3/25/2021 Neuron action potentials: The creation of a brain signal (article) | Khan Academy

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Test prep · MCAT · Organ systems · Neuron membrane poten als

Neuron ac on poten als: The crea on of a

brain signal
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Your body has nerves that connect your brain to the rest of your organs and
muscles, just like telephone wires connect homes all around the world. When
you want your hand to move, your brain sends signals through your nerves to
your hand telling the muscles to contract. But your nerves don’t just say “hand,
move.” Instead your nerves send lots of electrical impulses (called ac on
poten als) to different muscles in your hand, allowing you to move your hand
with extreme precision.

Neurons are a special type of cell with the sole purpose of transferring
informa on around the body. Neurons are similar to other cells in that they
have a cell body with a nucleus and organelles. However, they have a few

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extra features which allow them to be fantas c at transferring ac on

poten als:

dendrites: receive signals from neighboring neurons (like a radio antenna)

axon: transmit signals over a distance (like telephone wires)
axon terminal: transmit signals to other neuron dendrites or ssues (like a
radio transmi er)
myelin sheath: speeds up signal transmission along the axon

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Concentra on gradients
Concentra on gradients are key behind how ac on poten als work. In terms
of ac on poten als, a concentra on gradient is the difference in ion

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concentra ons between the inside of the neuron and the outside of the
neuron (called extracellular fluid).

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If we have a higher concentra on of posi vely charged ions outside the cell
compared to the inside of the cell, there would be a large concentra on
gradient. The same would also be true if there were more of one type of
charged ion inside the cell than outside. The charge of the ion does not ma er,
both posi vely and nega vely charged ions move in the direc on that would
balance or even out the gradient.

Res ng membrane poten al

Neurons have a nega ve concentra on gradient most of the me, meaning
there are more posi vely charged ions outside than inside the cell. This regular
state of a nega ve concentra on gradient is called res ng membrane
poten al. During the res ng membrane poten al there are:

more sodium ions (Na+ ) outside than inside the neuron

more potassium ions (K+ ) inside than outside the neuron

The concentra on of ions isn’t sta c though! Ions are flowing in and out of the
neuron constantly as the ions try to equalize their concentra ons. The cell
however maintains a fairly consistent nega ve concentra on gradient
(between -40 to -90 millivolts). How?

The neuron cell membrane is super permeable to potassium ions, and so

lots of potassium leaks out of the neuron through potassium leakage
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channels (holes in the cell wall).

The neuron cell membrane is par ally permeable to sodium ions, so
sodium atoms slowly leak into the neuron through sodium leakage
channels.
The cell wants to maintain a nega ve res ng membrane poten al, so it has
a pump that pumps potassium back into the cell and pumps sodium out of
the cell at the same me.

How ac on poten als work

Ac on poten als (those electrical impulses that send signals around your
body) are nothing more than a temporary shi (from nega ve to posi ve) in
the neuron’s membrane poten al caused by ions suddenly flowing in and
out of the neuron. During the res ng state (before an ac on poten al occurs)
all of the gated sodium and potassium channels are closed. These gated
channels are different from the leakage channels, and only open once an
ac on poten al has been triggered. We say these channels are “voltage-gated”
because they are open and closed depends on the voltage difference across
the cell membrane. Voltage-gated sodium channels have two gates (gate m
and gate h), while the potassium channel only has one (gate n).

Gate m (the ac va on gate) is normally closed, and opens when the cell
starts to get more posi ve.

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Gate h (the deac va on gate) is normally open, and swings shut when the
cells gets too posi ve.
Gate n is normally closed, but slowly opens when the cell is depolarized
(very posi ve).

Voltage-gated sodium channels exist in one of three states:

1. Deac vated (closed) - at rest, channels are deac vated. The m gate is
closed, and does not let sodium ions through.
2. Ac vated (open) - when a current passes through and changes the voltage
difference across a membrane, the channel will ac vate and the m gate
will open.
3. Inac vated (closed) - as the neuron depolarizes, the h gate swings shut
and blocks sodium ions from entering the cell.

