COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION

MODULE ON
MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

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UNIT 3
PROBLEM SOLVING AND REASONING
(Week 5–8)

INTRODUCTION

Mathematics is not just about numbers, much of it is problem solving and reasoning. Problem solving and reasoning are basically
inseparable. The art of reasoning is very important in Mathematics. This is the skill needed in exemplifying the critical thinking and
problem-solving ability. Logic and reasoning are very useful tools in decision making. People also do deductive reasoning extensively to
show that certain conjectures are true as these follow the rules of logic.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this topic, the students must have:

1. formulated the given in the if – then statements
2. gave examples in the different kinds of reasoning
3. solved problems using different strategies

PRETEST

Direction: Explain briefly but concisely.

1. Differentiate analogy from intuition.

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2. Compare and contrast inductive reasoning from deductive reasoning.

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CONTENT

Reasoning is the practice of stating ideas clearly and precisely to arrive at a conclusion. In our life, we often make judgment and
conclusion based on facts and observations. These are not always true. Thus, we have to know the different ways of arriving at accurate
conclusions.

KINDS OF REASONING

1. Intuition is similar to guessing. It is also called reasoning by guessing or reason by common sense. It requires less mental activity.
An intuition is the ability to acquire knowledge without proof, evidence, or conscious reasoning, or without understanding how the
knowledge was acquired. Intuition is highly subjective. Different people think about problems in different ways. It is something that
is known or understood without proof. Or evidence.

Examples:
a. In comparing two fractions, with the same numerator, one said he can subtract numerator from the denominator and the smaller
difference is the larger fraction. Is this false intuition? Verify.

A B

Figure 3.1.

Look at figure A and B. Which is bigger? You can give your answer by using intuition and without actually measuring.

b. After the first meeting in her Science class, Marife says, “I think I will like Science”.
c. Which is heavier, a kilogram of nail or a kilogram of cotton?
d. Who is prettier, Ana or Fe?

2. Analogy is a form of reasoning in which other similarities are inferred from a particular similarity between two or things. It is reasoning
by comparison.

Examples:
a. Tree is to leaf as flower is to petal.
b. Hammer is to nail as comb is to hair.
c. Finding a Good Man is Like Finding a Needle in a Haystack
-Dusty Springfield
d. Man is to woman, as boy is to girl.
e. Pencil is to paper, as chalk is to blackboard.

3. Inductive Reasoning is the process of gathering specific information, usually through observation and measurement and then
making a conjecture based on the gathered information.

Example:
a. Find the sum
1=1
1+3= 4
1+3+5= 9
1 + 3 + 5 + 7 = 16
1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 = _____
1 + 3 + 5 + ⋯ + (2𝑛 − 1) =_______
Solution:
Take note that the sum is the square of the number of odd numbers being added.
1 + 3 + 5 + 7 = 42 = 16
4 odd numbers

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1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 = 52 = 25
5 odd numbers

From this note, we can make this conjecture:

The sum of the first 𝑛 odd numbers is 𝑛2 . Or, 1 + 3 + 5 + ⋯ + (2𝑛 − 1) = 𝑛2 .

b. Ana is a girl.
Girls are talkative.
Ana is talkative.
c. Ursula is a name of typhoon.
Typhoons are unpredictable
Ursula is unpredictable.

4. Deductive Reasoning is the process of showing that certain statements follow logically from agreed upon assumptions and proven
facts.

Example:
a. Given: 4(3𝑥 − 8) + 5 = 𝑥 − 5. Solve the equation for 𝑥. Give reason for each step in the process.
Solution: 4(3𝑥 − 8) + 5 = 𝑥 − 5
12𝑥 − 32 + 5 = 𝑥 − 5 Apply distributive property
12𝑥 − 27 = 𝑥 − 5 Combine similar terms
11𝑥 − 27 = −5 Apply subtraction property of equality
11𝑥 = 22 Apply addition property of equality
𝑥=2 Use division property of equality

b. Suppose that the given statement is true. Use deductive reasoning to give another statement that must be also true.
All birds can fly.
Tweetie is a bird.

Solution: Tweetie can fly.

c. Every Filipino of age 18 and above can vote. Juan del Prado is a Filipino of age 24. Therefore, Juan del Prado can vote.
d. Scholars are intelligent.
Lino is a scholar.
Lino is intelligent.
e. Perfumes are fragrant.
Sweet honesty is a perfume.
Sweet Honesty is fragrant.

Deductive reason is used in formal geometric proofs and often resorted to in proving theorems and corollaries in Geometry.

