EE8251 - Circuit Theory

Circuit Theory
Uday A. Bakshi
M.E. (Electrical)
Formerly Lecturer in Department of Electronics Engg.
Vishwakarma Institute of Technology
Pune
Late Ajay V. Bakshi

B.E. (Electronics)
Formerly Lecturer in Department of E&Tc
Maharashtra Academy of Engineering
Alandi, Pune
S. Ilaiyaraja
B.E. (ECE)
M.E. (Embedded System & Technology)
Ph.D. (Pursuing)
Associate Professor in ECE Department
Velammal Institute of Technology
Panchetti, Chennai - 601204
® TM
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PUBLICATIONS
An Up-Thrust for Knowledge https://www.facebook.com/technicalpublications
(i)
Circuit Theory
Semester - II (EEE)
First Edition : January 2018

Second Revised Edition : January 2019
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PUBLICATIONS
ISBN 978-93-332-1714-9
9 789333 217149
AU 17
9789333217149 [2] (ii)

®
TM
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

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φ
®
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R1
A B
+
E1 R2
- R3
D C
+
E2
-
R4
R5
R6
E F
®
TM

Electrical circuits or networks
1 2 3 4
Active Passive Linear Nonlinear Bilateral Unilateral Lumped Distributed
®
TM

IL VL
+
VL = Vs
+ + Vs
Vs Vs Load VL
– –
_ 0 IL
(a) Symbol (b) Circuit (c) Characteristics
R se
VL Vs
R se
IL
R se
Ιnternal
resistance Rse IL VL
+
Ιdeal When there is no
+ Vs
load, ΙL = 0 and
Vs RL VL VL = Vs
– Practical
_ 0 IL
(a) Circuit (b) Characteristics
®
TM

IL IL
+
IL = Is
Is
Is Is Load VL
_ 0 VL
(a) Symbol (b) Circuit (c) Characteristics
Ιnternal
resistance IL
IL
+ Ιdeal IL + Ish = Is
Ish Thus as Ish
Is
Is Rsh Load VL Practical increases, IL
decreases.
_ IL < Is
0 VL
(a) Circuit (b) Characteristic
+
V +
_ V_
R sh
R sh
v(t)
R sh ∞
i(t)
®
TM

+ +
V = KV1 I = K I1 V = K I1 I = KV1
_ _
(a) (b) (c) (d)
V
∝
R
R
+ –
I
V
R
V1 I1
V
R
V
I
®
TM

ρ
Ω
a
v(t)
R
v 2 (t)
i 2 (t)R
R
V V2
I2R
R R
k Im
t t
∫ p(t)dt ∫ v(t) i(t) dt
∞ ∞
i(t) R
+ v(t) –
®
TM

Flux (φ) i(t)
N turns
i(t) C
+ v(t) –
L
+ v(t) –
t
d i(t) 1
L∫
∴ v(t) dt + i(0)
dt
0
q
∴ v(t)
φ
dq dv(t) dq
C
dt dt dt
Nφ
i d v(t)
C
dt
∴ t
1
C∫
i(t) dt + v(0)
0
t t
d i(t)
∫ v(t) i(t) dt ∫L dt
i(t) dt
0 0
t
L i 2 (t)
∴ ∫ L i(t) d i(t) 2
L i 2 (t) J
0
LI 2
t t
d v(t)
∫ v(t) i(t) dt ∫ v(t) C dt
dt
0 0
t
∴ ∫ C v(t) d v(t)
0
C v 2 (t) J
C v 2 (t)
2
CV 2
®
TM

t
v vR ( t) = R i R ( t) 1
R = i R ( t) = v ( t)
i R R w = ∫ i R( t) vR ( t) dt
−∞
d i L( t)
t
Nφ 1
vL ( t) = L 1 w = L i ( t)
i dt i L ( t) =
L ∫ v L( t) dt 2
−∞
d vC ( t)
t
q 1
1 i C ( t) = C w = C v 2( t)
v vC ( t) =
C ∫ i C ( t) dt dt 2
−∞
vR , vL vC
iR , iL iC
v(t)
40 V
0 2 4 8 t (msec)
∴
dv(t) − −
∴ C × × × μ
dt
∴
dv(t) −
∴ C × ×
dt
−
−
∴
®
TM

dv(t) − R1 , R2
∴ C × × −
dt
i(t)
10 μA
t V1 , V2
0 2 4 8
R1 , R2
– 5 μA
V1 + V2
V I R1 V2 I R2 V3 I R 3
∴ I R1 + I R2 + I R 3 I (R 1 + R 2 + R 3 )
− × +
V I R eq
R eq
R eq R1 + R2 + R 3
R R1 + R2 + R 3 Rn
Current same
voltage division
V1 + V2 + + Vn
R1 I R2 I R3 I
+ – + – + –
I V1 V2 V3 I
+ –
V volts
R 1 , R > R 2 , ..... R > R n
®
TM

VC1 VC2 VC
_ i2 i + _
i1 + + _
L1 L2
C1 C2 Ceq
(a) (b)
L1 L2
t t
1 1
VL1 VL2
VC1
C1 ∫ 1dt VC2
C2 ∫ 2 dt
−∞ −∞
i1 + − i2 + −
t
1
L1 L2 Ceq ∫ idt
−∞
(a)
VL
i + −
i1 i2 VC VC1 VC2
Leq t t t
1 1 1
(b) Ceq ∫ idt C1 ∫ i1dt C2 ∫ i 2 dt
−∞ −∞ −∞
di1 di 2 i1 = i 2
L1 L2
dt dt t t
1 ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
VL L eq
di ∴
Ceq ∫ idt ⎜
C
⎝ 1
+
C
⎟ ∫ i dt
2 ⎠− ∞
dt −∞
1 1 1
+
Ceq C1 C2
VL VL1 VL2
di di di di C1C2
∴ L eq L1 L2 (L1 + L 2 ) ∴ C1 + C2
dt dt dt dt
L eq L1 + L 2
1 1 1 1 1
+ + +
Ceq C1 C2 C3 Cn
μ μ
C1
C2
C1 C2 C1 μ C2 μ
1 2 VC1 VC2
®
TM

C1C2 R1 R2
∴ C eq
C1 + C2
R3 R1 , R2
10 × 10 − 6 × 5 ×10 − 6 R3
10 × 10 − 6 + 5 × 10 − 6
I1 ,I2 I3
3.333 × 10 − 6 μ
R1 , R2 R3
I 1 R1 V I 2 R2 I 3R3
V V V
I1 I2 I3
R1 R2 R3
V V V
I I1 +I2 +I 3 + +
R1 R2 R 3
⎡ 1 1 1 ⎤
V ⎢ + + ⎥
⎣R1 R2 R 3 ⎦
V
V I R eq
R eq
R eq
Voltage same 1 1 1 1
+ +
current division R eq R1 R2 R 3
R1
I1 + V –
I2 R2
+ V –
I3 R3
+ V –
1 1 1 1 1
+ – + + +......+
R R1 R2 R 3 Rn
I
V
1
R1 , R2 R3 R
∴ G G 1 + G 2 + G 3 +......+ G n
®
TM

1 1 1 R1 R2 L1 L2
+ R
R R1 R2 R1 + R2
t t
1 1
i1
L1 ∫ VL1 dt i2
L2 ∫ VL2 dt
−∞ −∞
t
1
L eq ∫ VL dt
−∞
VL VL1 VL2 i1 i2
I I 1 + I 2 + I 3 +......+ I n
t t t
1 1 1
∴
L eq ∫ VLdt L1 ∫ VL dt L2 ∫ VL dt
−∞ −∞ −∞
t
⎛ 1 1 ⎞
⎜ + ⎟ ∫ VL dt
⎝ L1 L 2 ⎠− ∞
R 1 R < R 2 , ..... , R < R n ∴

1 1 1
L eq L1 L2
1 1 1 1
+
L eq L1 L2 Ln
L1 L2
L1 L2 i1 i2
C1 and C2
VL1
i1 + −
C1 and C2 i1 i2
L1
C1 C2
VL2
i2 + −
VC1
i1
L2 + −
(a) C1 VC
i + _
VL VC2 Ceq
i + − i2
+ −
Leq C2
(a) (b)
(b)
®
TM

d C1 dVC2 dVC
i1 C1 i2 C2 Ceq
dt dt dt
VC1 VC2 VC i1 i2
dVC dVC1 dVC2 dVC
Ceq C1 C2 C1 + C2 Ceq C1 C2
dt dt dt dt
Ceq C1 C2
R1 R2 R3 Rn
L1 L2 L3 Ln
1 1 1 1
+ + +
Ceq C1 C2 Cn
C1 C2 C3 Cn
1 1 1 1
+ + +
R1 R2 Rn Req R1 R2 Rn
Req
1 1 1 1
+ + +
L eq L1 L2 Ln
L1 L2 Ln
Leq
C1 C2 Cn
Ceq
®
TM

R1 R2
R1 + R2
11 × 7 77
= Ω
11 + 7 18
Parallel
3Ω 3.2 Ω
A 1Ω B
2Ω 4Ω 4.277 Ω
4Ω
1Ω
A 5Ω 6Ω B
∴
7Ω
×
Ω
+
∴ RAB Ω
Ω Ω
Ω Ω Ω
2Ω 2Ω
4Ω
A C
∴
+
1 2Ω 2Ω 2Ω
+ + 30 V
R 2Ω
–
1Ω 1Ω
∴ Ω
B D
2 Ω Series 1.2 Ω Series
1Ω
11 Ω B 2Ω 2Ω
A
7Ω A C
Parallel 4Ω
+
2Ω 2Ω
30 V 2Ω 2Ω
–
Ω Ω
Series
Ω Ω Ω B 1Ω D 1Ω
®
TM

2+2=4Ω Ι
Parallel
A C +
2 × 2.2307
30 V = 1.0545 Ω
2 + 2.2307
4Ω –
+ 2+1
30 V 2Ω 2Ω
– 2Ω =3Ω
(g)
B 1Ω D Parallel
(b)
30
∴ I
1.0545
4×4
=2Ω
4+4 Series
A C
+ 2Ω 2×3
30 V 2Ω 2+3 5 μF 60 μF
–
= 1.2 Ω a
B 1Ω D
20 μF 6 μF 20 μF Ceq
(c)
b
A Parallel
C
μF μF
+ 2 + 1.2
30 V 2Ω
2Ω = 3.2 Ω ×
– C′ μF
+
B 1Ω D 60 μF
(d)
4 μF 6 μF 20 μF Ceq
A
2 × 3.2
+ 2 + 3.2 Parallel
30 V 2Ω = 1.2307 Ω
– ∴ 4 + 6 + 20 = 30 μF
(a)
B 1Ω D
ris
e
S 60 μF
(e)
Parallel 30 μF Ceq
A
+ 1 + 1.2307
30 V 2Ω (b)
– = 2.2307 Ω
B
(f) ×
∴ C eq μF
+
®
TM

×
V2
R
P1 = 100 W V1 = 250 V
P2 = 40 W V2 = 250 V
V12 250 2
∴ R1 = = 625 Ω
P1 100
V22 250 2
× R2 = = 1562.5 Ω
P2 40
Q
t
V 500
∴ =
R1 + R2 625 + 1562.5
P1 I 2 R 1 = (0.22857) 2 × 625 = 32.653 W
P2 I 2 R 2 = (0.22857) 2 × 1562.5 = 81.6316 W
Electrical work VI
Time t t
∴
R1 R2
625 Ω 1562.5 Ω
I
V = 500 V
®
TM

