. Explain the change in the interference pattern if monochromatic light is replaced by white light
17. If the main slit is slightly displaced upwards
from the normal position, explain with
reason what will be the change in the
position of central band?
DIFFRACTION
Bending of light around the edges of obstacles so

that light spreads in to the geometrical shadow.
Edges of shadows are not clear due to diffraction.
Condition for diffraction

1. Size of the obstacle/slit causing diffraction should be
comparable to the wavelength of incident light. a ≤ 𝜆 ,
where a is the Size of the obstacle/slit causing diffraction
and λ wavelength of incident light.
18. Two persons standing on either side of a wall can

hear each other but can’t see. Why?

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SINGLE SLIT DIFFRACTION
Experimental set up
Width of slit = a, distance between slit and screen = D and wavelength of light = λ.
𝐵𝑁
From ∆ABN, Sinθn = , path difference(δ), BN = a Sinθn
𝑎
if θn≪ , Sinθn≈ θn δ = a θn (θ must be in radian, angle in degree xπ/180 = angle in radian)
For light rays which travel straight, θn = 0, path difference =0. This satisfies the condition for
constructive superposition and a bright band (central maximum) is formed at the center of the screen
(O).
Condition for secondary minimum (dark bands):

Let P be a point on the screen such that light from A and B reach P with path difference = λ. Imagine the
slit to be divided in to two identical half slits, such that light from corresponding points of the upper (AC)
and lower (CB) half slits reach P with path difference λ/2. This satisfies the condition for destructive
superposition and hence P appears dark. Similar is the case for points on the screen, where light from A

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and B reach with path difference 2λ, 3λ, 4λ,… ,nλ, where n = 1,2,3,…..
𝒏𝝀
In general, aθn = nλ or θn = 𝒂
is the condition for dark bands in diffraction
Condition for secondary maximum (bright bands):

Let P be a point on the screen such that light from A and B reach P with path difference = 3λ/2. Imagine
the slit to be divided in to three identical slits, such that light from corresponding points of the two
consecutive slits reach P with path difference λ/2. This satisfies the condition for destructive
1
superposition. The brightness at P is only due to the remaining 3 of the slit. Hence P appears bright with
1
brightness = of the brightness of central maximum. Similar is the case for points on the screen, where
3
𝝀
light from A and B reach with path difference 5λ/2, 7λ/2, 9λ/2,… , (2n+1) 𝟐, where n= 1,2,3……and these
1 1
points appear bright with intensities = th , = th ,…. of the brightness of central maximum.
5 7
𝝀 𝝀
In general, aθn = (2n+1) or θn = (2n+1) is the condition for bright bands in diffraction
𝟐 𝟐𝒂
Angular width of central maximum is defined as the distance between angular positions of first
secondary minimum on either side of the central maximum.
𝜆 𝜆 𝟐𝝀
Angular width of central maximum (θ) = 𝑎 + 𝑎 or θ= 𝒂
(Linear) width of central maximum is defined as the distance between positions of first secondary
minimum on either side of the central maximum.
Angular width = or linear width of central maximum = D x angular width of central maximum
𝐷
𝟐𝑫𝝀
Linear width = 𝒂
Angular width of secondary maxima is defined as the distance between angular positions of any two
consecutive secondary minima of the diffraction pattern.
𝟑𝝀 𝟐𝝀 𝝀
Angular width of secondary maxima = θ3 – θ2 = 𝒂
− 𝒂
=𝒂
Angular width of secondary minima is defined as the distance between angular positions of any two
consecutive secondary maxima of the diffraction pattern.

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𝟓𝝀 𝟑𝝀 𝟐𝝀 𝝀
Angular width of secondary minima = θ2 – θ1 = 𝟐𝒂 − 𝟐𝒂 = 𝟐𝒂 = 𝒂
Width of central maximum = 2 x width of secondary maximum = 2 x width of secondary minimum
Note: When single slit is open to screen diffraction pattern will be seen. When both the slits are open to
screen, pattern formed on the screen is the superposition of diffraction pattern formed by each single
slit and double slit interference pattern. The Number of interference bands in the central maximum of
diffraction = (2Dλ/a)/(Dλ/d) = 2d/a. when ‘a’ is very small relative to d (‘a’ becomes comparable to the
wavelength of light), width of central maximum of diffraction becomes very large and flat. The number
of interference bands becomes large. Interference pattern is clearly visible over flat diffraction pattern.
If ‘a’ is large relative to d, number of interference fringes is less within the central diffraction maximum.
Diffraction pattern will be clearly visible compared to the interference pattern.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN INTERFERENCE AND DIFFRACTION
1. Interference is due to superposition of light waves from two coherent sources while diffraction is due
to superposition of waves from different parts of the same wave front.
2. All bright bands are of equal intensity in interference while in diffraction central band is of maximum
intensity and other bands are of decreasing intensity
3. width all the bands are same in interference while in diffraction width of secondary maximum/
minimum is half of central maximum
𝜆
4. In interference, δ =n λ is for bright band and δ= (2n+1) 2 is for dark band. In diffraction, δ =n λ is for
𝜆
dark band and δ= (2n+1) 2 is for bright band (Condition for dark and bright bands are opposite in
interference and diffraction).
Validity of ray optics (Fresnel distance, ZF):is defined as the distance from the slit or obstacle at which
spreading due to diffraction(half of the linear width of the central maximum ) is equal to the width of
the slit. If a is the width of the slit illuminated by light of wavelength λ,
𝜆
ZF 𝑎 = a, or ZF =a2/λ, if λ →0 then ZF →∞, (ray optics is truly valid if wavelength is 0)
Ray optics concepts are valid only within distances less than ZF. For distances beyond ZF, diffraction
becomes significant and the ray concept will not be applicable.
19. Find the Fresnel distance for a slit of size 1mm when illuminated with light of λ = 500nm. Hence
comment on the validity of ray optics in daily life.
20. For what distance is ray optics a good approximation when the aperture is 3 mm wide and the
wavelength is 500 nm?
Limit of resolution of an optical instrument: is the least separation (linear /angular) between two
points/objects which make them appear just separated when seen through the optical instrument.

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Resolving power of an optical instrument: is defined as the reciprocal of the least separation (linear
/angular) between two points/objects which make them appear just separated when seen through the
𝟏
optical instrument. Resolving power of an optical instrument = 𝐋𝐢𝐦𝐢𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐨𝐟 𝐚𝐧 𝐨𝐩𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐥 𝐢𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐮𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭
Resolving power of telescope: is defined as reciprocal of the least

angular separation between two objects which make them appear just
separated when seen through telescope.
𝒂
Resolving power of telescope = where ‘a’ is the diameter of the
𝟏.𝟐𝟐𝝀
objective lens and λ wavelength of incident light. Using large aperture
objective lens resolving power of telescopes can be increased.
Resolving power of microscope: is defined as the reciprocal of the least

separation between two points which make them appear just
separated when seen through microscope.
𝟐𝒏𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜷
Resolving power of microscope = , n is the refractive index of the medium in which the object
𝟏.𝟐𝟐𝝀
is placed, 𝛽 is the half angle subtended by the objective lens at the object and λ wavelength of incident
light
Resolving power of microscope can be increased by
1) Keeping the object in a medium of higher refractive index (glycerin, oil ...)
2) using short focal length objective lens or increasing the aperture of objective lens
3) using light of shorter wavelength.
POLARISATION
1. Light is an electromagnetic wave with electric and magnetic field vibrations perpendicular to
each other.
2. Light is a transverse wave .The direction of propagation of light is perpendicular to both the
directions of vibrations of electric field vector and magnetic field vector (direction of
propagation of light (𝑣 ⃗⃗⃗ X⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗ ) is same direction of cross product of E B ).
𝐸0
3. In vacuum, 𝐵0
= 𝑐 = 3 × 108 𝑚/𝑠.Since E0 >>> B0 the optical properties of light is due to its
electric field vector (presence of B is neglected in the discussion.)

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Un polarised light: light with electric field vector vibrations distributed symmetrically in a plane
perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
The light vibrations in different directions can be resolved in to two perpendicular vibrations with half
intensity (Io /2) for each vibration. (as shown in the figure above)
Representation of unpolarized light (dots represent electric field vibrations perpendicular to the plane of
paper and double headed arrows represent electric field vibrations parallel to the plane of the paper.)
Polarization: polarization is defined as the phenomenon of restricting electric field vibrations in to a

single direction perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
(a) transmission axis (optic axis) of the polaroid is parallel to (double arrow) vibrations.

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(a) transmission axis (optic axis) of the polaroid is parallel to . (dot)vibrations
Polarisation is the phenomenon which proves the transverse nature of light.

Only transverse waves (heat light like all electromagnetic waves) can be polarised. Longitudinal
waves(sound) cannot be polarised. For transverse waves electric field vibrations are perpendicular to
the propagation. So electric field vibrations can be restricted by adjusting the axis of the polaroid with
respect to the incident beam. For a longitudinal wave vibrations are parallel to the propagation. For all
orientations of the polaroid no restriction is possible for the incident wave.
Plane polarized light: light with electric field vector vibrations restricted in to a single direction
perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
Devices which produce plane polarized light (Polaroid): tourmaline crystal and Nicol prism.
Explanation of polarization: A Polaroid consists of long chain of molecules aligned in a particular

direction. When light is incident on the polaroid, the electric field vectors in the direction of aligned
molecules get absorbed, and the light emerges out only with the electric field vectors vibrating
perpendicular to the direction of aligned molecules. Thus unpolarised light gets linearly polarized.
⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑣 𝑖̂)
Representation of polarised light (𝑣
Distinction between polarized light and unpolarized light:

Rotate the Polaroid with incident beam as axis. If the intensity of transmitted light is half the intensity of
incident light and does not show any variation, then the incident light is unpolarised.
If the transmitted light shows variation between maximum( when the transmission axis, called optic axis
becomes parallel to the plane of vibration of incident light) and zero(when the transmission axis, called
optic axis becomes perpendicular to the plane of vibration of incident light) twice in one complete
rotation then the incident light is plane polarized
Note: when unpolarised light is incident on a Polaroid, intensity of transmitted light is half of the
intensity of incident light

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Malu’s law: when plane polarized light is incident on a Polaroid, intensity of transmitted light(It) is
proportional to the square of cosine of angle (θ) between transmission axis (optic axis) of the Polaroid
and plane of vibration of incident light
It = I0Cos2θ, I0 is the intensity of incident polarised light.
For θ = 900, It = 0 and for θ =00 ,It = I0, θ=450 ,It= I0/2
21. Two polaroids are placed one after the other in the path of unpolarised light so that intensity of
the transmitted light after the second is found to be zero. What is the angle between the
transmission axis of the two polaroids? If a thrid Polaroid is introduced between them with
transmission axis equally inclined to the other two, find intensity of light transmitted after each
Polaroid. (consider the intensity of light falling on the first Polaroid as I0)
22. Two polaroids A and B are placed in crossed positions and a third poaroid C is rotated between
the two. Obtain expression for the intensity of light transmitted by the system. if the intensity
transmitted light is 1/8th of the incident intensity calculate the angle between the poaroids A
and C
24. Discuss the intensity of transmitted light when a polaroid sheet is rotated between two crossed
polaroids?
25. Unpolarised light is incident on a plane glass surface. What should be the angle of incidence so that
the reflected and refracted rays are perpendicular to each other?
Polarisation by scattering: If we observe sky through rotating sun glass

(Polaroid) transmitted light show variation in intensity. Because even
natural light (sunlight) is unpolarised, due to scattering sunlight get
polarized in a direction which is
perpendicular to the line joining
sun to the scattering particle,
while passing through the
atmosphere.
Polarisation by reflection: when unpolarised light is incident on

a transparent medium, reflected light is partially polarized. As the
angle of incidence is increased from lower to higher values, the
polarization also increases. At a particular angle of incidence
called polarizing angle (ip) (Brewster’s angle, iB) reflected light is completely plane polarized. At the
polarizing angle reflected and refracted light are mutually perpendicular, (when, i = ip, ip + r =900)
Brewster’s law:
when light is incident on a transparent medium from air, tangent of the polarizing angle is equal to the
absolute refractive index of the denser medium.
nDENSER =tan ip
Proof of Brewster’s law

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𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑖
According to Snell’s law, nDENSER/nRARER = 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑟 ,
when, i = ip, ip + r =900, r = 90 – ip
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑝 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑝
nDENSER/nRARER = 𝑆𝑖𝑛(90−𝑖𝑝) = 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑝 = tanip or nDENSER/nRARER = tanip
If the first medium is air, nDENSER =tan ip , this is known as Brewster’s law
26. Show that when light is incident at polarizing angle on a transparent medium, refracted and
reflected light beams are perpendicular to each other.
27. Draw a graph to show variation of intensity with angle of rotation of polaroid, when (a)
unpolarised light of intensity I0 falls on a polaroid
(b) polaroid light of intensity I0 falls on a polaroid.
Uses of Polaroids:
1) Polaroid is used in Sun glasses, wind shield and headlight of automobiles, to reduce the glare of light
2) Used in the production and viewing of 3 – D films
3) Used to improve colour contrast of old oil paintings
4) Used in liquid crystal displays (LCD)
1. Obtain an expression for polarizing angle in terms of critical angle of the medium.
2. Obtain an expression for critical angle in terms of polarizing angle of the medium.
EXPRESSIONS
1. Wave front is always normal to light rays

2. Angle between the incident wave front and the surface is the angle of incidence for wave front
3. Angle between the reflected wave front and the surface is the angle of reflection for wave front
4. Angle between the refracted wave front and the surface is the angle of refraction for wave front
5. Frequency of a wave remains constant during reflection, refraction, diffraction, etc…
6. Frequency of a wave depends only on the source
7. I = k a2

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8. Resultant intensity at any point on a screen due to super position of light coherent waves same
amplitude I =4 I1[Cos(ф/2)]2
𝝀
9. Relation between path difference (δ) = phase difference (ф) x
𝟐𝝅
10. I = ka12 + 2a1 a2 k Cos(ф) + ka22 or
I = I1 +I2 + 2Cosф√𝑰𝟏 𝑰𝟐
11. IMAX = k (a1 + a2 )2
12. IMIN = k (a1 - a2 )2
𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙 (𝑎1 + 𝑎2 )2
13. =
𝑰𝒎𝒊𝒏 (𝑎1 − 𝑎2 )2
14. Condition for constructive super position or maximum intensity (bright bands)
For constructive super position, path difference must be integral multiple of λ or even
multiple of λ/2
ф = 2nπ or δ= n λ, where n = 0,1,2,3,…… and
15. Condition for minimum intensity (dark bands)
For destructive super position, path difference must be odd multiple of λ/2
𝝀 𝝀
ф = (2n – 1 )π or δ= (2n – 1 ) 𝟐 , where n =1,2,3,…… or δ= (2n - 1) 𝟐 , where n = 1,2,3,…… (This is
preferred)
𝑛𝐷𝜆
16. Position of bright bands yn = ,𝐧 = 𝟎 𝐜𝐨𝐫𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐩𝐨𝐧𝐝𝐬 𝐭𝐨 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐜𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐥 𝐛𝐫𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐛𝐚𝐧𝐝
𝑑
(2𝑛−1)𝐷𝜆
17. Position of dark bands , yn = n=1 represent the first dark band
2𝑑
𝑫𝝀
18. Band width in interference , βd = βb = 𝒅
19. If two wavelengths 𝜆1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜆2, 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑢𝑝. If mth
band of 𝜆1 is coinciding with nth band of 𝜆2 ,then m𝜆1 = 𝑛𝜆2
𝛽 𝝀
20. Angular width of interference band (θ) = or θ= , angular width is independent of D
𝐷 𝒅
21. Angular width = 𝐷
22. βliquid =βair/n
23. Diffraction
a. δ = a Sinθn if θn≪ , Sinθn≈ θn δ = a θn
𝒏𝝀
b. Condition for dark bands in diffraction, θn = n = 1, 2, 3….
𝒂
𝝀
c. Condition for bright bands in diffraction, θn = (2n+1) 𝟐𝒂
n = 1,2,3…
𝟐𝝀
d. Angular width of central maximum (θ) = 𝒂
𝟐𝑫𝝀
e. Linear width of central maximum = 𝒂
𝝀
f. Angular width of secondary minima = Angular width of secondary maxima = 𝒂
g. Width of central maximum = 2 x width of secondary maximum = 2 x width of secondary
minimum
h. The Number of interference bands in the central maximum of diffraction = (2Dλ/a)/(Dλ/d)
= 2d/a
24. Fresnel distance , ZF =a2/λ

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25. Malus law It = I0Cos2θ

26. Brewster’s law , nDENSER =tan ip
27. when, i = ip, ip + r =900
28.
Wave optics
Board Questions
1. Two polaroids are placed with their optic axis perpendicular to each other. One of them is
rotated through 45°, what is the intensity of light emerging from the second polaroid if I0 is the
intensity of unpolarised light?
2. State the essential condition for diffraction to happen. Explain diffraction of light due to a
narrow single slit and the formation of pattern of fringes on the screen. Obtain the expression
for linear width of central maximum. If the width of slit is made double the original width, how
does it affect the size and intensity of the pattern? (2016M)
3. Distinguish between polarized and polarized light. Does the intensity of the polarized light
transmitted by a polaroid depends on its orientation? Explain briefly. The vibrations in a
polarized beam of light make an angle of 600 with the axis of the polaroid. What percentage of
light is transmitted through the sheet? (2016M)
4. Why cannot two independent monochromatic sources of light produce sustained interference
pattern? Deduce with the help of young’s double slit arrangement to produce interference
pattern, an expression for fringe width.
5. A plane wave front is propagating from a medium of refractive index μ1 to another medium of
refractive index μ2 (μ2 > μ1). Use Huygens construction to trace the refracted wave front. Hence
verify the law of refraction.
6. State the importance of coherent sources in the phenomenon of interference. In Young’s double
slit experiment to produce interference pattern, obtain the conditions for constructive and
destructive interference. Hence deduce the expression for the fringe width. How does the fringe
width get affected, if the entire Young’s apparatus is immersed in water?
4. A parallel beam of light of 500 nm falls on a narrow slit and the resulting diffraction pattern is
observed on a screen 1 m away. It is observed that the first minimum is at a distance of 2.5 mm
from the centre of the screen. Calculate the width of the slit.
5. (a) What is linearly polarized light? Describe briefly using a diagram how sunlight is polarised.
(b) Unpolarised light is incident on a polaroid. How would the intensity of transmitted light
change when the polaroid is rotated?

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6. A parallel beam of light of 600 nm falls on a narrow slit and the resulting diffraction pattern is
observed on a screen 1.2 m away. It is observed that the first minimum is at a distance of 3 mm
from the centre of the screen. Calculate the width of the slit.
7. The arrangement used by Thomas Young to produce an interference pattern is shown in the
given diagram. Justify why there would be no change in the ‘fringe width’ when the main
illuminated slit (S) is shifted to the position 𝑆′ as shown. 3
8. (a) State Huygens principle. Using this principle, explain how a diffraction pattern is obtained on
a screen due to a narrow slit on which a beam coming from a monochromatic source of light is
incident normally. (b) Show that the angular width of the first diffraction fringe is half of that of
the central fringe. (c) If monochromatic source of light is replaced by white light, what change
would you observe in the diffraction pattern?
9. The figure, drawn here, shows a modified Young’s double slit experimental set up. If SS2 - SS1, =
λ/4, (i) state the condition for constructive and destructive interference (ii) obtain an expression
for the fringe width. (iii) Locate the position of the central fringe. 5
10. (a) Write three characteristic features to distinguish between the interference fringes in Young’s
double slit experiment and the diffraction pattern obtained due to a narrow single slit. (b) A
parallel beam of light of wavelength 500 nm falls on a narrow slit and the resulting diffraction
pattern is observed on a screen 1 m away. It is observed that the first minimum is a distance of
2.5 mm away from the centre. Find the width of the slit.
11. Describe briefly how un polarized light gets polarized when passed through a polaroid. Three
identical polaroid sheets P1, P2 and P3 are oriented so that pass axis of P2 and P3 makes 600 and
900 respectively with the pass axis of P1. A monochromatic source S of un polarized light of
intensity I0 kept in front of P1. Determine the intensities of light passed through P1, P2 and P3.
12. Light from a monochromatic source falls on a single slit of width 0.1 mm to produce a diffraction
pattern on a screen kept at a distance of 0.8 m from the plane of the slit. If the total linear width
of the principal maxima is 9.6 mm, calculate the wavelength of the light used. Also calculate the
linear width of the second dark fringe. How does the intensity of fringes in a diffraction pattern
vary?
13. (a) In Young’s double slit experiment, describe briefly how bright and dark fringes are obtained
on the screen kept in front of a double slit. Hence obtain the expression for the fringe width. (b)
The ratio of the intensities at minima to the maxima in the Young’s double slit experiment is 9 :
25. Find the ratio of the widths of the two slits.

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14. (a) Describe briefly how a diffraction pattern is obtained on a screen due to a single narrow slit
illuminated by a monochromatic source of light. Hence obtain the conditions for the angular
width of secondary maxima and secondary minima. (b) Two wavelengths of sodium light of 590
nm and 596 nm are used in turn to study the diffraction taking place at a single slit of aperture 2
x 10– 6 m. The distance between the slit and the screen is 1.5 m. Calculate the separation
between the positions of first maxima of the diffraction pattern obtained in the two cases.
15. (a) What is plane polarised light? Two polaroids are placed at 90° to each other and the
transmitted intensity is zero. What happens when one more polaroid is placed between these
two, bisecting the angle between them? How will the intensity of transmitted light vary on
further rotating the third polaroid? (b) If a light beam shows no intensity variation when
transmitted through a polaroid which is rotated, does it mean that the light is unpolarised?
Explain briefly.
16. How does the angular separation of interference fringes change, in Young’s experiment, if the
distance between the slits is increased?
17. State the reason, why two independent sources of light cannot be considered as coherent
sources.
18. What is the geometrical shape of the wave front when a plane wave passes through a convex
lens?
19. How will the angular separation and visibility of fringes in Young’s double slit experiment change
when (i) screen is moved away from the plane of the slits, and (ii) width of the source slit is
increased?
20. How is a wave front defined? Using Huygen’s construction draw a figure showing the
propagation of a plane wave reflecting at the interface of the two media. Show that the angle of
incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
21. How does an unpolarised light get linearly polarised when passed through a polaroid? Explain.
When linearly polarised light is viewed through a second polaroid which is rotated through 2𝜋,
show that the two maxima and minima can be seen.
22. (a) Distinguish between unpolarised and linearly polarised light. (b) A partially plane polarised
beam of light is passed through a polaroid. Show graphically the variation of the transmitted
light intensity with angle of rotation of the polaroid. (c) Explain with the help of a diagram how
sunlight is polarised by scattering through atmospheric particles.
23. The figure shows an experimental set-up of Young’s double slit experiment with the central
fringe at ‘O’. How will the interference pattern on the screen be affected when (i) the source S is
displaced pwards parallel to the plane S1S2 and (ii) the source S is replaced by white light?
pattern on a screen kept at a distance of 1.5 m from the plane of the slit. If the total linear width
of the principal maxima is 4.88 mm, calculate the wavelength of the light used. Calculate the
linear width of the second dark fringe. How does the intensity of fringes in a diffraction pattern
vary?
25. Explain why monochromatic light is incident on a surface separation two media refracted and
reflected light has the same frequency?