IF-THEN STATEMENTS AND CONVERSES

Conditional- is a statement in mathematics that consists of a hypothesis and conclusion. The statements are usually written in if-then
statements.

Hypothesis- The hypothesis of a conditional states that the given facts are assumed as true. This is found in the “if” part of the conditional.

Conclusion- The conclusion of a conditional states what needs to be proven or established or true. This is found in the “then” parts of
conditional.

Converse- A converse of a given conditional is formed when if “if” and “then” parts are reversed.

Biconditional- A biconditional is a statement that combines a conditional and its converse with the phrase “if and only if” (abbreviated
as “if”). A biconditional statement combines a conditional statement with its converse statement. Both the conditional and
converse statements must be true to produce a biconditional statement.
Example 1.

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Transform the following conditional to if-then statement and point out the hypothesis and the conclusion.
a. A segment has only one point.
b. Two lines intersect at only one point.
c. Vertical angles are congruent.

Solution:
a. If-then form: If a segment is given, then it has only one midpoint.
Hypothesis: A segment is given.
Conclusion: The segment has only one point.

b. If-then form: If two lines intersect, then they intersect at only one point.
Hypothesis: Two lines intersect.
Conclusion: The two lines intersect at only one point.

c. If-then form: If two vertical angles are given, then they are congruent.
Hypothesis: Two vertical angles are congruent.
Conclusion: The two vertical angles are congruent.

Example 2.
State the converse of the given conditionals.
a. If the sum of the measures of two angles is 180°, then they are supplementary.
b. If two segments are congruent, then they have equal lengths.

Solution:
a. If two angles are supplementary, then the sum of their measures is 180°.
b. If two segments have equal lengths, then they are congruent.

Example 3.
a. A line is a bisector of a segment if it intersects the segment at its midpoint.
b. Three points are coplanar if they are contained in the same plane.

Solution:
a. Conditional: If a line is a bisector of a segment, then it intersects the segment at its midpoint.
Converse: If a line intersects a segment at its midpoint, then the line is a bisector of the segment.
b. Conditional: If three points are coplanar, then they are contained in the same plane.
Converse: If three points are contained in the same plane, then they are coplanar

Biconditional statements:
*A line is a bisector of a segment if it intersects the segment at its midpoint.
Conditional: If a line is a bisector of a segment, then it intersects the segment at its midpoint.
Converse: If a line intersects a segment at its midpoint, then the line is a bisector of the segment.
Biconditional: A line is a bisector of a segment if and only if it intersects the line segments at its midpoint.
A line intersects a segment at its midpoint if and only if the line is a bisector of the segment.

*A polygon that has four sides is a quadrilateral.

Conditional: If a polygon has four sides, then it is a quadrilateral. (true)
Converse: If a polygon is a quadrilateral, then the polygon has four sides. (true)
Biconditional: A polygon has only four sides if and only if the polygon is a quadrilateral. (true)
A polygon is a quadrilateral if and only if the polygon has only four sides. (true)

*Ask more questions in math class to understand mathematics better.

Conditional: If I ask more questions in math class, then I will understand mathematics better. (true)
Converse: If I understand mathematics better, then I will ask more questions in class. (false)
You cannot write a biconditional statement for this leftover; the truth values are not the same.

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Exercises:
1. A triangle is a polygon that has only three sides.
Conditional Statement: If a polygon is a triangle, then the polygon has only three sides.
Hypothesis: A polygon is a triangle.
Conclusion: The polygon has only three sides.
Converse: If a polygon has only three sides, then the polygon is a triangle.
Biconditional statements: A polygon is a triangle if and only if it has only three sides.
A polygon has only three sides if and only if it is a triangle.

2. A quadrilateral that has four congruent sides and angles is a square.

Conditional Statement: If a quadrilateral has four congruent sides and angles, then the quadrilateral is a square.
Hypothesis: A quadrilateral has four congruent sides and angles.
Conclusion: The quadrilateral is a square.
Converse: If a quadrilateral is a square, then it has four congruent sides and angles.
Biconditional statements: A quadrilateral is a square if and only if it has four congruent sides and angles.
A quadrilateral has four congruent sides and angles if and only if it is a square.

POLYA’S 4-STEPS IN PROBLEM SOLVING

Problem solving has been an integral part of the mathematics curriculum that must be taught alongside the various
mathematical concepts and skills that are so necessary for success in school and in real life. Most occupations require good problem –
solving skills.

In cognitive psychology, the term problem solving refers to the mental process that people go through to discover, analyze and
solve problems.

