CEN-204

Streamflow Measurement, River Gauging Observation Networks

Hydrologic and hydrometeorologic variables vary with space and time -- need to be observed.
Observations or data form the basis of hydrologic analysis.
These observations are made at a number of locations, instruments, network.
Group of stations form networks – basin level, state level, national level - evolve with time.
Good data gives many benefits in long-term

Hydrometry: science of water measurements.

Hydrometeorological Data Networks

Objectives
Water resources assessment for (sub)basins, units
Planning of water resources projects for irrigation, domestic and industrial water supply,
hydroelectric power generation, environmental requirements, navigation, recreation …
Flood management including forecasting;
Impacts of climate change on water resources
…

Establish and Operate Hydrological Information System (HIS)

Hydrological:

Information:

Information is data which has been processed to give them meaning and purpose.
Information serves a function and is created not simply because it is there to be measured or
because of our curiosity alone. Function is important, not only in establishing the contents and
structure of the information but also as a motivation for all involved in the development and
maintenance of the HIS.

System:

HIS is a logical and structured system to collect and store data, and provided in a form suitable
to users.
A system may also be seen as the integration of user and machine.

Design of a hydrological observations network - two considerations:

(1) observation objectives and

(2) physical characteristics of the hydrologic system to be monitored.

To know objectives, identify potential data users and their data needs.
Priorities, if are more objectives.

A good hydromet network should provide desired information to different users.

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Questions in design of a monitoring network:
(1) sampling variables (which?);
(2) sampling locations (where?);
(3) sampling frequencies (how frequently?);
(4) sampling accuracy ?
(5) sampling duration (how long?).

Answers determine the costs of establishment and operation

costs of land acquisition, construction, equipment procurement and installation, operation,
maintenance, and staffing

Steps in Network Design

1. Assess data needs
2. Identify the network objectives
3. Determine network density
4. Review the existing network
5. Select the site and equipment
6. Implement
7. Review and update networks

River Gauging Networks

Are set up to measure river stages and discharges; water quality variables.
Every major stream should be gauged near its mouth and its major tributaries should also be
gauged as feasible.

WMO (2008): first gauging station on a river where drainage area is about 1300 km2
Second station at a place in downstream where drainage area is approximately doubled
Stations are also established where significant changes in flow are observed.
Regions having small independent rivers which flow directly into sea: first hydrological station
on a stream typical of the region
Further stations to cover area and obtain information about variability.

Recommended Minimum Densities of River Gauging Stations (area in km2 per station)
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 Physiographic unit Streamflow Sediments Water quality
Coastal 2750 18,300 55,000
Mountains 1000 6700 20,000
Interior plains 1875 12,500 37,500
Hilly/undulating 1875 12,500 47,500
Small islands 300 2000 6000
Urban areas - - -
Polar/arid 20,000 200,000 200,000
Source: WMO (2008).

Accuracy:
WMO: Water depth measurement should have accuracy of about 2%, flow velocity 2% - 5%, and
discharge about 5%.
Suspended sediment conc should be estimated with an accuracy of 10%.

Design of River Gauging Networks

Not a one-time affair.
Factors affecting networks evolve with time, networks require periodic review and adjustments.

Selection of Sites for River Gauging Stations

1. Places where major rivers cross state/national borders.
2. Places where flow has changed considerably after the last upstream station.
3. Based on locations of proposed projects.
4. Locations whose data may be needed for flood forecasting.
5. Locations of interest from ecological and biodiversity perspective

Feb. 15, 2022

General site selection guidelines

1. There should be a straight, well-defined approach channel.
2. Site should not have a tendency to collect floating debris.
3. Avoid locations subject to high turbulence.
4. Ideally, flow should be confined to a single channel.
5. Channel bed should be rigid, free from large undulations.
6. Unhindered access to site in all seasons.
7. Avoid sites with a tendency for formation of vortices, reverse flow, or dead water.
8. Human interference is a problem in some places.
9. Measurement section should be clearly visible across its width.
10. There should be sufficient depth of flow across whole cross section.
11. Site should be sufficiently far from backwater or any other disturbance.

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An ideal site satisfying all requirements cannot always be found.

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Example: For the basin shown, flow in main river and its two tributaries is to be measured. What
would be the best strategy if the average flows at the three locations are: A = 100 m3/s, B = 80
m3/s, and C = 20 m3/s. Measurement error at each location is about 10%.

C B
A

Solution: If best strategy is to save money, we may operate only two stations. Options are:

1. A = B + C
2. B = A – C
3. C = A – B

If measurement errors at each location are independent. For case 1

𝜎𝐴 = √𝜎𝐵2 + 𝜎𝐶2 + 2𝜎𝐵 𝜎𝐶

where A denotes the error in the estimation of A. Neglecting product σB σC term

𝜎𝐴 = √𝜎𝐵2 + 𝜎𝐶2

Since measurement error at each place is about 10%, A = 10, B = 8, C = 2. Hence for case 1:

1. σA = (82 + 22)1/2 = 8.25 m3/s; relative error in flow at A = 8.25/100 ≈ 8%.