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26. Draw the shape of the wave front coming out of a concave mirror when a plane wave is incident
on it.
27. (a) Show, giving a suitable diagram, how unpolarized light can be polarised by reflection. (b) Two
polaroids P1 and P2 are placed with their pass axes perpendicular to each other. Unpolarised
light of intensity Io is incident on P1. A third polaroid P3 is kept in between P1 and P2 such that
its pass axis makes an angle of 600 with that of P1. Determine the intensity of light transmitted
through P1, P2 and P3.
28. A parallel beam of monochromatic light falls normally on a narrow slit of width a to produce a
diffraction pattern on the screen placed parallel to the plane of the slit. Use Huygens‖ principle
to explain that (i) the central bright maxima is twice as wide as the other maxima. (ii) the
intensity falls as we move to successive maxima away from the centre on either side.
29. (a) In what way is diffraction from each slit related to the interference pattern in a double slit
experiment? b) Two wavelengths of sodium light 590 nm and 596 nm are used, in turn, to study
the diffraction taking place at a single slit of aperture 2 × 10–4 m. The distance between the slit
and the screen is 1.5 m. Calculate the separation between the positions of the first maxima of
the diffraction pattern obtained in the two cases.
30. (a) Write two characteristic features distinguishing the diffraction pattern from the interference
fringes obtained in Young’s double slit experiment. (b) Two wavelengths of sodium light 590 nm
and 596 nm are used, in turn, to study the diffraction taking place due to a single slit of aperture
1x10–4m. The distance between the slit and the screen is 1.8 m. Calculate the separation
between the positions of the first maxima of the diffraction pattern obtained in the two cases.
31. (a) How does one demonstrate, using a suitable diagram, that unpolarised light when passed
through a Polaroid gets polarised? (b) A beam of unpolarised light is incident on a glass-air
interface. Show, using a suitable ray diagram, that light reflected from the interface is totally
polarised, when µ = tanp, where µ is the refractive index of glass with respect to air and p, is the
Brewster's angle.
32. (a) (i) 'Two independent monochromatic sources of light cannot produce a sustained
interference pattern'. Give reason. Light waves each of amplitude "a" and frequency "ω)",
emanating from two coherent light sources superpose at a point. If the displacements due to
these waves is given by y1 = a cos t and y2= a cos (ωt + ϕ) where ϕ is the phase difference
between the two, obtain the expression for the resultant intensity at the point. (b) In Young's
double slit experiment, using monochromatic light of wavelength λ, the intensity of light at a
point on the screen where path difference is λ/2 is K units. Find out the intensity of light at a
point where path difference is λ/3.
33. State Huygens’s principle in wave-optics. How did Huygens ‘explain’ the absence of the back
wave? Use this principle to draw the refracted wave front for a plane wave incident from a
denser to a rarer medium. Hence obtain Snell’s law of refraction.
34. (a) A monochromatic source of light of wavelength l illuminates a narrow slit of width d to
produce a diffraction pattern on the screen. Obtain the conditions when secondary wavelets
originating from the slit interfere to produce maxima and minima on the screen. (b) How would
the diffraction pattern be affected when (i) the width of the slit is decreased? (ii) the
monochromatic source of light is replaced by white light?
35. When unpolarised light is incident on the boundary separating the two transparent media,
explain, with the help of a suitable diagram, the conditions under which the reflected light gets
polarised. Hence define Brewster’s angle and write its relationship in terms of the relative
refractive index of the two media.

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36. How would the angular separation of interference fringes in Young’s double slit experiment
change when the distance between the slits and screen is doubled? 1
37. Differentiate between a ray and a wave front.
38. At what angle of incidence should a light beam strike a glass slab of refractive index √3, such
that the reflected and the refracted rays are perpendicular to each other? Also find angle of
refraction 1
39. Unpolarized light is incident on a plane surface of refractive index m at angle i. If the reflected
light gets totally polarized, write the relation between the angle i and refractive index m.
40. How is a wave front defined? Using Huygens’s construction draw a figure showing the
propagation of a plane wave refracting at a plane surface separating two media. Hence verify
Snell’s law of refraction.
41. State two points of difference between the interference pattern obtained in Young’s double slit
experiment and the diffraction pattern due to a single slit.
42. In a single slit diffraction experiment, when a tiny circular obstacle is placed in the path of light
from a distant source, a bright spot is seen at the centre of the shadow of the obstacle. Explain
why?
43. If the angle between the pass axis of polarizer and the analyser is 45°, write the ratio of the
intensities of original light and the transmitted light after passing through the analyser. 1
44. How does the fringe width of interference fringes change, when the whole apparatus of Young’s
experiment is kept in a liquid of refractive index 1.3?
45. Define the term ―coherent sources‖ which are required to produce interference pattern in
Young’s double slit experiment. Draw a diagram to show refraction of a plane wave front
incident on a convex lens and hence draw the refracted wave front. 1
46. (a) Why do we not encounter diffraction effects of light in everyday observations? (b) In the
observed diffraction pattern due to a single slit, how will the width of central maximum be
affected if (i) the width of the slit is doubled; (ii) the wavelength of the light used is increased?
Justify your answer in each case.
47. Draw the wave front coming out of a convex lens when a point source of light is placed at its
focus.
48. Unpolarised light of intensity I is passed through a polaroid. What is the intensity of the light
transmitted by the polaroid?
49. In Young’s double slit experiment, monochromatic light of wavelength 630 nm illuminates the
pair of slits and produces an interference pattern in which two consecutive bright fringes are
separated by 8 .1 mm. Another source of monochromatic light produces the interference
pattern in which the two consecutive bright fringes are separated by 7.2 mm. Find the
wavelength of light from the second source. What is the effect on the interference fringes if the
monochromatic source is replaced by a source of white light?
50. Define the term ‘linearly polarised light.’ When does the intensity of transmitted light become
maximum, when a polaroid sheet is rotated between two crossed polaroids?
51. (a) In a single slit diffraction experiment, a slit of which ‘d’ is illuminated by red light of
wavelength 650 nm. For what value of ‘d’ will: (i) the first minimum fall at an angle of diffraction
of 30°, and (ii) the first maximum fall at an angle of diffraction of 30°? (b) Why does the intensity
of the secondary maximum become less as compared to the central maximum? 3
52. Name the phenomenon which proves transverse wave nature of light. Give two uses of the
devices whose functioning is based on this phenomenon. 2
53. Why are coherent sources required to create interference of light?
54. In Young’s double slit experiment, monochromatic light of wavelength 600 nm illuminates the
pair of slits and produces an interference pattern in which two consecutive bright fringes are

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separated by 10 mm. Another source of monochromatic light produces the interference pattern
in which the two consecutive bright fringes are separated by 8 mm. Find the wavelength of light
from the second source. What is the effect on the interference fringes if the monochromatic
source is replaced by a source of white light? 3
55. A parallel beam of monochromatic light of wavelength 500 nm falls normally on a narrow slit
and the resulting diffraction pattern is obtained on a screen 1 m away. It is observed that the
first minimum is at a distance of 2.5 mm from the centre of the screen. Find (a) the width of the
slit. (b) the distance of the second maximum from the centre of the screen. (c) the width of the
central maximum.
56. A beam of light consisting of two wavelengths, 650 nm and 520 nm, is used to obtain
interference fringes in a Young’s double slit experiment. What is the least distance from the
central maximum where the bright fringes due to the both the wavelengths coincide? The
distance between the slits is 2 mm and the distance between the plane of the slits and screen is
120 cm.
57. Name the phenomenon which is responsible for bending of light around sharp corners of an
obstacle. Under what conditions does this phenomenon take place? Give one application of this
phenomenon in everyday life.
58. Define a wave front
59. Sketch the shape of wave front emerging from a point source of light and also make the rays.
60. Define the resolving power of a microscope. How is this affected when (i) the wavelength of
illuminating radiations is decreased, and (ii) the diameter of the objective lens is decreased?
Justify your answer.
61. In Young’s double slit experiment, the two slits 0.12 mm apart are illuminated by
monochromatic light of wavelength 420 nm. The screen is 1.0 m away from this slits. (a) Find the
distance of the second (i) bright fringe, (ii) dark fringe from the central maximum. (b) How will
the fringe pattern change if the screen is moved away from ths slits?
62. State Huygens’s principle. Show, with the help of a suitable diagram, how this principle is used
to obtain the diffraction pattern by a single slit. Draw a plot of intensity distribution and explain
clearly why the secondary maxima become weaker with increasing order (n) of the secondary
maxima.
63. In Young’s double slit experiment, the two slits 0.15 mm apart are illuminated by
monochromatic light of wavelength 450 nm. The screen is 1.0 m away from the slits. (a) Find the
distance of the second (i) bright fringe, (ii) dark fringe from the central maximum. (b) How will
the fringe pattern change if the screen is moved away from the slits?
64. How does an unpolarised light get polarised when passed through polaroid? Two polaroids are
set in crossed positions. A third polaroid is placed between the two making an angle 𝜃 with the
pass axis of the first polaroid. Write the expression of the intensity of light transmitted from the
second polaroid. In what orientations will the transmitted intensity be (i) minimum and (ii)
maximum?
65. In the experiment on diffraction due to a single slit, show that (i) the intensity of diffraction
fringes decreases as the order (n) increases. (ii) angular width of the central maximum is twice
that of the first order secondary maximum.
66. (a) State Huygen’s principle. Using this principle explain how a diffraction pattern is obtained
on a screen due to a narrow slit on which a narrow beam coming from a monochromatic source
of light is incident normally. (b) Show that the angular width of the first diffraction fringe is half
of that of the central fringe. (c) If a monochromatic source of light is replaced by white light,
what change would you observe in the diffraction pattern?

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67. When monochromatic light travels from one medium to another, its wavelength changes but
frequency remains the same. Explain.
68. Explain the following giving reason: (a) If light from an ordinary source (like a sodium lamp)
passes through a polaroid sheet, its intensity is reduced to half and rotating the polaroid has no
effect on the transmitted intensity. (b) A convex lens when immersed in a medium whose
refractive index is more than that of the material of the lens, behaves like a diverging lens. (c)
Both the objective and the eyepiece of a compound microscope have short focal lengths.
69. State the importance of coherent sources in the phenomenon of interference. In Young’s double
slit experiment to produce interference pattern, obtain the conditions for constructive and
destructive interference. Hence, deduce the expression for the fringe width. How does the
fringe width get affected, if the entire experimental apparatus of Young is immersed in water?
70. Describe Young’s double slit experiment to produce interference pattern due to a
monochromatic source of light. Deduce the expression for the fringe width. Use Huygen’s
principle to verify the laws of refraction.
71. Describe briefly, with the help of suitable diagram, how the transverse nature of light can be
demonstrated by the phenomenon of polarization. (b) When unpolarized light passes from air to
a transparent medium, under what condition does the reflected light get polarized?
72. (i) Light passes through two polaroids P1 and P2 with axis of P2 making an angle θ with the pass
axis of P1. For what value of θ is the intensity of emergent light zero? (ii) A third polaroid is
placed between P1 and P2 with its pass axis making an angle ϕ with the pass axis of P1 . Find a
value of ϕ for which the intensity of light emerging from P2 is I0/2 where I0 is the intensity of
light on the polaroid P1.
73. (i) A plane wave front approaches a plane surface separating two media. If medium 'one’ is
optically denser and medium 'two’ is optically rarer, using Huygens’ principle, explain and show
how a refracted wave front is constructed. (ii) Hence verify Snell's law. (iii) When a light wave
travels from rarer to denser medium, the speed decreases. Does it imply reduction its energy?
Explain.
74. The intensity at the central maxima (O) in a Young's double slit experiment is I0. If the distance
OP equals one-third of the fringe width of the pattern, show that the intensity at point P would
be I0 /4
75. For a single slit of width "d', the first minimum of the interference pattern of a monochromatic
light of wavelength λ occurs at an angle "λ/a At the same angle of λ/a we get a maximum for
two narrow slits separated by a distance "a". Explain.
76. (a) Define a wave front. Given the shape of a wave front as a plane wave at time t = 0, show
using Huygens’ construction, (i) how the envelopes of secondary wavelets produce the plane
wave at a later time t and (ii) how the emergent wave front becomes spherical and converges to
the focus after passing through a convex lens b) Verify using Huygens’ principle, Snell’s law of
refraction of a plane wave propagating from a denser to a rarer medium.
77. Which of the following waves can be polarized (i) Heat waves (ii) Sound waves? Give reason to
support your answer.
pattern on a screen kept at a distance of 1 m from the plane of the slit. If the total linear width
of the principal maxima is 4.8 mm, calculate the wavelength of the light used. Using this value,
calculate the linear width of the second dark fringe.
79. Obtain the conditions for the bright and dark fringes in diffraction pattern due to a single narrow
slit illuminated by a monochromatic source. Explain clearly why the secondary maxima go on
becoming weaker with increasing n. When the width of the slit is made double, how would this
affect the size and intensity of the central diffraction band? Justify.

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80. How does the angular separation between fringes in single-slit diffraction experiment change
when the distance of separation between the slit and screen is doubled?
81. (a) What is the effect on the interference fringes in a Young’s double slit experiment when (i)
the separation between the two slits in decreased? (ii) the width of the source slit is increased?
(iii) the monochromatic source is replaced by a source of white light? Justify your answer in each
case. (b) The intensity at the central maxima in Young’s double slit experimental set-up is I0.
Show that the intensity at a point where the path difference is λ/3 is I0/4.
82. (a) Unpolarised light of intensity I0 passes through two polaroids P1 and P2 such that pass axis of
P2 makes an angle θ with the pass axis of P1. Plot a graph showing the variation of intensity of
light transmitted through P2 as the angle θ varies from zero to 1800. (b) A third polaroid P3 is
placed between P1 and P2 with pass axis of P3 making an angle ϕ with that of P1. If I1, I2 and I3
represent the intensities of light transmitted by P1, P2 and P3, determine the values of angle θ
and ϕ for which I1 = I2 = I3.
83. (a) Use Huygens’ geometrical construction to show the behaviour of a plane wave front. (i)
Passing through a biconvex lens; (ii) reflecting by a concave mirror. (b) When monochromatic
light is incident on a surface separating two media, why does the refracted light have the same
frequency as that of the incident light?
84. Define a wave front. Use Huygens’ geometrical construction to show the propagation of a plane
wave front from a rarer medium to a denser medium undergoing refraction. Hence derive
Snell’s law of refraction.
85. (a) Two monochromatic waves emanating from two coherent sources have the displacements
represented by
86. y1 = a cos ωt and y2 = a cos (ωt + ϕ), where ϕ is the phase difference between the two
displacements. Show that the resultant intensity at a point due to their superposition is given by
I = 4 Io cos2 (ϕ/2), where Io =ka2. (b) Hence obtain the conditions for constructive and
destructive interference.
87. (a) In Young’s double slit experiment, derive the condition for (i) constructive interference and
(ii) destructive interference at a point on the screen. (b) A beam of light consisting of two
wavelengths, 800 nm and 600 nm is used to obtain the interference fringes in a Young’s double
slit experiment on a screen placed 1.4 m away. If the two slits are separated by 0.28 mm,
calculate the least distance from the central bright maximum where the bright fringes of the
two wavelengths coincide.
88. (a) How does an unpolarised light incident on a polaroid get polarised? Describe briefly, with the
help of a necessary diagram, the Polarisation of light by reflection from a transparent medium.
(b) Two polaroids ‘A’ and ‘B’ are kept in crossed position. How should a third polaroid ‘C’ be
placed between them so that the intensity of polarised light transmitted by polaroid B reduces
to 1/8th of the intensity of unpolarised light incident on A?
89. In a single-slit diffraction experiment, the width of the slit is made double the original width.
How does this affect the size and intensity of the central diffraction band?
90. (a) Why are coherent sources necessary to produce a sustained interference pattern? (b) In
Young’s double slit experiment using mono-chromatic light of wavelength λ, the intensity of
light at a point on the screen where path difference is λ, is K units. Find out the intensity of light
at a point where path difference is λ/3
91. Use Huygen’s principle to explain the formation of diffraction pattern due to a single slit
illuminated by a monochromatic source of light. When the width of slit is made double the
original width, how this affect the size and intensity of the central diffraction band?
92. How does the (i) angular fringe width and (ii) linear fringe width, in Young’s double-slit
experiment, change when the distance of separation between the slits and screen is doubled?

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93. When monochromatic light travels from a rarer to a denser medium, explain the following,
giving reasons:(i) Is the frequency of reflected and refracted light same as the frequency of
incident light? (ii) Does the decrease in speed imply a reduction in the energy carried by light
wave?
94. (a) Distinguish between linearly polarised and unpolarised light. (b) Show that the light waves
are transverse in nature. (c) Why does light from a clear blue portion of the sky show a rise and
fall of intensity when viewed through a polaroid which is rotated? Explain by drawing the
necessary diagram.
95. Distinguish between unpolarised and a linearly polarised light. Describe, with the help of a
diagram, how unpolarised light gets linearly polarised by scattering.
96. Explain by drawing a suitable diagram that the interference pattern in a double slit is actually a
superposition of single slit diffraction from each slit. Write two basic features which distinguish
the interference pattern from those seen in a coherently illuminated single slit.
97. Write the important characteristic features by which the interference can be distinguished from
the observed diffraction pattern.
98. (a) The ratio of the widths of two slits in Young’s double slit experiment is 4 : 1. Evaluate the
ratio of intensities at maxima and minima in the interference pattern. (b) Does the appearance
of bright and dark fringes in the interference pattern violate, in any way, conservation of energy
? Explain.
99. What does a polaroid consist of ? Show, using a simple polaroid, that light waves are transverse
in nature. Intensity of light coming out of a polaroid does not change irrespective of the
orientation of the pass axis of the polaroid. Explain why.
100. (a) Write the factors by which the resolving power of a telescope can be increased. (b) Estimate
the angular separation between first order maximum and third order minimum of the
diffraction pattern due to a single slit of width 1 mm, when light of wavelength 600 nm is
incident normal on it.
101. Write the expression for the resultant intensity at a point due to the superposition of two
monochromatic waves y1 = a cos ωt, y2 = a cos (ωt + ϕ) where ϕ is the phase difference
between the two waves and a and ω denote the amplitude and angular frequency.
102. (a) Write the necessary conditions to obtain sustained interference fringes. (b) In Young’s
double slit experiment, plot a graph showing the variation of fringe width versus the distance of
the screen from the plane of the slits keeping other parameters same. What information can
one obtain from the slope of the curve? (c) What is the effect on the fringe width if the distance
between the slits is reduced keeping other parameters same?
103. In Young’s double slit experiment using monochromatic light of wavelength λ, the intensity of
light at a point on the screen where path difference is λ is k units. Find the intensity at a point on
the screen where path difference is λ/4.
104. (a) In a double slit experiment using light of wavelength 600 nm, the angular width of the fringe
formed on a distant screen is 0.10. Find the spacing between the two slits. (b) Light of
wavelength 5000 Å propagating in air gets partly reflected from the surface of water. How will
the wavelengths and frequencies of the reflected and refracted light be affected?
105. (a) Good quality sun-glasses made of polaroids are preferred over ordinary coloured glasses.
Justify your answer. (b) Two polaroids P1 and P2 are placed in crossed positions. A third polaroid
P3 is kept between P1 and P2 such that pass axis of P3 is parallel to that of P1. How would the
intensity of light (I2) transmitted through P2 vary as P3 is rotated? Draw a plot of intensity ‘I2’ Vs
the angle between pass axes of P1 and P3.