Hungarian mathematician George Polya (1877 – 1985) has had an important influence on problem solving in mathematics
education. He stated that good problem solvers then to forget the detailed and tend to focus on the structure of the problem, while poor
problem solvers focus on the opposite. He designed the following:

4-Step Process:

1. Understand the Problem. (See)

Read and understand the problem. Identify what is the given information, known data are or values and what is the unknown
and to be solved as required by the problem.
Consider the following questions:
a. Can you restate the problem in your own words?
b. Can you determine what is known about these types of problems?
c. Is there missing information that if known would allow you to solve the problem?
d. Is there extraneous information that is not needed to solve the problem?
e. What is the goal?

2. Devise a plan. (Plan)

Think of a way to solve the problem by setting up an equation, drawing a diagram, and making a chart that will help you find the
unknown and the solution. To start devising a plan, try doing the following:
a. Make a list of the known information.
b. Make a list of information that is needed.
c. Draw a diagram.
d. Make an organized list that shows all the possibilities.
e. Make a table or a chart.
f. Work backwards.
g. Try to solve similar but simpler problem
h. Write an equation, as possible define what each variable represents
i. Perform an experiment.
j. Guess at a solution and then check the result.

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3. Carry out the plan (Do)

Solve the equation you have set up and observe analytical rules and procedures until you arrive at the answer.
a. Work carefully.
b. Keep an accurate and neat record of all your attempts.
c. Realize that some of your initial plans will not work and that you will have to devise another plan and modify your existing
plan.

4. Look back (check)

In order to validate the obtained value, you need to verify and check if the answer makes sense or correct based on the situation
posed in the problem. Label your final correct answer.
a. Ensure that the solution is consistent with the facts of the problem.
b. Interpret the solution within the context of the problem.
c. Ask yourself whether there are generalizations of the solution that you could apply to similar problems.

Example 1.
A police station has 25 vehicles of motorcycles and cars. The total number of wheels is 70. Find the number of motorcycles and
cars the station has.

Solution:

Step 1. Understand the problem.

Given: 25 vehicles
70 wheels
Required: The number of cars and the number of motorcycles.

Step 2. Devise a plan.

Let x = the number of cars

y= the number of motorcycles
and x + y = 25 vehicles

4 wheels (x = cars) + 2 wheels (y = motorcycles) = 70 wheels

So, x + y = 25 vehicles and 4x + 2y = 70 wheels are the two equations formed based on the problem.

Step 3. Carry out the plan.

(1) x + y = 25
(2) 4x + 2y = 70, solving two equations with two unknowns using the process of elimination:
(1) -2 (x + y = 25) → -2x – 2y = -50
(2) 4x + 2y = 70 → 4x + 2y = 70
2x + 0 = 20
2x = 20
2 2
x = 10, since x denotes the number of cars

so, there are 10 cars. However, solving for y as the number of motorcycles is as follows:
since x + y = 25, then 10 + y = 25, y = 25 -10, finally y = 15, so there are 15 vehicles in the police station.

Step 4. Look back.

Therefore, there are 10 cars with 4 wheels and 15 motorcycles with 2 wheels. The total number of wheels is 70 wheels.

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Example 2: You recently received a windfall of 7000php, and being the smart responsible person that you
are, you invested it in an account paying an annual percentage rate of 8%. Find the amount in the account
after 9 years if the account is compounded quarterly.

Step 1: Understand the problem.

Make sure that you read the question carefully several times.

Since we are looking for compound interest, we will need the compound interest formula:

𝑟
𝐴 = 𝑃(1 + )𝑛𝑡
𝑛

The variables in this formula represent the following:

A =final amount in the account

P = initial principal balance (starting amount)
r = annual rate of interest
t = time in years
n = number of times compounded per year

Step 2: Devise a plan (translate).

In this problem,
A =? = this is the variable we are looking for
P = 7000
r = 8% = .08
t=9
n = 4 (There are 4 quarters in a year)

Plugging the values into the formula we get:

Step 3: Carry out the plan (solve).

*.08/4 = .02 and 4(9) = 36

*Add inside the ( )

*Raise 1.02 to the exponent of 36

*Multiply

Step 4: Look back (check and interpret).

If you take 7000 and compound it quarterly for 9 years, you do end up with 14279.211.
FINAL ANSWER: The compound amount is14279.21.

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Example 3: It takes you 4.5 hours to drive from your home to your favorite weekend get-away, which is 315
miles away. What is your average speed?

Step 1: Understand the problem.

Make sure that you read the question carefully several times. Since we are looking for speed, we
can use the distance/rate formula:

d = rt

The variables in this formula represent the following:

d = distance
r = rate
t = time

Step 2: Devise a plan (translate).