2. Case 2, σB = (102 + 22)1/2 = 10.2 m3/s; relative error in flow at B = 10.2/80 ≈ 13%.
3. Case 3, σC = (102 + 82)1/2 = 12.81 m3/s; relative error in flow at C = 12.81/20 ≈ 64%.

If flows at A and B and C are to be determined, best option is to operate stations B and C.
Avoid flow at C = A – B. Why ??

Standardization
Large number of stream gauging sites around world.
Necessary/ important to set up standards to set up a gauging site and do measurements.

International Standards for Hydrometry

Technical committee (TC113) of International Standards Organisation (ISO) has brought out
a large number of standards on Hydrometry.
World Meteorological Organization (WMO) publications.
Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS).

River stage
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Stage: water level in a river with respect to a datum;
Depth of flow is vertical distance between bottommost point in a cross section to water surface.
Datum - arbitrary datum or national reference (mean sea level).
Gauge height is usually expressed in hundredths or thousandths of a meter.

Discharge: volume of flow passing through a river cross section per unit time.
Unit in metric system: cubic metres per second (m3/s or cumec).

River stage

Gauge datum

Measurement of stage in a natural river is bit easy.

Measurement of River Stages

Manual Means to Measure

Staff gauges, autographic water level recorders, and digital water level recorders.

Two broad categories: (1) nonrecording manual gauges and (2) recording gauges.
These days mostly automatic recording.

Staff gauge: is an iron section (normally porcelain enameled), graduated every 10 mm, and
installed such that a part of it is always immersed in the water.

Staff gauge

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Gauge markings on bridge piers.

Staff gauges can be either vertical or inclined.

Stepped sections are installed at different locations in a line normal to flow where range of water
level variation is large.
Each of these stepped gauges should refer to common datum, should overlap sufficiently --
continuity of readings and consistency with each other.

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Stepped staff gauges.

Inclined staff gauge: a graduated surface anchored to a permanent foundation.

Inclined gauges flush with stream bank are less likely to be damaged by floods, floating ice, or
drift than are projecting vertical staff gauges.

Observations
Staff gauges are manually read generally each day in morning in lean season, (multi) hourly in
floods.
Staff gauges are an inexpensive, simple, and robust method to measure water level.

Manual gauges are read at fixed times, whereas a recording gauge provides a continuous record
of the stage.
Advantages of a nonrecording gauge are low initial cost and ease of installation.
Disadvantages: the need for an observer and less accuracy.

Direct Depth Sounding

In field investigations, depth of water from surface to bed may have to be measured.
A sounding rod is a graduated rigid rod with a base plate to measure depths up to 5 m and velocities
up to 2 m/s, for example.
To measure water depth by a sounding rod, the rod is held in the vertical position.

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SFpuFrMfYrI

Water Level Recorder

A water level recorder (WLR) senses and records water level.
It consists of a device to keep track of time and a device to record water level.
Recorders can be either analogue type or digital type.

Float-Type Water-Stage Gauges:

Consists of a float, installed in a stilling well, a graduated tape or wire, a counterweight, a pulley,
and a pointer.
It records the rise and fall of a float with river water level.
Stilling well protects float and other accessories from floating debris and dampens waves.

A float gauge provides a direct observation of river stage with good accuracy and does not require
external energy.

Float type recorder.

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Continuous drum chart stage recorder.

Pressure sensors

dipperLog is completely sealed device, contains no user-serviceable parts.

dipperLog has pressure and temperature sensors, a real-time clock, flux capacitor, microprocessor,
sealed lithium battery and non-volatile memory.

Radar Water Level Measurement

EM signal to water surface by a sensor
After hitting water surface, signal returns to sensor.
Time taken by signal to return to sensor
Radar measurement gives highly accurate water level data. A drawback is their high cost.

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If radar is mounted on satellite - satellite altimetry

Feb. 17, 2022

SARAL (Satellite with ARgos and ALtiKa)
SARAL: cooperative altimetry technology mission of ISRO and CNES (Space Agency
of France).
Overall objectives are to realize precise, repetitive global measurements of sea surface
height, significant wave heights and wind speed.
AltiKa concept: based on a wideband Ka-band altimeter (35.75 GHz, ~500 MHz).

Measurement of Discharge
River discharge = f (flow velocity, cross-sectional area) = f (river stage, stage)
Techniques to measure discharge: (1) direct measurement, (2) indirect measurement, (3) advanced
techniques.

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Direct Determination of Discharge (Q)

Either Q is measured directly or some variable on which Q uniquely depends is measured.

Velocity-Area Method
Discharge (Q) passing through a cross section:

Q=AV

A is the area of cross section of flow (m2), and V is the mean flow velocity (m/s).

Typical velocity profile

20
Fraction of Depth (%)

40

60

80

100
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Velocity (m/s)

Isovels, contours of equal velocity in a river cross section.