∑
μΩ
I1 I2
I3 I4
∑I
I 1 + I 2 −I 3 −I 4
I1 +I2 I 3 +I4
I3
I1 I2
O
I4
I1 I2
I3 I4
∑V
I4
I4
R R
A _ B A _ B
+ +
I I
®
TM

®
TM

a 11 x1 a 12 x2 a 1n xn C1
a 21 x1 a 22 x2 a 2n xn C2
∴
a n1 x1 a n2 x2 a nn xn Cn
C1 , C2 ,............... Cn
Δ
a 11 a 12 a 1n
a 21 a 22 a 2n
Δ
a n1 a n2 a nn
Dj jth
Δ
C1 C2 Cn
C1 a 12 a 1n
C2 a 22 a 2n
D1
Cn a n2 a nn
a 11 C1 a 1n
a 21 C2 a 2n
D2
a n1 Cn a nn
a 11 a 12 C1
a 21 a 22 C2
Dn
a n1 a n2 Cn
Effect of current
source is already
1Ω Ω considered interms
This loop a b(5 – I1) 1 c of current distribution.
can not be
considered 5A I1 (5 – I1)
for application of KVL
5A 1Ω +
_ 10 V
I1
f 5A e (5 – I1) d
®
TM

D1 D2 Dn −
X1 X2 Xn
∴ −
D1 D2 Dn − −
− −
− −
D1
↑
D
3Ω 5Ω
7V +
_
3Ω
1Ω 6Ω
+ RΩ
– 5V
10 Ω 15 Ω
1.5 A
15 Ω
+ –
20 V
Ω Ω
I1 (I1 – I2)
b c d
1 1 1 1 2R + 15
I2 + +
+ + R′ R 15 15 15 R
I1 3Ω 5Ω
– – 15 R
I2 + 3Ω – ∴ R′
f e 2 R + 15
7V +
_ I3
(I2 – I3) (I1 – I2 + I3)
+ +
1Ω 6Ω
– –
I1 + 15 R
I1 5V —––—
– 10 Ω 2 R + 15
g
a h
IT R'
1.5 A
+ –
20 V
20
∴
10 + R′
®
TM

20
15 R
10 +
2 R + 15 Ω
IC RC
6Ω 12
+ V–
A
RB
12 V–
– + IB
5V 4Ω 4Ω 10 Ω RA
+
IT IA
B
240 V
V
RB
6Ω 12 V 240
A D + – ∴ Ω
– + I2 60
I1 I1 + –
– –
4Ω 4Ω 10 Ω V2
–
5V
V
+ + + + RA
12
I1 –
I2
C B I2 ( 240) 2
∴ Ω
9.6 × 10 3
V 240
5 Ω
RC 4.8
6+4
V 240
12
RA 6
4 + 10
I1 × ×
I2
A 4Ω C D 4Ω B 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
+ + + +
– + + – + – R eq RA R B R C 4 6 4.8
4 I1 12 V 4 I2
2V 3.4285 V
∴ Ω
∴
®
TM

– +
4V 2Ω
4V 3Ω
+ –
3Ω –+ +
2V I1 – I2 – I1 – I2
III
+ – 3Ω I2 (I2 – IL) 3 Ω
3V 1.5 Ω I2 + – + –
IL
I1 (I1 – IL)
I + II
+
_ +
8V 5Ω
– 1Ω
– –
1Ω
+ IL –+
4V 2Ω I1 6V
– +
I1 + –
I1 I I1
I
– + 2
I2 + – 3Ω I2 IL
2V
(I1 – I2) II (I1 – I2)
I1 + 3I2 +5IL
– +
+ –
1.5 Ω
−3 (I 2 − I L ) (I 1 − I L ) 6 + 5I L
3V
I1 − 3I2 + 9IL
+ 4 − 3 (I 1 − I 2 ) + 3 (I 2 − I L ) + 3 I 2
+4 – 2I 1 I2 + 2 I1 + 3 I2 3I 1 + 9I 2 − 3I L
–2 + 3 I 2 – 1.5 (I 1 – I 2 ) + 3 1.5 I 1 – 4.5 I 2 I1 I2
I1 I2 IL ∴ IL
∴ Ω
←
8Ω 2Ω
+ –
40 V 100 V
– +
4V 3Ω
–+ 30 Ω
3Ω 3Ω
+_ IL
8V
1Ω
5Ω
1Ω _+ 6 V
®
TM

12 A
– 2 +
8
+ –
Vs 4Ω 4Ω 4Ω
–
+ 100 V I1 I2 I3
40 V +
–
I
– +
I
30
V 30 Ω 30 × I = 30 × 1.5 = 45 V
A
i1 i2 i3
50 A 2Ω 1Ω 5Ω
A
3Ω
2Ω
B 5V +
_ 2A
+ – 10 Ω
8V
5Ω 4Ω
2× i1 1× i2 = 5× i 3 Ω
2
i 2 = 2i 1 , i 3 = i
5 1 I1
A
+
2 5V +
_ 2Ω
i 1 + 2i 1 + i 1 50
5 I1 –
2A
10 Ω
∴
+ –
8V +
5Ω 4Ω
– I2
I2
®
TM

Ω
Ω
I1 Ω
I2 Ω
2Ω 10 Ω 5Ω
A B
+ – – + + –
2I1 8V 0V 5I2
5V 10 V
∴ VAB
Ω
A
0A E.M.F. or Current
1.5
4Ω
Amplitude
Ω
emax
1Ω O R e1 e2
Em
B C
10 V 1.5 Ω π 2π
θ = ωt
0 t1 t2
–Em
Time period
Ω T seconds
4Ω 2Ω one cycle
R 8Ω
I
8V
®
TM

1
T
π
°
Em
Im
( ω)
π
π ω
v,i v,i
time time
High T Less
T
Less number of More number of cycles
cycles per second i.e. per second i.e
low frequency high frequency
®
TM

Vm Im
Vr.m.s I r.m.s
ω 2 2
ω π
π
ω
10 2
θ θ
10 2
× 2 × 10 2
θ θ ω 2π f 2 π× 50 100 π
I m sin ωt 20 sin100 πt
1 ⎛ 100 π × 1 ⎞
Im θ 200 ⎜ 200 ⎟⎠
⎝
θ ω 100 π t
∴ 100π t
100 π t
ω π
∴
⎛ π ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
ω π
⎛ π ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
®
TM

θ
I 2m θ
θ
π
∫i
2
dθ
Area of curve over half cycle

Length of base over half cycle
π
∫i
2
dθ
π
∫i
2
dθ
π π
π
∫ Im
2 θ θ
π
π
I 2m ⎡ − θ⎤
π ∫ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
θ
I 2m ⎡ θ⎤ π
θ−
π⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
I 2m I 2m
Area of curve over one cycle of squared waveform π
= π 2
Length of the cycle
mean or average of square of current
I 2m Im
2 2
2
i,i 2 2 2
i = Im sin θ
2
i i = Imsinθ
time
0 π 2π
dθ
Base
π
®
TM

∴
θ
θ
Current
i
∴ 0 π 2π
Time
dθ
∴ Area under curve for half cycle

Length of base over half cycle
π
∫ θ
π π
π π ∫i dθ π ∫ Im θ θ
π
Im Im π
π ∫ θ
π
[− θ]
Im Im
π
π π
2 Im
π
®
TM

i
20
π 2π t
0
1
T=
100
r. m.s. value
Average value
0.707 I m
0.637 I m 2I m 2 × 20
= = 12.732 A
π π
1
Time period
maximum value
r. m.s. value
Im ×
0.707 I m
ω π
( 628.3185 t )
20 sin(628 3185 × 3 × 10 –3 )
ω
π π
Im
2
r. m. s. 30
Average 27.0215
®
TM

i(t)
Im i(t) = Im sin ωt
for 0 < ωt < π
ωt i(t)
0 π 2π 3π 4π
Im sinθ
Im
π ωt
0 π 2π 3π 4π
∫ (t) ω
π
π π π
π
∫ i 2 ( t )dθ ∫ i 2 ( t )dθ + ∫ i 2 ( t )dθ
∫ ω ω
π
π 2π 2π
π
π
∫ I 2m θdθ +
π ∫ ω ω
Im
π
2π π ∫ θ θ
π
⎡ − ω ⎤ π
∫ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
ω Im π Im π
π
π
×
2 ∫ θ θ=
⎡ ω ⎤π
ω −
π ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
π
π− Area of 1 cycle
∫ i( t )dθ
π
base 2π
π π
π ∫ i( t )dθ + ∫ i( t )dθ
π
Area of one cycle
∫ ω
2π
Base π π
π ∫ I m sin θ dθ
∫ ω ω
π
π Im
π
Im
∫ sinθ dθ = [− θ] π
π 2π
π
[− ω ]π
Im Im Im
π
[− π+ ] π π
π
π π
r. m. s. Im π
I r.m.s. Average Im π
∴
I av
π Maximum Im
r. m. s. Im 2
π
®
TM

y
Current
c c
d b
Anti-
clockwise
rotation
θ
e θ
O a x a b c d e f g h a Angle
f h
g g
θ
θ ω
I m sin θ
®
TM

Current
Im
B B
φ ωt O
0 A Reference A π π 2π θ ωt
2
φ
θ ω ω π
φ
φ
φ
I m = 2 I r.m.s
φ π
φ
Em ωt ± φ
φ = 0º
®
TM

Voltage
or Voltage
Voltage or
current or current
current
+Ve t=0
t t t
t=0
t=0 –Ve
e = Em sin (ωt) e = Em sin (ωt + φ) e = Em sin (ωt – φ)

Phase φ = 0º Positive phase φ Negative phase –φ
Phasor
+φ diagram 0
0 0 –φ
Phasor
diagram
Phasor
diagram
(a) Zero phase (b) Positive phase (c) Negative phase
φ
ω
®
TM

e,i
A Em
Im
B
o ω
θ=90
B A θ = ωt
O Im Em 0 π π 2π
2
e,i
Em e.m.f. e
Im
ω Current i
φ
Em θ = ωt
O φ A 0 π 2π
Im
B
–Im φ
–Em
ω ω φ
φ
φ
φ
®
TM

e,i
+Em e.m.f. e
+Im
Im
B ω φ
φ A
O Em 0 π 2π θ
Current i
φ –Im
–Em
φ
φ θ θ ° ° °
ω ω φ
φ
Im ω +φ
φ
ω π ω π φ
π °
π ∠φ
°
φ
φ
i1
+60º Total
phase
difference
– 45º 105º
i2
®
TM

r = Im
+φ +φ
O O
ω φ
(a) Draw a line at φ (b) Mark r = Im on that line
φ
A
φ
r
φ
+φ φ
O
(c) Polar representation of phasor
+Y
φ
φ Im sin φ
φ +X
O Im cos φ O
(a) Im cos φ in + X direction (b) Im sin φ in + Y direction

φ
+Y A
Im
Im sin φ
φ
+X
∠± φ O Im cos φ
(c) Rectangular representation of phasor
ω ±φ
Em
∠± φ
2 −
± ±
®
TM