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106. Use Huygens’ principle to show how a plane wave front propagates from a denser to rarer
medium. Hence verify Snell’s law of refraction.
107. (a) Assume that the light of wavelength 6000 Å is coming from a star. Find the limit of resolution
of a telescope whose objective has a diameter of 250 cm. (b) Two slits are made 1 mm apart and
the screen is placed 1 m away. What should be the width of each slit to obtain 10 maxima of the
double slit pattern within the central maximum of the single slit pattern?
108. (a) Draw a suitable diagram to demonstrate that given the shape of a wave front at t = 0, its
shape at a later time t1 can be obtained using Huygens’ geometrical construction. (b) Consider
the propagation of a plane wave front from a rarer to a denser medium and verify Snell’s law of
refraction. Show that when a wave gets refracted into a denser medium, the wavelength and
speed of propagation decreases but the frequency remains the same.
109. Find an expression for intensity of transmitted light when a polaroid sheet is rotated between
two crossed polaroids. In which position of the polaroid sheet will the transmitted intensity be
maximum?
110. (a) Using Huygens’s construction of secondary wavelets explain how a diffraction pattern is
obtained on a screen due to a narrow slit on which a monochromatic beam of light is incident
normally. (b) Show that the angular width of the first diffraction fringe is half that of the central
1 𝜆
fringe. (c) Explain why the maxima at θn= (𝑛 + 2) 𝑎 become weaker and weaker with increasing
n.
111. In Young’s double slit experiment, the two slits are separated by a distance of 1·5 mm and the
screen is placed 1 m away from the plane of the slits. A beam of light consisting of two
wavelengths 650 nm and 520 nm is used to obtain interference fringes. Find (a) the distance of
the third bright fringe for 520 nm on the screen from the central maximum. (b) the least
distance from the central maximum where the bright fringes due to both the wavelengths
coincide.
112. Define a wave front. Using Huygens’ principle, draw the shape of a refracted wave front, when a
plane wave is incident on a convex lens.
113. (a) When a wave is propagating from a rarer to a denser medium, which characteristic of the
wave does not change and why? (b) What is the ratio of the velocity of the wave in the two
media of refractive indices μ1 and μ2?
114. (a) Define a wave front. How is it different from a ray? (b) Depict the shape of a wave front in
each of the following cases. (i) Light diverging from point source. (ii) Light emerging out of a
convex lens when a point source is placed at its focus. (iii) Using Huygen’s construction of
secondary wavelets, draw a diagram showing the passage of a plane wave front from a denser
into a rarer medium.
115. State clearly how an unpolarised light gets linearly polarised when passed through a polaroid. (i)
Unpolarised light of intensity I0 is incident on a polaroid P1 which is kept near another polaroid
P2 whose pass axis is parallel to that of P1. How will the intensities of light, I1 and I2,
transmitted by the polaroids P1 and P2 respectively, change on rotating P1 without disturbing
P2? (ii) Write the relation between the intensities I1 and I2.
116. (a) Define a wave front. (b) Using Huygens’ principle, draw the diagrams to show the nature of
the wave fronts when an incident plane wave front gets (i) reflected from a concave mirror, (ii)
refracted from a convex lens. (c) Draw a diagram showing the propagation of a plane wave front
from denser to a rarer medium and verify Snell’s law of refraction.
117. Discuss briefly, with the help of a suitable diagram, what happens when unpolarised light passes
through two identical polaroids where the orientation of one polaroid is fixed and the second is
rotated with respect to the one. Draw a graph showing the dependence of intensity of

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transmitted light on the angle between the polariser and analyser. Explain clearly how one
understands this variation using Malus’ law.
118. Answer the following : (a) In what way is diffraction from each slit related to the interference
pattern in a double slit experiment ? (b) When a tiny circular obstacle is placed in the path of
light from a distant source, a bright spot is seen at the centre of the shadow of the obstacle.
Explain, why. (c) How does the resolving power of a microscope depend on (i) the wavelength of
the light used and (ii) the medium used between the object and the objective lens?
119. (a) The light from a clear blue portion of the sky shows a rise and fall of intensity when viewed
through a polaroid which is rotated. Describe, with the help of a suitable diagram, the basic
phenomenon/process which occurs to explain this observation. (b) Show how light reflected
from a transparent medium gets polarised. Hence deduce Brewster’s law.
120. (a) Use Huygens’ principle to show the propagation of a plane wave front from a denser medium
to a rarer medium. Hence find the ratio of the speeds of wave fronts in the two media. (b) (i)
Why does an unpolarised light incident on a polaroid get linearly polarised? (ii) Derive the
expression of Brewster’s law when unpolarised light passing from a rarer to a denser medium
gets polarised on reflection at the interface.
121. (a) In Young’s double slit experiment, deduce the conditions for obtaining constructive and
destructive interference fringes. Hence deduce the expression for the fringe width. (b) Show
that the fringe pattern on the screen is actually a superposition of single slit diffraction from
each slit. (c) What should be the width of each slit to obtain 10 maxima of the double slit pattern
within the central maximum of the single slit pattern, for green light of wavelength 500 nm, if
the separation between two slits is 1 mm?
122. Compare and explain three distinguishing features observed in Young’s double slit interference
pattern with those seen for a coherently illuminated single slit producing diffraction pattern.
123. (a) Consider two coherent sources S1 and S2 producing monochromatic waves to produce
interference pattern. Let the displacement of the wave produced by S1 be given by Y1 = a cos ωt
and the displacement by S2 be Y2 = a cos (ωt + ϕ). Find out the expression for the amplitude of
the resultant displacement at a point and show that the intensity at that point will be I =
4𝑘𝑎2 [cos 𝜙2]2 Hence establish the conditions for constructive and destructive interference. (b)
What is the effect on the interference fringes in Young’s double slit experiment when (i) the
width of the source slit is increased; (ii) the monochromatic source is replaced by a source of
white light?
124. Figure shows a system of two polarizing sheets in the path of initially unpolarized light. The
polarizing direction of first sheet is parallel to x-axis and that of second sheet is 60o clockwise
from x-axis. Calculate what fraction of intensity of light emerges from the system.

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125. State Huygen’s principle. Using it, construct a ray diagram for a plane wave front getting incident
on a denser medium.
126. Consider a two slit interference arrangement (shown in figure) such that the distance of the
screen from the slits is half the distance between the slits. Obtain the value of D in terms of λ
such that the first minima on the screen fall at a distance D from the centre O.
127. Find the intensity at a point on the screen in YDS where the interfering waves of equal intensity
have a path difference (i) λ/4 (ii) λ/3 (iii) λ/6 (iv) λ/2. (2)
128. A monochromatic light of wavelength λ is incident normally on a narrow slit of width a to
produce diffraction pattern on a screen placed at a distance D from the slit. With the help of
relevant diagram, deduce the condition for obtaining maxima and minima on the screen. Use
these conditions to show that angular width of central maximum is double that of secondary
maximum. (3)
129. Draw intensity distribution for interference and diffraction. Write two points of difference
between interference and diffraction
130. Sketch the emergent wave front. (SQP 2108M)
131. In a double slit experiment, the distance between the slits is 3 mm and the slits are 2 m away
from the screen. Two interference patterns can be seen on the screen one due to light with
wavelength 480 nm, and the other due to light with wavelength 600 nm. What is the separation
on the screen between the fifth order bright fringes of the two interference patterns? (SQP
2108M)
132. What do you understand by the statement ‘Light from the sun is unpolarised’? Explain how does
sunlight gets polarized by the process of scattering? (SQP 2108M)
133. State Brewster’s law. The value of Brewster angle for a transparent medium is different for light
of different colours. Give reason.
134. (i) In Young’s double slit experiment, deduce the condition for (a) constructive, and (b)
destructive interference at a point on the screen. Draw a graph showing variation of intensity in
the interference pattern against position ‘x’ on the screen. (ii) Compare the interference pattern
observed in Young’s double slit experiment with single slit diffraction pattern, pointing out three
distinguishing features.

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135. How does an unpolarised light get linearly polarised when passed through a polaroid? Explain
briefly. When linearly polarised light is viewed through a second polaroid which is rotated
through 2p, show that the two maxima and minima can be seen.
136. (a)State the importance of coherent sources in the phenomenon of interference of light.
(b)In Young’s double slit experiment, obtain the conditions for constructive and destructive
interference. Hence deduce the expression for the fringe width.
(c)How do you explain the fact that fringes in double slit experiment are of same intensity,
whereas in a diffraction experiment, the intensity of the bands produced decreases with order
n?
137. (a)State Huygen’s principle. Explain, using this principle, how a diffraction pattern is obtained
on a screen due to a narrow slit on which a monochromatic beam coming from a source of light
is incident normally.
(b)Show that the angular width of the first diffraction band is half of that of the central band.
(c)If monochromatic source of light is replaced by white light, what change would you observe in
the diffraction pattern?
138. (i)State law of Malus. (ii)Draw a graph showing the variation of intensity (I) of polarised light
transmitted by an analyser with angle (u) between polariser and analyser. (iii)What is the value
of refractive index of a medium of polarising angle 600?
139. Define the term wave front. State Huygen’s principle. Consider a plane wave front incident on a
thin convex lens. Draw a proper diagram to show how the incident wave front traverses through
the lens and after refraction focusses on the focal point of the lens, giving the shape of the
emergent wave front.
140. Explain the following, giving reasons:
(i)When monochromatic light is incident on a surface separating two media, the reflected and
refracted light both have the same frequency as the incident frequency.
(ii)When light travels from a rarer to a denser medium, the speed decreases. Does this decrease
in speed imply a reduction in the energy carried by the wave?
(iii)In the wave picture of light, intensity of light is determined by the square of the amplitude of
the wave. What determines the intensity in the photon picture of light?
141. (a)In Young’s double slit experiment, two slits are 1 mm apart and the screen is placed 1 m away
from the slits. Calculate the fringe width when light of wavelength 500 nm is used.
(b)What should be the width of each slit in order to obtain 10 maxima of the double slits pattern
within the central maximum of the single slit pattern?
142. (a)Explain why the intensity of light coming out of a polaroid does not change irrespective of the
orientation of the pass axis of the polaroid.
(b)State, using a proper diagram, the condition when unpolarized light incident on the boundary
between two transparent media produces polarised light. Explain briefly.
Hence derive the relation between angle of incidence and the refractive index of the medium.
143. (i)Derive Snell’s law on the basis of Huygen’s wave theory when light is travelling from a denser
to a rarer medium. (ii)Draw the sketches to differentiate between plane wave front and
spherical wave front.
144. (a)Derive an expression for path difference in Young’s double slit experiment and obtain the
conditions for constructive and destructive interference at a point on the screen.
(b)The intensity at the central maxima in Young’s double slit experiment is I0. Find out the
intensity at a point where the path difference is λ/6, λ/4 and λ/3.
145. Two harmonic waves of monochromatic light y1 = a cosωt and y2 = a cos (ωt + ɸ) are
superimposed on each other. Show that maximum intensity in interference pattern is four times
the intensity due to each slit. Hence write the conditions for constructive and destructive

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interference in terms of the phase angle ɸ. Show that the intensity of the bright fringe is 4a2 and
that of the dark fringe is zero. (Here ‘a’ represents the amplitude of the interfering wave.)
146. (a)Why does unpolarised light from a source show a variation in intensity when viewed through
a polaroid which is rotated? Show with the help of a diagram, how unpolarised light from sun
gets linearly polarised by scattering.
(b)Three identical polaroid sheets P1, P2 and P3 are oriented so that the pass axis of P2 and P3
are inclined at angles of 600 and 900 respectively with the pass axis of P1. A monochromatic
source S of unpolarized light of intensity I0 is kept in front of the polaroid sheet P1 as shown in
the figure. Determine the intensities of light as observed by the observer at O, when polaroid P3
is rotated with respect to P2 at angles θ = 300 and 600
147. When a parallel beam of monochromatic source of light of wavelength λ is incident on a single
slit of width a, show how the diffraction pattern is formed at the screen by the interference of
the wavelets from the slit. Show that, besides the central maximum at θ = 0, secondary maxima
1 𝜆 𝑛𝜆
are observed at 𝜃 = (𝑛 + 2) 𝑎 and the minima at 𝜃 = 𝑎
Why do secondary maxima get weaker in intensity with increasing n? Explain.
148. A monochromatic light of wavelength 500 nm is incident normally on a single slit of width 0·2
mm to produce a diffraction pattern. Find the angular width of the central maximum obtained
on the screen.
149. If one of two identical slits producing interference in Young’s experiment is covered with glass,
so that the light intensity passing through it is reduced to 50%, find the ratio of the maximum
and minimum intensity of the fringe in the interference pattern.
150.

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ATOMS
Alpha particle scattering experiment (Geiger- Marsden experiment or Ruther ford experiment)
Schematic arrangement
Observations
1) Most of the alpha particles passed through the gold foil without
appreciable deflection (angle of scattering = 0)
2) Number of alpha particles scattered decreases rapidly with increase
in angle of scattering
3) Only very few alpha particles( 1 in 10000) suffer a scattering of 1800
Conclusions:1)Scattering of alpha particles is due to coulomb repulsion

between the charges of the atom and that of the alpha particle
2) Atom has lot of empty space
3)The entire mass and positive charge of the atom is concentrated in
an extremely small core called nucleus
Distance of closest approach: when alpha particle is projected towards the center of the nucleus with a
kinetic energy (Ek), its kinetic energy decreases due to repulsion from the nucleus and electrostatic
potential energy increases. At a particular distance from the nucleus complete kinetic energy is
converted in to potential energy. Distance of the alpha particle from the center of the nucleus when its
complete kinetic energy is converted in to electrostatic potential energy is known as distance of closest
approach. At the distance of closest approach d, kinetic energy =electrostatic potential energy of
nucleus – alpha particle system.
1 (𝑍𝑒)(2𝑒) 𝟏 𝟐𝒁 2
Ek = or, distance of closest approach, d = (e ),
4𝜋Ɛ 𝑑 𝟒𝝅Ɛ 𝑬𝒌
1
where, Ek = mv2, kinetic energy of alpha particle , where m is the mass of alpha particle and v is the
2
velocity of alpha particle.

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Note: The radius of the nucleus will be less than d, the distance of closest approach. Thus alpha particle
scattering experiment provides a method to find the upper limit of the radius of a nucleus.
1. An alpha particle with kinetic energy 8MeV is fired for a head on collision towards a Cu atom
(atomic number is 29). Calculate the approximate radius of the nucleus. ( Ans = 1.1 x 10-14m)
2. In a Geiger-Marsden experiment, what is the distance of closest approach to the nucleus of a 7.7 MeV
α-particle before it comes momentarily to rest and reverses its direction?
Impact parameter (b): Perpendicular distance between
velocity vectors of alpha particle and the central line of
the nucleus, when the alpha particle is far away from the
nucleus.(figure 12.4, page418)
𝟏
b = 𝟐 d Cot (θ/2), θ = angle of scattering, d is the
distance of closest approach
Rutherford model of atom: According to Rutherford, atom is an electrically neutral sphere, consisting of
very small, massive, positively charged nucleus at the center surrounded by electrons revolving around
it. The centripetal force for the revolution of the electron is provided by the electrostatic force between
the nucleus and the electron.
1 (𝑍𝑒)(𝑒) 1 (𝑍𝑒)(𝑒) 1 1 (𝑍𝑒)(𝑒)

mv2/r = 4𝜋Ɛ 𝑟2
or mv2 = 4𝜋Ɛ 𝑟
or2 mv2 = 8𝜋Ɛ 𝑟
= Ek (kinetic energy)
1 (𝑍𝑒)(−𝑒)
Electrostatic potential energy, Ep =
4𝜋Ɛ 𝑟
1 (𝑍𝑒)(𝑒) 1 (𝑍𝑒)(−𝑒) 1 1
Total energy, E = Ek + Ep = 8𝜋Ɛ 𝑟
+ 4𝜋Ɛ 𝑟
= (Ze2/4πƐr ) [2 − 1] = (Ze2/4πƐr ) [− 2]
. E = (-Ze2/8πƐr). For hydrogen atom (Z = 1), E = (-e2/8πƐr)
3. It is found experimentally that 13.6 eV energy is required to separate a hydrogen atom into a proton
and an electron. Compute the orbital radius and the velocity of the electron in a hydrogen atom.
Limitations of Rutherford atom model
(1) Ruther ford model could not explain the stability of the atom. According to classical
electromagnetic theory, an accelerating charged particle emits radiation in the form electromagnetic
waves. The energy of an accelerating electron should therefore continuously decrease. The electron
would spiral in to the nucleus. Such an atom cannot be stable
(2) Rutherford model could not explain the line spectrum emitted by hydrogen atom. He could suggest
only a continuous spectrum. Frequency of electromagnetic waves emitted by the revolving electrons is
equal to the frequency of revolution. As the electrons spiral inward their frequencies would
continuously increase so will the frequency of light emitted. Hence they would emit a continuous
spectrum in contradiction to the line spectrum actually observed.
BOHR MODEL OF ATOM
Postulates:

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1. An electron in an atom could revolve in certain stable orbits (non radiating) without the radiation of
energy.
2. The electron revolves around the nucleus in those orbits for
𝒉
which angular momentum is some integral multiple of 𝟐𝝅 ,
𝒏𝒉 𝒏𝒉
where h is the Planck’s constant. Ln = 𝟐𝝅. Or m vn rn = 𝟐𝝅
3. When an electron makes a transition from one stable orbit
to another of lower energy, a photon of energy equal to the
difference in energy between initial and final states will be
emitted, h𝝑 = Ei - Ef
𝑐 ℎ𝑐
Note: 1. ∆𝐸 = ℎ𝜈 = ℎ , λ = .
𝜆 ∆𝐸
For minimum λ, ∆𝐸 is must be maximum.
For λ maximum, ∆𝐸 is to be minimum
Expression for energy of electron in the nth orbit of a hydrogen atom (Z =1)
Centripetal force for the circular motion of electrons is provided by the electrostatic force of attraction
between the nucleus and electron
𝑚 2 1 (𝑍𝑒)(𝑒) 𝟏 (𝒁𝒆)(𝒆) 𝒁𝒆𝟐

𝑟
vn = 4𝜋Ɛ 𝑟2
or vn2 = 𝟒𝝅Ɛ𝒎𝒓𝒏
…..(1) Or rn =𝟒𝝅𝜺𝒎𝒗𝟐 …..(2)
𝒏
𝒏𝒉 𝒏𝒉 𝒏𝒉
According to second postulate of Bohr, Ln = or m vn rn = or rn = ……(3)
𝟐𝝅 𝟐𝝅 𝟐𝝅𝐦𝐕𝐧
Using (3) in (1)
𝟏 (𝒁𝒆)(𝒆)𝟐𝝅𝒎 𝟏 𝒁𝒆𝟐 𝒁
vn2 = 𝟒𝝅Ɛ 𝒏𝒎𝒉
vn or vn = 𝟐Ɛ 𝒏𝒉
……(4) Note vn ∝ 𝒏
𝟏 𝒆𝟐 𝑽𝟏
( For H- atom, Z =1) Note: V1 = = 2.18 x 106 m/s. vn =
𝟐Ɛ 𝒉 𝒏
𝑛ℎ2Ɛ𝑛ℎ 𝑛2 ℎ 2 Ɛ 𝒏𝟐
Using (4) in (3) rn = or rn = or rn ∝
2𝜋mZe2 𝜋mZe2 𝒁
ℎ2Ɛ
Note: (for H atom) r1 = = 5.29 x 10-11m, known as Bohr radius. rn =𝑛2 𝑟1
𝜋me2

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1 𝑍 2 me4
Kinetic energy, Ek = 2mvn2 or Ek = 8 ε2 n2 h2
1 (𝑍𝑒)(−𝑒) 𝑍2 me4
Potential energy, Ep = 4𝜋Ɛ 𝑟𝑛
or Ep = − 4 ε2 n2 h2.
Total energy of electron in the nth orbit, En = Ek + EP
𝑍2 me4 𝑍2 me4
En = 8 ε2 n2 h2
+ (− 4 ε2 n2 h2
)
𝑍2 me4 1
En = 4 ε2 n2 h2
(2 − 1)
𝑍2 me4 𝑍2
En = − 8 ε2 n2 h2
Note: En = ∝ − 𝒏𝟐
𝟏𝟑.𝟔 𝒆𝑽 𝟏
( For Hydrogen atom Z =1) En = − 𝑬𝒏 ∝ −
𝒏𝟐 𝒓𝒏
As n (principal quantum number) increases to infinity, energy of electron increases to zero.
Negative sign of total energy means electron is bound to the nucleus or the force between the electron
and the nucleus is attractive.
To make an electron free from the influence of the nucleus (from n=1), energy, En = +13.6⁄𝑛2 is to be
supplied to the electron. The least energy needed to liberate an electron from an atom is known as
ionization energy of the atom.
1 1
Note: 1. Kinetic energy = − (total energy) 𝐸𝑘 ∝ 𝑛2
or 𝐸𝑘 ∝ 𝑟𝑛
𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑟𝑛 ∝ 𝑛2
1 1
2. Potential energy = 2 x Total energy 𝐸𝑝 ∝ − 𝑛2
or 𝐸𝑝 ∝ − 𝑟𝑛
𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑟𝑛 ∝ 𝑛2
3. Kinetic energy = −(Potential energy)/2
For an electron in the nth orbit of hydrogen atom, En = −13.6𝑒𝑉⁄𝑛2
Energy of electron in the ground state, E1 = −13.6𝑒𝑉
Energy of electron in the first excited state, E2 = −13.6𝑒𝑉/4 = −3.4𝑒𝑉, similarly energy of electron in
other levels can be found.
Note: Ground state, n = 1, second permitted energy level = first excited state, n=2. Third permitted
energy level = second excited state, n = 3
Expression for speed and 𝝀𝒅𝑩 in any level (nth )of electron in H atom.
1 13.6 2×13.6×𝑒 2.2 106 𝑚
2
𝑚𝑣 2 =𝐾= 𝑛2
𝑒𝑉, 𝑣 =√ 𝑚 𝑛2
= 𝑛
× 𝑠
ℎ 𝑛ℎ 12.27𝐴0
𝜆𝑑𝐵 = = =𝑛× = 𝑛 × 0.3327𝐴0 .
√2𝑚𝐾 √2𝑚×13.6×𝑒 √13.6

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4. The electron, in a Hydrogen atom, initially in a state of quantum number n1 makes a transition
to a state whose excitation energy, with respect to the ground state is 10.2eV. If the wavelength
associated with the photon emitted is 487.5nm, find the (i) energy in eV and (ii) value of the
quantum number n1 of the electron in the initial state.
Expression for time period of electron in hydrogen atom based on Bohr model
2
𝑛2ℎ Ɛ
𝑛2 ℎ 2 Ɛ 𝟏 𝒁𝒆𝟐 𝟐𝝅𝒓𝒏 𝜋mZe2 𝟒𝒏𝟑 𝒉𝟑 𝜺𝟐 𝟒𝒏𝟑 𝒉𝟑 𝜺𝟐
rn = , vn = , 𝑻𝒏 = = 𝟐𝝅 𝟏 𝒁𝒆𝟐
= , 𝒊𝒇 𝒁 = 𝟏, 𝑻𝒏 = , 𝑻𝒏 ∝ 𝒏𝟑
𝜋mZe2 𝟐Ɛ 𝒏𝒉 𝒗𝒏 𝒁𝟐 𝒎𝒆𝟒 𝒎𝒆𝟒
𝟐Ɛ 𝒏𝒉
Expression for wave length and frequency of photons emitted due to electron transitions
When an electron makes a transition from one stable orbit to another of lower energy, a photon of
energy equal to the difference in energy between initial and final states will be emitted,
h𝜗 = Ei -Ef
h𝜗 = −me4/8Ɛ2ni 2h2 - −me4/8Ɛ2nf 2h2
h𝜗 = −me4/8Ɛ2ni 2h2 + me4/8Ɛ2nf 2h2
h𝜗 = me4/8Ɛ2nf 2h2 −me4/8Ɛ2ni 2h2
h𝜗 = me4/8Ɛ2 h2 [1/nf2 −1/ni2]
𝜗 = me4/8Ɛ2 h3 [1/nf2 −1/ni2]

𝑐
𝜆
= me4/8Ɛ2 h3 [1/nf2 −1/ni2]
1
= me4/8cƐ2 h3 [1/nf2 −1/ni2]
𝜆
𝟏
𝝀
= R [1/nf2 −1/ni2] (Rydberg formula)
R = me4/8cƐ2 h3 = 1.03 x 107 m-1, known as Rydberg constant
(Experimental value of R = 1.09 x 107m-1)
Spectral series: A group of closely placed frequencies is called

as spectral series.
Spectral series of hydrogen atom (figure 12.9, page 429)
1. Lyman series (ultra violet-region)

2. Balmer series (visible region)
3. Paschen series (infra-red region)
4. Bracket series (infra-red region)
5. Pfund series (far infra-red region)