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Not enough to measure velocity at a single point.
Depending on accuracy required, divide cross-section into vertical segments.

Two methods to determine mean velocity over vertical velocity profile.

One-Point Measurement: If velocity distribution in a vertical is close to the classical form, then
we can assume that mean velocity occurs at 0.6 of depth (D) from the surface i.e. 0.6D. This is
used for depths less than 1.0 m
Two-Point Measurement: average of velocities at 0.2d and 0.8d depth below surface.
Used for depths > 1.0m.
If it is only possible to measure the surface velocity, surface velocity is multiplied by a coefficient,
say 0.85, to get mean Vel. Better confirm by estimating mean vel by another method.

Sketch of a velocity-area station: Divide x-section in small segments.

In each segment, measure velocity at one/more points along depth - get average velocity.
Calculate area of individual segments. Q = (A V)

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For rivers > 10 m wide, at least 20 verticals be used

For rivers < 10 m wide

Discharge in any one segment should not exceed 10% of total.

Measurement of Velocity
Number of velocity determinations depends on number of measurements possible in a reasonable
time.
Changes in river stage – rapid /slow

Measurement of Velocity by Floats

Float is an object that floats on water surface,
At times, a floating object, such as a branch of a tree, may serve as a float.

Select two X-sections sufficiently apart (for accurate assessment of float travel time) on a straight
river reach.
X-sections should be clearly marked so that time when float crosses X-section is correctly known.

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River width at u/s X-section is divided into a number of equal segments in which floats are tossed.

Float Measurement https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4uS9oOTa4PI

Mean flow velocity - float velocity X coefficient

Limitations

Current Meter:

Current meter (CM) is a device used to measure velocity of flowing water.

A rotating element (rotor) - moves due to reaction of water current.

CMs are of two types: propeller type and cup type.

Horizontal axis propeller type CM consists of a propeller mounted on a horizontal shaft.

In vertical axis CMs, 4 to 6 cups are mounted on vertical axis, rotate due to force of moving water.

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Propeller type CM causes less disturbance to flow than vertical axis rotors.

CM measurements are usually classified based on:

Means used to cross stream during observations - wading, cableway, bridge, or boat.

Wading - small streams of shallow depth only;

Deep, wide channels - cableway is stretched from bank to bank, above high water level, carriage
moving over cableway - observation platform.

CM can also be suspended from a bridge.

Bridges are advantageous from view of accessibility, not best locations hydraulically.

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Velocity should be measured on downstream of bridge.
Boats are most satisfactory for CM measurements in wide rivers.

Relation between revolutions per second N of CM and water velocity v is given by

v=a+b×N

a = starting velocity or velocity required to overcome mechanical friction,

b = a constant of proportionality.
calibration.
Measuring velocity by current meter https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-61p_YabSIs

Moving Boat Method

MB method, data collected by an observer on a boat traversing along a pre-selected path.
An echo sounder records bed profile
Force exerted on CM is a combination of two forces acting simultaneously:
a) force resulting from movement of boat along the cross-section,
b) a consequence of natural streamflow normal to that path.
observer also measures angle between the CM, which aligns itself in a direction parallel to the
movement of water and the preselected path.
Data are collected at a large number of observation points in cross section.

Velocity (vv) measured at a point is velocity of water past CM is vector sum of velocity of water
(v) and velocity of boat (vb) wrt bed.
Velocity of streamflow can be obtained by measuring angle  between path of boat and the vane
which aligns itself in a direction parallel to movement of water past it.

Preselected
Boat boat path 
vv
vb
Flow

v
Verticals

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Flow velocity v, perpendicular to boat path (true course) at each observation point 1, 2, 3,…, can
be determined from relationship

v = vv sin 

Accuracy of a MB measurement depends upon skill of boat operator in maintaining a desired

course.
It is important that deviations from true course be kept as few in number and as small in
magnitude, as possible.

Computation of Discharge
Depending upon the size and variabilities – divide river cross section into partial sections.
No partial section should carry more than 5% to 10% of total discharge.
sum of cross-sectional area of each segment multiplied by average velocity of each section gives
total discharge

𝑄𝑡𝑜𝑡 = ∑𝑚 𝑚
𝑖=1 𝑄𝑖 = ∑𝑖=1 𝐴𝑖 𝑣𝑖

Qtot = total discharge, m = number of segments in cross section, Ai = the area of segment i, vi =
the mean velocity in segment i, and Qi = the discharge in segment i.

Example: To measure discharge of a small river, river width was divided into 7 segments of 1.5
m width each. Average depths and velocities for segments are given. Compute discharge in river.

Table: Depth and Velocity Data for Example

Segment # Average Velocity (m/s) at
depth (m) 0.2d 0.6d 0.8d
1 0.4 0.4
2 0.7 0.76 0.70
3 1.2 1.13 1.19
4 1.4 1.25 1.25
5 1.1 1.09 1.13
6 0.8 0.69 0.65
7 0.45 0.42

Solution: Compute average velocity in each segment as well as its area. These are multiplied to
get segmental discharge and these are summed to get total discharge.