In this problem,
d = 315
r = ? = this is the variable we are looking for
t = 4.5

d = rt

Plugging the values into the formula we get:

Step 3: Carry out the plan (solve).

*Inverse of mult. by 4.5 is div. by 4.5

Step 4: Look back (check and interpret).

If you go at a rate of 70 miles per hour for 4.5 hours, you would travel 315 miles.
FINAL ANSWER: The average speed is 70 mph.

Example 4: The diameter of a beach ball was found to be 18 inches. What is the volume of this beach ball?

Step 1: Understand the problem.

Make sure that you read the question carefully several times.

Since we are looking for the volume of a sphere, we can use this formula:

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The variables in this formula represent the following:

V = volume of a sphere
r = radius

Step 2: Devise a plan (translate).

In this problem,
V = ? = this is the variable we are looking for
r = 9 (radius is half the diameter, so r = 18/2 = 9)

Plugging the values into the formula we get:

Step 3: Carry out the plan (solve).

*Cube 9

*Multiply

Step 4: Look back (check and interpret).

If you put in 9 for the radius, it does compute to have a volume of .

FINAL ANSWER: The volume of the beach ball is cubic inches.

Example 5: One bag of fertilizer will cover 500 square feet of lawn. Your rectangular lawn is 70 feet by 50
feet. How many bags of fertilizer will you need to cover it?

Step 1: Understand the problem.

Make sure that you read the question carefully several times. Since we are needing to find the area
of a rectangle, we can use this formula:

A = LW

The variables in this formula represent the following:

A = Area of a rectangle
L = length
W = width

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Step 2: Devise a plan (translate).

In this problem,
A = ? = this is the variable we are looking for
L = 70
W = 50

A = LW
Plugging the values into the formula we get:

Step 3: Carry out the plan (solve).

First, find the area of the lawn:

*Multiply

For every 500 square feet, you need 1 bag of fertilizer. So, we need to see how many times 500
sq. feet goes into 3500 sq. feet to find the number of bags of fertilizer needed.

*Divide

Step 4: Look back (check and interpret).

If you take 70 times 50 you do get 3500, so the area checks out. And if you take 3500 and divide it
by 500 you do get 7, so the number of bags needed checks out.
FINAL ANSWER: 7 bags of fertilizer.

In a farm, there are some pigs and chickens. If there are 87 animals and 266 legs, how many pigs are there in the
farmyard?

In this example, the use of Polya's 4-Step Strategy is very helpful in solving problem because one must read and understand
properly the problem. Specify the given information and values and what to solve. Always think of drawing a pattern, setting up the table,
working backward, or making lists and tables and design right away the needed equation and use other techniques in order to arrive at
realistic and correct answer. Though, logical shortcuts can be employed in any problem.

Learning to solve problems is not a difficult task. It can be a huge fun and ultimately challenging. However, it requires you to
think analytically, critically and creatively. Practice doing and solving is the tough secret why most students and professionals succeed
in getting the problem solved and done to make the moment of solving more enjoyable, interesting and fulfilling.

COMMON PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGIES/ HEURISTICS

Heuristics are procedures or strategies that do not guarantee a solution to a problem but provide a more highly probable method
for discovering the solution to a problem. There are many reasonable ways to solve problems. The skill at choosing an appropriate
strategy is best learned by solving many problems. You will find choosing a strategy increasingly easy. Here is a partial list of problem-
solving strategies:

1. Working Backward

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This strategy is used to solve problems that includes number of linked factors or events, where some of the information has not been
provided, usually at the beginning of the problem. This entails starting with the end results and reversing the steps you need to get
those results, in order to figure out the answer to the problem.

Example 1.
In a dancing competition, all the contestants started dancing together. After 3 minutes, half the people were eliminated. During
the next 10 minutes, half of the remaining were eliminated. At the 15-minute mark, half again were eliminated, and at the 20-minute
mark, half of those still remaining were eliminated. In the last 2 minutes, one more contestant was eliminated, leaving a winner of
the competition. How many dancers were there in the beginning?

Solution:
Note that there is one winner and that the number of contestants was halved at certain intervals. Using this information, it is
possible to work backwards by doing the opposite of the linked events in the problem and find out how many dancers entered the
competition.

Winner: 1 person dancing

Last 2 minutes (1 contestant was eliminated, so add 1): 1 + 1 = 2 dancers
After 20 minutes (the contestants were halved, so double): 2 ∙ 2 = 4 dancers
After 15 minutes (halved, so double): 2 ∙ 4 = 8 dancers
After 10 minutes (again halved, so double): 2 ∙ 8 = 16 dancers
After 3 minutes (halved, so double):2 ∙ 16 = 32 dancers at the start
Hence, 32 dancers entered the competition.