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1. Lyman series: Electron transitions from higher energy levels with ni =2,3,4,…etc . to nf = 1, result in a
series of spectral lines called Lyman series. These spectral lines come under the ultra violet region of
electromagnetic spectrum.
𝟏
= R [1 −1/ni2] , where ni = 2,3,4,…..
𝝀
5. Find the minimum and maximum wavelength values of Lyman series
2. Balmer series: Electron transitions from higher energy levels with ni =3,4,5,…etc . to nf = 2, result in a
series of spectral lines called Balmer series.
These spectral lines come under the visible
region of electromagnetic spectrum.
𝟏 𝟏
= R [ −1/ni2] ,
𝝀 𝟒
where ni = 3,4,5,….. the first, second
third,…. Members of Balmer series are
respectively known as Hα, Hβ, H𝛾, H𝛿…..
6.Find the minimum and maximum

wavelength values of Balmer series.
7.Find wavelength of Hα, Hβ, H𝛾, H𝛿 lines of
Balmer series.
3. Paschen series: Electron transitions from

higher energy levels with ni =4,5,6,…etc . to
nf = 3, result in a series of spectral lines
called Paschen series. These spectral lines
come under the infrared region of
𝟏 𝟏
𝝀
= R [𝟗 −1/ni2] , where ni = 4,5,6,…..
8.Find the minimum and maximum wavelength values of Paschen series
4. Bracket series: Electron transitions from higher energy levels with ni =5,6,7,…etc . to nf = 4, result in a
series of spectral lines called Bracket series. These spectral lines come under the infrared region of
𝟏 𝟏
𝝀
= R [𝟏𝟔 −1/ni2] , where ni = 5,6,7,…..
9. Find the minimum and maximum wavelength values of Bracket series

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5. Pfund series: Electron transitions from higher energy levels with ni =6,7,8,…etc . to nf = 5, result in a
series of spectral lines called Pfund series. These spectral lines come under the far infrared region of
𝟏 𝟏
= R [ −1/ni2] , where ni =6,7,8,…..
𝝀 𝟐𝟓
Number of spectral lines (N) emitted when an electron de excites from an energy level with principal
𝑛 (𝑛−1)
quantum number n, N = 2
.
10. Obtain an expression for the frequency of radiation emitted when a hydrogen atom de-excites from
level n to level (n – 1). For large n, show that this frequency equals the classical frequency of
revolution of the electron in the orbit.
11. Using the Rydberg formula, calculate the wavelengths of the first four spectral lines in the Lyman
series of the hydrogen spectrum. What is the shortest wavelength present in the Paschen series of
spectral lines?
12. A difference of 2.3 eV separates two energy levels in an atom. What is the frequency of radiation
emitted when the atom make a transition from the upper level to the lower level?
13. The ground state energy of hydrogen atom is –13.6 eV. What are the kinetic and potential energies of
the electron in this state?
14. A hydrogen atom initially in the ground level absorbs a photon, which excites it to the n = 4 level.
Determine the wavelength and frequency of photon.
15. (a) Using the Bohr’s model calculate the speed of the electron in a hydrogen atom in the n = 1, 2, and
3 levels. (b) Calculate the orbital period in each of these levels.
16. The radius of the innermost electron orbit of a hydrogen atom is 5.3×10–11 m. What are the radii of
the n = 2 and n =3 orbits?
17. The total energy of an electron in the first excited state of the hydrogen atom is about –3.4 eV. (a)
What is the kinetic energy of the electron in this state? (b) What is the potential energy of the electron
in this state? (c) Which of the answers above would change if the choice of the zero of potential
energy is changed?
18. Obtain the first Bohr’s radius and the ground state energy of a muonic hydrogen atom [i.e., an atom
in which a negatively charged muon (μ–) of mass about 207me orbits around a proton].
19. 12.5 eV electron beam is used to bombard gaseous hydrogen at room temperature. What series of
wavelengths will be emitted?
20. In accordance with the Bohr’s model, find the quantum number that characterises the earth’s
revolution around the sun in an orbit of radius 1.5 × 1011 m with orbital speed 3 × 104 m/s. (Mass of
earth = 6.0 × 1024 kg.)
21. Find the minimum and maximum wavelength values of Pfund series
Limitations of Bohr atom model
1. Bohr model is only applicable to hydrogen atom. Bohr model consider only the interaction of electron
with the nucleus. Electron- electron interaction is not taken in to account. So it is not applicable to multi
electron atom.
2. Bohr model could not explain the relative intensities of spectral lines.
De- Broglie’s explanation of Bohr’s second postulate of quantization (diagram)

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Electrons in orbits are assumed to form stationary wave pattern around the nucleus. For a standing
wave, circumference of the orbit (from one end to other and back in the case of stretched string) must
be an integral multiple of wavelength. For an electron moving in the nth circular orbit of radius rn,
2πrn = nλn , n = 1,2,3,… (1)
By De – Broglie hypothesis, λn = h/pn = h/mvn ……….(2)
Using (1) in (2) , 2πrn = n(h/mvn )
mvn rn = n h/2π
ℎ
Ln = 𝑛 , which is Bohr’s second postulate of quantization
2𝜋
EXPRESSIONS
Malpha= 4mproton and qalpha =2 qproton . mdeutron = 2 mproton qdeutron = qproton . Mproton= 1835melectron.
Mneutron > Mproton
𝟏 𝟐𝒁
1. Distance of closest approach, d = 𝟒𝝅Ɛ 𝑬𝒌(e2),
𝟏
2. Impact parameter, b = 𝟐 d Cot (θ/2), θ = angle of scattering, d is the distance of closest
approach

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𝑐 ℎ𝑐
3. ∆𝐸 = ℎ𝜈 = ℎ 𝜆 , λ = ∆𝐸 .
For minimum λ, ∆𝐸 is must be maximum.
For λ maximum, ∆𝐸 is to be minimum
𝒏𝒉 𝒏𝒉
4. Ln = . Or m vn rn =
𝟐𝝅 𝟐𝝅
𝒁 𝑽𝟏
5. vn ∝ vn =
𝒏 𝒏
𝒏𝟐
6. rn ∝ 𝒁 rn =𝑛2 𝑟1
𝑛2 ℎ 2 Ɛ ℎ2 Ɛ
7. rn = . r1 = = 5.29 x 10-11m, known as Bohr radius.
𝑍𝜋me2 𝜋me2
𝟏𝟑.𝟔 𝒆𝑽
8. Total energy of electron in nth orbit of H atom, En = − 𝒏𝟐
9. Kinetic energy = −(𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦)
10. Potential energy = 2 x Total energy
11. Potential energy = −2 x Kinetic energy
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
12. = R[ − ] (Rydberg formula) R = 1.09 x 107 m-1
𝝀 𝒏𝟐𝒇 𝒏𝟐𝒊
BOARD QUESTIONS
1. (i) State Bohr’s quantization condition for defining stationary orbits. How does de Broglie
hypothesis explain the stationary orbits? (ii) Find the relation between the three wavelengths λ1,
λ2 and λ3 from the energy level diagram shown below.
2. State any two postulates of Bohr’s Theory of hydrogen atom.

When the hydrogen atom is in its second excited state, calculate the ratio of the maximum and
minimum wavelengths of the radiations emitted in the process.
3. Calculate the de-Broglie wavelength of the electron orbiting in the n = 2 state of hydrogen atom.
4. Define ionization energy. How would the ionization energy change when electron in hydrogen
atom is replaced by a particle of mass 200 times that of the electron but having the same
charge?
5. Calculate the shortest wavelength of the spectral lines emitted in Balmer series. [Given Rydberg
constant, R = 107 m-1]
6. Show mathematically how Bohr’s postulate of quantization of orbital angular momentum in
hydrogen atom is explained by de-Broglie’s hypothesis.
7. A hydrogen atom initially in its ground state absorbs a photon and is in the excited state with
energy 12.5 eV. Calculate the longest wavelength of the radiation emitted and identify the series
to which it belongs. [Take Rydberg constant R = 1.13 x 107 m-1

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8. Use Bohr model of hydrogen atom to calculate the speed of the electron in the first excited
state.
9. When is Hαlpha line in the emission spectrum of hydrogen atom obtained? Calculate the
frequency of the photon emitted during this transition.
10. Calculate the wavelength of radiation emitted when electron in a hydrogen atom jumps from n=
∞ to n = 1.
11. In the ground state of hydrogen atom, its Bohr radius is given as 5.3 x 10-11m. The atom is
excited such that the radius becomes 21.2 x 10 -11 m. Find (i) the value of the principal quantum
number and (ii) the total energy of the atom in this excited state.
12. In the study of Geiger-Marsdon experiment on scattering of alpha particles by a thin foil of gold,
draw the trajectory of alpha particles in the coulomb field of target nucleus. Explain briefly how
one gets the information on the size of the nucleus from this study. From the relation R = R0
A1/3, where R0 is constant and A is the mass number of the nucleus, show that nuclear matter
density is independent of A.
13. Given the value of the ground state energy of hydrogen atom as –13·6 eV, find out its kinetic
and potential energy in the ground and second excited states.
14. Calculate the shortest wavelength in the Balmer series of hydrogen atom. In which region (infra-
red, visible, ultraviolet) of hydrogen spectrum does this wavelength lie?
15. Using Bohr’s postulates derive an expression for orbital period of the electron moving in nth
orbit hydrogen atom. (3)
16. The energy levels of an atom of element X are shown in the diagram. Which one of the level
transitions will result in the emission of photons of wavelength 620 nm? Support your answer
with mathematical calculations. (SQP 2018M)
17. Write two important limitations of Rutherford model which could not explain the observed
features of atomic spectra. How were these explained in Bohr’s model of hydrogen atom? Use
the Rydberg formula to calculate the wavelength of the Hα line. (Take R = 1.1 × 107 m–1). (b)
Using Bohr’s postulates, obtain the expression for the radius of the nth orbit in hydrogen atom.
18. The figure shows energy level diagram of hydrogen atom. (a) Find out the transition which
results in the emission of a photon of wavelength 496 nm. (b) Which transition corresponds
to the emission of radiation of maximum wavelength? Justify your answer.

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19. Determine the distance of closest approach when an alpha particle of kinetic energy 4·5 MeV
strikes a nucleus of Z = 80, stops and reverses its direction.
20. State Bohr’s postulate of hydrogen atom which successfully explains the emission lines in the
spectrum of hydrogen atom. Use Rydberg formula to determine the wavelength of Hα line.
[Given: Rydberg constant R = 1·03 x 107 m–1]
21. Draw a schematic arrangement of Geiger-Marsden experiment showing the scattering of a-
particles by a thin foil of gold. Why is it that most of the alpha particles go right through the foil
and only a small fraction gets scattered at large angles? Draw the trajectory of the a-particle in
the coulomb field of a nucleus. What is the significance of impact parameter and what
information can be obtained regarding the size of the nucleus? (b) Estimate the distance of
closest approach to the nucleus (Z = 80) if a 7.7 MeV α- particle before it comes momentarily to
rest and reverses its direction.
22. (a) In Rutherford scattering experiment, draw the trajectory traced by alpha-particles in the
coulomb field of target nucleus and explain how this led to estimate the size of the nucleus. (b)
Describe briefly how wave nature of moving electrons was established experimentally. (c)
Estimate the ratio of de-Broglie wavelengths associated with deuterons and alpha-particles
when they are accelerated from rest through the same accelerating potential V.
23. The energy levels of an atom are given below in the diagram. Which of the transitions belong to
Lyman and Balmer series? Calculate the ratio of the shortest wavelengths of the Lyman and the
Balmer series of the spectra.
24. Use Bohr’s postulates of hydrogen atom to deduce the expression for the kinetic energy (K.E.) of
the electron revolving in the nth orbit where rn is the radius of the nth orbit. How is the
potential energy in the nth orbit related to the orbital radius rn?
25. The ground state energy of hydrogen atom is – 13.6 eV. If an electron makes a transition from
an energy level – 0.85 eV to –3.4 eV, calculate the wavelength of the spectral line emitted. To
which series of hydrogen spectrum does this wavelength belong?
26. In a Geiger–Marsden experiment, calculate the distance of closest approach to the nucleus of Z
=80, when an alpha-particle of 8 MeV energy impinges on it before it comes momentarily to rest

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and reverses its direction. How will the distance of closest approach be affected when the
kinetic energy of the alpha-particle is doubled?
27. The energy levels of a hypothetical atom are shown below. Which of the shown transitions will
result in the emission of a photon of wavelength 275 nm? Which of these transitions correspond
to emission of radiation of (i) maximum and (ii) minimum wavelength?
28. The energy level diagram of an element is given below. Identify, by doing necessary calculations,
which transition corresponds to the emission of a spectral line of wavelength 102.7 nm.
29. Define ionisation energy. What is its value for a hydrogen atom?
30. (a) What is meant by half-life of a radioactive element? (b) The half-life of a radioactive
substance is 30 s. Calculate: (i) the decay constant, and (ii) time taken for the sample to decay by
3/4th of the initial value.
31. The radius of innermost electron orbit of a hydrogen atom is 5.3 x10 -11 m. What is the radius of
orbit in the second excited state?
32. A 12.9 eV beam of electrons is used to bombard gaseous hydrogen at room temperature. Up to
which energy level the hydrogen atoms would be excited? Calculate the wavelength of the first
member of Paschen series and first member of Balmer series.
33. What is the ratio of radii of the orbits corresponding to first excited state and ground state in a
hydrogen atom?
34. The energy of the electron in the ground state of hydrogen atom is – 13.6 eV. (i) What does the
negative sign signify? (ii) How much energy is required to take an electron in this atom from the
ground state to the first excited state? 2
35. In an experiment on a-particle scattering by a thin foil of gold, draw a plot showing the number
of particles scattered versus the scattering angle q. Why is it that a very small fraction of the
particles is scattered at θ > 90º? Write two important conclusions that can be drawn regarding
the structure of the atom from the study of this experiment.
36. A 12.9 eV beam of electrons is used to bombard gaseous hydrogen at room temperature. Upto
which energy level the hydrogen atoms would be excited? Calculate the wavelength of the first
member of Paschen series and first member of Balmer series.
37. The kinetic energy of an electron revolving in the first excited state of hydrogen atom is 3.4eV.
Determine the de Broglie wavelength associated with it
38. Write the beta decay of tritium in symbolic form. Why is it experimentally found difficult to
detect neutrinos in this process?
39. Using Rydberg formula, calculate the longest wavelengths belonging to Lyman and Balmer
series. In which region of hydrogen spectrum do these transitions lie?
40. Using Bohr’s postulates, derive the expression for the frequency of radiation emitted when
electron in hydrogen atom undergoes transition from higher energy state (quantum number ni )
to the lower state, (nf ). When electron in hydrogen atom jumps from energy state ni =4 to nf
=3, 2,1, identify the spectral series to which the emission lines belong.
41. Show that Bohr’s second postulate, ‘the electron revolves around the nucleus only in certain
fixed orbits without radiating energy' can be explained on the basis of de-Broglie hypothesis of
wave nature of electron.

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42. (a) State the first two postulates of Bohr’s theory of hydrogen atom. Also explain briefly the
necessity for invoking these postulates to describe the structure of the atom. (b) Using Bohr’s
third postulate, write the Rydberg formula for the spectrum of the hydrogen atom. With the
help of this formula, calculate the wavelength of the first member of the spectral line in the
Lyman series of the hydrogen spectrum. (Take the value of Rydberg constant R = 1.03 x 107 m–1)
43. In the Rutherford scattering experiment the distance of closest approach for an a-particle is d0. If
a-particle is replaced by a proton, how much kinetic energy in comparison to a-particle will it
require to have the same distance of closest approach d0?
44. Using Bohr’s postulates, obtain the expression for (i) kinetic energy and (ii) potential energy of
the electron in stationary state of hydrogen atom. Draw the energy level diagram showing how
the transitions between energy levels result in the appearance of Lyman Series.
45. State Bohr postulate of hydrogen atom that gives relation between frequency of emitted
photon in a transition. An electron jumps from fourth to first orbit in a hydrogen atom. How
many maximum number of spectral lines can be emitted by the atom? To which series these
lines correspond?
46. Use de – Broglie hypothesis to write relation for radius of nth orbit of hydrogen atom in terms of
Bohr’s quantization condition of orbital angular momentum.
47. Using Bohr’s postulates, obtain the expression for the total energy of the electron in the
stationary states of the hydrogen atom. Hence draw the energy level diagram showing how the
line spectra corresponding to Balmer series occur due to transition between energy levels (a)
Using Bohr’s postulates, derive the expression for the total energy of the electron in the
stationary states of the hydrogen atom. (b) Using Rydberg formula, calculate the wavelengths of
the spectral lines of the first member of the Lyman series and of the Balmer series.
48. Write the expression for Bohr’s radius in hydrogen atom.
49. State Bohr’s quantization condition for defining stationary orbits.
50. Draw a schematic arrangement of the Geiger – Marsden experiment for studying alpha-particle
scattering by a thin foil of gold. Describe briefly, by drawing trajectories of the scattered alpha-
particles, how this study can be used to estimate the size of the nucleus.
51. A 12.3 eV electron beam is used to bombard gaseous hydrogen at room temperature. Upto
which energy level the hydrogen atoms would be excited? Calculate the wavelengths of the
second member of Lyman series and second member of Balmer series.
52. (a) Using de Broglie’s hypothesis, explain with the help of a suitable diagram, Bohr’s second
postulate of quantization of energy levels in a hydrogen atom. (b) The ground state energy of
hydrogen atom is –13.6 eV. What are the kinetic and potential energies of the electron in this
state?
53. (a) Using Bohr’s postulates, obtain the expression for total energy of the electron in the nth
orbit of hydrogen atom. (b) What is the significance of negative sign in the expression for the
energy? (c) Draw the energy level diagram showing how the line spectra corresponding to
Paschen series occur due to transition between energy levels.
54. Using Bohr’s postulates for hydrogen atom, deduce the expression for the total energy in the
nth energy level of hydrogen atom. Show that the kinetic energy (K) and potential energy (U) are
related as K = –U/2.
55. In a Geiger– Marsden experiment, calculate the distance of closest approach to the nucleus of Z
=75, when an alpha-particle of 5 MeV energy impinges on it before it comes momentarily to rest
and reverses its direction. How will the distance of closest approach be affected when the
kinetic energy of the alpha-particle is doubled?
56. The ground state energy of hydrogen atom is – 13.6 eV. What are the kinetic and potential
energies of electron in this state?

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57. (a) Using Bohr’s second postulate of quantization of orbital angular momentum show that the
circumference of the electron in the nth orbital state in hydrogen atom is n times the de Broglie
wavelength associated with it. (b) The electron in hydrogen atom is initially in the third excited
state. What is the maximum number of spectral lines which can be emitted when it finally
moves to the ground state?
58. What are isotopes? Give one example.
59. Using the postulates of Bohr's model of hydrogen atom, obtain an expression for the frequency
of radiation emitted when atom make a transition from the higher energy state with quantum
number ni to the lower energy state with quantum number nf.
60. The ground state energy of hydrogen atom is –13.6 eV. If an electron makes a transition from an
energy level – 0.85 eV to – 1.51 eV, calculate the wavelength of the spectral line emitted. To
which series of hydrogen spectrum does this wavelength belong?
61. (a) Describe briefly how Davisson – Germer experiment demonstrated the wave nature of
electrons. (b) An electron is accelerated from rest through a potential V. Obtain the expression
for the de-Broglie wavelength associated with it.
62. State Bohr’s postulate to define stable orbits in hydrogen atom. How does de Broglie’s
hypothesis explain the stability of these orbits? (b) A hydrogen atom initially in the ground state
absorbs a photon which excites it to the n = 4 level. Estimate the frequency of the photon
63. The energy levels of a hypothetical atom are shown below. Which of the shown transitions will
result in the emission of photon of wavelength 275 nm?

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NUCLEUS
1 year = 3.16 x 107 seconds, mp =1.00728u, mn =1.00867u, me =0.000549u
Atomic mass unit (a m u or u): one atomic mass unit is defined as the
1/12th of the mass of a Carbon- 12 atom.
1 a m u =1u =1.66 x 10-27kg
Electron volt (eV): one electron volt is defined as the energy acquired by an electron when accelerated
through a potential difference of 1V. 1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19J and 1MeV = 1.6 x 10-13J
Atomic number (Z) is the number of protons in an atom = number of electrons in the atom (neutral)
mass number (nucleon number) (A = Np + Nn ) is the total number of protons and neutrons in an atom
Neutron number = mass number – Atomic number ( Nn = A – Z)
Isotopes: Elements with same atomic number but with different mass number. 6C 12 and 6C 14 are
isotopes of carbon atom. 1H1 , 1H2 (deuterium) and 1H3 (tritium)are the isotopes of hydrogen atom
Isobars: Elements with same mass number but with different atomic number. 6C 14 and 7 N 14 are isobars
Isotones: Elements with same number of

neutrons. 1H3 and 2He 4 are examples for isotones
Isomers: Elements with same atomic number and

mass number but with different energies.
Average mass of an element = (M1X1 + M2X2 + M3X3 +…)/100.

Where M1 ,M2, M3, … are the atomic masses of different isotopes and X1,X2,X3,…. Are the percentage
abundance of isotopes M1,M2,M3,… .
1. Chlorine has two isotopes of masses 34.98u with 75.4% abundance and 36.98u with 24.6%
abundance. Find the average (atomic) mass of chlorine.
2. Two stable isotopes of lithium 3 Li6 and 3 Li7 have respective abundances of 7.5% and 92.5%. These
isotopes have masses 6.01512 u and 7.01600 u, respectively. Find the atomic mass of lithium.
3. Boron has two stable isotopes, 5B10 and 5B11. Their respective masses are 10.01294 u and 11.00931
u,and the atomic mass of boron is 10.811 u. Find the abundances of 5B10 and 5 B11 .