Computation of Discharge by the Velocity-Area Method for Example.

Segment Average Velocity (m/s) at Average Area of Discharge
# depth (m) 0.2d 0.6d 0.8d velocity segment of segment
(m/s) (m2) (m3/s)
1 0.4 0.40 0.40 0.60 0.24
2 0.7 0.76 0.70 0.73 1.05 0.77
3 1.2 1.13 1.19 1.16 1.80 2.01
4 1.4 1.25 1.29 1.27 2.10 2.67
5 1.1 1.09 1.13 1.11 1.65 1.83
6 0.8 0.69 0.65 0.67 1.20 0.80
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 7 0.45 0.42 0.42 0.68 0.29
Total discharge 8.61 m3/s

Indirect Methods of Discharge Determination

discharge is not measured directly, some easily measurable variable(s) which can be related to
discharge are measured.
Use relationship between discharge and flow depth at a given location. The field measurement is
restricted to the measurements of depth only. Two important indirect methods are the slope-area
method and the use of flow measuring structures.

Feb 18, 2022

Estimation of Discharge by Slope-Area (SA) Method

Approximate and indirect method of discharge estimation
Used when not possible to use more accurate methods,

In flashy streams, high floods may pass (say in night) - not measured due to short duration.
Discharge is estimated by observing water surface slope and cross-sectional area.
May give reasonable results in channels with stable bed and banks.
Not suitable for very wide rivers, very flat slopes, high sediment conc, rivers with large curvature.

Measurement reach
Reach should be straight (as possible), stable bed and banks, length (min) 300 m.
uniform cross section (as feasible)
Cross-sectional geometry and properties at both ends are known
Manning's coefficient n, and water-surface elevations at end sections are known.
Should have good high-water marks if staff gauges are not available.
Cross section should be as uniform as possible.
Flow should be confined to a single channel - single value of n can be used for whole section.
Sudden deepening of bed, constrictions, expansions etc., should not be present.
A contracting reach is preferred;
Length of reach should not be less than 75 times mean depth in channel.

Slope of water surface is computed from gauges at two ends - should be read simultaneously.
Data of intermediate gauge(s), if present - to ascertain if slope is uniform in the reach.

Head loss is sum of two parts: frictional loss and energy loss.

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Water surface slope is computed by dividing fall (Z1 – Z2) over the reach by the distance (L).

S = (Z1 – Z2)/L

Friction slope Sf can be computed by

V2 V 
2
( Z 1 - Z 2 ) +  1 - 2  (1 - k )
2 g 2 g 
Sf=
L
k = coefficient for energy loss; equals 1 for contractions and 0.5 for expansions.

Conveyance (K) of channel at u/s and d/s sections is computed as

1
K AR 2 / 3
n
Since flow in reach may not be truly uniform, average conveyance of reach is geometric mean of
conveyances of end sections (K1 and K2).
Using values of K1, K2 and S, compute discharge by

Q K K S 
1 2 f

Manning's formula for mean velocity in reach 1 to 2

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 1 𝐴 0.667
𝑉1−2 = 𝑛 × (𝑃) (𝑆)0.5

P is wetted perimeter, A is cross-sectional area, and n is Manning's roughness coefficient.

Example: During a high flow, water-surface elevations of a small stream were noted at two
sections A and B, 1 km apart. These elevations and other salient hydraulic properties are given
below. Value of Manning’s roughness coefficient can be taken as 0.020.

Section Water-Surface Area of cross Wetted Remarks

elevation (m) section (m2) perimeter (m)
A upstream 104.770 208 67.3 A is upstream of B

B downstream 103.870 203 58.5 n = 0.020

Solution: Slope S = (104.770 – 103.870)/1000 = 0.9/1000 = 0.0009

1 208 0.667
Conveyance of Section A 𝐾𝐴 = × 208 × ( ) = 22075
0.02 67.3
1 203 0.667
Conveyance of Section B 𝐾𝐵 = 0.02 × 203 × (58.5) =23274

Peak discharge = √22075 × 23274 × 0.0009 = 679.99 m3/s

We now calculate energy loss due to constriction/expansion

679.99
𝑣𝐴 = 208
= 3.27 m/s
679.99
𝑣𝐵 = = 3.35 m/s
203
3.272 3.352
∆ℎ𝑣 = − = −0.027 𝑚
2 × 9.81 2 × 9.81
∆ℎ+∆ℎ𝑣 0.0009+0.027
Compute 𝑆𝑓 = = = 0.000927
𝐿 1000

Update Q = √22075 × 23274 × 0.000927 = 690.18 m3/s

More iterations …

Estimation of Discharge by Using Artificial Structures

Structures -- notches, weirs, and flumes, … are used to measure flow in laboratories.
Such structures are used to measure river flow in field, subject to physical and hydraulic
conditions.
Different types of structures are used to measure flow:
1. Thin-plate, sharp crested weirs: v-notch or rectangular;
2. Broad-crested weirs -- concrete or masonry -- used for bit big discharges;
3. Triangular or trapezoidal profile weirs; and
4. Flumes: Rectangular, Trapezoidal, U-shaped, …

Use of weirs and flumes to measure flow in field is not widespread:

 In many rivers, water level varies over a large range.