Example 2.
Anne has a certain amount of money in her bank account on Friday morning. During the day she wrote a check for Php
24.50, made an ATM withdrawal of P80 and deposited a check for Php 235. At the end of the day she saw that her
balance was Php 451.25 How much money did she have in the bank at the beginning of the day?

Solution
1. Understand the problem
Given Php 24.50 check, ATM withdrawal Php 80, check deposit Php 235
Required: Money she had in the bank at the beginning of the day

2. Devise a plan
Start with 451.25. Subtract 235, add 80, and then add 24.50.

3. Carry out the plan

So, 451.25 – 235 + 80 + 24.50 = Php 320.75

4. Look back.
Php 320.75 she had in the bank at the beginning of the day.

Example 3. A girl spent two-thirds of her money at the supermarket. Then she spent three-fourths of her remaining money
at the department store. Then she went home with only P250 left in her wallet. How much money did she have before going
to the supermarket?
1. Understand the problem
Given: P250,
Required: The original amount of money that the girl had before she had her expenses.

2. Devise a plan
Starting with P250, let us count. Before she was left with 250, three-fourths was spent. So, P250 is one-fourth of the
amount when she arrived at the department store. Then. P1000 is the whole amount when she arrived at the
department store.
Before she was left with P1000, she spent two-thirds of an amount in the supermarket. So, P1000 is one-third of the
amount when she reached the supermarket. She had P3000 when she arrived at the supermarket.

3. Carry out the plan

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At the end P250

Before she spent ¾ of her remaining money P250 x 4 = 1000
Before she spent 2/3 of her money. P1000 x 3 = 3000
4. Look back.
She have Php 3000 before going to the supermarket.

2. Guess and Check

Often referred to as "trial and error", it is important to recognize that an error really isn't a mistake at all. It helps to guide the problem
solver to the next attempt at the answer. The following are the essential features of the guess and check:
• Make an "educated" guess at the solution.
• Check the guess against the conditions of the problem.
• Use the information obtained in checking to make a better guess.
• Continue this procedure until the correct answer is obtained.

Example 1.
Maria went to her grandfather's farm. Her grandfather has chickens and goats on his farm. She asked him how many chickens
and how many goats his farm has. He told her that his animals have 26 heads and 68 legs and from that information she could
calculate the number of chickens and the number of goats. If you were Maria, how would you solve the problem?

Solution:

To use the Guess and Check strategy, think about the problem and start by making a guess. Expect that the first guess will be
wrong, but it will give some information to make better guess next time. One may start by guessing 13 chickens and 13 goats. It's a
good idea to keep a record of the guesses, like this:

Guess Chickens Goats Number of Head Number of Legs

1 13 13 26 78

Observe that the number of legs guessed is too high, because Maria's grandfather said that there are 68 legs. So, guess again; add
more chickens and subtract some goats.
Guess Chickens Goats Number of Head Number of Legs
1 13 13 26 78
2 20 6 26 64

Now, there are 64 legs; four are still missing. But one can't add any more heads, since 26 is the correct number of heads. So, take
away two chickens (two heads and four legs) and add two goats (two heads and eight legs).

Guess Chickens Goats Number of Head Number of Legs

1 13 13 26 78
2 20 6 26 64
3 18 8 26 68

Now the correct answer: 18 chickens and 8 goats are obtained.

Example 2.
The product of the ages, in years, of three teenagers is 4590. None of the teens are the same age. What are the ages of the
teenagers?

Solution:
The possible ages of the teenagers are 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, and 19. From this list, we choose three numbers whose product
is 4590. If we let x, y, and z be the ages, then xyz = 4590. However, no other information is given that will enable us to solve this
equation. Hence, we solve this problem by guessing and checking. To have an educated guess, note that the product ends in a zero.
So, 4590 has 2 and 5 as factors, which means that at least one of the numbers we seek must be an even number and at least one
number must have 5 as a factor. This means that 15 is one of the numbers. Now,

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Age 1 Age 2 Age 3 Product

15 16 18 4320 Too small
15 16 19 4560 Too small
15 18 19 5130 Too big
15 17 18 4590 Correct

The ages of the teenagers are 15, 17, and 18.

REFERENCE
Daligdig, EdD, R. M. (2019). Mathematics in the modern world. Lorimar Publishing, Inc.
Prepared by :
MICHELLE C. ZAPATA
Instructor 1

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