ω ± φ
r ∠ φ = Given ω + ± φ
∴ ± φ
r
Y
φ
O (P → R) (R → P)
X
r and φ
π π
φ π
Vm φ + + 30°
6
φ
Vm
φ φ 2
∴
∴ ∠ °
∴
X + jY = Given
r
Y
ωt
φ
O X
φ ω
⎛ω + π⎞
⎜ ⎟
Y ⎝ ⎠
X 2 + Y2 φ
X
⎛ω + π⎞ ω
⎜ ⎟
∴ ∠φ ⎝ ⎠
X 2 + Y2 ∠ tan −1
Y ⎛ω + 3 π⎞
⎜ ⎟
X ⎝ ⎠
π+ θ θ
π
∠ ∠ °
®
TM

° °
∴ ∠ °
∴ VR V1 + V2
+ 21.2132) + +
∠ º
∴ × (r.m.s.)
P Q
P Q
P Q
v1 (t) = 141.42 sin (100 πt) V,

º º π
v 2 (t) = 282.842 sin ⎛⎜ 100 π t − ⎞⎟ V
⎝ 4⎠
φ °
ω +φ
φ
Resultant
VR P a 1 + j b1 Q a 2 + j b2
V2
∴ P a 21 + b 21 ∠φ Q a 22 + b 22 ∠φ
P× Q P Q ∠φ + φ
V1
⎡ a 2 + b 2 × a 2 + b 2 ⎤ ∠φ + φ
45º 55º 60º
⎣⎢ 1 1 2 2 ⎦⎥
O
P P
∠φ φ
Q Q
a 21 + b 21
∠φ φ
∠φ ∠ a 22 + b 22
∠φ ∠
®
TM

B– C (8 + j 9) – (5 – j 6)
A 8.062 ∠ 60.255º
3 + j5
8.062 ∠60.255º
15.297 ∠ 78.69º
8.062 ∠ 60.255º
1.8974 ∠18.435º
A+B A× B A +B B– C
C C B+ C A
∠ 60.255º ,
B 8 + j9
12.041 ∠8.366º
5 – j6
7.8102 ∠ – 50.194º
A +B 4 + j7 + 8 + j9
C 7.8102∠ – 50.194º
12 + j16 ω π Ω
7.8102 ∠ – 50.194º
20 ∠ 53.13º
7.8102 ∠ – 50.194º
2.5607 ∠ 103.324º
– 0.5901 + j 2.4917
A×B 8.062 ∠60.255º × 12.041∠48.366º Ω
C 7.8102 ∠ – 50.194º ω π
97.0745 ∠108.621º
7.8102 ∠ – 50.194º
12.4291 ∠ 158.815º
– 11.5891 + j4. 4916

A +B 20 ∠53.13º 20 ∠53.13º
B+ C 8 + j9 + 5 – j6 13 + j3
20 ∠53.13º
13.341 ∠2.99º
1.499 ∠40.14º
1.1459 + j 0.966
®
TM

I ∠ 0° V
I
I ° ∠ + 90 ° V
90º
I ° ∠ − 90 °
I
90º
V
O V
θ
I lags V by
∠ θ° Ω θ in R-L
series circuit
⎛ XL ⎞ I
R 2 + (X L ) 2 θ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ R ⎠
I
I leads V by
∠ θ° θ in R-C
series circuit
θ
⎛ −X C ⎞
R 2 + (X C ) 2 θ ⎜ ⎟ O V
⎝ R ⎠
θ θ
17.68 Ω 56.2 mH
Ω R L
Vm sin ωt ω
ω 314
∴ v(t) = Vm sin 314 t
2π 2π
∴ 2π f L 2π × 50 × 56.2 × 10 –3 Ω
∴ Ω
318 μF 8Ω
Ω μF C R
Vm sin ωt 100 2 ω
Vm
∴ 100∠ 0º V
2 v(t) = 100√2 sin 314 t V
®
TM

1 1 1 ω 2πf
Ω
2π f C ωC 314 × 318 × 10 –6
∴
∴ Ω ∠ Ω
100 ∠ 0º Ω
V
∴ ∠
Z 12.8062 ∠ – 51.34º ∠ Ω
∠ × ∠
I ∠ 51.34º ∠
I leads V
by 51.34º 2 × 14.1421
∴ E m sin ( ωt + φ)
51.34º
V ∠ 0º
VL 14 .14 ∠ 180°V
VR 7.071∠ 90°V 15.809 ∠ 153.4349°V
VR VL
R L
+ 100 Ω 0.1 H
e(t) i φ
Ω
φ
×
I2
×
2π f L
2 π f × 0.1
100
∴
2π × 0.1
I m sin( ωt )
2 2 × 0.1
®
TM

φ
R L C
VR VL VC
I VL
I
o o
90 90
True power I VR
I VC
Apparent power
v = Vmsin ωt
V I cos φ
φ
VI
R
φ
Z
φ
°
®
TM

φ φ
∠ °Ω Ω °
∠ °Ω Ω °
∠ °Ω Ω °
∠ φ° Ω Ω °∠ φ∠ ° φ
∠ φ° Ω Ω °∠ φ ∠ ° φ
Ω
∠ ± φ° Ω φ φ
100 μF
5Ω 20 mH
i
10 cos 500t
° θ θ
ω +θ
ω
θ °
Vm
∴ ∠ °
2
Ω μ
∴ ωL Ω Ω
ω
∴ Ω
∠− °Ω
V ∠ °
∴ ∠ °
ZT ∠− °
× ×
× ×
× ×
®
TM

(0.366 + j 0.7926) Ω
I I1 I2 I3
V V V V
∴
Z Z1 Z2 Z3
° ω= 2 / 1 1 1 1
Z Z1 Z2 Z3
VL VC VR
i(t)
V +
_
VR VL VC
Z2 Z1
I1 I I2 I
Z1 + Z2 Z1 + Z2
I I1 I2 I3
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
I1 Z1 I V ⎜ ⎟ V ⎜ ⎟ V ⎜ ⎟
⎝ Z1 ⎠ ⎝ Z2 ⎠ ⎝ Z3 ⎠
I2
Z2
VY VY1 VY2 VY 3
I3
Z3 ∴ Y Y1 Y2 Y3
I V I
V volts
®
TM

I1 Z1
I2
Z2 Y1 Y2 Y3
I I3 Z3 I I
V V
1
R± j X
R jX R jX ∠φ
(R ± j X) (R j X) R2 + X2 B
G 2 + B2 φ
G
⎛ R ⎞ ⎛ X ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ R + X2
2
⎠ ⎝ R + X2
2
⎠
R X
Z2 Z2
∴
R
Z2
X Ω
Z2 Ω
I1
Z1
Z2
I2
I
100 + j200 V
®
TM

∠ °
∠− °Ω ∴ XL πf L π× ×
∠+ °Ω Ω Ω
V ∠ ° 1
∴ XC
Z1 ∠ ° πf C 2π × 100 × 100 × 10 −6
∠ ° Ω Ω
30 × j 62.8318
Z′ 30||Z 1
30 + j 62.8318
V ∠ °
Z2 ∠+ ° 30 × 62.8318 ∠ 90º
69.6263 ∠ 64.477º
∠ °
27.072 ∠ 25.523º Ω
24.4301 + j 11.664 Ω
∴ +
IT – j 15.9156 Ω
Parallel
10 Ω
50 V 30 Ω j 62.8318 Ω
∠ °
∴ φ
∴ φ 50 ∠ 0º
∴ IT
− j15.9156 + 10 + 24.4301 + j 11.664
× ×
50 ∠ 0º
( 34.4301 − j 4.2516)
50∠0º
IT ∴ IT
V 34.6916∠ − 7.039º
I1 6.075º
132.5º 1.4412∠ + 7.039ºA
I2
26.6º φ
φ (7.039º )
100 μF – j 15.9156 Ω
10 Ω
IT 10 Ω
IT
50 V Z'
50 V 30 Ω 0.1 H
100 Hz
®
TM

α
I BF I1 − I 2
1 I CG I2 − I3
H
2
+
V1 1F 2Ω Vα
Ix
I3
−
I3 − Ix
1.2648 ∠ −153.434º V
I1
R1 R3 R5
A B C D
V1 +
_ R2 R4 Ix
I1 I2 I3
E F G H
I2
I3
I1 I2
®
TM

I 2 R 2 − V2 − I 2 R 3 + I1 R 3
I1 I2
R1 R2
A B C
V1 +– R3 + V2
–
I1 I2
F E D
I1
I2
(I1 − I 2 R3
R3 R3
B _ E B _ E
+ +
( I1 – I2 ) ( I2 – I1 )
I1
I2 R3
R1 R2
A B C
V +
_ IA R3
R1 I1 I2
A B
+ _
I2
_ F E D
+
V1 +– R3
I1 _ +
F E
−I1 R1 − I1 R 3 + 3 + V1
®
TM

Ω
2Ω 1Ω 4Ω
10 V +
_ 4Ω 6Ω +
_ 20 V
I1 , I 2 I3
I1 ( I1 − I 2 )
6I1 − 4 I 2
− 1I 2 − 6 (I 2 − I 3 ) − 4 (I 2 − I1 )
4 I1 − 11I 2 + 6 I 3
− 4 I 3 − 20 − 6 ( I 3 − I 2 )
I 2 − 10 I 3
I2
I3
Ω I2 − I3
2Ω 1Ω 4Ω
A B C D
+ _ + _ + _
+ _ + _
10 V +
_ 4Ω 6Ω +
_ 20 V
_ _
I1 + I + I3
2
H G F E
®
TM

ix
10 Ω
vx
3A
4 5Ω
5Ω 2Ω a 3Ω b
50 V +
_ +
+ + vx 2 Ω +
60 V 5A 6Ω 50 V – 4ix
– – –
ix
5Ω 2Ω 3Ω 10 Ω
g h a b
− − −
+ –
+ + + vx +
+ – 3A
+ + Ib 4 5Ω
60 V 5A 6Ω 50 V
– I1 I2 I3 – 50 V +
_ –
– + + –
2Ω + 4ix
f e d c –
Ia – + Ic
– Ia +Ib
vx
4
vx
– Ib +Ic
4
vx 2 (I a – I c )
2 (I a – I c )
– Ib +Ic
4
∴ ∴ 0.5 I a + I b – 1.5 I c
– 10 I a – 5 I c – 4 i x + 50 ix Ia
∴ ∴ 14 I a + 5 I c
I3
Ia Ib
Ic
∴ ix Ia
vx 2 (I a – I c )
®
TM