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  Rivers frequently carry boulders, pebbles, sediment, and other material which tend to pile
up behind these structures or choke them.
 Cost of construction and maintenance may be high.
 Use is restricted to rivers whose size is small and site conditions manageable.

Broad crested weir

Discharge Q (m3/s) in channel is a function of head H (m) of water at the structure

Q = f (H)

Advanced Discharge Measurement Techniques

Tracer Dilution Methods for Measuring Discharge

 Conventional CM method can’t be used in all cases.
 Tracer-dilution methods can be applied in some cases.
 Tracer-dilution methods are more difficult than CM method, results may be less reliable.
 Dilution methods should not be used when conditions favour CM measurement of Q.

 Tracer-dilution methods can be used in channels where flow is highly turbulent and mixing
occurs readily.
 Reach for measurement should not have loss or gain of water, reach length should be
sufficient for complete mixing.

Tracer
 An ion or compound which is introduced into river to follow behavior of flow.
 Materials like salt, fluorescent dye, or any easily measurable material (not present in
water), whose quantity is not likely to diminish by chemical reaction with materials in water
may be used as tracers.
 Should dissolve readily in water at ordinary temperatures.
 It is either absent in water of river or present only in very low concentrations.
 It is not decomposed in river and is not retained or absorbed in significant quantity by
sediments, plants, or other organisms.
 It can be detected in extremely low concentrations by simple methods.
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  It is harmless to life and environmental in concentration it is used.
 Common salt (NaCl) is frequently used as a tracer, can be detected with an error of 1%
up to a conc of 10 ppm.
 A cocktail of tracers may also be used.

Theory
Based on principle of continuity.
A tracer solution is injected into stream, diluted by flow of stream - completely mixes with flow.
By measuring rate of injection, conc. of tracer in injected solution, and conc. of tracer at a
sampling cross section d/s from injection site, Q can be computed.
Complete mixing of tracer in flow and accurate determination of initial and final concentrations
are essential.

Two methods are used to determine Q:

a) Constant-rate injection method: tracer solution is injected into stream at constant rate
for a period sufficiently long to achieve a constant conc. of tracer at d/s sampling point.
b) Sudden injection method: instantaneous injection of a slug of tracer solution and
accounting of total mass of tracer at sampling cross section.

Method – Constant Rate of Injection

A river reach is identified, measured quantity of a tracer is introduced at u/s end of reach.
At d/s end, concentration of tracer is measured at regular intervals of time.
Duration of injection should be such that a steady regime of conc is achieved for adequate
duration (10 - 15 min) in downstream section.
Sampling of stream at downstream sampling cross section will produce a conc.-time curve.

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Discharge Q is computed from eq. for conservation of mass:

𝑄 𝐶𝑏 + 𝑞𝐶1 = (𝑄 + 𝑞)𝐶2

(𝐶1 − 𝐶2 )
𝑄=𝑞
(𝐶2 − 𝐶𝑏 )

q = rate of flow of injected tracer solution, C b = background conc. of stream, C1 = conc. of tracer
solution injected into stream, and C2 is measured conc. of plateau of conc.-time curve.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Mu9sAW5ZnVw

Example: A solution of tracer (whose background concentration in the stream was zero) with
concentration of 20 gm/liter was injected into a stream at a constant rate of 10 cm 3/s. At a
sufficiently distant downstream section, the tracer had attained equilibrium concentration of 4
parts per billion. Estimate the discharge in the stream?

(𝐶 −𝐶 )
Solution: 𝑄 = 𝑞 (𝐶1−𝐶2)
2 𝑏

1 ppm = 1 mg/lit = 0.001 gm/lit = 1 gm/m3; 1 ppb = 10-6 gm/lit = 10-3 gm/m3

Given Cb = 0
C1 = 20 gm/Lit = 20103 gm/m3
C2 = 4 ppb = 410-3 gm/m3
q = 10 cm3/s = 1010-6 m3/s = 10-5 m3/s

(20×103 −4×10−3 ) 20×103

Q = 10−5 = 10−2 ×
(4×10−3 − 0) 4

= 50 m3/s

Use of Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler (ADCP)

ADCP uses sound waves in ultrasonic range and applies Doppler principle to measure velocity
profile (not velocity at a point) and compute discharge in streams.
ADCP emits several pulses of sound and then measures the response.

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Doppler’s principle relates observed change in frequency of a sound source to relative velocities
of source and observer.
Velocity measured by Doppler principle is parallel to direction of transducer emitting signal and
receiving the backscattered acoustic energy.

ADCP is typically towed by a boat

Typical boat-mounted ADCPs have three or four beams pointing between 20 and 30 degrees
from vertical.
A GPS is used to record location of boat.

