“RESEARCHES ON CLASSICAL AND CONTEMPORARY ARTS “

Contemporary art is the art of today, produced in the second half of the 20th century or in the 21st century.
Contemporary artists work in a globally influenced, culturally diverse, and technologically advancing world.
Their art is a dynamic combination of materials, methods, concepts, and subjects that continue the
challenging of boundaries that was already well underway in the 20th century. The classification of
contemporary art as a special type of art, a general adjectival phrase goes back to the beginning of
Modernism in the Englishspeaking world. In London, the Contemporary Art Society was founded by Roger Fry
and others, as a private society for buying works of art to place in the public museums. Modernism became
defined as a historical art movement, and much “modern art” ceased to be “contemporary”. The definition of
what is contemporary is naturally always on the move, anchored in the present with a start date that moves
forward, and the works the Contemporary Art Society bought in 1910 could no longer be described as
contemporary. Particular points that have been seen as markings a change in art styles include the end of
World War II and the 1960s, and definitions of what constitutes contemporary art in the 2010’s vary, and are
mostly imprecise. Arts from the past 20 years is very likely to be included and definitions often include art
going back about 1970; the art of the late 20th century and early 21st century; both an out growth and a
rejection of modern art. Art from the 1960, s or 1970’s up until this very minute, and sometimes further,
especially in museum contexts, as museums which form a permanent collection of contemporary art
inevitably finds this aging. Sociologist Nathalie Heinich draws a distinction between modern and
contemporary art, describing them as two different paradigms which partially overlap historically. She found
that while “modern art” challenges the very notion of an art work. She regards Duchamp’s Fountain (which
was made in the 1910s in the midst of the triumph of modern art) as the starting point of contemporary art
which gained momentum after World War II. One of the difficulties many people have in approaching
contemporary artwork is its diversity__ of material, form, subject matter, and even time periods. Broadly
speaking, we see Modernism as working art modernist principles, the focus of the work is self-referential,
investigating its own materials (investigations of line, shape, color, form). Likewise, Impressionism looks at
our perception of a moment through light and color as opposed to attempts at stark realism (Realism too is
an artistic movement). Contemporary art, on the other hand, does not have one, single objective or point of
view. Its view instead is unclear, perhaps reflective of the world today. It can be, therefore, contradictory,
confusing, and open-ended. These are however, a number of common themes that have appeared in
contemporary works. While these are not exhaustible, notable themes: include identity, politics, the body,
globalization, and migration, technology, contemporary society and culture; time and memory, and
institutional and political critique. Post-modern-post-structuralist, feminist, and Marxist theories have played
important roles in the development of contemporary theories of art.

“PHILOSOPHERS/THINKERS’ CONCEPTS/IDEAS IN ARTS”

A. PLATO- an Athenian Philosopher during the Classical Period in Ancient Greece, founder of the Platonist
school of thought, and the Academy, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world. He is widely
considered the pivotal figure in the history of Ancient Greek and Western philosophy, along with his teacher,
Socrates, and his most famous student, Aristotle. Plato has also often been cited as one of the founders of
Western religion and spirituality. The so-called Neoplatonism of Philosophers like Plotinus and Porphyry
influenced Saint Augustine and thus Christianity. Plato was the innovator of the written dialogue and dialectic
forms of philosophy. Plato is also considered the founder of Western political philosophy. His most famous
contribution is the theory of Forms, known by pure reason, in which Plato present a solution to the problem
of universals known as Platonism—also called Platonic realism/idealism. According to Theory of Forms, there
are at least two worlds: the apparent world of concrete objects, grasped by the senses, which constantly
changes; and an unchanging and unseen world of forms or abstract objects, grasped by pure reason, which
ground what is apparent. It can also be said that there are three worlds, with the apparent world consisting
of both the world of material objects and of mental images, with the “third realm” consisting of Form. Plato
believed that all things that exist in reality are mere representations of perfect metaphysical constructs which
he called Forms. This doctrine permeates through all of Plato’s philosophy reveals several important
problems with nature of art which shall be examined in response to Aristotle’s Theories. Plato condemns art
because it is in effect a copy of a copy__since reality is imitation of the Forms, and art is then imitation of
reality. For Plato, since art is an is an imitation, it is in effect three times removed from the truth. As a result,
Plato interprets this to mean that art cannot give the viewer any real knowledge about the world. (Palmer,
p.438) He would argue that we can obtain no truth from the study of art.