I 4Ω I1 + I2 ↑
I 6Ω
I 8Ω
C I 4Ω
VAB
2Ω 6Ω
+
10V
–
A B A 2Ω C 6Ω B
4Ω
I1 I2
3Ω – 2I1 + + 6I2 –
8Ω
1.9178 V 2.0544 V
D
∴ VAB 2.0544 − 1.9178
C
I1 I 3
2Ω – + 6Ω
+
– j2 –j4Ω 5Ω
+ 10 V
I1 –
A +
– B
I2
– +
4Ω V1 + 5Ω j2Ω
– _
+ –
+
3Ω I1 I2 I3
8Ω
− j 2 I1 − 5 I1 + 5 I 2 + V1
− 2 I 1 − 10 − 4I 1 + 4I 2 − 3I 1
∴ − I1 ( 5 + j 2) + 5 I 2 V1
− 9 I1 + 4 I2 ∴ I1 ( 5 + j 2) − 5 I 2 V1
− 6 I 2 − 8 I 2 − 4 I 2 + 4I 1 + 10 − I 2 ( − j 4) − ( j 2) I 2 − 5 I 2 + 5 I1 + j2 I 3
∴ − 4 I 1 + 18 I 2 ∴ 5 I1 − I 2 ( 5 − j 2) + I 3 ( j 2)
I1 − 0.9589 A − 5 I3 − j 2 I3 + j 2 I2
I2 0.3424 A 0 I1 + j 2 I 2 − I 3 ( 5 + j 2)
I2
5+ j 2 −5 0
∴ I 2Ω 5 − ( 5 − j 2) j2
0 j 2 − ( 5 + j 2)
I 3Ω
®
TM

5Ω 2Ω 6Ω
+ – + – + –
+ – + –
+ +
50 V 3Ω 4Ω 10 V
∠ + 21.801° – –
I1 – + I2 –+ I3
V1 −5 0
D1 0 − ( 5 − j 2) j2 Loop I Loop II Loop III
0 j2 − ( 5 + j 2)
V1 V1
–2 I 2 – 4 I 2 + 4 I 3 – 3 I 2 + 3 I 1
V1
3 I1 – 9 I2 + 4 I 3
5+ j 2 −5 V1
D3 5 − ( 5 − j 2) 0 V1 6 I 3 – 10 – 4 I 3 + 4 I 2 4 I 2 – 10 I 3
0 j2 0
I1 I2
V1 ∠ + ° I3
D1 33 V1 ∠0 °
∴ I1 ∴ I 4Ω I2 – I 3 2.351 – (– 0.0597)
D 43.081 ∠ + 21.801 °
V1 ∠ − °
D3 10 V1 ∠ + 90 ° ∴ P4Ω I 24Ω × (2.4107) 2 × 4
I3
D 43.081 ∠ + 21.801 °
Ω
V1 ∠ °
I1 0.7659 V1 ∠ − 21.801°
∴
I3 0.2321 V1 ∠68.199° 57 V
3Ω 5Ω 7Ω
∠− °
4Ω 6Ω
42 V 4V
25 V 70 V
Ω
5Ω 2Ω 6Ω
+ +
50 V 3Ω 4Ω 10 V
– –
3Ω 5Ω 57 V 2Ω
–
+
– – –
+
– –
+ +
4Ω 6Ω –
+ + +
2V – – + +4
– –
I1 I2 I
25 V – 70 V 3
+
Loop I Loop II Loop III
–5 I 1 – 3 I 1 + 3 I 2 + 50
8 I1 + 3 I2
®
TM

∴ ∠
V2 V2
(–5 + j5) 7.071 ∠ 135º
∠ × ∠
VB [– j5 I3]
⎡ V2 ⎤
⎢⎣5∠ – 90º × 7.071 ∠ 135º ⎥⎦
∴ Ω ∠
↓ ∴ ∠ ∠
Ω
∴ [2.4028 – j 16.799]
∠
4Ω 3Ω j4Ω 5Ω
V1 = 20 ∠0º I1 j3 Ω I2 V2
– j5 Ω
I3
+
10 V
–
10 A 3Ω 1Ω
2Ω
Ω
∠
20∠ 0º 20∠0º
(4 + j 3) 5 ∠ 36.86º
4Ω VA 3Ω j4Ω VB 5Ω
– –
+
I2 = 0
+ + – +
20 ∠0º V j3Ω –j5Ω + V2
– – I3 –
I1
®
TM

a b c d I1 I2 I 3 I4
+
– – 10 V
+ +
10 A 3 + – 1 I1 Ia I2 Ia − Ib I 3 Ib − Ic I4 Ic
+
– 2 –
I1 I2 I3
– +
h g f e − 7 I a − 12 I a + 12 I b + 60
−7 I a − 12 (I a − I b ) − 60
−6 I b + 6 I c − 12 I b + 12 I a
12 (I a − I b ) − 6 (I b − I c )
−12 I c − 6 I c + 6 I b
6 (I b − I c ) − 12 I c
+ 7 I 1 + 12 I 2 12 I 2 − 6 I 3 6 I 3 − 12 I 4
I1 I2 + I 3 + I4
∴ 7 (I 2 + I 3 + I 4 ) + 12 I 2
19 I 2 + 7 I 3 + 7 I 4
12 I 2 − 6 I 3
6 I 3 − 12 I 4
I2 I3
7Ω I4
I1 I2 I3 I4 ∴ I1 I2 + I 3 + I4
60 V + 12 Ω 6Ω 12 Ω ∴ I1
–
I0
2Ω 8Ω
+ v –
x I0
I1
7Ω 4Ω 4Ω
6Ω
+ – I2 I3 I4 i1 i2
– – +
+ + + vs +
_ – 3vx
60V + 12 Ω 6Ω 12 Ω
– + +
– – –
Ia Ib Ic
®
TM

+ vx –
2Ω 8Ω
+ – I0
– 2 i 1 – 4 i 1 + 4 i 2 – 12 – 6 i 1 + –
+ – +
–
∴ – 12 i 1 + 4 i 2 4Ω 4Ω
6Ω – + –
– 8 i 2 – 4 i 2 – 3 v x + 12 – 4 i 2 + 4i 1 vx 2 i1 + i1 i2
+
12 V +
_ – 3 vx
∴ 2 i 1 + 16 i 2
i1 i2
∴ I0 i2 ↓
XL1 = 2 Ω
j2 Ω
+ – + –
XC 8Ω I2 –j8 Ω I2
–+
–
R1 1Ω R2 4Ω + –
XL2 6Ω 1Ω +
4Ω j6 Ω
+ +
– – +
ia ib –
E1 = 8 ∠20° V E2 = 10 ∠0° V
– + _
8∠20° V +
_ + 10∠0° V
(– j 2) i a – (– j 8) i a + (– j 8) i b – 4 i a + 4 i b + 10 ∠ 0º + 8 ∠ 20º – i a
i a (5 – j 6) + i b (– 4 + j 8) 17.73 ∠ 8.877º
(– j 6) i b – 10 ∠ 0º– 4 i b – (– j 8) i b + 4 i a + i a (– j 8)
i a (4 – j 8) + i b (– 4 + j 2) ∠
ia 1.042 ∠ 29.38º A ib 1.274 ∠ 273.06º A
∴ I2 ib
I0
10 Ω
1.274 ∠ 273.06º A
–j4 Ω
j8 Ω
Ω 1× ia
2∠ 0° A
1.042 ∠ 29.38º V 50∠0° V _
+
5Ω –j6 Ω
®
TM

I0 10 Ω
10 Ω
– 20 Ω 30 Ω
+ +
+ –
Ι1
–j4 Ω + + j8 Ω +
– – 10 V 5Vo + 2I1 10 Ω Vo
I2 –
–
+ –
2∠0° A
–
50∠0° V +
_
– +
+
I1 5Ω –
+ I3 –j6 Ω
–
Ω
2A
1Ω 3 Ω
– I2 +I 3
24 V +
_ 8A 4Ω
– 10 I 1 – I 1 (– j 4) + I 2 (– j 4) – 5 I 1 + 5 I 3 + 50
∴ I 1 (15 – j 4) + I 2 (j 4) – 5 I 3
– I 2 (– j 4) + I 1 (– j 4) – j 8 I 2 – I 3 (– j 6) – 5 I 3 + 5 I 1
∴ I 1 (5 – j 4) + I 2 (– j 4) + I 3 (– 5 + j 6)
0 –1 1 j4 –j6
3Ω 4Ω
15 – j 4 j 4 –5
5– j 4 – j 4 – 5+j 6
+ +
6∠30º V 5Ω 2∠65º A 8∠–15º V
58.855 ∠ 170.217º – I1 I3 I2 –
2 –1 1
D1 50 j 4 –5
0 – j 4 – 5+j 6
0.6305 ∠ − 164.4237° 1.1266 ∠ 156.13°
2.315 ∠ − 144.118°
298.67 ∠ 176.16º
D1
∴ I0 I1 5.074 ∠ 5.943º A
D
1Ω 2Ω
+
_ 5V
6A
4Ω 3Ω
P1 Ω = 33.64 W P2 Ω = 13.52 W P3 Ω = 34.68 W

P4 Ω = 0.16 W
®
TM

Ω
5Ω 4Ω 2Ω
50∠0º V j2 Ω –j2 Ω 26.25∠–66.8º V 20 Ω
30 Ω 40 Ω
60 Ω 50 Ω 10 Ω
+
20 Ω
–
Ω
V + – + –
100 V 50 V
10 Ω j5 Ω
5Ω ↑
j5 Ω
∠ °
10 Ω 5Ω
90 V +
_
30 Ω A
5Ω
15 Ω 2Ω j3 Ω 4Ω
V1 = 30∠0º j5 Ω 6Ω V2
I1 I2 I3
®
TM

R1 VB R2 VC Ix
A D
I1 B I3 I3 C
I2 I4
Vx +
_ R3 R4 Ix
G
H
E F V=0V
VB R2 VC
I3
VB – VC
R1 VB R2 VC
I3 =
R2
A D
B C
(a) Branch BC
Vx +
_ R3 R4 Ix
VB
G
H V –0
E F Reference I2 I2 = B
R3
node
R3 VB
=
R3
0V
F
(b) Branch BF
VC
V –0
I4 I4 = C
R4
R4 VC
=
R4
0V
G
(c) Branch CG
– I1 – I 2 – I 3
I3 + Ix – I4
®
TM

VA VA
I1
R1 I1
VB R
I1
I1 R Vx is
Vx +
_ helping 0 V
Vx +
_ 0V 0V
Vx tries to force
current against I1 0 – VA 0 + Vx – V A
I1 = ———— I1 = ——————
R R
E
0V (a) (b)
VA
I1
VB – 0 R
R1 Vx is
_
+
Vx
opposing 0 V
0V
0 – Vx – V A
I1 = ——————
R
(c)
VB – Vx – 0 VB – Vx
=
R1 R1
VA VA
I I
R R
_
+ Vx helps I Vx opposes VA
Vx Vx +
_
i.e. helps
voltage VA
0V 0V
VA + V x – 0 VA – Vx – 0
∴ I = —————— ∴ I = ——————
R R
(a) (b)
®
TM

− Vx − V 3 + V2
V2 V3
∴ V2 Vx + V 3
R1
Supernode
Vx
V2
V1 + – V3 V3 V2 + Vx
R2
IA
Vx V2
R3 R4
V2 Vx V3
– +
+ +
V2 V3
– –
V2 V 3 + Vx
V2 Vx V3
+ –
+ +
V2 V3
– –
®
TM