Voltage-gated potassium channels are either open or closed.

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There are three main events that take place during an ac on poten al:

0. A triggering event occurs that depolarizes the cell body. This signal comes
from other cells connec ng to the neuron, and it causes posi vely
charged ions to flow into the cell body. Posi ve ions s ll flow into the cell
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to depolarize it, but these ions pass through channels that open when a
specific chemical, known as a neurotransmi er, binds to the channel and
tells it to open. Neurotransmi ers are released by cells near the dendrites,
o en as the end result of their own ac on poten al! These incoming ions
bring the membrane poten al closer to 0, which is known as
depolariza on. An object is polar if there is some difference between
more nega ve and more posi ve areas. As posi ve ions flow into the
nega ve cell, that difference, and thus the cell’s polarity, decrease. If the
cell body gets posi ve enough that it can trigger the voltage-gated
sodium channels found in the axon, then the ac on poten al will be sent.

1. Depolariza on - makes the cell less polar (membrane poten al gets

smaller as ions quickly begin to equalize the concentra on gradients) .
Voltage-gated sodium channels at the part of the axon closest to the cell
body ac vate, thanks to the recently depolarized cell body. This lets
posi vely charged sodium ions flow into the nega vely charged axon, and
depolarize the surrounding axon. We can think of the channels opening
like dominoes falling down - once one channel opens and lets posi ve
ions in, it sets the stage for the channels down the axon to do the same
thing. Though this stage is known as depolariza on, the neuron actually
swings past equilibrium and becomes posi vely charged as the ac on
poten al passes through!

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2. Repolariza on - brings the cell back to res ng poten al. The inac va on
gates of the sodium channels close, stopping the inward rush of posi ve
ions. At the same me, the potassium channels open. There is much more
potassium inside the cell than out, so when these channels open, more
potassium exits than comes in. This means the cell loses posi vely
charged ions, and returns back toward its res ng state.

3. Hyperpolariza on - makes the cell more nega ve than its typical res ng
membrane poten al. As the ac on poten al passes through, potassium
channels stay open a li le bit longer, and con nue to let posi ve ions exit
the neuron. This means that the cell temporarily hyperpolarizes, or gets
even more nega ve than its res ng state. As the potassium channels
close, the sodium-potassium pump works to reestablish the res ng state.

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Test prep MCAT Organ

systems Neuron membrane
poten als
Neuron membrane poten als

Neuron ac on poten als:

The crea on of a brain
signal

Ac on poten al velocity Refractory Periods

Ac on poten als work on an all-or-none basis. This means that an ac on
Neuron graded poten al
descrip on poten al is either triggered, or it isn’t – like flipping a switch. A neuron will
always send the same size ac on poten al. So how do we show that some
Neuron res ng poten al
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Neuron res ng poten al
descrip on informa on is more important or requires our a en on right now? The answer
lies in how o en ac on poten als are sent – the ac on poten al frequency.
Neuron res ng poten al
mechanism
When the brain gets really excited, it fires off a lot of signals. How quickly
Neuron graded poten al these signals fire tells us how strong the original s mulus is - the stronger the
mechanism
signal, the higher the frequency of ac on poten als. There is a maximum
Neuron ac on poten al frequency at which a single neuron can send ac on poten als, and this is
descrip on
determined by its refractory periods.