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4. The three stable isotopes of neon: 10 Ne20, Ne21 and Ne22 have respective abundances of 90.51%,
0.27% and 9.22%. The atomic masses of the three isotopes are 19.99 u, 20.99 u and 21.99 u,
respectively. Obtain the average atomic mass of neon.
RADIUS OF THE NUCLEUS: R = R0 A1/3. Where R0 = 1.2 x 10 -15m and A is the mass number of the
nucleus. (R1/R2) = (A1/A2) 1/3 Note: ratio of mass numbers , (A1/A2) = (R1/R2)3 .
Surface area of nucleus, S = 𝟒𝝅 𝑹𝟐 . (S1/S2) = (A1/A2)2/3 .
5. Obtain approximately the ratio of the nuclear radii of the gold isotope 79 Au197 and the silver isotope
47 Ag
107
.
DENSITY OF THE NUCLEUS (nuclear density is a constant for all nuclei. Ratio of nuclear densities = 1:1)
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑢𝑠 𝐴 x 1.6710−27 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

Density of the nucleus (𝜌) = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑢𝑠 = 4
𝜋𝑅3
3
𝜌 =3A x (1.66 x 10-27kg)/4π R03A = 3 x 1.66 x 10-27/4π (1.2x 10-15)3 = a constant for all nuclei
𝜌 = 2.3 x 1017kg/m3
6. Mass of iron nucleus as 55.85u and A=56, find the nuclear density?
7. (a) Find the radius and density of Fe56. (b) Find ratio of (ii) nuclear densities and (ii) nuclear radii
of 2He4 and 6C12
Mass energy relation
Einstein’s mass energy relation is, E = mc2, c = 3 x 108m/s .Note :( 1u = 930MeV)
8.Find energy equivalent to 1 u in (a) joules, (b) eV and (c) MeV.
Note: In nuclear reactions the total energy before the nuclear reaction = total energy after the nuclear
reaction, provided the energy associated with mass also included.
Mass defect (∆𝒎) : Mass of a nucleus is less than the total mass of its constituent nucleons. The
difference in mass of a nucleus and its constituent nucleons is known as mass defect (∆𝑚).
∆𝒎 = Zmp + (A – Z)mn – mnucleus

According to Einstein’s mass energy relation, energy equivalent to the mass defect(if mass is in kg) is
E = ∆𝑚𝑐2 J.
if mass is expressed in atomic mass unit (u), E = ∆𝑚 x 931.5 MeV
Note: unless it is not specified as mass of nuclide, the given masses are atomic masses
∆𝑚 = Z(mp + me) + (A – Z)mn – mnucleus - Zme . mp + me = mH and mnucleus + Zme = matom
∆𝑚 = ZmH + (A – Z)mn –( mnucleus + Zme ) or ∆𝒎 = ZmH + (A – Z)mn – mATOM
Binding energy (Eb): When certain number of protons and neutrons combine to form a nucleus, an
energy equivalent to the mass defect, Eb = ∆𝑚𝑐2 J will be released from the nucleus. This energy
Eb = ∆𝑚𝑐2 J is known as binding energy. (Since binding energy is the energy released from the nucleus,
there is a proportional decrease in mass of the nucleus. That means binding energy gives a negative

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contribution to mass of the nucleus). Binding energy can also be defined as the energy needed to
separate a nucleus in to its constituent nucleons.
Note: 1u = 931.5 MeV, Binding energy of a nucleus gives a negative contribution to mass of the nucleus
Binding energy per nucleon (Ebn) is defined as the ratio of binding energy (Eb) of a nucleus to the mass
number (A)of the nucleus. It is the average energy per nucleon needed to separate a nucleus in to
individual nucleons. Binding energy per nucleon is directly proportional to the stability of the nucleus.
Ebn = Eb/A
9. Obtain the binding energy (in MeV) of a nitrogen nucleus 7N14 , given mass of 7N14 =14.00307 u
10. Obtain the binding energy of the nuclei 26Fe56 and 83 Bi209 in units of MeV from the following data:
m ( 26Fe56 ) = 55.934939 u m (83 Bi209 ) = 208.980388 u.
11. A given coin has a mass of 3.0 g. Calculate the nuclear energy that would be required to separate all
the neutrons and protons from each other. For simplicity assume that the coin is entirely made of
29Cu
63
atoms (mass of Cu = 62.92960 u)
Graph showing variation of (Ebn) with mass number (A) (page444, figure13.1)
Main features of the graph
1. Ebn is lower for

both light nuclei (A
< 30) and heavy
nuclei (A >170).
2. Ebn is almost
independent of
mass number
(constant) for
middle mass
nuclei (30 < A <
170).
3. Ebn is maximum for
A = 56 (Fe) and has a value of 8.75MeV.
Conclusions drawn from the observations
1. The values of nuclear binding energy in the order of MeV indicate that the force among
nucleons (nuclear force) is attractive and very strong.
2. The constancy of nuclear binding energy in the middle mass range indicate the short range
nature of nuclear force or saturation property of nuclear force
3. Graph predicts the possibility of nuclear fission. Very heavy nuclei (A >170) have lower Ebn .
When a heavy nucleus split into two middle mass nuclei, the daughter nuclei have higher Ebn
compared to the parent. The difference in Ebn is released in the process.

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4. Graph predicts the possibility of nuclear fusion. Very light nuclei (A <30) have lower Ebn . When
two light nuclei combine to form a middle mass nucleus, the daughter nucleus have higher Ebn
compared to the parents. The difference in Ebn is released in the process.
Nuclear force: The strong attractive force among nucleons which keeps the protons and neutrons in to a
tiny nuclear volume by overcoming the repulsion among protons.
Properties of nuclear force
1. It is the strongest known force.

2. It is a short range force.
3. It shows saturation property.
4. Nuclear force is charge independent (force between
proton – proton, neutron – neutron and proton – neutron
pairs are the same)
5. There is no simple mathematical formulation to find the
nuclear force.
Conclusions from the graph
i) Nuclear force is attractive for distance larger than ro

ii) Nuclear force is repulsive if two nucleons are separated by distance less than ro
iii) Nuclear force decreases very rapidly for r > ro
iv) Potential energy is minimum at / Equilibrium position
Graph showing variation of potential energy of a pair of nucleons as function of their separation
Page 445, figure 13.2, NCERT TEXT Book.
RADIOACTIVITY: The spontaneous self-breaking activity of an

unstable nucleus to acquire stability by the emission of
radiations like alpha, beta and gamma rays is known as
radioactivity. It cannot be controlled by external factors like
pressure, temperature etc..
Radioactivity indicates the instability of the nucleus. Nuclei with
neutron – proton ratio around 1:1, are found to stable. Nuclei
with excess of neutrons or protons are found to be unstable.
Alpha particle (α): is identical to He - nucleus with mass =

4times mass of proton and charge = +2e
Beta particles (β): are electrons emitted from the nucleus with energy in the order of MeV
For β- particles, mass = mass of electron and charge = -e, charge of an electron.
For β+ particles (positrons, positive electrons) charge = +e and mass is same mass of an electron

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Gamma rays (𝜸): are short wave length electromagnetic radiations rest mass = 0 and charge = 0(neutral)
Law of radioactive decay: the number of nuclei undergoing the decay per unit time (rate of decay) is
directly proportional to the total number of nuclei in the sample.
If N is the number of nuclei in the sample and ∆𝑁 undergo decay in ∆𝑡 time then,
∆𝑵 ∆𝑵
∝ 𝑵 or = −𝝀𝑵
∆𝒕 ∆𝒕
where λ is known as decay constant or disintegration constant. –ve sign indicate that number of atoms
in the sample decrease with increase in time.
∆𝑵 𝒅𝑵 𝒅𝑵
As∆𝑡 → 0, ∆𝒕
= 𝒅𝒕
therefore, 𝒅𝒕
= −𝝀𝑵
𝒅𝑵 𝑁 𝒅𝑵 𝑡
𝑵
= −𝝀𝒅𝒕. Integrating both sides of the equation, ∫𝑁 𝑡 =∫0 −𝝀𝒅𝒕
0 𝑵
[ln (N)] = -λ[t]0t (write limits)
[lnN(t) – lnN(0) ] = -λ[t – 0 ] or ln[N(t)/N(0) ] = -λt
This proves that radioactive decay is exponential in nature
Note: If N0 represent the number of radioactive nuclei at t = 0, T = the half-life period and Nt number of
atoms at any instant t,
𝑁0 1
after one half life, t = 1T, Nt =2
= 𝑁0 (2)1 .
𝑁 1
After two half-lives, t = 2T, Nt = 40 = 𝑁0 (2)2.
𝑁 1
After three half-lives, t = 3T, Nt = 80 = 𝑁0 (2)3. This process continues and
𝟏 𝑡 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
after n half-lives, t = nT , Nt = 𝑵𝟎 (𝟐)𝒏 where , n = 𝑇 = ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑

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Definition of decay constant:

𝑁(0) 1
If , 𝑁(𝑡) = 𝑒
, 𝜆𝑡 = 1, 𝑜𝑟 𝜆 = 𝑡
.
Disintegration constant is defined as the reciprocal of time interval during which the activity or number
1
of radioactive nuclei in a given sample reduces to 𝑒 times its initial value( reduces to 37% of its initial
value)
Activity (A or R) of a sample is the total decay rate of a sample. It is the total number of nuclei
disintegrating per unit time.
−𝒅𝑵(𝒕) −𝑑
R (t) = 𝒅𝒕
= 𝑑𝑡
(N0 e-λt) = -N0(- λ e-λt) = λN0 e-λt = R0 e –λt , where R0 = λN0 and R(t) = λ N(t)
S I unit of activity is Becquerel (Bq). One Becquerel = one decay or disintegration per unit time.
1 Curie (1 Ci) = 3.7 x 1010 decays per sec. 1 milli Curie (1mCi = 3.7 x 107 decays per sec)
12. The half-life of 92 U238 undergoing alpha-decay is 4.5 × 109 years. What is the activity of 1g sample of
92U
238
?
13. Obtain the amount of 27Co
60
necessary to provide a radioactive source of 8.0 mCi strength. The half-
ife of 27Co 60is 5.3 years.
14. The half-life of 38Sr90 is 28 years. What is the disintegration rate of 15 mg of this isotope?
15. Show that the instantaneous rate of change of activity of a radioactive sample is inversely
proportional to square of half-life period.
𝑑 𝑑
Instantaneous rate of change of activity ,
𝑑𝑡
(𝑅(𝑡) ) =
𝑑𝑡
[𝛌 𝑵(𝒕) ]
𝐝
= 𝛌 [𝑁 𝑒−λt ]
𝐝𝐭 0
𝑑 −λt
= 𝜆𝑁0 [𝑒 ]
𝑑𝑡
2
= −𝛌 𝑁0 𝑒 −λt
2 0.6932
= −𝛌 𝑁𝑡 = − 𝑇ℎ2
𝑁𝑡 .
𝑑 1
(𝑅 ) 𝛼 2
𝑑𝑡 (𝑡) 𝑇ℎ
16. A radioactive sample can decay by two processes. If T1 and T2 represent the half – life periods for
1 1 1
the first and second processes respectively, show that 𝑇 = 𝑇 + 𝑇 .
1 2
Note : Rate of decay is proportional to the total number of radioactive nuclei
If N is the total number of radioactive nuclei and
𝑑𝑁1 𝑑𝑁2
𝑑𝑡
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑡
𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠,
𝑑𝑁1 𝑑𝑁2
𝑑𝑡
= 𝜆1 𝑁 and 𝑑𝑡
= 𝜆2 𝑁.
𝑑𝑁1 𝑑𝑁2
Total decay rate , 𝑑𝑡
+ 𝑑𝑡
= 𝜆1 𝑁 + 𝜆2 𝑁.

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𝑑𝑁1 𝑑𝑁2
𝑑𝑡
+ 𝑑𝑡
= [𝜆1 + 𝜆2 ]𝑁. (1)
𝑑𝑁1 𝑑𝑁2
𝑖𝑓 𝜆 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡, 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑦 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 , 𝑑𝑡
+ 𝑑𝑡
= 𝜆𝑁. (2)
𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 (1)𝑎𝑛𝑑 (2), 𝜆 = 𝜆1 + 𝜆2
0.693 0.693 0.693 1 1 1
𝑇
= 𝑇1
+ 𝑇 or 𝑇
= 𝑇1
+𝑇
2 2
Graph showing exponential decay of radioactive species
(Page 447, figure 13.3)
Half-life period (T1/2): is defined as the time taken by the radioactive

sample to reduce its activity(R) and number of atoms (N) to half of its
initial value.
Expression for half-life period.
…….(1)
When t = T1/2 , N(t) = N(0)/2

𝟏
𝟐
= 𝒆−𝝀𝑻1/2 or 2 = 𝒆𝝀𝑻1/2 or ln2 = λT1/2
ln2
or T1/2 = λ
or T1/2 = 0.693/λ
17. Tritium has a half-life of 12.5 y undergoing beta decay. What fraction of a sample of pure tritium will
remain undecayed after 25 years?
18. A radioactive isotope has a half-life ofT years. How long will it take the activity to reduce to a)
3.125%, b) 1% of its original value?
19. The normal activity of living carbon ( 6C14 ) containing matter is found to be about 15 decays per
minute for every gram of carbon. A specimen from Mohenjo-Daro gives an activity of 9 decays per
minute per gram of carbon. Estimate the approximate age of the Indus-Valley civilization. Half-life of
carbon is 5760 years)
20. The half-lives of two radioactive substances P & Q are 20 min and 40 min respectively. Initially
samples are having equal number of nuclei. Find the ratio of remaining number of nuclei after 80
minutes.
Mean life (average life) (τ)
Mean life is defined as the ratio of life of all of the radioactive nuclei in a sample to the total number of
radioactive nuclei in the sample.
Expression for mean life
If R(t) represent the rate of decay of a sample at any instant,

the number of nuclei that decay in ∆𝑡 seconds = R(t) ∆𝑡 =( λN0 e-λt )∆𝑡
Total life of all these nuclei = t ( λN0 e-λt )∆𝑡 .

Total life of all the elements in the sample is obtained by integrating this between 0 to ∞ as ∆𝑡 → 0.
∞
Total life of all the elements in the sample = ∫0 t ( λ N0 e−λt )𝑑𝑡

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1 ∞ ∞ 1
Mean life, τ = 𝑁 (∫0 t ( λ N0 e−λt )𝑑𝑡 = λ ∫0 t e−λt 𝑑𝑡 = 𝜆
0
𝒍𝒏𝟐
Note T1/2 = = τ (ln2)
𝝀
Alpha decay: is a nuclear decay in which an unstable

nucleus emits a helium nucleus in the process of
acquiring stability. As a result of alpha decay, the
daughter nucleus formed has mass number less by 4
and atomic number by 2 compared to the parent.
Energy released in the process is shared by the
daughter nucleus and the alpha particle.
A A–4
ZX Z–2Y + 2He4 + Q (energy released in the process).
Q = (mX – my – mHe )c2 , (if masses are expressed in kg).

Q = (mX – my – mHe ) 930MeV,(if masses are expressed in U). if Q >0, the process is exothermic and
spontaneous and if Q < 0, the process is endothermic and non-spontaneous.
238 234
92U 90Th + 2He4 + Q (energy released in the process).
𝑁𝑛 238−92 𝑁𝑛 234−90
Note: Before alpha decay, = = 1.587. After alpha decay = = 1.6 . As a result of
𝑁𝑝 92 𝑁𝑝 90
alpha decay the neutron to proton ratio increases.
21. In alpha decay the Q value of the reaction (energy released in the reaction) is shared by the
daughter nucleus and the alpha particle. Assuming the parent nucleus to be at rest obtain an
expression for energy of the daughter nucleus and alpha particle in terms of Q value and mass
number and atomic number of the parent.
22. We are given the following atomic masses:
92U
238
= 238.05079 u , 2He4 = 4.00260 u, 90 Th234 = 234.04363 u, 1H1 = 1.00783 u, 91Pa237=237.05121 u
Here the symbol Pa is for the element protactinium (Z = 91).
(a) Calculate the energy released during the alpha decay of 92U238 .
(b) Show that 92U238 cannot spontaneously emit a proton.
23. Find the Q-value and the kinetic energy of the emitted α-particle in the α-decay of (a) 88 Ra226 and
(b) 86 Rn220 . Given m ( 88 Ra226 ) = 226.02540 u, m ( 86 Rn222 ) = 222.01750 u, m ( 86 Rn220 ) =
220.01137 u, m ( 84 Po216 ) = 216.00189 u.
Beta decay: is a nuclear decay in which an unstable nucleus emits an electron or a positron in the
process of acquiring stability.
As a result of β-- decay, the daughter nucleus formed has same mass number but atomic number
increased by 1 compared to the parent. ZXA Z+1 Y
A
+ e-1 + ν̅ + Q (energy released in the
process).
Q = (mX – my – me )c2 , (if masses are expressed in kg). Q = (mX + Zme – Zme - my – me )c2

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Q = (mX + Zme – [(Z+1)me + my] )c2 Q = (mX – my) 930MeV

32 32
15P ̅ +Q
16S +e-1 +ν
There are no electrons inside the nucleus. At the instant of

emission a neutron transforms into a proton electron and
antineutrino ( 0n1 1
1p + e-1 + ν
̅ ). Proton stay inside
the nucleus, electron and antineutrino are emitted in the
decay process. Since proton number is increased by 1 the
atomic number of the daughter is also increased by 1. Even
one neutron is less since one proton is added, total number
of protons and neutrons called mass number remains the
same. Since energy of beta decay is shared by the electron
and the antineutrino without any particular proportion,
beta particles show variable energy (spectrum).
As a result of β+ decay, the daughter nucleus formed has

same mass number but atomic number decreased by 1 compared to the parent. ZXA Z -1 Y
A
+ e+1 + ν + Q (energy released in the process).

22 22
11Na 10Ne + e+1 + ν + Q where Q = (mX – my – 2me ) 930MeV
There are no positrons inside the nucleus. At the

instant of emission, a proton transforms into a
neutron,
positron and neutrino ( 1p1 1

0n + e+1 + ν ).
Neutron stay inside the nucleus, positron and

neutrino are emitted in the decay process. Since
proton number is decreased by 1 the atomic
number of the daughter is also less by 1. Even one
proton is less since one neutron is added, total
number of protons and neutrons called mass
number remains the same. Since energy of beta
decay is shared by the positron and the neutrino without any particular
proportion, beta particles show variable energy (spectrum). Since
neutrino and anti-neutrino have no charge almost no mass it was very
hard to detect them.
24. The radionuclide C11 decays according to 6C11 B11 +e + + υ . The

5
maximum energy of the emitted positron is 0.960 MeV. Given the mass values: m (6C11)
= 11.011434 u and m ( 6B11 ) = 11.009305 u, calculate Q and compare it with the
maximum energy of the positron
25. The nucleus 10 Ne23 decays by β- emission. Write down the decay equation and determine
the maximum kinetic energy of the electrons emitted. Given that: m (10 Ne23 ) =
22.994466 u m ( 11 Na23 ) = 22.989770 u.

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Gamma decay: is a nuclear decay in which an unstable nucleus emits short wave length electromagnetic
radiation, in the process of acquiring stability. Normally alpha or beta decays leave a nucleus in an
excited state. This nucleus returns to the ground state by the release of one or more photons. As a
result of gamma decay, the daughter nucleus formed has same mass number and atomic number as
compared to the parent nucleus. (For Example of gamma decay refer page 451 figure 13.4, NCERT text
* A A
book) z X zX + 𝛾
After beta minus decay neutron to proton ratio decreases. After beta plus decay the neutron to proton
ratio increases
Nuclear energy: In nuclear fission and fusion nuclei with less total
binding energy transform in to nuclei with greater total binding energy.
The difference in binding energy is released as the energy of the
nuclear reaction. Energy released in nuclear reaction is million times
the energy released in a chemical reaction which involves the same
amount of matter.
Note: Mass defect in nuclear reaction = mass of reactants - mass of

products
Nuclear fission: The splitting of a heavy nucleus in to two or more

fragments of comparable masses with the release of large amount of
energy is known as nuclear fission. The sum of masses after the fusion
is less than the sum of masses before the fusion. This difference in
mass appears as the energy of fusion.
144 89
56Ba + 36Kr + 3 0n1 + 200MeV
1 235 236 133 99
0n + 92U 92U 51Sb + 41Nb + 4 0n1 + 200MeV
140 94
54Xe + 38Sr + 2 0n1 + 200MeV
Note: Fission reaction of single U235 on average releases 200MeV of energy

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Nuclear reactor
Principle: It is a device which

converts nuclear energy in to
other useful forms of energy
like electric energy with the
help of controlled nuclear
fission. Fission of U235 on
average releases 3 neutrons. If
these neutrons are effective in
producing further fission a self
sustained nuclear reaction
called chain reaction can set
up. If the chain reaction is properly controlled so that multiplication factor of neutrons, k=1, then
nuclear reaction will release energy effectively.
Essential parts:
(1) Fuel: enriched 92U235 or Pu239 are commonly used fuels which undergo fission by thermal neutrons
(neutrons which are in thermal equilibrium with room temperature and possessing kinetic energy
proportional to room temperature are known as thermal neutrons)
(2) Moderators: Neutrons released as a result of nuclear fission are so energetic that they may escape
without triggering further fission. Moreover, slow neutrons have more probability in producing fission in
U235 than fast neutrons. Therefore, fast moving neutrons are slowed down by making elastic collisions
with light nuclei. These materials used for slowing down fast moving neutrons are known as moderators.
Commonly used examples are graphite and heavy water. (Heavy water is preferred as moderator
because the elastic collision of fast moving neutrons with hydrogen atoms in water leads to effective
transfer of energy from neutrons to the moderator. It has lower probability of absorbing neutrons)
(3) Control rods: the rate of nuclear reaction can be controlled by keeping the multiplication factor of
neutrons k near to 1. For this neutron absorbing rods are inserted within the reactor core. These rods
are known as control rods. Boron, cadmium or steel rods are normally used as control rods.
(4) Safety rods: In addition to the control rods reactors are provided with additional neutron absorbing
rods which when required can be inserted in to the reactor and multiplication factor of neutrons can be
reduced rapidly to less than one to stop the reaction.
(5) Coolant: enormous amount of energy released within the core of reactor is transferred to outside
with the help of fluids which have high specific heat capacity. Normally heavy water is used as coolant
(6) Shield: Nuclear reaction leads to the release of harmful radiations. The surroundings of nuclear
reactor are protected by keeping the reactor core in a concrete shield of 2 to 3-meter thickness.

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Working: control rods may be pulled out of reactor, so that stray neutrons can trigger nuclear fission.
Soon a chain reaction can set up. Rate of reaction can be
effectively controlled by inserting or raising the control
rods. Energy released in the reactor core is transferred
out with the help of coolant and is used for boiling water.
High pressure steam produced can be used to rotate the
turbine and electricity is produced. Condensed steam is
pumped back to the boiler so that the same steps are
repeated leading to the continuous conversion of nuclear
r energy in to electrical energy.
Nuclear fusion: is the phenomenon of combination of two or more light nuclei to form a heavy nucleus
with the release of large amount of energy. The sum of masses after the fusion is less than the sum of
masses before the fusion. This difference in mass appears as the energy of fusion.
2
Examples 1H + 1H2 2He
3
+ n +Q (ddn)
1
1H + 1H1 1H
2
+ e+1 + ν + Q (ppd)
If the energy needed to overcome the strong coulomb repulsion between

the fusing nuclei, is supplied by raising the temperature, then nuclear fusion is
known as thermo nuclear fusion. The principle behind hydrogen bomb and
energy production in stars is nuclear fusion.
ENERGY PRODUCTION IN STARS
(a) proton – proton cycle

1
1H + 1H1 1H
2
+ e+1 + ν + Q1 (1)
e+1 + e-1 𝛾 + 𝛾 + 𝑄2 (2)

2
1H + 1H1 2He
3
+ 𝛾+ Q3 (3) (first three steps of reaction takes place twice)
3
2He + 2He3 2He
4
+ 1H1 + 1H1 + Q4 (4)
The net reaction is 4 1H1 + 2e-1 4

2He + 2ν +6𝛾 +26.7MeV.
Thus four hydrogen atoms combine to form Helium atom with the release of 26.7MeV energy.