5 – I1 – I2
10 + I 1 – 5 – I 3
⎛ V – V2 ⎞ ⎛ V1 ⎞
5A 5–⎜ 1 ⎟–⎜ ⎟
⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
0.75 V1 – 0.25 V2
4Ω ⎛ V – V2 ⎞ ⎛ V2 ⎞
1
2 5+ ⎜ 1 ⎟–⎜ ⎟
⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎝ 6 ⎠
2Ω 6Ω 10 A – 0.25 V1 + 0.4167 V2
V1 V2
5A
3Ω 1Ω
+
5A 5A 5A 10 Ω 5Ω 10 V
–
I1 4Ω I1 10 A
V1
V2
I2 I3
10 A
2Ω 6Ω
V1 V2
I2 I3
2Ω 4Ω 6Ω
V1 V2
I1
V1 – 0 V 1 – V2 V2 – 0
I2 = I1 = I3 =
2 4 6
®
TM

5A V1 3 V2 I4 1
I 0 = 7.5
I2 I2
I1 I3
+
5A 10 V
5 –
10
Base
1 2
4Ω Io
8Ω
+
Vs 7Ω 6Ω 6Ω
–
5 – I1 – I2 I1 +I2 =5
12 Ω
I2 – I 3 – I4
Ref
V1 V1 – V2
+
10 3
0.4333V1 – 0.333V2
I1 V1 I3 I3 V2 I0 = 7.5 mA
V1 – V2 V2 ⎡ V2 – 10 ⎤
– – I2 4Ω
3 5 ⎢⎣ 1 ⎥⎦ 8Ω I4
0.333V1 – 1.5333V2 = –10

Vs +
_ 7Ω 6Ω 6Ω
12 Ω
V1 19.8783 V V2 = 10.8427 V
Ref
∴ I1 1.9878 A I 2 = 3.0118 A
I3 2.1685 A I 4 = 0.8427 A
V1
V2
1
I1 V2
3 I4 +
10 V1 V2 5 10 V
I3 –
I2
Opposing
V2
V1 V1 – V2 V2 V2 – 10
I1 = I2 = I3 = I4 =
10 3 5 1
®
TM

I1 V1 V1 V2 V2
V1 4Ω V2 Io = 7.5 mA
8 + 12
= 20 Ω 7Ω 6Ω 6Ω
Vs +
_
V1 – Vs V1 – 0 V1 – V2 V2 – 0 V2 = 7.5 x 10–3
I1 = I2 = I3 = I4 = I0 =
20 7 4 6 6
−I 1 − I 2 − I 3 I1 +I2 +I 3
I 3 −I 4 −I 0 I 3 −I 4 × 10 −3 10 ∠ 45º V
+ –
I2 I2
3 ∠ 0º A V1 4Ω V2 I5
I3 I3
I1 I4
−3
I0 V2 6 × 7.5 × 10
–j 3 Ω 12 Ω
j 6Ω
3 ∠ 0º A
V1 − V5 V1 V1 − 0.045
+ +
20 7 4
V1 Vs 10 ∠ 45º V
V1 − 0.045 0.045
− 7.5 × 10 −3 V1 − 10 ∠ 45º V2
4 6
V1 V1 − V2 10 ∠ 45º
× Vs 3∠ 0º −I 1 − I 2 − I 3
∴ Vs I1 +I2 +I 3 3 ∠ 0º
I 3 + I 2 − I 4 − I5
V1 V1 V1 − V2 1
I1 j I3
−j 3 3 4 j
10 ∠ 45º V
+ V2 V2 V2
I4 −j I5
j6 6 12
V1 4Ω V2
I2
I2
3 ∠ 0º A – j3 Ω j6 Ω 12 Ω
∴ I2 I 4 + I5 − I 3
∴ I 1 + I 4 + I5 − I 3 + I 3 3 ∠ 0º
®
TM

V1 I1 10 Ω V2 I2 1Ω V3
I3
+
25 A 4Ω 20 A 2Ω 10 Ω 20 V
–
25 A V1 I1 I1 V2 I2 V3 I6
10 Ω 1Ω
I3 I4 I5
+
25 A 4Ω 20 A 2Ω 10 Ω 20 V
–
Base
I 1 + I 4 + I5 3 ∠ 0º
V1 V2 V2
∴ j −j + 3 ∠ 0º
3 6 12
j 0.333 V1 + V2 (0.0833 − j 0.166) 3 ∠ 0º
V3
1 −1 V3
j 0.333 0.0833 − j 0.166
V3 20
∴ I5 ↓
∠ 10 10
10 ∠ 45º −1 V1 V2
D1
3 ∠ 0º 0.0833 − j0.166
25 − I 1 − I 3 I 1 + 20 − I 2 − I 4
V1 − V2 ⎡ V1 ⎤
I1 I3 ⎢⎣ 4 ⎥⎦
10
∠
1 10 ∠ 45º V2 − V 3 V2
D2 I2 − I4
j 0.333 3 ∠ 0º 1 2
⎡ V1 − V2 ⎤ ⎡ V1 ⎤
∴ ⎢⎣ 10 ⎥⎦ − ⎢⎣ 4 ⎥⎦
∠
0.35 V1 − 0.1 V2
D1
∴ V1 = 25.789∠ − 70.469º V
D ⎡ V1 − V2 ⎤ V2
⎢⎣ 10 ⎥⎦ + 20 − [V2 − 20] − 2
D2
V2 ∠
D
− 0.1 V1 + 1.6 V2
®
TM

V1 V2 Vx
4A 2A
∴ I1 I2 I3 I1 I3
I2
Ω
2
I4 2
Ω
4A 2A
I1 4Ω I3
V1 I6 V2
I4 1Ω 1Ω
I5 Base
I5
+
2Ω 2Ω + –
4A Vx 4 Ω 2A Forms a
supernode 5 Vx
–
1Ω 1Ω
5 VX
+ –
Vx – V1 Vx Vx – V2
+ +
2 4 2
1.25 Vx – 0.5 V1 – 0.5 V2

Vx
Vx – V1 Vx – V2
4 + 2 – I1 – I2 – I 3 I1 +I2 +I 3 + – V1 – V2
2 2
V1 I 1 – 4 – I 4 – I 5 I5 I1 – I4 – 4 Vx – 1.5 V1 – 1.5 V2
V2 –2 + I 3 – I 6 + I 5 I5 –I 3 + I 6 + 2
5Vx V1
V1 V2 5Vx I5
V1 – 5Vx – V2 –5Vx + V1 – V2
I1 – I4 – 4 –I 3 + I 6 + 2 I1 +I 3 – I4 – I6
Vx
Vx Vx Vx
1Ω 1Ω
V1 V2
2Ω I1 4Ω I2 2Ω I3 I4 I6
V1 V2
Vx – V1 Vx – 0 Vx – V2 V1 – 0 V2 – 0
I1 = I2 = I3 = I4 = I6 =
2 4 2 1 1
®
TM

20∠ 30º
3
( 80∠ 30º ) (2 + j 5)
∴
(5 + j 26)
3Ω A j5Ω (80 ∠ 30º) (5.3851 ∠ 68.198º)
26.476 ∠ 79.114º
20∠30° V –j4Ω 2Ω
∠
20∠ 30º–VA
∴
3
[17.3205 + j10]– [15.3773 + j5.32]

3
3Ω I1 VA I3 j5Ω ∠
I2
∴
+
20∠ 30º V –j4Ω 2Ω × ×
–
2
Ω
I1 × ×
Base
VA 16.2716 ∠ 19.084º
2 + j5 5.3851 ∠ 68.198º
∴ Ω
× ×
20 ∠ 30º–VA
3 3Ω Ω
VA j VA 1
– j4 4 j
I1 = 1.6891 ∠ 67.452º A
VA
2 + j5
37.45º V = 20 ∠ 30º V
20∠ 30º VA j VA V
– – – A
3 3 4 2 + j5
⎡1 j 1 ⎤ 20∠ 30º
+ +
⎢⎣ 3 4 2 + j5 ⎥⎦ 3
⎡ 4 (2 + j5) + j3 (2 + j5) + 12 ⎤
∴ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 12 (2 + j5) ⎦
®
TM

3Ω
10 Ω 2Ω
3Ω
+
10 V 5Ω 5A 1Ω 6Ω
–
I4 I4
I1 10 I1 V1 I3 I3 V2 8 I 5 V3
3 5A I5 I7
I6
I2
+
10 V 5A 1
–
5 6
Base
10 V1 V1 V3 V3
3
I1 V1 V2
+ I4 8
10 V 5 V2 V3 1 6
– I6 I7
I2 3 I5
Opposing V1 V2
V1
I3
V1 – 10 V1 V1 – V2
I1 = I2 = I3 = I4 = V 2 – V3 V3 V3
10 5 3 I5 = I6 = I7 =
8 1 6
®
TM

V1 – 10 V1 2(V1 – V2 ) I1 + I2 + I 3
+ +
10 5 3
I 3 − I 4 − I5
V1 V1 − 25
I1 I2
2(V1 – V2 ) (V2 – V 3 ) 2 5
5+ –
3 8 V1 − V2
I3
10
V2
⎛ V2 – V 3 ⎞ V 3 V 3 I4
⎜ ⎟– – 4
⎝ 8 ⎠ 1 6
V2 + 50
I5
2
V1 I2
V2 I5
V1 V1 − 25 V1 − V2
+ +
2 5 10
10 Ω
0.8 V1 − 0.1 V2
1 2
V1 − V2 V2 ⎡ V2 + 50 ⎤
− −
5Ω
10 4 ⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦
2Ω
4Ω 0.1 V1 − 0.85 V2
25 V
+ – V1
2Ω – +
50 V
V2 − 29.1044 V
ref
V1 and V2
I3 10 Ω I3
V1 V2
I2 I4
I5
I1
5Ω 2Ω 3.1716 A →
4Ω
5Ω 10 Ω 2Ω
25 V
+ –
2Ω – + Ι
50 V –
25 V +
_ 2Ω 4Ω 50 V
+
ref
®
TM

A 1Ω B 2Ω
5Ω
2Ω
_
4Ω Vx 3Ω 2A 2Ω 1A + 2V
_
+
1V
+
5V 2A
–
100 Ω 20 Ω 30 Ω 5Ω 4Ω 2Ω
+
10 Ω 50∠0º V +
_ j2 Ω –j2 Ω +
_ 50∠90º V
10 V 20 Ω 2A 20 Ω – I
100 V
∠ °
→
2A j3 Ω
5Ω
–j5 Ω V2
10 Ω 20 Ω
+
80 V + V – + V – 5∠90º A 3Ω 6Ω 10∠0º A
– 1 2 20 V
50 Ω
3Ω 5Ω 4Ω 2Ω
4Ω 1Ω
X +
50∠0º V +
_ j2 Ω –j2 Ω +
_ 50∠90º V
–
I
16 V 3A
2Ω 2Ω 2Ω
®
TM

R se
R se
VL R se I L Vs Vs
R sh R sh
V
∝
R
®
TM

∑V
v(t)
R
di(t) 1
L∫
v(t) dt
dt
1 dv(t)
C∫
i(t) dt
dt
μ
μ
C eq C1 C2 μ
C1 C2
C eq
C1 + C2
20× 10− 6 × ×10− 6