B. ARISTOTLE- According to Aristotle Plato’s best-known argument in support of the Forms was the “one
over many” argument. Forms provide definitions and the standard against which all instances are measured.
In the dialogues Socrates regularly asks for the meaning__in the sense of intentional definitions_ of a general
term (e.g. justice, truth, beauty) and criticizes those who instead give him particular, extensional examples,
rather than the quality shared by all examples. Aristotle, in opposition to Plato, developed a metaphysics
which was grounded much more in the real world. For Aristotle, the notion of form was really a part of all
matter and the distinction between the form and the actual substance that made up an object was merely as
intellectual one. (Palmer, pp.447-450). Aristotle defends art by saying that in the appreciation of art the
viewer receives a certain “cognitive value” from the experience. (Stumpf, p.99). This is to say that through
the perception of art one gains a certain understanding about the nature of reality. This brings us to the
question of the epistemological concerns relating to art. Aristotle objection to Plato can be most easily seen
in his favour for poetry and drama. Aristotle argues that history is only concerned with specific instances
while poetry deals with “basic human, and therefore universal, experience. He reasons that” poetry is a more
philosophical and higher thing than history: for poetry tends to express the universal, history, the particular.
(Stumpf, p.99). Aristotle, unlike Plato believed that while art does appeal to the more unruly side of
humanity, the encouragement of these animalistic characteristics is beneficial to society because through
experiencing art, particularly tragedy, the people would experience a catharsis, or a purgation, which would
rid them of their dangerous emotions (Palmer p.450). This issue of purgation is the first instance where
parallels can be drawn between Aristotelian theories of art and a more modern realm; that of a
psychoanalysis.

C.MARTIN HEIDEGGER-(September 26, 1889- May 26, 1976)-was a German Philosopher and a seminar
thinker in the Continental tradition of philosophy. He is best known for contributions to Phenomenology,
hermeneutics, and existentialism. He focuses less on the way in which the structures of being are revealed in
everyday behavior, and more on the way in which behavior itself depends on a prior ‘ “openness to being”.
The essence of being human is the maintenance of this “openness”. He interpreted art as the means by
which a community develops for itself a medium for self-expression and interpretation. In “The Origin of the
Work of Art”, Martin Heidegger describes the essence of art in terms of the concepts of being and truth. He
argues that art is not only a way of expressing the element of truth in a culture, but the means of creating it
and providing a springboard from which “that which is “can be revealed. Works of art are not merely
representations of way things are, but actually produce a community’s shared understanding. Each time a
new artwork is added to any culture, the meaning of what it is to exist is inherently changed.

D.EMMANUEL KANT-(April 22, 1724-Feb.12, 1804) was an influential German philosopher in the Age of
Enlightenment. In his doctrine of transcendental idealism, he argued that space, time, and causation are
mere sensibilities; things-inthemselves exist but their nature is unknowable.” In his view, the mind shapes
and structures experience, with all human experience sharing certain structural features. He believed that
reason is also the source of morality, and that aesthetics arise from a faculty of disinterested judgment.
Kant’s view continues to have a major influence on contemporary philosophy, especially the fields of
epistemology, ethics, political theory, and postmodern aesthetics.

E. DAVID HUME- He defines good critics in terms of good art, or a good art in terms of good critics. It may be,
as Hume claims that we face “questions of fact” in asking whether someone possesses the characteristics he
attributes to true critics, or whether a specific work has appealed to such critics across cultures and the ages.
The features of a true critic are often read as Hume’s way out of this trap. But Humes seems to have
predetermined that only someone with wealth, education and leisure will ever possess good taste. The only
answer in the end is the verdict of our common human nature:” the sentiments of all mankind are agreed
that such critics are superior.”
F. RICHARD WOLLHEIM-the nature of art has been described by philosopher Richard Wollheim as “one of the
most elusive of the traditional problems of human culture.” Art has been defined as a vehicle for the
expression or communication of emotions and ideas, a means for exploring and appreciating formal elements
for their own sake, and as mimeses or representation. Art as mimesis has deep roots in the philosophy of
Aristotle.

G. LEO TOLSTOY- identified art as a use of indirect means to communicate from one person to another. He
believed that a true Christian could find lasting happiness by striving for inner perfection through following
the Great Commandment of being one’s neighbor and God rather than guidance from the Church or state.”
He believed that the aristocracy was a burden on the poor, and that the only way to live together is
anarchism. He opposed private land ownership, and the institution of marriage and valued chastity and
sexual abstinence.