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Nuclear fission Nuclear fusion
1. It is the process of splitting a heavy 1. It is the process of joining of two light

nucleus in to two fragments of almost nuclei with the release of energy
same mass with the release of energy
2. Products of fission are harmful 3. Products of fusion are not radioactive
radioactive substances substances
4. Fuel for nuclear fission, (U235 or Pu239) is 2. Fuel of fusion (H) are more abundant
less abundant
5. Controlled release of energy from fission 3. Controlled release of energy from fusion
in large is practical with the help of is so far not practical in large scale.
nuclear reactor
6. Energy per unit mass is less in fission 4. Energy per unit mass is more in fusion
26. Determine from the given data the Q-value of the following reactions and state whether the reactions
are exothermic or endothermic.
(i) 1 H1+ 1H3 → 1H2+ 1H2
(ii) 6C12 +6 C12 → 10Ne20 + 2He4 Atomic masses are given to be m (1H2) = 2.014102 u m (1H3) =
3.016049 u m ( 6C12 ) = 12.000000 u m ( 10 Ne20 ) = 19.992439 u
27. Suppose, we think of fission of a 26Fe56 nucleus into two equal fragments of 13 Al28 . Is the fission
energetically possible? Argue by working out Q of the process. Given m (26Fe56 ) = 55.93494 u and
m (13 Al28 ) = 27.98191 u.
28. The fission properties of 94 Pu239 are very similar to those of 235 92 U235. The average energy released per
fission is 180 MeV. How much energy, in MeV, is released if all the atoms in 1 kg of pure 94 Pu239
undergo fission?
29. A 1000 MW fission reactor consumes half of its fuel in 5.00 y. How much 92 U235 did it contain initially?
Assume that the reactor operates 80% of the time, that all the energy generated arises from the
fission of 92 U235 and that this nuclide is consumed only by the fission process.
30. How long can an electric lamp of 100W be kept glowing by fusion of 2.0 kg of deuterium? Take the
fusion reaction as 1H2 + 1H2→ 2He3 + n1 +3.27 MeV
31. (a) Are the equations of nuclear reactions ‘balanced’ in the sense a chemical equation (e.g., 2H 2 +
O2→ 2 H2O) is? If not, in what sense are they balanced on both sides? (b) If both the number of
protons and the number of neutrons are conserved in each nuclear reaction, in what way is mass
converted into energy (or vice-versa) in a nuclear reaction? (c) A general impression exists that mass-
energy interconversion takes place only in nuclear reaction and never in chemical reaction. This is
strictly speaking, incorrect. Explain.
EXPRESSIONS
NUCLEUS
1. Average mass of an element = (M1X1 + M2X2 + M3X3 +…)/100
2. Radius of the nucleus R = R0 A1/3. Where R0 = 1.2 x 10 -15m and A is the mass number of the
nucleus.
3. Ratio of nuclear radii, (R1/R2) = (A1/A2) 1/3 Note: ratio of mass numbers , (A1/A2) = (R1/R2)3
4. Ratio of nuclear densities = 1:1
5. Mass defect, ∆𝒎 = Zmp + (A – Z)mn – mnucleus or ∆𝒎 = ZmH + (A – Z)mn – mATOM
2
6. E = ∆𝑚𝑐 J. if mass is expressed in kg
if mass is expressed in atomic mass unit (u), E = ∆𝑚 x 931.5 MeV
7. Binding energy per nucleon, Ebn = Eb/A,
8. Stability of nucleus is directly proportional to Ebn

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𝒅𝑵
9. 𝒅𝒕
= −𝝀𝑵
𝟏 𝑡 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
10. Nt = 𝑵𝟎 (𝟐)𝒏 where , n = 𝑇
= ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
11. ln[N(t)/N(0) ] = -λt
12. Activity of a radioactive sample,R0 = λN0 and R(t) = λ N(t).
13. As a result of alpha decay mass number decreases by 4 and atomic number decreases
by 2
14. Q = (Mass of reactants in U – mass of products in U ) 931.5 MeV
15. Q =(total binding energy of product in MeV – total binding energy of reactants in MeV)
𝑨−𝟒 𝟒
16. Energy of alpha particle = Q ( ) and energy of daughter nucleus = Q ( 𝑨 )
𝑨
17. As a result of beta + decay mass number remains the same, atomic number decreases
by 1
18. As a result of beta - decay mass number remains the same, atomic number increases
by 1
19. As a result of gamma decay mass number and atomic number remains the same.
20. SI unit of activity is Becquerel (Bq). 1 curie(Ci) = 3.7 x 1010 Bq 1milli Curie (mCi) = 3.7 x 107 Bq
21. 1 mole of any substance = molar mass in grams = 6.02 x 1023 atoms or molecules
for example in in the case of 92U238, 238g = 6.02 x 1023 atoms of 92U238
22. T1/2 = 0.693/λ = 0.693 X τ
𝟏
23. τ=
𝝀
𝒍𝒏𝟐
24. T1/2 = = τ (ln2)
𝝀
25. Energy released per fission from 92U235 is 200 MeV
26.

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PREVIOUS YEARS BORAD QUESTIONS ON NUCLEI

1. A given number of atoms No of a radioactive element with a half-life T is uniformly distributed in
the blood stream of a (i) normal person A having total volume V of blood in the body (ii) person
B in need of blood transfusion having a volume 𝑉′ of blood in the body. The number of
radioactive atoms per unit volume in the blood streams of the two persons after a time nT are
found to be N1 and N2. Prove mathematically that the additional volume of blood that needs to
𝑁 −𝑁
be transfused in the body of person B equals ( 2 1 )𝑉
𝑁2
2. (a) Define the terms (i) half-life (T1/2) and (ii) average life . Find out their relationships with the
decay constant. (b) A radioactive nucleus has a decay constant =0.3465(day)–1. How long would
it take the nucleus to decay 75% of its initial amount?
3. To which part of the electromagnetic spectrum do the waves emitted by radioactive nuclei
belong? What is its frequency range?
4. (i) Define ‘activity’ of a radioactive material and write its S.I. unit. (ii) Plot a graph showing
variation of activity of a given radioactive sample with time.
5. If both the number of protons and the number of neutrons are conserved in a nuclear reaction
12
like 6C + C12 Ne20 + He4, in what way is mass converted into energy?
Explain.
6. State the law of radioactive decay. Plot a graph showing the number (N) of undecayed nuclei as
a function of time (t) for a given radioactive sample having half-life T1/2 . Depict in the plot the
number of undecayed nuclei at (i) t = 2 T1/2 , (ii)t = 3 T 1/2 and (iii) t = 4T/1/2 . and (iv) t = 5T/1/2.
7. How is the mean life of a radioactive sample related to its half-life?
8. In both beta– and beta+ decay processes, the mass number of a nucleus remains same whereas
the atomic number Z increases by one in beta– decay and decreases by one in beta+ decay.
Explain, giving reason.
9. Using the curve for the binding energy per nucleon as a function of mass number A, state clearly
how the release in energy in the processes of nuclear fission and nuclear fusion can be
explained.
10. Write any two characteristic properties of nuclear force.
11. (i) What characteristic property of nuclear force explains the constancy of binding energy per
nucleon (BE/A) in the range of mass number ‘A’ lying 30 < A < 170? (ii) Show that the density of
nucleus over a wide range of nuclei is constant independent of mass number A.
12. Draw a plot of potential energy of a pair of nucleons as a function of their separation. Write two
important conclusions which you can draw regarding the nature of nuclear forces.
13. When four hydrogen nuclei combine to form a helium nucleus, estimate the amount of energy
in MeV released in this process of fusion (Neglect the masses of electrons and neutrinos) Given:
(i) mass of 1H1 = 1.007825 u (ii) mass of helium nucleus = 4.002603 u, 1u = 931 MeV/ c2
14. Draw a plot of the binding energy per nucleon as a function of mass number for a large number
of nuclei, 2 <A 240. How do you explain the constancy of binding energy per nucleon in the
range 30 <A <170 using the property that nuclear force is short-ranged?
15. (a) Deduce the expression, N = N0 e-λt , for the law of radioactive decay. (b) (i) Write symbolically
the process expressing the β+ decay of 11Na22 Also write the basic nuclear process underlying
this decay. (i) Is the nucleus formed in the decay of the nucleus 11Na22isotope or isobar?
16. (a) State the law of radioactive decay. (b) The half-life period of a radioactive substance is 50
days. What is the time taken for 7/8th of its original mass to disintegrate?
17. Write the relationship between the size of a nucleus and its mass number (A).

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18. Draw a plot of potential energy of a pair of nucleons as a function of their separations. Mark the
regions where the nuclear force is (i) attractive and (ii) repulsive. Write any two characteristic
features of nuclear forces.
19. In a given sample, two radioactive nuclei, A and B, are initially present in the ratio of 4:1. The
half-lives of A and B are respectively100 and 25 years. Find the time after which the amounts of
A and B become equal.
20. In a given sample, two radioisotopes, A and B, are initially present in the ratio of 1:4. The half-
lives of A and B are respectively 100 years and 50 years. Find the time after which the amounts
of A and B become equal.
21. (a) Write symbolically the beta minus decay process of 15P32. (b) Derive an expression for the
average life of a radionuclide. Give its relationship with the half-life.
22. (a) What is meant by half-life of a radioactive element? (b) The half-life of a radioactive
substance is 20 s. Calculate: (i) the decay constant and (ii) time taken for the sample to decay by
7/8th of the initial value.
23. The half-life of a radioactive substance is 30 s. Calculate (i) the decay constant, and (ii) time
taken for the sample to decay by 3/4th of the initial value.
24. Two nuclei have mass numbers in the ratio 1 : 8. What is the ratio of their nuclear radii?
25. A radioactive nucleus ‘A’ undergoes a series of decays according to the following scheme
The mass number and atomic number of A are 190 and 75 respectively. What are these
numbers for A 4?
26. A radioactive nucleus ‘A’ undergoes a series of decays according to the following scheme: The
mass number and atomic number of A 4 are 172 and 69 respectively. What are these numbers
for A 4?
27. When a hydrogen atom is in its second excited state, find out the ratio of the maximum and
minimum wavelengths of the radiations emitted in the process.
28. Two nuclei have mass numbers in the ratio 2 : 5. What is the ratio of their nuclear densities? 1
29. Define the activity of a radionuclide. Write its S.I. units. Give a plot of the activity of a radioactive
species versus time. How long will a radioactive isotope, whose half-life is T years, take for its
activity to reduce to 1/8th of its initial value?
30. Two nuclei have mass numbers in the ratio 27 : 125. What is the ratio of their nuclear (i) radii
and (ii) density?
31. (a) Give one example each for (i) alpha -decay and (ii) beta– decay by writing the decay processes
in symbolic form. State the reason, why heavy water is generally used as a moderator in a
nuclear reactor.
32. A nucleus 10 Ne23 undergoes 𝛽-decay and becomes 11Na23. Calculate the maximum kinetic energy
of electrons emitted assuming that the daughter nucleus and anti-neutrino carry negligible
kinetic energy. mass of Ne = 22. 994466u mass of Na = 22.8977u
1u = 931.5 MeV/c2
33. Two nuclei have mass numbers in the ratio 8 : 125. What is the ratio of their nuclear radii? 1
34. Draw a plot showing the variation of binding energy per nucleon versus the mass number A.
Explain with the help of this plot the release of energy in the processes of nuclear fission and
fusion. 3
35. (a) The mass of a nucleus in its ground state is always less than the total mass of its constituents
– neutrons and protons. Explain. (b) Plot a graph showing the variation of potential energy of a
pair of nucleons as a function of their separation. 2

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36. Name the absorbing material used to control the reaction rate of neutrons in a nuclear reactor.
37. What is the nuclear radius of X125, if that of Y27 is 3.6 fermi?
38. State the law of radioactive decay. If N0 is the number of radioactive nuclei in the sample at
some initial time, t0 , find out the relation to determine the number N present at a subsequent
time. Draw a plot of N as a function of time.
39. Draw a plot of the binding energy per nucleon as a function of mass number for a large number
of nuclei. Explain the energy release in the process of nuclear fission from the above plot. Write
a typical nuclear reaction in which a large amount of energy is released in the process of nuclear
fission.
40. Distinguish between isotopes and isobars. Give one example for each of the species. A
radioactive isotope has a half-life of 5 years. How long will it take the activity to reduce to
3.125%?
41. Derive the expression for the law of radioactive decay of a given sample having initially N0 nuclei
decaying to the number N present at any subsequent time t. Plot a graph showing the variation
of the number of nuclei versus the time t lapsed. Mark a point on the plot in terms of T1/ 2
value when the number present N = N0 /16.
42. (a) Draw the plot of binding energy per nucleon (BE/A) as a function of mass number A. Write
two important conclusions that can be drawn regarding the nature of nuclear force. (b) Use this
graph to explain the release of energy in both the processes of nuclear fusion and fission.(c)
Write the basic nuclear process of neutron undergoing 𝛽 − decay. Why is the detection of
neutrinos found very difficult?
43. The half-lives of two radioactive substances P & Q are 20 min and 40 min respectively. Initially
samples are having equal number of nuclei. Find the ratio of remaining number of nuclei after
80 minutes.
44. Complete the following nuclear reactions:
45. (b) Write the basic process involved in nuclei responsible for (i) beta– and(ii) beta+ decay. (c)
Why is it found experimentally difficult to detect neutrinos?
46. Write symbolically the nuclear beta decay process of 6C11 . Is the decayed product X an isotope
or isobar of 6C11? Given the mass values m ( 6C11 = 11·011434 u and m (X) = 11·009305 u.
Estimate the Q-value in this process.
47. Obtain the relation between the decay constant and half-life of a radioactive sample. The half-
life of a certain radioactive material against alpha-decay is 100 days. After how much time, will
the undecayed fraction of the material be 6·25%?
48. (a) Write three characteristic properties of nuclear force. (b) Draw a plot of potential energy of a
pair of nucleons as a function of their separation. Write two important conclusions that can be
drawn from the graph.
49. (a) Plot a graph showing the variation of binding energy per nucleon as a function of mass
number. Which property of nuclear force explains the approximate constancy of binding energy
in the range 30 < A < 170?
50. (b) A radioactive nucleus ‘A’ undergoes series of decays shown in the following scheme:

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If the mass number and atomic number of A3 are 176 and 69 respectively, find the mass number
and atomic number of A.
51. Distinguish between nuclear fission and fusion. Show how in both these processes energy is
released. Calculate the energy release in MeV in the deuterium-tritium fusion reaction:
52. If both the number of protons and the number of neutrons are conserved in each nuclear
reaction, in what way is the mass converted into energy? Explain.
53. Find A and Z,
54. (a) The figure shows the plot of binding energy (BE) per nucleon as a function of mass number A.
The letters A, B, C, D and E represent the positions of typical nuclei on the curve. Point out,
giving reasons, the two processes (in terms of A, B, C, D and E), one of which can occur due to
nuclear fission and the other due to nuclear fusion.
(b) Identify the nature of the radioactive radiations emitted in each step of the decay process
given below.

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55. The following table shows some measurements of the decay rate of a radionuclide sample. Find
the disintegration constant.
56. If both the number of protons and neutrons in a nuclear reaction is conserved, in what way is
mass converted into energy (or vice versa) ? Explain giving one example.
57. Define the activity of a radioactive sample. Write its S.I. unit. A radioactive sample has activity of
10,000 disintegrations per second (dps) after 20 hours. After next 10 hours its activity reduces to
5,000 dps. Find out its half-life and initial activity.
58. Define activity of a radioactive substance. Two different radioactive elements with half-lives T1
& T2 have N1 & N2 un decayed atoms respectively present at a given instant. Derive an
expression for the ratio of their activities at this instant.
59. The activity R of an unknown nuclide is measured at hourly intervals. The results found are
tabulated as follows:
(2) t (h) 0 1 2 3 4
R (m Bq) 100 35.36 12.51 4.42 1.56
a) Plot the graph of R versus t and calculate half-life from the graph.
b) Plot the graph of ln (R/Ro) versus t and obtain the value of half-life from the graph.
60. (i) What is the principle behind working of nuclear reactor?
(ii) What are the main component of nuclear reactor?
(iii) Why is heavy water used as moderator?
61. State the law of radioactive decay. Write the SI unit of activity. There are 4 √2 × 106
radioactive nuclei in a given sample. If the half-life of the sample is 20 secs, how many nuclei will
decay in 10 seconds? (3)
62. Derive the relation between decay constant and half-life of a radioactive substance. A
radioactive substance reduces to 25% of its initial mass in 1000yrs. Find its half-life. (3)
63. Write the process of 𝛽 − decay. How many can a radioactive nuclei emit beta particles even
though they do not contain them? Why do all electrons emitted during beta decay not have the
same energy? A heavy nucleus splits in to two lighter nuclei. Which one of the two, parent
nucleus or daughter nuclei has more binding energy per nucleon?
64. A nucleus with mass number A = 240 and BE/A = 7.6 MeV breaks into two fragments each of A =
120 with BE/A = 8.5 MeV. Calculate the released energy.
65. Write the relation between mean life of a radioactive element and its decay constant.
66. A radioactive isotope has a half-life of T years. How long will it take for the activity to reduce to
3.125%?
15
67. The half-life period of a radioactive element is 25 days. What is the time taken for of its
16
original mass to disintegrate?

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68. (a)Write the basic nuclear process involved in the emission of positive beta particle in a symbolic
form, by a radioactive nucleus.
69. (b)In the reactions given below find the values of x,y and z and a,b and c
70. Half-life of 238U92 against alpha - decay is 4.53 x 109 years. Calculate the activity of 1g sample of
238
U92? 16.
71. (a)Derive the mathematical expression for law of radioactive decay for a sample of a radioactive
nucleus. (b)How is the mean life of a given radioactive nucleus related to the decay constant?
72. Plot a graph showing the variation of binding energy per nucleon as a function of mass number.
Which property of nuclear force explains the approximate constancy of binding energy in the
range 30 < A < 170? How does one explain the release of energy in both the processes of nuclear
fission and fusion from the graph?
73. Draw a graph showing the variation of binding energy per nucleon versus the mass number A.
Explain with the help of this graph, the release of energy in the process of nuclear fission and
fusion.
74. Four nuclei of an element undergo fusion to form a heavier nucleus, with release of energy.
Which of the two the parent or the daughter nucleus would have higher binding energy per
nucleon?
75. A radioactive isotope has a half-life of 20 years. How long will it take for the activity to reduce to
3·125%?
76. A radioactive isotope has a half-life of 10 years. How long will it take for the activity to reduce to
3·125%?

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DUAL NATURE OF MATTER AND RADIATIONS

ℎ𝑐 ℎ
Discovery of electrons (Note: 𝑒
= 1.24 x 10−6 = 1242𝑛𝑚 , 𝑒 = 4.14 x 10−15 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ𝑐 = 1.98 x 10−25 )
During experiments in discharge tube, it was found that at low pressure about 0.001mm of mercury
column, a discharge took place between the two electrodes when electric field is applied to the gas in
the discharge tube. A fluorescent glow appeared on the glass opposite to the cathode. The colour of the
glow depended on the type of the glass used. It was assumed that the radiation coming from the
cathode, named as cathode rays (1870), is responsible for the glow. These radiations consisted of fast
moving negatively charged particles and the specific charge (charge /mass ratio = e/m) of these particles
were estimated as 1.76 x 1011 C/kg. This vale was independent of the nature of material of cathode or
the gas used in the tube. Around 1887 it was found that certain metals when irradiated with UV light,
emitted negatively charged particles. Also certain metals when heated to high temperatures found to
emit negatively charged particles. The value of e/m of these particles was found to be same as that of
cathode rays. These observations thus established that all these particles although produced under
different conditions were identical in nature and were named as electrons by J J Thomson in 1897. He
was awarded Nobel Prize for this historical discovery in 1906.
1. WORK FUNCTION(ф0)
Work function is defined as the minimum amount of energy needed to liberate an electron from
a metal surface
ф0 = h𝝑𝟎 , where h = 6.624 x 10—34 J/s, Planck’s constant and 𝝑𝟎 is the threshold frequency
Threshold frequency (𝝑𝟎 ), is the minimum frequency of the incident radiation to produce
photoelectric emission.
c = 𝜗 x λ, c = 3 x 108 m/s, speed of light in vacuum and
λ is the wave length
Note: Energy of single photon, E = hυ.
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑁ℎ𝜐
For N photons,E = N hυ. Power = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
,𝑃 = 𝑡
Types of electron emission
1. Thermionic emission (work function is provided as
heat energy)

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2. Field emission (work function is provided as electric field) and

3. Photo electric emission (work function is provided as light energy or radiation)
1. Monochromatic light of frequency 6.0 ×1014 Hz is produced by a laser. The power emitted is 2.0 ×10-3
W. (a)What is the energy of a photon in the light beam? (b) How many photons per second, on an
average, are emitted by the source?
2. The energy flux of sunlight reaching the surface of the earth is 1.388 × 10 3 W/m2. How many photons
(nearly) per square metre are incident on the Earth per second? Assume that the photons in the
sunlight have an average wavelength of 550 nm.
3. A 100W sodium lamp radiates energy uniformly in all directions. The lamp is located at the centre of a
large sphere that absorbs all the sodium light which is incident on it. The wavelength of the sodium
light is 589 nm. (a) What is the energy per photon associated with the sodium light? (b) At what rate
are the photons delivered to the sphere?
Photoelectric emission is the phenomenon in which electrons are liberated from a metal
surface when it is illuminated with radiations of suitable frequency
Condition for photo electric emission
1. In terms of energy of incident light (energy of incident light greater than or equal to ф0)
2. In terms of frequency of incident light (frequency of incident light is greater than or
equal to threshold frequency)
3. In terms of wave length of incident light (wavelength of incident light is less than or
equal to threshold wavelength)
Threshold wave length is the maximum wave length of incident radiation which can
produce photoelectric emission from a metal surface.
4. Green light falling on a photo sensitive substance produce photo electric emission but
yellow cannot. What will happen in the case of a) blue light b) red light? Justify
5. Even incident light is monochromatic, the photo electrons emitted show variable
kinetic energy? Explain the reason.
6. The work function for a certain metal is 4.2 eV. Will this metal give photoelectric emission for
incident radiation of wavelength 330 nm?
7. The wavelength of light in the visible region is about 390 nm for violet colour, about 550 nm
(average wavelength) for yellow green colour and about 760 nm for red colour. (a) What are
the energies of photons in (eV) at the (i) violet end, (ii) average wavelength, yellow-green
colour, and (iii) red end of the visible spectrum? (Take h = 6.63×10–34 J s and 1 eV = 1.6×10
–19J.) (b) From which of the photosensitive materials with work functions listed in Table 11.1
and using the results of (i), (ii) and (iii) of (a), can you build a photoelectric device that
operates with visible light?
8. The work function for the following metals is given: Na: 2.75 eV; K: 2.30 eV; Mo: 4.17 eV; Ni:
5.15 eV. Which of these metals will not give photoelectric emission for a radiation of
wavelength 3300 Å from a He-Cd laser placed 1 m away from the photocell? What happens if
the laser is brought nearer and placed 50 cm away?
Note: Intensity of light falling on a surface is equal to the energy falling per second per unit area of the
surface.
𝑬 𝑵𝒉𝝑 𝑵𝒉𝒄 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓
𝑰 = 𝑨𝒕 = 𝑨𝒕
= 𝑨𝒕𝝀
= 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂
. S I unit W/m2
𝟏
It is inversely proportional to square of distance from source to the surface. Intensity ∝ 𝒓𝟐
. If distance
𝟏
is doubled intensity will be 𝒕𝒉 and if distance is halved intensity become 4 times.
𝟒