20 × 10− 6 + 5 × 10− 6
8.5714 × 10− 6 μ ω
π
π
ω
∑ ω π
π
ω
ω π
®
TM

⎛ π ⎞
⎜ ⎟ θ
⎝ ⎠
V2 230 2
R R
I2R I 2 × 230
Ω
∠ ± φ
±
Ω
∴ 2 πf L 2π× 10 × 10 3 × 50 × 10 −3
∠ ± φ ±
Ω
φ φ
∴ 10 × 103 + j 3141.5926 Ω
2
x +y 2
φ ⎛y⎞
⎜ x⎟
⎝ ⎠ ∠ Ω
()
() ( − )
Vm
∠0º
2
Im
∠ − 45º
2
φ V
–45º
®
TM

∴ Ω
μ
∴ φ
XL π π× × = Ω
XC
( )= ( − ) πf C π× × × −
( )= ( − )
Vm Ω
∠ − 45º V
2
R + j XL − j XC
25 + j83.315 − j 40
Im
∠ − 135º V
2 + j Ω = ∠ Ω
R 25
∴ cos φ = =
Z 50.0118
0.499
– 45º
–135º
I
φ
V
2A –3 A
–2 A I
φ
5A
∴ φ
+ 2 + ( −3) − ( −2) + 5 − I = 0
Ω
Ω ∑I = 0
∴ − + +
R 1R 2
Ω R 1 + R 2 = 25 Ω
R1 + R1
1Ω
∴ R1 R2 6 × (R 1 + R 2 ) × = 0.5 Ω
A B
150
R1
R2 1Ω
150
∴ + R2 R 22 − 25R 2 + 150 = 0 1Ω
R2
R2 Ω Ω
R1 Ω Ω
®
TM

1×1
= 0.5
A 1+1 0.5 Ω B
1Ω
(a)
0.5 + 0.5 = 1 Ω
A B
Parallel
1Ω
(b)
×
∴ RAB = 0.5 Ω
+
XL π
A B C
+
_
F E D
VL
VL = Vs
Vs
0 IL
®
TM

R1 R2 R3
5A 5s
100 V
Geq
6s 8s 12 s
∴ Ω
V 5s
R1 + R2 + R 3
Geq
100 6s 12 + 8
Ω = 20s
2 +5 + R3
Series
∴ ×
(a)
× Due to
series
conductances
6s 5 × 20
Geq =4s
20 + 5
Parallel
10 Ω (b)
50 Ω
10 V A
∴
50 Ω
G 1G 2
G1 + G2
B
×
V 10
10 + 50 + 50 10 + 50 + 50
10 × 50
∴
110
ΙL
ΙL = Ιs
Ιs
VL
®
TM

RT
2Ω 1+1.2307 = 2.2307 Ω
VL Parallel
(c)
Ideal
Vs
Practical
2 × 2.2307
ΙL 2 + 2.2307
(a) Practical voltage source Ω
ΙL
Ideal
Ιs
Practical
VL
(b) Practical current source
Vm
2
2Ω
2Ω
RT 1.2 Ω
2Ω
1Ω E 1.2 × 10 3
P× t
t 0.5
P 2400
V 120
RT 2Ω 2 2+1.2 = 3.2 Ω
1Ω
Parallel
(a)
10 Ω
2 × 3.2 10 Ω
RT 2Ω = 1.2307 Ω
2 + 3.2
a b
5Ω 10 Ω
1Ω Series
(b)
®
TM

10 Ω 10 Ω
b b
10 || 10
10 Ω 10 Ω
=5Ω
a
5Ω a 5Ω series
Parallel
(a) (b)
10 Ω
b
10 || 10 = 5 Ω Rab = 5 Ω
Parallel a b
a
5+5
= 10 Ω
(d)
(c)
5Ω a 2Ω
+ – + –
I1 I3 I2
+
20 V + 10 Ω + 8V
– – –
Ω
b
i(t) R
+ v(t) –
− 5I 1 − 10 I 3 + 20 I1 + 2 I 3
− 2I 2 − 8 + 10 I 3 − I2 + 5 I 3
ρ I1 − I2 − I 3
ρ I1 I2 I3
Ω
a
A B
1Ω 3.2 Ω
v(t)
R
4.27 Ω
®
TM

×
Ω
+
R
∴ R eq Ω +
+
Series 16 V 8Ω 4Ω 4V
–
A 1Ω B
–
3.2 || 4.27
V
Ω
Ω
Ω
Ω Ω Ω
∴ ×
R 1R 2
R1 + R2 Ω Ω R 1||R 2
R1 + R2 Ω
R 1R 2
∴ R 1R 2
25
150 1F
R1 1H
R2
150
∴ + R2 R 22 − R + + 1Ω
R2 10 cos t _
i(t)
∴ R2 Ω Ω
R1 Ω Ω
Ω Ω
ωt + θ
∴ ω θ Vm
∴ Ω XL ωL Ω
XC Ω
ωC
IT
R eq Ω I T × R eq ∴ R + j XL – j XC Ω
∠ ºΩ
Vm ∠ θ ∠ º
V Vm
∴ R1 Ω Im ∠ º
I1 Z
V V ∴ Im ω t + θ′ 10 sin (t + 90º )
R2 Ω R3 Ω
I2 I3
V
R4 Ω
I4
®
TM

π
®
TM

®
TM

R R R1 R2 R3
10 Ω 20 Ω 30 Ω
R1 R2 Ι
I
+ –
V +
_
60 V
V
R1 + R2 + R 3
+ +
V × R1
V ∴ VR1 I R1 =
R R R1 + R2 + R 3
R1 + R 2
×
VR1 VR2 R R V× R2
∴ VR2 I R2 =
R1 + R2 + R 3
∴ VR1 ⋅R
×
V ⎡ R1 ⎤
∴ VR1 ⋅R ⎢⎣ R1 + R 2 ⎥⎦
R1 + R 2 V× R 3
VR3 IR3 =
R1 + R2 + R 3
VR2 ⋅R
×
V ⎡ R2 ⎤
∴ VR2 ⋅R ⎢⎣ R1 + R 2 ⎥⎦
R1 + R 2
R1
⎡ Z1 ⎤ R
VZ 1 ⎢⎣ Z 1 + Z 2 ⎥⎦ V
R I R I
∴
⎡ Z2 ⎤ IT
VZ 2 ⎢⎣ Z 1 + Z 2 ⎥⎦ V ∴ IT I1 + I 2
®
TM

IT ΙT
I1 I2
V +
_ R1 R2 Ι1 Ι2
+
V
–
R1 R2
V V
I1 I2
R1 R2
I1 R1 I2 R 2
⎛R ⎞ R1 R2 ×
∴ I1 I2 ⎜ 2 ⎟ R eq Ω
⎝ R1 ⎠ R1 + R2 +
I1 IT V
∴ IT
R eq
⎛R ⎞ ⎡R ⎤
∴ IT I2 ⎜ 2 ⎟ I2 I2 ⎢ 2 + ⎥
⎝ R1 ⎠ R
⎣ 1 ⎦
⎡R + R2 ⎤ ⎛ R2 ⎞
I2 ⎢ 1 I1 IT ⎜ ⎟
⎣ R1 ⎥⎦ ⎝ R1 + R2 ⎠
20 ⎞
I2
⎡ R1 ⎤ 7.5 × ⎛⎜ ⎟
∴ ⎢⎣ R1 + R 2 ⎥⎦ I T ⎝ + 20 ⎠
10
⎛ R1 ⎞
⎡ R1 ⎤ I2 IT ⎜ ⎟
I1 IT I2 IT ⎢⎣ R1 + R 2 ⎥⎦ I T ⎝ R1 + R2 ⎠
10 ⎞
⎡ R1 + R 2 − R1 ⎤ 7.5 × ⎛⎜ ⎟
∴ ⎝ 10 + 20 ⎠
I1 ⎢⎣ R1 + R 2 ⎥⎦ I T
IT I1 +I2
⎡ R2 ⎤
∴ I1 ⎢⎣ R1 + R 2 ⎥⎦ I T
( + º)
2 + j1
E 2 – j5 3 + j6
⎡ Z2 ⎤ ⎡ Z1 ⎤
∴ I1 ⎢⎣ Z 1 + Z 2 ⎥⎦ I T I2 ⎢⎣ Z 1 + Z 2 ⎥⎦ I T
∴ (ωt + 45º)
Em (ωt + 45º)
Ω Ω
®
TM

I
2 + j1
E Z'
IA
6Ω 2Ω
3Ω
Em 50 4Ω
∴ ∠ º ∠ º IT IB IC
2 2 +
25 V 4Ω
∠ º – IE
4Ω
ID 4Ω
(2 − j5)( 3 + j 6)
′ (2 − j5)|| ( 3 + j6) 2 − j5 + 3 + j 6
5.3851 ∠ − 68.19º × 6.7082 ∠ 63.43º

5.099 ∠ 11.31º
∠ ºΩ 25
∴ IT
E 35.355∠45º 2+ 3
∴ I
2 + j1 + ′ 2 + j1 + 6.8071 − j1.9609
35.355∠45º 35.355∠45º IT × 6
8.8071 − j 0.9609 8.8593∠ − 6.226º IC
6+6
∠ º
3
I IA IT ×
2 + j1 3+6
Parallel 6Ω
E I1 I2 IA
2Ω Series
2 – j5 3 + j6
IT IC
3Ω
IB 4Ω
25 V +
_
ID 4Ω
IE
4Ω
4Ω
3 + j6
I1 I×
(2 − j5 + 3 + j6) Parallel
4 ∠ 51.226º × 6.7082 ∠ 63.43º

5.099 ∠ 11.31º 6||3
=2Ω
∠ º
IT
2 − j5 IC 4Ω
I2 I×
( 2 − j5 + 3 + j 6)
25 V +
_
4+2
=6Ω
4 ∠ 51.226º × 5.3851 ∠ − 68.19º 4 || 4
=2Ω
5.099 ∠ 11.31º
I2 4.2244 ∠ − 28.274ºA
®
TM

IT IAB
2Ω A
IC Thick
conducting Rsc = 0 VAB = 0 Network
4+2 wire
25 V +
_ 6Ω
=6Ω
B
Parallel
IT 2Ω
× ×
+ 6 || 6
25 V _
=3Ω
6
∴ IB IT ×
3+6
4
∴ ID IC ×
4+4
4
IE IC ×
4+4
∞
Roc = ∞ Ω
A+ R1
I=0
Open R2 Network
circuit
B–
Roc = ∞ Ω
VAB VAB
R oc ∞
Ω
®
TM

R2 A
I Branch AB
Short
is redundant
R1 R2 I
I R3
+ Ι=0
I R3 V R1 Short
+ –
– R4
V
R3 is redundant No current
through R3 B No current
through R3 and R4
(a) (b)
®
TM

Redundant
R1 R3 branches
A B C
+ Ι=0
V +
_ R2 R4
– Ι=0
Ι
R sh
F E D IL I×
(R sh + RL )
V
IL
R se + R L
V I × R sh
∴
R se R se + R L R sh + R L
RL
R se R sh
Rse
V
I × R sh I× R
R sh
+
_ V RL V V
∴ R R se
V
Rse
Rse
V = I Rsh
Rsh
V
R se RL
(R se + R L )
V
(R se + R L )
Ish IL
I Rsh RL
®
TM