ADCP measurements are fast and accurate.

ADCP can work where conventional CM can’t be used or unreliable

Flow measurement by ADCP https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S5daDMANqRI

Estimation of River Discharge from Satellite Data

Techniques to estimate river discharge by using satellite-data derived parameters.
At the locations of interest:
River width is observed at two places – used to compute time lag and flow velocity.
Channel slope is derived from DEM (digital elevation model).
Depth changes is captured by using satellite altimetry - derived water level changes
Compute discharge.

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Importance for India

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Elements of Hydrograph
Hydrograph = hydro + graph

Streamflow hydrograph normally rises after a ppt event

When rain season/storm is over -- flow begins to fall

Moving downstream (d/s), contributing area increases – flow at gauging site also increases.

Rising limb
Crest

Falling limb
Discharge

Baseflow No flow

Time

Above streamflow hydrograph - uniform rainfall and a stationary storm.

If rainfall is not uniform - kinks in hydrograph.

12000.00

10000.00
1988

8000.00
Discharge

6000.00

4000.00

2000.00

0.00
190 210 230 Days 250 270 290

If storm is moving, hydrograph shape will depend on direction of storm movement.

Rising portion of hydrograph  rising limb

Rising Limb
As surface runoff reaches river – river water level begins to rise.
As RF continues - SRO reaches river from larger areas  Q and water level continue to rise.
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Rain stops or intensity / areal coverage falls  lesser water to river, Q / water level begin to fall.

Crest: time interval bracketing highest discharge near peak of hydrograph.

If sharp peak - crest will be of short duration
Flat peak  crest segment covers a fairly long time interval.
Greatest discharge within crest = peak discharge, of immense interest in hydrologic design.
Peaks produced by small catchments -- sharp compared to those from big catchments all other
things remaining same.

Recession Limb
Portion of hydrograph after crest segment.
Also known as falling limb or recession curve.
Represents decreasing discharge as water drains out from catchment storage.
Slope indicates rate at which water is drained from catchment.
Lower part of recession - much lower slope, GW contribution.

Hydrograph Time Characteristics

Time to Peak: Time elapsed from beginning of effective RF to peak of DRO.

depends on - basin characteristics, shape (elongated, circular, any other), distance from most
upstream point to outlet, drainage density, channel slope and roughness, and soil characteristics.

Also depends upon distribution of rainfall.

Lag Time: time interval between centroid of ERF and centroid of DRO hydrograph.
Time interval between peak of RF hyetograph and peak of hydrograph
This term has many different definitions.

Time of Concentration (TC): Many definitions

Time required for a drop of water falling on most remote part of catchment to reach outlet.
Defined as time interval between end of effective RF and point of inflexion on recession limb.
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If RF of sufficient intensity continues for TC, entire drainage basin would be contributing to hyd
at TC; Q will be the max from a given storm intensity.

In a generalized form:

TC = f[length measure (L), slope measure (S), a coefficient (C) reflecting characteristics
of watershed surface]

𝑇𝑐 = 𝐶𝐿𝑎 𝑆 𝑏

where a and b are exponents depending on watershed properties.

Kirpich formula (1940) for small watersheds in Pennsylvania and Tennessee, USA

tc = 0.06628 L0.77 / S 0.385

where tc is TC (hours), L is length of principal watercourse from basin outlet to divide (km), and
S is slope between max and min elevations (meters per meter).
assumes uniform rainfall over catchment.
U.S. Soil Conservation Services:

𝑇𝑐 = 27.78 × 10−5 ∑𝑖 ((𝐿𝐾/𝑆 −0.5 )𝑖 )

L is length of overland flow (feet), K is a coefficient indicating land cover, and S = slope (percent)

Components of Streamflow
Two main components of runoff: (a) direct runoff and (b) baseflow.
Direct runoff = surface runoff + quick interflow,
Baseflow = delayed interflow + groundwater runoff
Division into quick and delayed interflows is somewhat arbitrary

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/s)
3
Surface Runoff or overland flow
Water which travels over ground surface to a drainage channel.
Most SRO flows to first-order channels -- collectively drain greatest drainage area.
SRO also includes ppt that falls directly on water flowing in channel.
Surface runoff is usually principal contributor to peak discharge from a storm.

Sheet flow
Usually occurs from an impervious surface, e.g., a paved parking lot.
Can occur in a natural watershed when RF intensity uniformly exceeds infil capacity.
Variations in soil properties and RF, uneven surface, vegetation usually -- limited sheet flow.

This water rapidly runs off over surface, first to reach channel -- forms rising limb, dominantly
contributes to peak of hydrograph.
As catchment area at a gauging site increases, slope of rising limb of surface runoff hydrograph
becomes flatter;
Discharge is typically a power function of area.
A thumb rule: in a typical hydrograph, 1/3rd volume lies under rising limb, 2/3rd under falling
limb.