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EXPERIMENTS RELATED TO PHOTO ELECTRIC EMISSION
Variation of photo electric current with intensity of incident light
If intensity of incident light is zero photoelectric current is also zero. As intensity of incident light
increases, number of photons falling per second increases hence number of electrons emitted per
second also increase leading to increase in photo electric current proportional to intensity of incident
light. (Intensity of incident light is directly proportional to the number of photons falling per second per
unit area of the surface)
Variation of photo electric current with anode(collector plate) potential

a)with same frequency and varying intensity

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1. Even when potential on the collector plate is zero, out of the emitted electrons more energetic are
able to reach the collecting plate, producing non-zero photo electric current.
2. When positive potential applied on the collecting plate is increased, photoelectric current also
increases because even electrons with less kinetic energy are able to reach the collecting plate due to
the attraction from the positive potential
3. At a particular high positive potential electrons emitted per second is equal to the electrons reaching
the collecting plate per second. From this potential onwards photo electric current becomes a constant
known as saturation current.
4. When negative potential is given to collecting plate photo electric current decreases (due to repulsion
number of electrons reaching the collecting plate per second will decrease)
5. At a particular negative potential on the collecting plate photoelectric current becomes zero. This
particular potential is known as stopping potential or cut off potential (V0). At stopping potential,
Kinetic energy of photo electrons = work done by stopping potential
K max = eV0
𝟏
𝟐
mv2 = eV0
6.If intensity of incident light is increased number of photons falling per second will increase, number of
electrons emitted per second also will increase leading to increase in photo electric current.
7.Since frequency of incident photons remains the same, energy of incident photons remains same;
kinetic energy of emitted electrons also remains the same, leaving the stopping potential unchanged
Variation of photo electric current with anode (collector plate) potential.

b) with same intensity and varying frequency.
Points 1 to 6 are same as last experiment)
7. If frequency of incident light is increased, energy of incident light increase, energy of electrons
emitted also increase, leading to an increase in stopping potential

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8. Since intensity of incident light remains the same, number of photons falling per second will be the
same, number of electrons emitted per second also will remain the same leaving to photo electric
current a constant.
WAVE THEORY AND PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
Wave theory is a total failure in explaining photoelectric effect
1. If light is considered as a wave, energy of incident light is absorbed by many electrons over
which the wave is incident. Hence it need hours of exposure for one electron to gain enough
energy to get emitted, that means photoelectric emission cannot be instantaneous.
2. Since each electron share the energy of incident light wave, even light with very low frequency
(below threshold frequency) can produce photo electric emission if provided with sufficient
intensity. That means wave theory cannot explain the existence of threshold frequency
3. According to wave theory each electron shares the energy of incident light wave. Hence kinetic
energy of emitted electrons can increase with increase in intensity of light, which is against
experimental observations of photo electric effect
4. Increase in frequency lead to increase in energy of incident light and may lead to emission of
more electrons and hence can lead to increase in photo electric current, which is against
experimental observations of photo electric effect
Laws of photo electric emission
1. For every metal surface, there is a minimum frequency called threshold frequency below which
no photo electric emission takes place. (no matter whatever be the intensity of the incident
radiation or how long the radiations were allowed to fall on the metal)
2. Maximum velocity, maximum kinetic energy and hence the stopping potential of the ejected
electrons depends only on the frequency of the incident radiation and is independent of the
intensity of the incident radiation.
3. Number of photo electrons ejected and hence the saturation current is directly proportional to
the intensity of the incident radiation and is independent of the frequency of the incident
radiation.
4. The photo electric emission is an instantaneous process. (There is no time lag between the
absorption of the photon and the emission of the electron, if frequency of the incident radiation
is greater than threshold frequency.)
EINSTEIN’S PHOTOELECTRIC EQUATION
Einstein used Planck’s quantum theory to explain photoelectric effect. According to this theory, light
consists of discrete energy packets known as photons. Energy of one photon is E = h𝜗.
Where h = 6.624 x 10—34Js is the Planck’s constant and ν the frequency of light.
According to Einstein complete energy of one incident photon (h 𝜗) is absorbed by one electron. It is
used for two purposes

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1) to provide work function to the metal so that electron is liberated (ф0)

2) the rest energy is used to provide kinetic energy of emitted electrons (Kmax)
h 𝜗 = ф0 + Kmax
When 𝜗 = 𝝑𝟎 , v = 0, Kmax= 0, h𝝑𝟎 = ф0
h 𝜗 = h𝝑𝟎 + Kmax (1)
Kmax = h (𝜗 – 𝝑𝟎 )
eV0 = h (𝜗 –𝝑𝟎 ) (2)

1 2
m𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = h (𝜗 – 𝜗0) (3)
2
Any one of these equations (1) (2) or (3) is known as Einstein’s

photo electric equation
9. The work function of caesium is 2.14 eV. Find (a)the threshold frequency for caesium, and (b) the
wavelength of the incident light if the photocurrent is brought to zero by a stopping potential of 0.60V.
10. UV rays of wavelength 2271A0 from a 100W mercury lamp falls on a photocell. If the stopping
potential is 1.3V. Estimate the work function of the metal. What will be the response of the
photocell for a high intensity source of 6328A0. Justify your answer.
11. The threshold frequency of a metal is f0. When light of frequency 2 f0 falls on the metal
maximum velocity of electrons emitted is v1. When light of frequency 5 f0 falls on the metal
maximum velocity of electrons emitted is v2 . Calculate the ratio of velocities.
12. A monochromatic beam of light falls on the cathode of a photocell. Explain with reason how the
(a) kinetic energy of electrons emitted, (b)stopping potential , (c)photo electric current and
(d) maximum velocity of electrons , change when (i) frequency of incident radiation is increased,
(ii) intensity of incident radiation is increased, (iii) distance between the source and photocell is
halved?
13. When radiation of 4000 A0 is incident on a metal, the photo electrons emitted has maximum
kinetic energy of 1eV. Calculate the maximum wavelength of incident radiation for which
photoelectrons will be emitted from the same surface.
14. An alpha particle and an electron are accelerated by the same potential. Calculate the ratio of
their velocities acquired.
15. The work function of caesium metal is 2.14 eV. When light of frequency 6 ×1014Hz is incident on the
metal surface, photoemission of electrons occurs. What is the (a) maximum kinetic energy of the
emitted electrons, (b) Stopping potential, and (c) maximum speed of the emitted photoelectrons?
16. The photoelectric cut-off voltage in a certain experiment is 1.5 V. What is the maximum kinetic energy
of photoelectrons emitted?
17. The threshold frequency for a certain metal is 3.3 × 1014 Hz. If light of frequency 8.2 × 1014 Hz is
incident on the metal, predict the cutoff voltage for the photoelectric emission.
18. Light of frequency 7.21 × 1014 Hz is incident on a metal surface. Electrons with a maximum speed of
6.0 × 105 m/s are ejected from the surface. What is the threshold frequency for photoemission of
electrons?

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19. Light of wavelength 488 nm is produced by an argon laser which is used in the photoelectric effect.
When light from this spectral line is incident on the emitter, the stopping (cut-off) potential of
photoelectrons is 0.38 V. Find the work function of the material from which the emitter is made.
Explanation of laws of photo electric emission using Einstein’s equation
1. Kmax = h (𝜗 – 𝝑𝟎 ) (1)
If the frequency of incident light is less than the threshold frequency (𝜗 < 𝝑𝟎 ), KE of electron is
negative. That means no photo electric emission will take place. For photo electric emission to take
place frequency of incident light is greater than threshold frequency
2. When 𝜗 > 𝝑𝟎 , as the frequency of incident light increases, according to equation (1)KE of
electrons emitted also increases
3. As intensity of incident light increases number of photons falling per second increases number of
electrons emitted per second also increases leading to increase in photo electric current
4. Photo electric effect is the absorption of a light photon by a single electron. Even for low intensity
light, this process remains same and the electron will be emitted if 𝜗 > 𝝑𝟎
PROPERTIES OF PHOTONS
Page 396 properties of photons
1. Interaction of radiation with matter, radiation behaves like made up of particles (photons)
ℎ𝑐 ℎ𝜗 ℎ
2. Each photon has energy E = h𝜗 = 𝜆 , momentum, p = 𝑐 = 𝜆 and speed, c speed of light.
3. Photons are electrically neutral, and are not deflected by electric or magnetic field.
4. In photon – particle collision, the total energy and total momentum are conserved, but number
of photons may not be conserved.
5. Energy of each photon is independent of intensity of radiation.
1. Monochromatic light of wavelength 632.8 nm is produced by a helium-neon laser. The power emitted
is 9.42 mW. (a) Find the energy and momentum of each photon in the light beam, (b) How many
photons per second, on the average, arrive at a target irradiated by this beam? (Assume the beam to
have uniform cross-section which is less than the target area), and (c) How fast does a hydrogen
atom have to travel in order to have the same momentum as that of the photon?
De Broglie hypothesis / De Broglie Waves (matter waves)
Matter behaves like waves with wavelength λ = h/p, where p =mv is the linear momentum and h the
Planck’s constant. The waves associated with moving matter is known as de Broglie waves or matter
waves. Wave nature is not practically observed in the case of macroscopic objects due to their large
mass.
Expression for de Broglie wave length
According to Einstein’s mass energy relation E = mc2
According to Planck’s quantum theory E = h 𝜗 = h𝑐/𝜆
mc2 = hc/λ
mc = h/λ
λ = h/mc
λ = h/p p = mv, for particles of mass m which move with velocity v

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Expression for De Broglie wave length of electron accelerated by a potential difference V
Relation between kinetic energy and momentum is K = p2/2m or p = √2𝑚𝐾
𝒉 𝒉
λ= But K = qV so λ =
√𝟐𝒎𝑲 √𝟐𝒎𝒒𝑽
𝒉 𝟏𝟓𝟎 0
For electron q = e hence λ = λ=√ 𝑽
A
√𝟐𝒎𝒆𝑽
𝟏𝟐.𝟐𝟕 𝟏.𝟐𝟐𝟕
λ= A0 or λ = 𝐧𝐦.
√𝑽 √𝑽
Note:
ℎ 3
1. For a neutron with kinetic energy K , De Broglie wavelength, 𝜆 = 2𝑚𝐾
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐾 = 2
𝑘𝐵 𝑇. 𝑘𝐵 =
√
1.38 × 10−23 𝐽/𝐾 and T the temperature in K ( absolute temperature)
2. For an electron in a particular orbit in Bohr model,
ℎ 13.6𝑒𝑉 𝜆1 𝑛1
De Broglie wavelength, 𝜆 = 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐾 = or 𝜆𝑛 ∝ 𝑛 or =
√2𝑚𝐾 𝑛2 𝜆2 𝑛2
20. When an electron in hydrogen atom jumps from the third excited state to the ground
state, how would the de Broglie wavelength associated with the electron change? Justify
your answer.
21. What is the de Broglie wavelength associated with (a) an electron moving with a speed of 5.4×106
m/s, and (b) a ball of mass 150 g travelling at 30.0 m/s?
22. Draw a graph between de Broglie wavelength, λ and square root of accelerating potential√𝑉 .
1
23. Draw a graph between de Broglie wavelength, λ and , where V is the accelerating potential.
√𝑉
Explain the meaning of the slope of the graph.
1
24. Draw a graph between de Broglie wavelength, λ and , where V is the accelerating potential,
√𝑉
for an electron and proton. With reason indicate which graph represents electron and proton?
25. What is the de Broglie wavelength of an electron accelerated by a potential difference of 100V?
26. Calculate the (a) momentum, and (b) de Broglie wavelength of the electrons accelerated through a
potential difference of 56 V.
27. What is the (a) momentum, (b) speed, and (c) de Broglie wavelength of an electron with kinetic
energy of 120 eV.
28. The wavelength of light from the spectral emission line of sodium is 589 nm. Find the kinetic energy at
which (a) an electron, and (b) a neutron, would have the same de Broglie wavelength.
29. What is the de Broglie wavelength of (a) a bullet of mass 0.040 kg travelling at the speed of 1.0 km/s,
(b) a ball of mass 0.060 kg moving at a speed of 1.0 m/s, and (c) a dust particle of mass 1.0 × 10 –9 kg
drifting with a speed of 2.2 m/s?
30. An electron and a photon each have a wavelength of 1.00 nm. Find (a) their momenta, (b) the energy
of the photon, and (c) the kinetic energy of electron.
31. (a) For what kinetic energy of a neutron will the associated de Broglie wavelength be 1.40 × 10 –10m?
(b) Also find the de Broglie wavelength of a neutron, in thermal equilibrium with matter, having an
average kinetic energy of (3/2) k T at 300 K.
32. Ultraviolet light of wavelength 2271 Å from a 100 W mercury source irradiates a photo-cell made of
molybdenum metal. If the stopping potential is –1.3 V, estimate the work function of the metal. How
would the photo-cell respond to a high intensity (∼105 W m–2) red light of wavelength 6328 Å
produced by a He-Ne laser?

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33. Monochromatic radiation of wavelength 640.2 nm (1nm = 10–9 m) from a neon lamp irradiates
photosensitive material made of caesium on tungsten. The stopping voltage is measured to be 0.54 V.
The source is replaced by an iron source and its 427.2 nm line irradiates the same photo-cell. Predict
the new stopping voltage.
34. A particle is moving three times as fast as an electron. The ratio of the de Broglie wavelength of the
particle to that of the electron is 1.813 × 10–4. Calculate the particle’s mass and identify the particle.
35. Light of wavelength 400nm falls on two metals X and Y of work functions 2eV and 5 eV
respectively. With the help of mathematical steps show which metal emit photoelectrons?
36. An electron, an α-particle, and a proton have the same kinetic energy. Which of these particles has
the shortest de Broglie wavelength?
37. X rays of wavelength λ fall on a photo sensitive substance emitting photo electrons.
Assuming that work function of the metal can be neglected, show that the de Broglie
ℎ𝜆
wavelength of electrons emitted is √ .
2𝑚𝑐
38. The wavelength λ of a photon is same as that of de Broglie wavelength of an electron. Show that
2𝜆𝑚𝑐
the energy of photon is ℎ
times the kinetic energy of the electron.
39. An electron and proton each have de Broglie wavelength 1.6nm.
(i) Calculate the ratio of their momenta.
(ii) Compare the kinetic energy of the proton with the electron.
40. A particle of mass M at rest decays in to two particles of masses m1 and m2 with velocities v1
and v2 respectively. Calculate the ratio of their de Broglie wavelengths.
41. Two metals A and B have work functions 2eV and 4eV respectively. Which one of the two metals
has higher threshold wavelength?
42. How does the kinetic energy of photoelectrons vary with work function of metals, for same
frequency of incident light?
Davison – Germer Experiment
Importance of the experiment is that it proves the wave nature of matter (electrons)
Principle: diffraction effects with beams of electrons scattered by crystals.
Experimental set up

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1. Electron gun used to produce a beam of high speed electrons. It consists of a filament coated
with barium oxide which emits electrons when heated and an arrangement to produce a
collimated beam of accelerated electrons
2. Target. A nickel plate placed in the path of High speed electrons act as the target. It scatters the
incident electron beam in to different angles
3. Scale and detector arrangement is used to measure the intensity and angle of deviation of
electron beams.
Experiment observation and conclusion
The intensities of electron beams at different angles of deviation are measured for constant
accelerating potentials ranging from 44V to 68V. A sharp rise in electron intensity is found at
54V for an angle of 50 degrees. The appearance of the peak in a particular direction is due to the
constructive interference of electrons scattered from different layers of the regularly spaced
atoms of the crystals. From the electron diffraction measurements, the wavelength of matter
waves was found to be 0.165 nm.
150
Wave length of electron waves calculated by de Broglie relation, λ = √ 54 A0 = 0.167nm. This
value is in excellent agreement with that obtained from electron diffraction studies. This
strikingly confirms the wave nature of electrons and hence the wave nature of matter.
Note: In 1989, the wave nature of a beam of electrons was experimentally demonstrated in a double-slit
experiment, similar to that used for the wave nature of light. Also, in an experiment in 1994,
interference fringes were obtained with the beams of iodine molecules, which are about a million times
more massive than electrons.
Application
The concept of de Broglie waves is successfully utilized in the construction of electron

microscope which provide better resolution over optical microscope. The de Broglie hypothesis
has been basic to the development of modern quantum mechanics.
43. Draw a graph between

2 ( 𝑣 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜 𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜗
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥
(frequency of incident radiations) . Explain how you determine the value of Planck’s constant
and work function from the graph.
44. A monochromatic source, emitting light of wavelength 600nm, has a power of 66W. Calculate
the number of photons emitted in 2 minutes.
45. Draw schematic diagrams to show wave nature of electron as (i) localized wave packet and (ii)
extended wave definite momentum ( means constant wave length) refer page 401 NCERT text
Book.
Graph between stopping potential and frequency of incident light

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According to Einstein’s photo electric equation, eV0 = h (𝜗 –𝝑𝟎 )

ℎ ℎ
V0 = ( 𝑒 ) 𝜗 – 𝑒
𝝑𝟎 (1)
This equation is similar to the equation of a straight line y = m𝑥 – c (2)
Comparing (1) and (2)
a) slope of the V0 v/s 𝜗 graph = h/e

(Slope of the V0 v/s 𝜗 graph) x e = h, Planck’s constant
b) Y- Intercept of the V0 v/s 𝜗 graph = ф0/e
(Y- Intercept of the V0 v/s) 𝜗 graph) x e =φ 0
c) X – intercept = threshold frequency(𝝑𝟎 )
46. In an experiment on photoelectric effect, the slope of the cut-off voltage versus frequency of incident
light is found to be 4.12 × 10–15 V s. Calculate the value of Planck’s constant.
Graph between kinetic energy of emitted electrons and frequency of incident light
According to Einstein’s photo electric equation, K = h

(𝜗 – 𝝑𝟎 )
K = h 𝜗 – h𝝑𝟎 (1)
This equation is similar to the equation of a straight line y = m𝒙 – c (2)

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Comparing (1) and (2)
a) slope of the KE v/s 𝜗 graph = h

b) Y- Intercept of the KE v/s 𝜗 graph = ф0
c) X – intercept = 𝝑𝟎
EXPRESSIONS
1. ф0 = h𝝑𝟎 , where h = 6.624 x 10—34 J/s, Planck’s constant and 𝝑𝟎 is the threshold frequency
2. c = 𝜗 x λ, c = 3 x 108 m/s, speed of light in vacuum and λ is the wave length
3. Condition for photoelectric emission
In terms of energy of incident light (energy of incident light greater than or equal to ф0)
In terms of frequency of incident light (frequency of incident light is greater than or equal to
threshold frequency)
In terms of wave length of incident light (wavelength of incident light is less than or equal to
threshold wavelength)
𝟏
4. Intensity of light ∝ 𝒓𝟐
.
𝟏
5. K max = eV0 𝟐
m𝒗𝟐𝒎𝒂𝒙 = eV0
6. h 𝜗 = h𝝑𝟎 + Kmax
7. Kmax = h (𝜗 – 𝝑𝟎 )
8. eV0 = h (𝜗 –𝝑𝟎 )
1
9. 2
mv2 = h (𝜗 – 𝜗0)
10. For N photons, E = Nh𝜗 . For one photon E = h𝜗, Power = Energy / time , P = Nh𝜗/t
11. Intensity of light = Power /Area ( Watt/m2)
ℎ𝑐 ℎ𝜗 ℎ
12. For photons, E = h𝜗 = 𝜆 , momentum, p = 𝑐 = 𝜆 and speed, c speed of light.
13. λ = h/p p = mv, for particles of mass m which move with velocity v
14. p = √2𝑚𝐾
ℎ
15. λ= K = qV = eV for electron.
√2𝑚𝐾
ℎ
16. λ =
√2𝑚𝑞𝑉
17.
ℎ 150 12.27 1.227
For electron q = e hence λ = λ=√ 𝑉
A0 λ= A0 or λ = nm
√2𝑚𝑒𝑉 √𝑉 √𝑉
18. Saturation current is directly proportional to intensity of incident light, and is independent of
frequency of incident light
19. Stopping potential is independent of intensity of incident light, but it increases with frequency of
incident light.