Neuron ac on poten al
mechanism
Absolute refractory period: during this me it is absolutely impossible to
send another ac on poten al. The inac va on (h) gates of the sodium
channels lock shut for a me, and make it so no sodium will pass through.
No sodium means no depolariza on, which means no ac on poten al.
Absolute refractory periods help direct the ac on poten al down the
axon, because only channels further downstream can open and let in
depolarizing ions.
Rela ve refractory period: during this me, it is really hard to send an
ac on poten al. This is the period a er the absolute refractory period,
when the h gates are open again. However, the cell is s ll hyperpolarized
a er sending an ac on poten al. It would take even more posi ve ions
than usual to reach the appropriate depolariza on poten al than usual.
This means that the ini al triggering event would have to be bigger than
normal in order to send more ac on poten als along. Rela ve refractory
periods can help us figure how intense a s mulus is - cells in your re na
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will send signals faster in bright light than in dim light, because the trigger
is stronger.

Refractory periods also give the neuron some me to replenish the packets
of neurotransmi er found at the axon terminal, so that it can keep passing the
message along. While it is s ll possible to completely exhaust the neuron’s
supply of neurotransmi er by con nuous firing, the refractory periods help
the cell last a li le longer.

##Consider the following One of the main characteris cs that differen ates
an ac on poten al from a different kind of electrical signal called graded
poten als is that the ac on poten al is the major signal sent down the axon,
while graded poten als at the dendrites and cell body vary in size and
influence whether an ac on poten al will be sent or not. Graded poten als
are small changes in membrane poten al that are either excitatory
(depolarize the membrane) or inhibitory (hyperpolarize the membrane). Many
excitatory graded poten als have to happen at once to depolarize the cell
body enough to trigger the ac on poten al.

Graded Poten als Ac on Poten als

At the dendrites and cell body At the axon

Excitatory or inhibitory Always excitatory

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Graded Poten als Ac on Poten als

Smaller in size Larger voltage difference
Triggered by input from the outside Triggered by membrane depolariza on

Many can happen at once Only one at a me

Can come in different sizes All-or-none

[A ribu on and references]

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Bob Bruer 6 years ago

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more

Easy to follow but I found the following statement rather confusing "The cell wants
to maintain a nega ve res ng membrane poten al, so it has a pump that pumps
potassium back into the cell and pumps sodium out of the cell at the same me"

While the cell process for maintaining a nega ve equilibrium would logically pump
NA+ ions out, I don't see how pumping K+ in would contribute.

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Geoff Futch 6 years ago

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It has to do with the mechanics of the Na+/K+ pump itself -- it sort of

"swaps" one ion for the other, but it does so in an uneven ra o. If it were
1-to-1, you'd be absolutely correct in assuming that it doesn't make any
sense. However, the sodium/potassium pump removes 3 sodium ions
from the cell while only allowing 2 potassium ions in. So each pump
"cycle" would lower the net posi ve charge inside the cell by 1. There is
actually a video here on KA that addresses this:

h ps://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/membranes-and-
transport/ac ve-transport/v/sodium-potassium-pump-video

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Yomna Leen 4 years ago

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How does the calcium play a role in all of this?

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Arjan Premed 2 years ago

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once your ac on poten al reaches the terminal bouton (or synap c bulb
or whatever), it triggers the opening of Ca2+ channels, and because a
high extracellular concentra on of Ca2+ was maintained, it will rush into
the terminal region. synap c vesicles are then prompted to fuse with the
presynap c membrane so it can expel neurotransmi ers via exocytosis
to the synapse. without calcium, you will be dealing with neurological
deficits

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ma hewjrodden1 a year ago

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Hey great stuff,

I'm hoping you can clarify something for me? I understand that there's more Na+
outside the cell and more K+ inside the cell; this relates to how Na+ ini ally flows
into the cell (depolariza on) and K+ flows out of the cell (repolariza on) during an
ac on poten al, correct? (And this is done via diffusion across the membrane,
right?)

Ok, so then there's also the Na+/K+ ATPase. Now this is ac ve transport, requiring
ATP, therefore pumping these ions against their gradients. So this means that K+
flows in and Na+ flows out. This is the opposite of what I had just described in an

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ac on poten al, which is confusing me.