H. BENEDETTO CROCE AND ROBIN GEORGE COLLINGWOOD- advanced the idealist view that art expresses
emotions, and that the work of art as form has its roots in the philosophy of Kant, and was developed in the
early 20th century by Roger Fry and Clive Bell. In his theory of art, Benedetto Croce believed that art is more
important than science metaphysics since only art edifies us. He claimed that all we know can be reduced to
imaginative knowledge. Art springs from the latter, making it at its heart, pure imagery. Robin George
Collingwood (1889-1943) was a British philosopher and practicing archaeologist best known for his work in
aesthetics and the philosophy of history. “Premature argumentation he found, was a dangerous enemy’ ’to
intellectual originality.

I. GEORGE DICKIE-has offered an institutional theory of art that defines a work of art as any artifact upon
which a qualified person or persons acting on behalf of the social institution commonly referred to as” the art
world” has conferred “the status of candidate for appreciation.

J. LARRY SHINER- has described fine art as “not an essence or a fate but something we have made”.
“THE DIFFERENT FUNCTIONS OF ART”
Art has had a great number of different functions throughout its history making its purpose difficult to
abstract or quantity to any single concept. This does not imply that the purpose of art is vague, but that it has
had many unique different reasons for being created. Some of these functions are provided by the following ;
( According to Levi Strauss):

A. NON –MOTIVATED FUNCTIONS- are those that are integral to being human, transcend the individual, or do
not fulfill a specific external purpose. In this sense, art as creativity is something humans must do by their
nature.

1. Basic human instinct for harmony, balance, rhythm. Art at this level is not an action or an object, but an
internal appreciation of balance and harmony (beauty), and therefore an aspect of being human beyond
utility.

2. Experience of the mysterious. Art provides a way to experience one’s self in relation to the universe. This
experience may often come unmotivated as one appreciates art, music or poetry.

3. Expression of the Imagination- Art provides a means to express the imagination in non-grammatic ways
that are not tied to the formality of spoken or written language. Unlike words which come in sequences and
each of which have a definite meaning, art provides a range of forms, symbols, and ideas with meanings that
are mallable.

4. Ritualistic and symbolic functions-In many cultures, art is used in rituals, performances and dances as a
decoration or symbol. While these often have no specific utilitarian (motivated) purpose, anthropologists
know that they often serve a purpose at the level of meaning within a particular culture.

B. MOTIVATED FUNCTIONS: - refers to intentional conscious actions on the part of the artists or creator.
These may be to bring about political change, to comment on an aspect of society, to convey a specific
emotion or mood to address personal psychology to illustrate another discipline, to (with commercial arts)
sell a product, or simply as a form of communication.

1. Communication- art as its simplest is a form of communication. As most forms of communication have an
intent or goal directed toward another individual, this is a motivated purpose. Illustrative arts such a scientific
illustration, are a form of art as communication.

2. Art as entertainment- art may seek to bring about a particular emotion or mood; for the purpose of
relaxing or entertaining the viewer. This is often the function of the art industries of motion pictures and
video games.

3. The Avant-Garde- art for political change. One of the defining functions early 20th century art has been use
visual images to bring about political change. Art movements that had this goal Dadaism, Surrealism Russian
constructivism and Abstract Expressionism.

4. Art as a “Free Zone”-removed from the action of social censure. Unlike the avant-garde movements
differences in order to produce new universal values, contemporary art has enhanced its tolerance towards
cultural differences as well as its critical and liberating functions (social inquiry; activism; subversion;
deconstruction).

5. Art for Social Inquiry, Subversion and/or Anarchy- while similar to art for political change, subversive or
constructivist art may seek to question aspects of society without any specific political goal. In this case, the
function of art may be simply to criticize some aspect of society.
6. Art for Social causes- Art can be used to raise awareness for a large variety of causes. A number of art
activities were aimed at raising awareness of autism, cancer, human trafficking, and a variety of other topics,
such as ocean conservation; using art to raise awareness about pollution.

7. Art for Psychological and Healing Purposes. Art is also used by art therapists, psychotherapists and clinical
psychologists as art therapy. The end product is not the principal goal, but rather a process of healing
through creative acts is sought.

8. Art for Propaganda or Commercialism-Art is often utilized as a form of propaganda, and thus can be used
to subtly influenced popular conceptions or mood. In a similar way, art tries to sell a product also Influences
mood and emotion. It manipulates the viewer into a particular emotional or psychological response toward a
particular idea or objects.

9. Art as a fitness indicator- it has been argued that the ability of the human brain by far exceeds what was
needed for survival in the ancestral environment. One of the evolutionary psychology explanations for this is
that the human brain and associated traits (such as artistic ability and creativity) are the human equivalent of
the peacock’s tail. The purpose of the male peacocks’ extravagant tail has been argued to attract females (see
also Fisherian runaway and handicap principle). According to this theory superior execution of art was
evolutionary important because it attracted males.