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1. Radiation of frequency 1015 Hz is incident on three photo sensitive surfaces A, B and C. Following
observations are recorded:
a) no photoemission occurs
b) photoemission occurs but the photoelectrons have zero kinetic energy.
c) photo emission occurs and photoelectrons have some kinetic energy.
2. Based on Einstein’s photo-electric equation, explain the three observations.
3. Plot a graph showing variation of photoelectric current with intensity of incident light. The work
functions of Na and Mo are 2.75eV and 4.174eV. Which of these will not emit electrons when a
laser beam of 3300A0 is used? Justify. What happens if the source of laser beam is brought
closer?
4. Define cut off frequency in photo electric emission. The threshold frequency of a metal is f.
when a light of frequency 2f is used maximum velocity of photo electrons is v1. When the
frequency of the radiation is increased to 5f, the maximum velocity of photoelectrons is v2. Find
the ratio of v1 to v2.
5. State de-Broglie hypothesis.
6. An electron and alpha particle have the same kinetic energy. How are the de-Broglie
wavelengths associated with them related?
7. Plot a graph showing the variation of photoelectric current with collector plate potential at a
given frequency but for two different intensities I1 and I2, where I2> I1.
8. An electron and a photon each have a wavelength 1326 nm. Find the ratio of the kinetic energy
(K) of the electron to the energy (E) of the photon.
9. Show graphically, the variation of the de-Broglie wavelength (λ) with the potential (V) through
which an electron is accelerated from rest.
10. An alpha particle and a proton are accelerated from rest by the same potential. Find the ratio of
their de-Broglie wavelengths.
11. Figure shows variation of stopping potential (V0 ) with the frequency (n) for two photosensitive
materials M1 and M2 .
(i) Why is the slope same for both lines? (ii) For which material will the emitted electrons have
greater kinetic energy for the incident radiations of the same frequency? Justify your
answer.
12. An electron and a photon each have a wavelength 1.00 nm. Find (i) their momenta, (ii) the
energy of the photon and (iii) the kinetic energy of electron
13. X-rays fall on a photosensitive surface to cause photoelectric emission. Assuming that the work
function of the surface can be neglected, find the relation between the de-Broglie wavelength
(λ) of the electrons emitted to the energy (E v ) of the incident photons. Draw the nature of the
graph for λ as a function of E v
14. An electron is accelerated through a potential difference of 144 volts. What is the de-Broglie
wavelength associated with it? To which part of the electromagnetic spectrum does this
wavelength correspond?
15. Two monochromatic radiations of frequencies v1 and v2 (v1 > v2) and having the same intensity
are, in turn, incident on a photosensitive surface to cause photoelectric emission. Explain, giving

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reason, in which case (i) more number of electrons will be emitted and (ii) maximum kinetic
energy of the emitted photoelectrons will be more.
16. Write the relation between de-Broglie wave lengths associated with the electron and its kinetic
energy E.
17. A proton and an electron have same velocity. Which one has greater de-Broglie wavelength and
why?
18. Show on a graph variation of the de-Broglie wavelength associated with the electron versus
1/√𝑉, where V is the accelerating potential for the electron.
19. (i) Monochromatic light of frequency 5.0 x l014 Hz is produced by a laser. The power emitted is
3.0 x 10-3 W. Estimate the number of photons emitted per second on an average by the source.
(i) Draw a plot showing the variation of photoelectric current versus the intensity of incident
radiation on a given photosensitive surface.
20. Name an experiment which shows wave nature of electrons. Which phenomenon was observed
in this experiment using an electron beam?
21. Write Einstein’s photoelectric equation. State clearly how this equation is obtained using the
photon picture of electromagnetic radiation. Write the three salient features observed in
photoelectric effect which can be explained using this equation.
22. A deuteron and an alpha particle are accelerated with the same accelerating potential. Which
one of the two has (1) greater value of de-Broglie wavelength, associated with it and (2) less
kinetic energy? Explain.
24. Explain briefly the reasons why wave theory of light is not able to explain the observed features
in photoelectric effect.
25. Show the variation of photocurrent with collector plate potential for different frequencies but
same intensity of incident radiation.
wavelength associated with it? To which part of the electromagnetic spectrum does this value of
27. Find the ratio of energies of photons produced due to transition of an electron of hydrogen
atom from its: (i) second permitted energy level to the first level, and (ii) the highest permitted
energy level to the first permitted level.
28. An electron and a photon each have a wave length of 1.50 nm. Find (i) their momenta, (ii) the
energy of the photon and (iii) kinetic energy of the electron.
29. Define the terms (i) ‘cut-off voltage’ and (ii) ‘threshold frequency’ in relation to the
phenomenon of photoelectric effect. Using Einstein’s photoelectric equation show how the cut-
off voltage and threshold frequency for a given photosensitive material can be determined with
the help of a suitable plot/graph.
30. The data given below gives the photon energy (in eV) for a number of waves whose wavelength
values (in nm) are also given.
Wavelength (nm) 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Photon Energy (eV) 6.22 3.11 2.07 1.55 1.24 1.04

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(Without doing any calculation/taking any reading), explain how one can use this data to draw
an appropriate graph to infer
(i) photon energy corresponding to a wavelength of 100 nm.
(ii) the wavelength value (in nm) corresponding to a photon energy of 1 eV.
(iii) velocity of light assuming that the value of Plank’s constant is known.
31. Draw a plot showing the variation of photoelectric current with collector plate potential for two
different frequencies, f1>f2 , of incident radiation having the same intensity. In which case will
the stopping potential be higher? Justify your answer.
32. Show on a graph the variation of the de Broglie wavelength (λ) associated with an electron, with
the square root of accelerating potential (V).
33. In photoelectric effect, why should the photoelectric current increase as the intensity of
monochromatic radiation incident on a photosensitive surface is increased? Explain.
34. Light of wavelength 2400 Å falls on a metal surface of work function 3.6 eV. What is the kinetic
energy (in eV) of (i) the fastest and (ii) the slowest electrons emitted from the surface? If the
same light falls on another surface of work function 5.5 eV, what will be the energy of emitted
electrons?
35. A proton and an electron have same kinetic energy. Which one has greater de-Broglie
wavelength and why?
36. A proton and an electron have same kinetic energy. Which one has greater de-Broglie
wavelength and why?
37. Show the variation of photocurrent with collector plate potential for different intensity but
same frequency of incident radiation.
38. An electron microscope uses electrons accelerated by a voltage of 50 kV. Determine the de-
Broglie wavelength associated with the electrons. Taking other factors, such as numerical
aperture etc. to be same, how does the resolving power of an electron microscope compare
with that of an optical microscope which uses yellow light?
39. Define the term ‘threshold frequency’ in relations to photoelectric effects.
40. Light of wavelength 2000 Å falls on a metal surface of work functions 4.2 eV. What is the kinetic
energy (in eV) of the fastest electrons emitted from the surface? (i) What will be the change in
the energy of the emitted electrons if the intensity of light with same wavelength is doubled? (ii)
If the same light falls on another surface of work functions 6.5 eV, what will be the energy of
emitted electrons?
41. Write two characteristic features observed in photoelectric effect which support the photon
picture of electromagnetic radiation. Draw a graph between the frequency of incident radiation
(v) and the maximum kinetic energy of the electrons emitted from the surface of a
photosensitive material. State clearly how this graph can be used to determine (i) Planck’s
constant and (ii) work function of the material.
42. Define intensity of radiation on the basis of photon picture of light. Write its S.I. unit.
43. Write Einstein’s photoelectric equation. State clearly the three salient features observed in
photoelectric effect, which can be explained on the basis of the above equation.
44. Light of wavelength 2500 Å falls on a metal surface of work function 3.5 V. What is the kinetic
energy (in eV) of (i) the fastest and (ii) the slowest electronic emitted from the surface? If the
same light falls on another surface of work function 5.5 eV, what will be the energy of emitted
electrons?
45. An electron and a photon each have a wavelength of 2 nm. Find (i) their momenta (ii) the energy
of the photon (iii) the kinetic energy of the electron.

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46. Plot a graph showing the variation of stopping potential with the frequency of incident radiation
for two different photosensitive materials having work functions W1 and W2 (W1 >W2). On
what factors does the (i) slope and (ii) intercept of the lines depend?
wavelength associated with it? To which part of the electromagnetic spectrum does this value of
48. (i) Which physical parameter is kept constant for the three curves? (ii) Which frequency (𝜗1 , 𝜗2
or 𝜗3 ) is the highest?
49. (a) Draw a graph showing variation of photo-electric current (I) with anode potential (V) for
different intensities of incident radiation. Name the characteristic of the incident radiation that
is kept constant in this experiment. (b) If the potential difference used to accelerate electrons is
doubled, by what factor does the de-Broglie wavelength associated with the electrons change?
50. (i) Define the term ‘threshold frequency’ as used in photoelectric effect. (ii) Plot a graph showing
the variation of photoelectric current as a function of anode potential for two light beams
having the same frequency but different intensities I1 and I2 (I1 > I2).
51. Derive an expression for the de-Broglie wavelength associated with an electron accelerated
through a potential V. Draw a schematic diagram of a localised-wave describing the wave nature
of the moving electron. 2
52. The stopping potential in an experiment on photoelectric effect is 2 V. What is the maximum
kinetic energy of the photoelectrons emitted? Also calculate the maximum velocity of the photo
electrons.
53. The maximum kinetic energy of a photoelectron is 3 eV. What is its stopping potential?
54. The stopping potential in an experiment on photoelectric effect is 1.5 V. What is the maximum
kinetic energy of the photoelectrons emitted? 1
55. An electron and a proton are accelerated through the same potential. Which one and the two
has (i) greater value of de-Broglie wavelength associated with it and (ii) less momentum? Justify
your answer. 3
56. The short wavelength limit for the Lyman series of the hydrogen spectrum is 913.4 Å. Calculate
the short wavelength limit for Balmer series of hydrogen spectrum. 2
57. A proton and an alpha particle are accelerated through the same potential. Which one of the
two has (i) greater value of de-Broglie wavelength associated with it, and (ii) less kinetic energy?
Justify your answers.
58. Point out the two curves for which the incident radiations have same frequency but different
intensities. 1

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59. An electron and alpha particle have the same de Broglie wavelength associated with them. How
are their kinetic energies related to each other?
60. The equivalent wavelength of a moving electron has the same value as that of a photon having
an energy of 6 X 10-17 J. Calculate the momentum of the electron.
61. The work function for a given photosensitive surface is 2.5 eV. When light of frequency v falls on
this surface, the emitted photoelectrons are completely stopped by applying a retarding
potential of 4.1 V. Estimate the value of the frequency v of the light.
62. An electromagnetic wave of wavelength λ is incident on a photosensitive surface of negligible
work function. If the photo-electrons emitted from this surface have the de-Broglie wavelength
2𝑚𝑐 2
λ1 , prove that λ= 𝜆1
ℎ
63. An electron and a proton have the same de Broglie wavelength associated with them. How is
their kinetic energy related to each other?
64. Plot a graph showing variation of photoelectric current with collector plate potential at a given
frequency and intensity of incident radiation. What does the intercept of the graph with
potential axis signify?
65. How does the stopping potential applied to a photocell change, if the distance between the light
source and the cathode of the cell is doubled?
66. What is the stopping potential of a photocell, in which electrons with a maximum kinetic energy
of 6 eV are emitted?
67. What is the stopping potential applied to a photocell, if the maximum kinetic energy of
electrons emitted is 5 eV?
68. An electron and a photon each have a wavelength 6630 Å. Find the ratio of the kinetic energy
(KE) of the electron to the energy (E) of the photon.
69. Write Einstein’s photoelectric equation in terms of the stopping potential (V0) and the
frequency of the incident radiation (v) for a given photosensitive surface. Draw a suitable graph
to show how one can get the information about (i) the work function of the material and (ii)
value of Planck’s constant from this graph.
70. An electron and a proton, each have de Broglie wavelength of 1.00 nm. (a) Find the ratio of their
momenta. (b) Compare the kinetic energy of the proton with that of the electron.
71. Write the expression for the de-Broglie wavelength associated with an electron accelerated
through a potential ‘V’.
72. Ultraviolet light of wavelength 2271 A0 from 100 W mercury source irradiates a photocell made
of molybdenum metal. If the stopping potential is –1.3 V, estimate the work function of the
metal. How would the photocell respond when the source is replaced by another source of high
intensity (~10 W/m2 ) red light of wavelength 6328 A0. Justify your answer.
73. Write the expression for the de Broglie wavelength associated with a charged particle having
charge ‘q’ and mass ‘m’, when it is accelerated by a potential V.
74. Write Einstein’s photoelectric equation and point out any two characteristic properties of
photons on which this equation is based. Briefly explain the three observed features which can
be explained by this equation.
75. The given graph shows the variation of photo-electric current (I) versus applied voltage (V) for
two different photosensitive materials and for two different intensities of the incident radiation.
Identify the pairs of curves that correspond to different materials but same intensity radiation.

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76. (a) Why photoelectric effect cannot be explained on the basis of wave nature of light? Give
reasons. (b) Write the basic features of photon picture of electromagnetic radiation on which
Einstein’s photoelectric equation is based.
77. Show a plot of variation of photoelectric current with intensity of radiation falling on it.
79. An electron is revolving around the nucleus with a constant speed of 2.5 x 108 m/s. Find the de
Broglie wavelength associated with it.
80. A beam of monochromatic radiation is incident on a photosensitive surface. Do the emitted
photoelectrons have the same energy? Does the kinetic energy of the emitted electrons depend
on the intensity of incident radiation? On what factors does the number of emitted
photoelectrons depend?
81. Draw a plot showing the variation of de Broglie wavelength of electron as a function of its K. E.
82. Write Einstein’s photoelectric equation and mention which important features in photoelectric
effect can be explained with the help of this equation. The maximum kinetic energy of the
photoelectrons gets doubled when the wavelength of light incident on the surface changes from
𝜗1 to 𝜗2. Derive the expressions for the threshold wavelength λ0 and work function for the metal
surface.
83. Define the term ‘intensity of radiation’ in photon picture of light. Ultraviolet light of wavelength
2270 Å from 100 W mercury source irradiates a photo cell made of a given metal. If the stopping
potential is – 1·3 V, estimate the work function of the metal. How would the photo cell respond
to a high intensity (~ 105 Wm–2) red light of wavelength 6300 Å produced by a laser?
84. (a) Give a brief description of the basic elementary process involved in the photoelectric
emission in Einstein’s picture. (b) When a photosensitive material is irradiated with the light of
2
frequency v, the maximum speed of electrons is given by Vmax . A plot of 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 is found to vary
with frequency v as shown in the figure. Use Einstein’s photoelectric equation to find the
expressions for (i) Planck’s constant and (ii) work function of the given photosensitive material,
in terms of the parameters l, n and mass m of the electron.

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85. Set up Einstein’s photoelectric equation using the photon picture of electromagnetic radiation.
Explain briefly how this equation accounts for all the observations in the photoelectric effect.
86. Determine the value of the de Broglie wavelength associated with the electron orbiting in the
ground state of hydrogen atom (Given En = – (13·6/n2) eV and Bohr radius ro = 0·53 Å). How will
the de Broglie wavelength change when it is in the first excited state?
87. Given the ground state energy E0 = – 13·6 eV and Bohr radius a0 = 0·53 Å. Find out how the de
Broglie wavelength associated with the electron orbiting in the ground state would change
when it jumps into the first excited state.
88. How does one explain, using de Broglie hypothesis, Bohr’s second postulate of quantization of
orbital angular momentum?
89. The wavelength of light from the spectral emission line of sodium is 589 nm. Find the kinetic
energy of the electron for which it would have the same de Broglie wavelength.
90. (a) Write three observed features of photoelectric effect which cannot be explained by wave
theory of light. Explain how Einstein’s photoelectric equation is used to describe these features
satisfactorily. (b) Figure shows a plot of stopping potential (V0) with frequency of incident
radiation for two photosensitive materials M1 and M2. Explain (i) why the slope of both the
lines is same? (ii) for which material emitted electrons have greater kinetic energy for the same
frequency of incident radiation?
91. When the electron orbiting in hydrogen atom in its ground state moves to the third excited
state, show how the de Broglie wavelength associated with it would be affected.
92. A proton and an a-particle have the same de-Broglie wavelength. Determine the ratio of (i) their
accelerating potentials (ii) their speeds.
93. (a) Define the term ‘intensity of radiation’ in terms of photon picture of light. (b) Two
monochromatic beams, one red and the other blue, have the same intensity. In which case (i)
the number of photons per unit area per second is larger, (ii) the maximum kinetic energy of the
photoelectrons is more? Justify your answer.
94. Deuterons and alpha particles are accelerated through the same potential. Find the ratio of the
associated de Broglie wavelengths of the two.
95. (a) Describe briefly three experimentally observed features in the phenomenon of photoelectric
effect. (b) Discuss briefly how wave theory of light cannot explain these features.
96. (a) Write the important properties of photons which are used to establish Einstein’s
photoelectric equation. (b) Use this equation to explain the concept of (i) threshold frequency
and (ii) stopping potential.
97. Show that the radius of the orbit in hydrogen atom varies as n2, where n is the principal
quantum number of the atom.
98. The equivalent wavelength of a moving electron has the same value as that of a photon of
energy 6 x 10–17 J. Calculate the momentum of the electron.
99. (a) Monochromatic light of frequency 6 x 1014 Hz is produced by a laser. The power emitted is
2mW. How many photons per second on an average are emitted by the source?

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100. When an electron in hydrogen atom jumps from the third excited state to the ground state, how
would the de Broglie wavelength associated with the electron change? Justify your answer.
101. (b) Figure shows variation of stopping potential (V0) vs. frequency (v) of incident radiation for
two metals X and Y. Which metal will emit electrons of larger kinetic energy for same
wavelength of incident radiation? Explain.
102. Using the graph shown in the figure for stopping potential V/s the incident frequency of
photons, calculate Planck’s constant.
103. Light of intensity ‘I’ and frequency ‘v’ is incident on a photosensitive surface and causes
photoelectric emission. What will be the effect on anode current when (i) the intensity of light is
gradually increased, (ii) the frequency of incident radiation is increased, and (iii) the anode
potential is increased? In each case, all other factors remain the same.
104. Explain, giving justification in each case. Light of intensity ‘I’ and frequency ‘v’ is incident on a
photosensitive surface and causes photoelectric emission. What will be the effect on anode
current when (i) the intensity of light is gradually increased, (ii) the frequency of incident
radiation is increased, and (iii) the anode potential is increased? In each case, all other factors
remain the same. Explain, giving justification in each case.
105. A monochromatic light source of power 5mW emits 8X1015 photons per second. This light ejects
photoelectrons from a metal surface. The stopping potential for this set up is 2V. Calculate the
work function of the metal.
106. Compare the photoelectric effect on the basis of photon theory and wave theory of light and
hence explain why the wave theory failed to explain it.
107. The wavelength λ of a photon and the de – Broglie wavelength of an electron are the same.
Show that energy of a photon is (2λmc/h) times the kinetic energy of electron. Where the
symbols have their usual meaning.
108. Explain how does (i) photoelectric current and (ii) kinetic energy of the photoelectrons emitted
in a photocell vary if the frequency of incident radiation is doubled, but keeping the intensity
same? Show the graphical variation in the above two cases. (SQP 2018M)

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109. (i) Name the experiment which confirms the existence of wave nature of electrons. Derive the
expression for de-Broglie wavelength of an electron moving under a potential difference of V
volts. (ii) An electron and a proton have the same Kinetic Energy. Which of these particles has
the shorter de-Broglie wavelength? (SQP 2018M)
110. In the wave picture of light, intensity of light is determined by square of the amplitude of wave.
What determines the intensity of light in the photon picture of light? (SQP 2018M)
111. A photo sensitive surface emits photoelectrons when red light falls on it. Will the surface emit
electrons with blue light? Give reason (1)
112. Draw a plot showing the variation of photoelectric current with collector potential for different
frequencies for same intensity of radiation. Use Einstein’s equation to explain the observations
from this graph. What change will you observe if the intensity of the radiation is changed but
frequency remains the same? (3)
113. Draw a graph showing variation of photocurrent with anode potential for a particular intensity
of radiation. Mark saturation current and stopping potential. By how much
would the stopping potential for a given photosensitive go up if the frequency of the incident
light were to be increased from 4 x 1015 Hz to 8 x 1015 Hz. (3)
1
114. Plot a graph showing variation of de-Broglie wavelength versus , , where V is accelerating
√ 𝑉
potential for two particles A and B carrying same charge but of masses m1, m2 (m1 > m2).
Which one of the two represents a particle of smaller mass and why?
115. Write three characteristic features in photoelectric effect which cannot be explained on the
basis of wave theory of light, but can be explained only using Einstein’s equation.
116. Name the phenomenon which is used to establish the wave nature of electrons in Davisson and
Germer experiment.
117. (a)Define the terms ‘stopping potential’ and ‘threshold frequency’ in relation to photoelectric
effect. (b)Write two characteristic features observed in photoelectric effect which support the
photon picture of electromagnetic radiation.
118. Sketch the graphs showing variation of stopping potential with frequency of incident radiations
for two photosensitive materials A and B having threshold frequencies nA > nB. (i)In which case is
the stopping potential more and why? (ii)Does the slope of the graph depend on the nature of
the material used? Explain.
119. State two important properties of photon which are used to write Einstein’s photoelectric
equation. Define (i) stopping potential and (ii) threshold frequency, using Einstein’s equation
and drawing necessary plot between relevant quantities.
120. Write briefly the underlying principle used in Davison - Germer experiment to verify wave
nature of electrons experimentally. What is the de-Broglie wavelength of an electron with
kinetic energy (K.E.) 120 eV?
121. The given graph shows the variation of photo-electric current (I) with the applied voltage (V) for
two different materials and for two different intensities of the incident radiations. Identify and
explain using Einstein’s photo electric equation the pair of curves that correspond to (i) different
materials but same intensity of incident radiation, (ii) different intensities but same materials.

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122. A proton and an alpha particle are accelerated through the same potential difference. Which
one of the two has (i) greater de-Broglie wavelength, and (ii) less kinetic energy? Justify your
answer.
123. Define the term ‘stopping potential’ in relation to photoelectric effect. The work function for a
given photosensitive surface is equal to 2·5 eV. When light of frequency v falls on this surface,
the emitted photoelectrons are completely stopped by applying a retarded potential of 4·1 V.
Estimate the value of frequency v of light.
124. Draw graphs showing variation of photoelectric current with applied voltage for two incident
radiations of equal frequency and different intensities. Mark the graph for the radiation of
higher intensity.
125. If light of wavelength 412·5 nm is incident on each of the metals given below, which ones will
show photoelectric emission and why?
126. (a)Define the term ‘intensity of radiation’ in photon picture. (b)Plot a graph showing the
variation of photo current vs collector potential for three different intensities I1>I2>I3, two of
which (I1 and I2) have the same frequency n and the third has frequency n1>n.
(c)Explain the nature of the curves on the basis of Einstein’s equation.

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CHAPTER 9: RAY OPTICS

Rules for drawing ray diagrams

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c. Object at 2F (at center of curvature)

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d. Object between 2F and F

f. Object between F and pole of the mirror

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Relative positions of image and object in concave mirror

b. Object in front of the mirror

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d. Object between 2F and F

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e. Object between F and lens

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1. Incident light, reflected light and the normal

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a) R and f of a concave mirror is negative

b) R and f of a convex mirror is positive

c) For convex lens R1 is positive and R2 is negative

d) For concave lens R1 is negative and R2 is positive

e) For converging lens f and Power is positive

f) For diverging lens f and Power is negative

Consider a concave mirror of focal length f and radius of curvature R. ( i = r =θ)

From figure tani = PX/PC and tan2i = PX/PF

For small aperture, tani = i and tan2i = 2i

i = PX/PC and 2i = PX/PF

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Consider a convex mirror of focal length f and

From figure tani = PX/PC and tan2i = PX/PF

For small aperture, tani = i and tan2i = 2i

i = PX/PC and 2i = PX/PF

Case I: concave mirror forming real image

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From (1) and (2), PF/OF = IF/PF

Applying sign conventions, u, v and f all are negative

Case II: concave mirror forming virtual image

For small aperture, 𝑃𝐴 ≈

From (1) and (2), IC/OC = IF/PF

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Applying sign conventions, u and f are negative but v is positive

For small aperture, 𝑃𝐴 ≈

From (1) and (2), IC/OC = IF/PF

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Applying sign conventions, u is negative but v and f are positive

5. Obtain expressions for magnification in terms of (i) u and f (ii) v and f

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Bending of light at the surface of separation, when light travels

When light travels obliquely from rarer medium to denser medium,

r < i and d = i – r i=0,r=0

Refraction from denser medium to rarer medium

When light travels obliquely from denser medium to rarer

λrarer medium > λdenser , vrarer > vdenser r > I and d = r – i

nm = λ air /λmedium , nm α 1 /λmedium

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1. During reflection, wavelength, speed and

Examples /Applications of refraction

1. Object placed in denser medium, when observed

O – Object, I – image, i – angle of incidence, r – angle of refraction

Applying Snell’s law nr/nd = Sini/Sinr