Rse Rse
V +
_ ≈ Rse V
–
+ ≈ Rse
V V
(a) I = (b) I =
Rse Rse
Rsh Rsh
Rsh ≈ V +
_ Rsh ≈ V
_
+
(c) V = I × Rsh (d) V = I × Rsh
Ω
Ω
∴ × ×
5Ω
20 V +
_ 4A 5Ω
5Ω
V = 50 V +
_
V
R se
R se
40 mH
ο
15∠30 A 1100 Ω
10 A 5Ω 500 Ω
®
TM

A
0 + j12 Ω Zeq 5Ω 3.333 A

1100 Ω 10 A 2 Ω I' 3Ω
50 V +
_
500 Ω +
V –
Ω Ω
−
XL ω × × Ω
×
R′ Ω
ZL Ω +
∴ Z1 ∠ °Ω
Z2 ∠ °Ω A
Z1 Z 2 × ∠ °
∴ Z eq 5Ω
Z1 + Z 2 +j +
I" 13.333 A 1.2 Ω
∠ ° 50 V +
_
∠ °
∠ °Ω
Z eq ∠ °× ∠ ° ′ I ''⋅
5157.45 ∠30.9443° I A
– +
5Ω 1.2 Ω
+ –
50 V +
_ +
_ 15.996 Ω
5Ω 3Ω
2Ω
10 A
50 V 10 V
∴
−
∴
+
∴
I′
®
TM

4Ω 2Ω Ι0 6Ω
+ –
12 V 6A 3Ω 24 V
– +
−2I 0 − 2I 0 + 8 − 12 − 4I 0
∴ I0 ←
2Ω I0
24
4Ω 3A 6A 3Ω 6Ω 6
=4A
6×3
Parallel 6 + 3 = 2 Ω
Combine
3A↓
(a)
2Ω I0 2Ω I0
– + – +
4Ω 2Ω
4Ω 3A 2Ω 4A + –
4×3 – –
+ + 4×2=8V
= 12 V
(b) (c)
6V
2Ω 5A 4Ω 2A
Voltage sources
are combined
6V
+ –
2Ω
2Ω
2A 4Ω 2A
4Ω
5×2 +
10 – 6 +
= 10 V _ =4V –
(b)
(a)
®
TM

5V
4 –+
2Ω =2A 4Ω 2A
2
10 V +
_
7Ω 3A 5Ω
(c)
2Ω
Current sources
are combined
I4 Ω
2+2
2Ω 4Ω 10 + 5 +
=4A _
= 15 V
7Ω 3A 5Ω
(d) 2Ω
Ω Ω
4× 2
I 4Ω = 1.333 A ↓
2× 4
2Ω 7.5 A 7Ω 3A 5Ω
5V
1Ω
– +
i0 i0
6Ω 5A 3Ω 7Ω 3A 4Ω
7.5 + 3 5 ⎪⎪2
7Ω
= 10.5 A = 1.4285 Ω
Ω Ω Ω Ω
10.5 × 1.4285
i0 ↓
1.4285 + 7
5V
– +
6⎪⎪3 4+1
5A 7Ω 3A
=2Ω =5Ω
®
TM

V1 2 Ω V2 4Ω
4Ω
4A 4Ω 2A +
_ 4V
+
_ 2V
1
Z1
Ω
S
Z3 Z2
10 Ω
3 2
(a)
+
50
volts 30 Ω 5A 20 Ω Z1 Z2
– S
1 2
20 Ω
Z3
←
3 3
50 Ω 2 50 Ω (b)
1
i
100 Ω
15 V +
_ 50 Ω
+ 100i
–
Z31 Z12
2
Z23
3
(c)
Z12
1 2
Z31 Z23
3 3
(d)
π
®
TM

(Z A + ZB
ZB ZA + ZC )
ZB + ZA + ZC )
π
π
1
π
ZA , ZB , ZC Z1
S
Z3 Z2
π 3 2
(a)
Z1 , Z 2 , Z 3 1
Z1
S
π, Z2
1 2
(b)
ZA Z1
ZB
Equivalent Star of given Delta
S
Z3 Z2
3 ZC 2
Z1 Z2
ZB ZA + ZC )
∴ Z1 + Z 2
1 ZA + Z + ZC
ZA
ZB 3
ZC
2 ZC Z + ZB )
Z2 + Z3
ZA + ZB + ZC
®
TM

Z A (Z B + Z C )
Z1 + Z 3
ZA + Z + ZC
Z1 Z 2 Z 3 ZA , ZB ZC
ZA ZB + Z ZA ZC + ZBZC
∴ Z1 Z 2 Z2 Z3
ZA + ZB + ZC ZA + ZB + ZC
ZA ZB − Z A ZC
∴ Z1 Z 3
ZA + ZB + ZC
ZA ZB + ZA ZC Z Z − ZA ZC
+ A B Z1 Z 3 Z1 Z 3
2 ZA ZB
∴ Z1
ZA + ZB + ZC
ZA ⋅ ZB
∴ Z1
ZA + ZB + ZC
ZB ⋅ ZC
Z2
ZA + ZB + ZC
ZA ⋅ ZC
Z3
ZA + ZB + ZC
π
Z1 Z 2 Z 3
1
ZA Z1
ZB
ZA ZB ZC Equivalent Delta of given Star
S
Z3 Z2
ZA ZB 2
ZC
ZC Z1 Z 2 Z3
3
®
TM

ZA ⋅ ZB
Z1
ZA + ZB + ZC
ZB ⋅ ZC
Z2
ZA + ZB + ZC
ZA ⋅ ZC
Z3
ZA + ZB + ZC
Z A ⋅ Z 2B Z C
Z1 Z 2
(Z A + Z B + Z C ) 2
2
ZA ⋅ ZB ZC
Z2 Z3
(Z A + Z B + Z C ) 2
Z 2A ⋅ Z B Z C
Z1 Z 3
(Z A + Z B + Z C ) 2
2
Z A Z 2B Z C + Z A Z B Z C + Z 2A Z B Z C
∴ Z1 Z 2 Z2 Z3 Z1 Z 3
(Z A + Z B + Z C ) 2
Z A Z B Z C (Z B + Z C + Z A )
∴
(Z A + Z B + Z C ) 2
ZA ZBZC
∴ Z1 Z 2 Z2 Z3 Z1 Z 3
(Z A + Z B + Z C )
ZA ⋅ ZB
Z1
ZA + ZB + ZC
∴ Z1 Z 2 Z3 Z1 Z 3 Z1 Z C
Z2 Z3
∴ ZC Z2 Z3
Z1
Z1 Z 2
ZB Z1 Z2
∴ Z3
∴ Z1 Z 3
ZA Z1 Z3
Z2
π
®
TM

1
1 1
Z1
ZA ZB Z1
ZA ZB
ZC
Z3 Z2
3 2 ZC Z3 Z2
3 2 3 2
Z 1Z 3
ZA = Z 1 + Z 3 + ZA Z B
Z2 Z1 =
Z 1Z 2 ZA + Z B + Z C
ZB = Z1 + Z2 + ZB ZC
Z3 Z2 =
Z2 Z 3 ZA + Z B + Z C
ZC = Z2 + Z 3 + ZA Z C
Z1 Z3 =
ZA + Z B + Z C
Z
3
1
1
5Ω 10 Ω R1
S
R3 R2
3 2
15 Ω
3 2
×
R1 Ω
+ +
×
R2 Ω 1
+ +
×
R3 Ω
+ + Z1 4 + j3 Ω
Z2 3 – j4Ω 5 + j0 Ω Z3
( + )( − )
+ + + + − +
( + ) 2 3
®
TM

∠ °× ∠ − ° a c
− +
∠ °
− + ∠− ° Req
e
b d
1 R1
R2
Z12 Z31 1 ≈
11.8 – j 2.4 Ω 9+j8Ω
1 R3
Z23
8–j9Ω
2 3 ×
= Ω
+ +
×
Ω
+ +
Series
a 1 c 1 + (1/3) = 4/3 Ω
a c
1/3 1/3
1/3
Req e Req 1/3 + 1/3
s s s s
1/3 1/3 2/3 Ω
Series
1/3 1/3 1/3
b d d
1 b 1 + 1/3 = 4/3 Ω
Series
(b)
(c)
®
TM

s
s 2/3 s R1
1/3 ≈ s,d
R3
b d R2
4/3
(d)
a 4/3
c
Series
1/3 1.7142 Ω
a Parallel
0.0
95
Req 23 Req
Ω s'
Series
s,d 0.4285 Ω
s' 0.3809 Ω 0.1904 Ω
Ω
904 b
0.1
b (f)
(e)
×
Ω
+ + Ω Ω Ω
100 × 60
R1 Ω
× 100 + 60 + 40
Ω
+ + 60 × 40
R2 Ω
100 + 60 + 40
100 × 40
R3 Ω
100 + 60 + 40
∴ ( )+ Ω
I R1 R3
100 Ω
R2
I D +
A 160 V 80 Ω
C E –
88 Ω
60 Ω 40 Ω
160 V 80 Ω
88 Ω
®
TM

I 30 Ω Parallel I 30 Ω
+ +
R2 + 88 R3 + 80 100 || 100 160
160 V 160 V ∴Ι= = 2A
= 100 Ω = 100 Ω = 50 Ω 30 + 50
– –
(b) (c)
π
π Ω Ω Ω
– j2 Ω j4 Ω 2Ω a +j 2 10 b
a b
–j 4
2Ω – j4 Ω
a' b'
a' b' (c)
2× j 4 5 +j2 Ω
Z1 j Ω
2 + j4 −j4 a Za b
j 4× −j 4
Z2 + Ω 0.8 –j2 Ω Zb Zc –10 – j4 Ω
2 + j4 −j4
2 × −j 4
Z3 −j Ω a' b'
2 + j4 −j4
(d)
j4Ω
j 2 × 10
Za 5 + j2 Ω
Z1 Z2 −j4
2Ω –j 4 Ω j 2× −j 4
Zb 0.8 − j2 Ω
Z3
10
10 × −j 4
Zc −10 − j4 Ω
j2
Δ
–j2Ω 2Ω
a b
j4Ω 8Ω A
1Ω 4Ω
3Ω
–j4Ω
a' b' 2Ω 5Ω
B
®
TM

Ω Ω Ω
a
4Ω 2Ω
1× 4
R1 Ω 6Ω
1+ 3+4
RT
1× 3
R2 Ω
1+ 3+4
3Ω 3Ω
3× 4 b
R3 Ω
1+ 3+4
A
R1
RAB Ω
R2 R3
2Ω 5Ω
B
1Ω
1Ω 1Ω 1Ω 1Ω
A
R2 Ω
1Ω 1Ω 1Ω 1Ω 1Ω
R3 Ω
A B
0.5 Ω
RAB Ω
×
R2 + 2 R3 + 5 = Ω
+ +
= 2.375 Ω = 6.5 Ω
1Ω
B Parallel
1Ω
A
1/3 1/3 1Ω 1/3
1/3
A 1Ω
1/3 1/3
0.5 Ω
RAB B
2.375 × 6.5
Series 2.375 + 6.5
= 1.7394 Ω
B 1 4
1+ = Ω
1Ω 3 3
A
1 1 5
1/3 +1+ = Ω
3 3 3
∴ RAB Ω 1Ω
1/3 1/3
®
TM