Interflow or subsurface storm flow

Water which infiltrates soil layer and moves laterally beneath surface to a channel
Occurs in forest floors, where leaves, twigs, and other debris cover ground.
Surface or shallow soils filled and loosened by tree roots, rock debris covering ground surface.

Interflow is subject to much greater resistance than surface runoff – slow movement, does not
significantly add to peak Q; peak interflow reaches outlet after peak SRO has passed.

Direct Runoff = SRO + interflow

In many texts, direct runoff and surface runoff are synonyms.
SRO and interflow move faster than GW flow and hence often lumped together.

Baseflow
or GW flow, fair weather flow: runoff that reaches river by passing through underlying aquifer.
Baseflow is that part of river flow that is gradually entering river from GW storage.

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Flow in a perennial stream during extended periods of no rain is from baseflow.
In a prolonged storm event, baseflow is augmented by increased contribution from saturated
subsurface zone, as water table rises due to recharge.
Basins with highly permeable, thick soils usually have a high GW flow, a relatively low DRO.
Basins with low-infiltration capacity and/or thin soils have small GW flow and high DRO.

Presence of baseflow throughout year -- a humid climate and a shallow water table that is
hydraulically connected with stream.
Baseflow is absent in (semi)arid climates and areas of deep GW.

Catchment characteristics affecting baseflow: geology, water table position, soil thickness /
properties.

Supply of water from aquifer to river continues till adequate GW gradient.

Gradual reduction of baseflow -- baseflow recession.

Exponential recession

Qt = Q0 krt

where Q0 is flow at time t = 0; Qt is flow at time t; kr = recession constant -- dimensionless

quantity; depends upon unit of time selected; [0,1]; normally > 0.7.

Several techniques to perform baseflow separation. The area method of baseflow separation is
based upon a nonlinear relation between time and area, expressed as

Duration of baseflow
N = b A0.2

where A is the drainage-basin area in km2 ; b is a coefficient (normally equal to 0.8); and N is time
in days from hydrograph peak.
A point N distance away (on the x axis) from peak is marked on recession limb of hydrograph.
A line joining this point with point where hydrograph just begins to rise is drawn.
All the flow below the line is baseflow.

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This method is not suitable for smaller watersheds.
It generally gives a longer time base.
If A = 1000 km2, then N = 3.18 days, that is, if rainfall occurs for 6 hours, its effect will be felt for
more than 3 days.

24/02/2022
Tutorial 02 - RF variability, tipping bucket, design flood computation,

Flow Duration Curve (FDC)

FDC is a cumulative frequency curve that show the percent of time specified discharges were
equaled or exceeded during a given period.
FDC is a way to show the flow variability. Why not CV ?
FDC combines in one curve, flow characteristics of a stream throughout the range of discharge,
disregarding sequence of occurrence.

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Ordinate QP at any percentage probability P is flow in an average year that can be expected to be
equaled or exceeded P % of time.
Termed as P % dependable flow.
In a perennial river Q100 (100% dependable flow) is a finite value.
In an intermittent or ephemeral river, Q is nil for a finite part of a year  Q100 is zero.
Data used to prepare FDC can be weekly, monthly, or annual.

How to prepare FDC

Arrange data in descending order of magnitude.
If N is number of data, plotting position of any flow value is

P = m/(N+1)× 100% where m is order number of a flow value,

P is percentage probability that flow value is equaled or exceeded.

FDC is the plot of flow Q (on y-axis) against P.

FDCs are used to estimate flow for various dependabilities.

Different countries have guidelines for planning of hydroprojects. For example, in India, irrigation
projects are planned based on 75% dependable flow.

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Stage-Discharge Rating Relationship

Measurement of river stage is easy

Measurement of discharge is time consuming, requires skills, expensive equipment, …
Stage is measured more frequently.
Relation between river stage and Q at a cross section is rating curve or stage-discharge relation.
Developed by use of concurrent data of stage and Q over time.

After a stage - rating relationship is developed, only river stage may be measured frequently --
rating relation is used to convert stage to Q.
Q is measured at periodic intervals to verify existing rating relation and update, if necessary.

Simple Rating Curve

River stage is uniquely related to discharge.

300
299
298
Stage (m)

297
296
295
294
293
292
291
290
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Discharge (m3/s)

When variables other than stage - complex rating curve.

Plotting H-Q data on log-log graph paper commonly yields a straight line relationship(s).
If small scatter, a smooth curve can be drawn indicating that a simple RC is adequate.

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A simple RC is commonly represented by power equation

Q = a (H – H0)b

Q is discharge (m3/s), H is river stage (m), a and b are constants to be determined, and H0 is stage
(m) at which discharge is nil.

Taking log of both sides

Log (Q) = log (a) + b log (H – H0)

This equation plots as a straight line in log domain and can also be written as

Y=a+bX

if discharge Q and stage (H – H0) are plotted on a log-log paper, a straight line is obtained.
method of least squares is commonly used to estimate RC coefficients a and b
datum correction H0 is iteratively estimated;

Example : Forty pairs of stage-discharge data are available at a gauging site.

