3.
1 more processes need to use the stored data
What is a Data Flow Diagram (DFD)?
• Data flow diagrams are used to
graphically represent the flow of data in
a business information system.
• It describes the processes that are
involved in a system to transfer data
from the input to the file storage and
reports generation.
• The visual representation makes it a good
communication tool between User and
System designer.
DFD Symbols
• There are four basic symbols that are
used to represent a data-flow
Diagram.
● Process
• A process receives input data and
produces output with a different content or
form.
● Data Flow
• A data-flow is a path for data to move from
one part of the information system to
another.
• A data-flow may represent a single data
element such the Customer ID
or it can represent a set of data element (or
a data structure) (e.g. Customer_info
(LastName, FirstName, SS#, Tel #, etc.) and
Order_info (OrderId, Item#, OrderDate,
CustomerID, etc.)).
● Rule of Data Flow
o One of the rule for developing DFD is that
all data flow must begin with and end at a
processing step. This is quite logical,
because data can't transform on its own
with being process. By
● Data Store
• It is used to represent a situation when the
system must retain data because one or
in a later time.
● Notation
o Data can be written into the data store,
which is depicted by an outgoing arrow
o Data can be read from a data store, which
is depicted by an incoming arrow.
● External Entity
• It is a person, department, outside
organization, or other information system
that provides data to the system or receives
outputs from the
system.
Top-Down Decomposition Techniques
• Top-down decomposition, also called
leveling, is a technique used to show more
detail in lower-level DFDs. Leveling is done
by drawing a series of increasingly detailed
diagrams until the desired degree of detail
is reached.
3.2
What is a Use Case Diagram?
• Use case diagram is the primary form of
system/software requirements for a new
software program underdeveloped.
• It specifies the expected behavior (what),
and not the exact method of making it
happen (how).
Actor - Someone who Interacts with the
functions
Use Case - It is a system function (process
automated or manual) It is a system
function (process
Communication Link - It connects actor to
a use case through a solid link.
Boundary of System - It is the entire
system as defined in the system
requirements.
Extends - Indicates that a use case may
include (subject to specified in the
extension) the behavior specified by base
use case.
Include - Indicates that an instance of the
base use case will include the behavior as
specified in the child use case.
Generalization - Indicates a parent-child
relationship between use cases wherein
child use case is an enhancement of the
parent use case.
Use Case Description
• Components
1. Use case name - It is a results-oriented
name for the use case as it appears in the
use case diagram.
2. Use case ID - A unique identifier, as
specified by the organization so that
functional requirements can be tracked.
3. Use case description - It is a description
of the reason for and outcome of the use
case.
4. Primary Actor - Actors that triggers/
initiates the use case (initiator)
5. Secondary - Actors that interact with the
use case after it is triggered (participator).
6. Preconditions - List any activities that
must have been taken place, or any
conditions that must be true, before the use
case can be started
7. Postconditions - List the state of the
system at the conclusion of the use case
execution.
8. Main Flow - List the user actions and
system responses that will take place
during execution of the use case under
normal, expected conditions.
9. Alternative Flows - Document other,
legitimate usage scenarios that can take
place within the use case.
o Each flow should be preceded with a
scenario name.
o List the user actions and system
responses for the alternate
scenario.
3.3
What is an ER diagram (ERD)? - Entity
Relationship Diagram, also known as ERD,
ER Diagram or ER model, is a type of
structural diagram for use in database
design.
Entities - in ERD are referring to business
objects such as people/roles (e.g. Student),
tangible business objects (e.g. Product),
intangible business objects (e.g. Log), etc.
Relationship - is about how these entities
relate to each other within the system.
Database design - Depending on the scale
of change, it can be risky to alter a database
structure directly in a DBMS.
Database debugging - To debug database
issues can be challenging, especially when
the database contains many tables, which
require writing complex SQL in getting the
information you need.
Database creation and patching – There
is an ERD tool that supports a database
generation tool that can automate the
database creation and patching process by
means of ER diagrams.
Aid in requirements gathering -
Determine the requirements of an
information system by drawing a conceptual
ERD that depicts the high-level business
objects of the system.
Entity - An ERD entity is a definable thing
or concept within a system, such as a
person/role (e.g. Student), object (e.g.