Can you clarify the difference for me please? So I'm assuming that the diffusion of
Na+ influx and K+ out of the cell is during an ac on poten al, and the Na+/K+
ATPase func on (in pumping these ions in the OPPOSITE direc on) is to return to
res ng membrane poten al AFTER the ac on poten al?

It's just confusing that when talking about ac on poten als, we're taught that
sodium and potassium are flowing both ways and I want to clarify when they flow
in/out and why. thanks!
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Sid Sid 5 years ago more

above there is men on the word cell wall so do neuron has it?(holes in the cell
wall).

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ceece15 5 years ago

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I think they meant cell membrane there, I don't think any animal cells
have a cell wall.

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Haley Peska 2 years ago

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What happens within a neuron when it comes ac ve?

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philip trammell 2 years ago

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that ac on poten al travels down the axon, opening/closing voltage

gated proteins (etc.) toward the terminal where voltage gated Ca2+
channels will open and let Ca2+ inside where the synap c vesicles will
fuse with the presynap c membrane and let out their contents in the
synapse (typically neurotransmi ers).

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Kiet Truong 3 years ago more

So in a typical neuron, Potassium has a higher concentra on inside the cell

compared to the outside and Sodium has a higher concentra on outside the cell
compared to the inside. There are also more leaky Potassium channels than
Sodium channels. Voltage gated sodium channel is responsible for Ac on poten al
(depolariza on) while Voltage gated potassium channel and leaky potassium
channel are responsible to get back to a res ng state.
My ques on is, what if we flip everything and it's the other way around, what
would happen to ac on poten al? Sorry if this is a long ques on.

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Jasmine Duong 2 years ago

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I'm confused on the all-or-nothing principle. How do you know when an ac on

poten al will fire or not? Neurons send messages through ac on poten als and

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we're constantly s mulated by our environment, so doesn't that mean ac on

poten
Reply •als are always firing? When does
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Ki 2 years ago
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The all-or-none principle is for the "response" to a s mulus. The

s mula on strength can be different, only when the s mulus exceeds the
threshold poten al, the nerve will give a complete response; otherwise,
there is no response. It's like if you touched a warm cup, there's no flinch,
but if you touched a boiling pot your flinch "response" would be
triggered. In this example, the temperature is the s mulus. Different
temperature represents different strength of s mula on. I hope this
helps.

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Rebecca Barre 5 years ago

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A er an AP is fired the ar cle states the cell becomes hyper polarized. It states the
sodium potassium pump reestablishes the res ng membrane poten al. But since
the pump puts three sodium ions out while bring a mere two potassium ions in,
would the pump not make the cell more polarized? So what brings the cell back to
its res ng membrane poten al? Is it a sodium leak channel?

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Taavi 3 years ago

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The Na/K pump does polarize the cell - the reverse is called

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depolariza on.
Res ng poten al at -70 mV is a polarized state.
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adelaide.rau21 a year ago

more

if a body does not have enough potassium, how might that affect neuronal firing?

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Fraley Dominic a year ago

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I dont know but you will get cramps from swimming if you dont eat
enough potassium

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Deniz Aydin a year ago

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I don't understand the difference between inac ve and reac ve states of the
channels. Can someone explain these to me?

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Tetyana a year ago

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In the deac vated state, the m-gate is closed so no sodium ions can go
through it.

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The ac vated state happens during depolariza on. Once the membrane
reaches threshold poten al (around -55 mV), the channel changes its
configura on so that the m-gate opens, allowing sodium ions to rush
through it into the cell.

During repolariza on, the channel becomes inac vated. The h-gate
closes to block the opposite side of the channel, so even though the m-
gate is s ll open, sodium ions can't pass through. This is really important
because it creates the absolute refractory period, preven ng the cell
from depolarizing again too quickly.

To return back to the res ng deac vated state, the m-gate first closes
then the h-gate reopens, allowing the cell to be depolarized again.
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Neuron membrane poten als ques ons 2 Ac on poten al velocity

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