Fit a linear RC of power equation type.

Stage Discharge Data for Example.

SN Q m3/s Hm SN Q m3/s Hm
1 79.9 94.743 21 138.6 94.65
2 34.63 94.685 22 165.2 95.485
3 87.5 94.763 23 225.12 96.067
4 64.56 94.733 24 359.62 96.285
5 272.12 94.433 25 714 96.86
6 517.5 97.65 26 742 97.72
7 980 100.84 27 610 97.105
8 416 96.798 28 279.95 95.55
9 233.02 95.47 29 203.15 95.192
10 96.06 94.865 30 190.3 95.185
11 96.06 94.864 31 170.8 95.07
12 185.05 94.978 32 136.36 94.871
13 165.45 95.08 33 159.75 94.915
14 130.25 94.723 34 170.12 94.921
15 31.75 94.61 35 148.1 94.82
16 81.98 94.537 36 632.5 96.7
17 55 94.519 37 879.91 97.21
18 101.15 94.634 38 1738 100.238
19 98.3 94.635 39 2600 103.65
20 77.92 94.56 40 1744 100.24

Solution: Assume H0 = 93.4 m.

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 Computations are shown in Table below.

Computations to Determine Parameters of Rating Relations

SN y = Q m3/s Hm x = H–H0 (x-xm )^2 (y–ym )^2 (x–xm )(y-ym)
1 79.9 94.743 1.343 1.509 99472.1 387.4
2 34.63 94.685 1.285 1.655 130077.1 463.9
3 87.5 94.763 1.363 1.460 94735.9 371.9
4 64.56 94.733 1.333 1.534 109383.7 409.6
5 272.12 94.433 1.033 2.367 15171.3 189.5
6 517.5 97.650 4.250 2.818 14934.8 205.1
7 980 100.840 7.440 23.704 341883.4 2846.7
8 416 96.798 3.398 0.683 428.8 17.1
9 233.02 95.470 2.070 0.251 26332.2 81.4
10 96.06 94.865 1.465 1.224 89539.8 331.1
35 148.1 94.820 1.420 1.326 61103.9 284.6
36 632.5 96.700 3.300 0.531 56267.6 172.8
37 879.91 97.210 3.810 1.534 234854.6 600.3
38 1738 100.238 6.838 18.204 1802864.8 5728.9
39 2600 103.650 10.250 58.962 4860737.4 16929.2
40 1744 100.240 6.840 18.221 1819013.3 5757.2

Ave 395.292 95.971 2.571 165.002 11368005.2 41417.9

As per regression rule

b = Sxy/Sxx = (x–xm) × (y–ym) / (x–xm)2 = 41417.9/165.002 = 251.01

a = ym – b × xm = 395.292 – 251.01*2.571 = –250.15.

Here, xm denotes mean of x.

R2 = 0.9145.

Alternately, one can fit an equation by first taking log of stage and discharge values and then find
the coefficients. In this, the following equation will be obtained

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 Log10 (Q) = 1.82 + 1.62 log10 (H – 93.4)

Fit this equation with different values of H0 - adopt the line with the best fit.

Compound Rating Curve

 low stages - flow confined to main channel
 high stages - river occupies flood plains
 different conveyance characteristics
 two RCs: flow in main channel, flow in main channel + flood plain.
 Sometimes, influence of roughness and boundary conditions on Q changes with river stage
 single RC does not properly work
 up to three curves—for lower range of stages, middle, and higher range.
 necessary when cross section has a main channel and flood plains on side(s).

High stage - Flood Plain

Low stage -
Main river

To develop a compound RC, H-Q data are plotted on a log-log graph, examined to identify change
points.
Stage-discharge relation for the different segments can be developed as above.

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 Feb. 25, 2022

Hysteresis in Rating Curves

Large rivers with flat-bed slopes and significant changes in flow rates - impacts of unsteady flow
on rating may be significant.
Rising stage - velocity and Q at a given stage are higher than at steady-state flow
Hydrograph recession - situation is reverse
This is hysteresis - produces a loop RC
Q ≠ f(stage alone)

Slope of flood wave front during rising stage is much steep than during steady-state
Slope of flood wave front during falling stage is less steep than during steady-state

Such behavior of river is observed in plains where the slopes are low.

Solution: plot stage and discharge data on graph paper, label points with date/ time of
measurement. Draw a looped RC.

Neglecting acceleration terms, Jones formula - relation between unsteady and steady flow
 1 dh 
Qact  Qsteady 1  
 cS 0 dt 

Uncertainty in Rating Curves

Goodness of fit of RC is usually measured by, say coeff. of determination, R2.
R2 can often be very high, indicating that estimated discharges have high precision while it may
not be so.
Uncertainties in RC may arise due to:
(1) Measurement uncertainty (errors associated with measurements of H and Q) and
(2) natural uncertainty due to factors -- changes in channel conditions and unsteady flow in rivers.

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