Invoice), concept (e.g. Profile) or event (e.g.
Transaction) (note: In ERD, the term "entity"
is often used instead of "table", but they are
the same).
Attributes - Also known as a column, an
attribute is a property or characteristic of the
entity that holds it.
Primary Key - Also known as PK, a primary
key is a special kind of entity attribute that
uniquely defines a record in a database
table. In
Foreign Key - Also known as FK, a foreign
key is a reference to a primary key in a
table.
Relationship - A relationship between two
entities signifies that the two entities are
associated with each other somehow.
Cardinality - Cardinality defines the
possible number of occurrences in one
entity which is associated with the number
of occurrences in another.
3.4
What is Database Normalization?
• Database Normalization - is a technique
of organizing the data in the database.
Normalization - is a systematic approach of
decomposing tables to eliminate data
redundancy(repetition) and undesirable
characteristics like Insertion, Update and
Deletion Anomalies.
3.5
What is Data Dictionary - Data dictionary
is the textual description of data objects and
their inter- relationships.
Data dictionaries store and communicate
metadata about data in a database, a
system, or data used by applications.
It is commonly used in confirming data
requirements and for database developers
to create and maintain a database system.
How Data Dictionaries are Used?
• Documentation - provide data structure
details for users, developers, and other
stakeholders
• Communication - equip users with a
common vocabulary and definitions for
shared data, data standards, data flow and
exchange, and help developers gage
impacts of schema changes
• Application Design - help application
developers create forms and reports with
proper data types and controls, and ensure
that navigation is consistent with data
relationships
• Systems Analysis - enable analysts to
understand overall system design and data
flow, and to find where data interact with
various processes or components
• Data Integration - clear definitions of data
elements provide the contextual
understanding needed when deciding how
to map one data system to another, or
whether to subset, merge, stack, or
transform data for a specific use
• Decision Making - assist in planning data
collection, project development, and other
collaborative efforts
Types of Data Dictionary
• Active Data Dictionary - The DBMS
software manages the active data dictionary
automatically. The modification is an
automatic task and most RDBMS has active
data dictionary. It is also known as
integrated data dictionary.
• Passive Data Dictionary - Managed by
the users and is modified manually when
the database structure changes. Also
known as non- integrated data dictionary.
3.6
What is System Architecture?
• System architecture translates the logical
design of a system into a physical structure
that includes hardware, software, network
support, processing methods, and security.
Mainframe Architecture – A multi-user
environment where the server is
significantly more powerful than the clients.
In this architecture, the server performs all
the processing.
• The mainframe performed all data input
and output at a central location, also known
as a data processing center.
Stand-alone Computing - The workstation
performs all the functions of a server by
storing, accessing, and processing data, as
well as providing a user interface.
Computer Network - A set of computers
connected together for the purpose of
sharing resources.
Company-wide systems that connect one or
more LANs or WANs are called distributed
systems.
Client/ Server Architecture
• Client/ Server Architecture is a
distributed computing strategy which
refers to systems that divide processing
between one or more networked clients and
a central server.
• Client handles the entire user interface,
including data entry, data query, and screen
presentation logic.
• Server stores the data and provides data
access and database management
functions.
Two-tier design - the user interface resides
on the client, all data resides on the server,
Three-tier design - the user interface runs
on the client and the data is stored on the
server, just as with a two-tier design.
4.1
Project management includes planning,
scheduling, monitoring and controlling, and
reporting on system development.
• A successful project must be completed on
time, within budget, and deliver
a quality product that satisfies users and
meets requirements.
Project scheduling involves the creation of
a specific timetable, usually in the form of
charts that show tasks,
Project monitoring requires guiding,
supervising, and coordinating the project
team’s workload.
Project reporting includes regular progress
reports to management, users, and the
project team itself.
Factors Affecting Duration
o Project size - A project manager must
estimate the time required to complete each
project phase.
Human resources - A project manager
must assemble and guide a development
team that has the skill and experience to
handle the project.
Experience with Similar Projects - A
project manager can develop time and cost
estimates based on the resources used for
similar, previously developed information
systems.
Constraints - A constraint is a condition,
restriction, or requirement that the system
must satisfy. For example, a constraint
might involve maximums for one or more