4
Ω
1Ω 3
A
1
3
R2
1Ω R1 i a 13 Ω
R3
24 Ω 10 Ω
B 20 Ω
+
100 V _
30 Ω 50 Ω
×
= Ω
+ + b
×
= Ω Ω Ω Ω
+ +
× a 13 Ω
= Ω
+ +
i 24 Ω 10 Ω
4
+ R2 = 1.57143 Ω
3
100 V +
_
1Ω R1 R2
A 1 6Ω 10 Ω
+ R1
3
= 0.57143 Ω 15 Ω R3
1Ω
0.04762 Ω
b
B
Parallel
×
R1 Ω
+ +
(1.5714) || (0.5714)
1Ω = 0.419 Ω ×
R2 Ω
A + +
×
1Ω
R3 Ω
0.04762 Ω + +
B a 13 Ω
i 24 + 6 10 + 10
A = 30 Ω = 20 Ω
100 V +
_ Parallel
1 + 0.419 + 0.04762
1Ω
= 1.4666 Ω
15 Ω
B ∴ RAB = 1×1.4666
1+1.4666
Parallel
= 0.5947 Ω
b
®
TM

13 Ω
a π
i 20⎪⎪30
= 12 Ω 1 2
100 V +
_
15 Ω
2F
b
1' 2F 1F 2'
i a
+ Req = 13 + 12 + 15
100 V _
= 40 Ω
1F
∴ R eq Ω
0.8 F 0.4 F
∴
1.4 F
– j2 Ω j5 Ω
Za ∠ ° Ω, Z b ∠ ° 5Ω 10 Ω
Ω Zc = ∠− °Ω
Zx Zy Zz
∠ Ω ∠ Ω ∠ Ω
Ω
(2+j3) Ω
ZB
4Ω 24 Ω 13 Ω
(3 – j2)Ω ZA ZC (2+j16) Ω
8Ω 12 Ω 30 Ω 17 Ω
12 Ω 10 Ω 30 Ω
−+
180 V
®
TM

E 1 ∠ 0° V
E2
E2
A
Z1 I'AB Z3
E1∠0°V +
_ Z2
E2 E1
A
Z1 "
IAB Z3
Z2 +
_ E2∠0°V
′′
Z1 Z3
E1∠0°V +
_ Z2 +
_ E2∠0°V
∴ ′ ′′
®
TM

8Ω
4Ω 4Ω
Series
+
12 V – 3Ω
8 + 4 = 12 Ω
Parallel
4Ω
+
12 V – 3Ω
4⎪⎪12
=3Ω
+
12 V – 3Ω
i'
24 V
8Ω
+ –
24 V
4Ω 4Ω 8Ω
+ – + –
i
– + i2 – +
+
12 V – 3Ω 3A + –
4Ω 4Ω
+
3Ω
i1 – i''
– 24 – 8 i 2 – 4 i 2 – 4 i 2 + 4 i 1
∴ i′ ↓
+
∴ 4 i 1 – 16 i 2
®
TM

– 4 i1 + 4 i2 – 3 i1 ∠
∠ Ω Ω
∴ – 7 i1 + 4 i2 Ω
4Ω
i1
5 ∠0º A – j2 Ω
∴ i′′ i1
↓ ↑ Z1 Z2
Z3
+ 8Ω –
4Ω + i3 – 4Ω +
8 × j10 j 80
–
– + =
8 + j10 – j 2 8 + j 8
+ –
+ +
i2
j10 × – j2 20
3Ω 3A =
i1 – – 8 + j10 – j2 8 + j8
i''' 8 × – j2 – j16
=
8 + j10 – j2 8 + j8
i2 (– j2 + Z 2 ) (4 + Z 3 )
5 ∠0º A 4Ω
– 7 i1 – 3 i2 + 4 i 3
I'
∴ – 7 i1 + 4 i 3 5 ∠0º A – j2 + Z2 Z3
4 i 1 – 16 i 3 – 4 i 2 Z1
∴ 4 i 1 – 16 i 3
i1 5∠0º×(–j 2 + Z 2 )
I′
(–j2 + Z 2 + 4 + Z 3 )
∴ i Ω i′′′ i1 + i2 ↓
⎡ 36 – j16 ⎤
5∠0º× ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 8 + j8 ⎦
i Ω i′ + i′′ + i′′′ 2 A↓ + 1 A↑ + 1 A↓ ↓ ⎡ 32 + j16 ⎤ ⎡ 36 – j16 ⎤
⎢ 8 + j8 ⎥ + ⎢ 8 + j8 ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
Ω 5 ∠0º × 39.395 ∠ – 23.962º

I′
68
4Ω 2.8966 ∠ – 23.962º A →
2.647 – j1.1763 A →
5∠0° A – j2 Ω
j10 Ω
20∠90° V ∠ ∠
8Ω – j2 Ω
(8 + j10)(– j2)
∴ Z′
(8 + j10 – j2)
®
TM

10 Iy
4Ω Iy 5Ω 5Ω
+–
I'' + – + –
– j2 Ω
j10 Ω +
20 ∠90º V 12 V +
_
–
8Ω – j2 Ω
series
(c)
4Ω
+
– j2 Ω I'' 20 ∠90º V
–
(8 + j10) || (– j2) Z'
∴
(d)
′ → Ω
∠ º× ∠ º
∠ º
0.25 – j 2.25 Ω 10 Iy
Iy 5Ω A 5Ω
20 ∠ 90º ∠ º +–
∴ I ′′ + – + –
4 – j2 + 0.25 – j2.25 ∠ º
3.3278 ∠ 135º A 10 A
I1 I2
∴ I ′′ – 2.3531 + j 2.3531 A ←
B
I 4Ω I ′ – I ′′
I′ I ′′
∴ I 4Ω (2.647 – j1.1763) – (– 2.3531 + j 2.3531)
5 – j3.5294 A = 6.12 ∠ – 35.21º A →
10 Iy
Iy 5Ω + – 5Ω
+ +
∴
12 V 10 A 20 V
– –
∴ Ω ′′
→ ←
®
TM

∴ Ω ′′ → 10 Iy
Iy 5Ω Iy 5Ω
+–
+ – + –
+
_ 20 V
′′′ ← Ω
Ω → ← ← ←
Ω → → ← →
Ω 4Ω
+ –
32 V 2Ω
9A 5Ω 10 Ω 4A
I1
4Ω
+ –
−17 I 2 + 5 I 1 + 2 I 3 I1
I3
– +
∴ − 17 I 2 + 2 I 3 − 45 + 2Ω –
+
− 6 I 3 + 2 I2 + –
10 Ω
9A 5Ω I2
–
I1
I2 – +
∴ I 5′ Ω I1 − I2 9 − 2.7551
↓
+ 4Ω –
I3
I2 – +
+ –
– 2Ω
+ +
5Ω
+ I1 10 Ω 4A
− 17 I 1 − 10 I 2 + 2 I 3 I2 – – I2
∴ − 17 I 1 + 2 I 3
2 I 1 − 6I 3
®
TM

I1 − 2.4489 A 4Ω
– + –
+
∴ ′′
I 5Ω I1 − 2.4489 A ↑
– 47 Ω +
+
27 Ω – 23 Ω
+ I2 –
I1 + 200 V
–
4Ω
+ –
I2 I1 −1.653 A I 2
– +
+ – + 2Ω –
32 V ∴ I ′23Ω I2 ↓
– +
10 Ω
5Ω I1
+ –
4Ω
∴ − 17 I 1 + 2 I 2 27 Ω 47 Ω 20 A 23 Ω
2 I1 − 6I2 − 32
I1 − 1.3061 A
Parallel
∴ ′′′
I 5Ω − 1.3061 A ↑ ↓ (b)
Series 4Ω
∴ I 5Ω I ′5 Ω + I ′′5 Ω + I ′′′
5Ω 27 || 47
20 A 23 Ω
= 17.1486 Ω
↓
(c)
I23
'' Ω
4Ω
I23 Ω
47 Ω
21.1486 Ω 20 A 23 Ω
27 Ω 20 A 23 Ω
+ 200 V
–
Parallel
(d)
200 V
− 74 I 1 + 47 I 2 20 × 21.1486
I ′′23Ω
21.1486 + 23
47 I 1 − 74 I 2 − 200
®
TM

∴ I 23Ω I ′23 Ω + I ′′23 Ω
80
↓ ↓ ↓ I ′′′ × 2.4 A ←
20 + 80
Ω
1.5 A
Ω
20 Ω 10 V
Parallel
20 Ω
16 V 3A 80 Ω
I'''
3A 80 Ω
16
I′
20 + 80
0.16 A → 20 Ω 1.5 A
I=0A
80 Ω
20 Ω
I'
+
16 V 80 Ω I Ω I ′ + I ′′ + I ′′′
–
0.16 A → + 0.1 A → + 2.4 A ←
0.16 + 0.1 − 2.4 − 2.14 A → 2.14 A ←

10
I ′′
20 + 80 Ω
0.1 A →
1Ω 1Ω
10 V +
_ 2Ω 1Ω 1A
10 V
20 Ω – +
I''
80 Ω
10
∴ IT
1 +1
®
TM

1Ω 1Ω Series IT 1A
+ 1 + 0.667
10 V _ 2Ω 1Ω 1Ω 1A
= 1.667 Ω
(a)
Parallel
1Ω
Parallel
1 0.375 × 1
IT I ′′1 IT × 0.125 A ↓
+ 1+2 3
10 V _ 2Ω 2Ω
I1'
I 2Ω I ′1 + I ′′1 2.5 ↓ + 0.125 ↓ 2.625 A ↓

(b)
1Ω
IT
+ 2x2
10 V _ =1Ω 22 Ω 10 Ω
2+2
68 Ω
B
+ 10 V
IT × 2 47 Ω – 10 Ω
I ′1 2.5A ↓
2× 2
+ –
1Ω 1Ω A
20 V 33 Ω
I1'' IT
2Ω 1Ω 1A
Parallel (d)
1Ω 1A
Series
IT 22 Ω 10 Ω
1×2
1+2 1Ω 1A
= 0.667 Ω 68 Ω
47 Ω 10 Ω
(e)
+ – 33 Ω
20 V
1×1
IT
1 + 1.667
®
TM

10.92 Ω 10 Ω
7.547 Ω Converting Δ – 90 I 1 + 47 I 2 + 10 I 3
of 22, 68 and
47 to star. 47 I 1 – 137 I 2 + 68 I 3
23.328 Ω 10 Ω
10 I 1 + 68 I 2 88 I 3
I ′′ I1
+ –
20 V 33 Ω – 6.3 × 10 –3 A ←
I ′ + I ′′ 0.3745 – 6.3 × 10 –3 ←
20.92 Ω Parallel
∴
7.547 Ω
33.328 Ω
+ – 33 Ω
20 V
↑
7.547 Ω 12.852 Ω 2Ω
P
I' = 20 +
33 + 7.547 + 12.852 4.2 V 3Ω 2Ω
I' –
= 0.3745 A ←
+ – 33 Ω + –
20 V
Q
1Ω 3.5 V
∠ °
– +
22 Ω + – 10 Ω
+ 68 Ω
–
– + j15 Ω – j5 Ω
+
10 V–
I2 I3
– + 20 ∠ 0º V +
_ 10 Ω +
_ 10∠90º V
+ –
47 Ω + – 10 Ω
– +
–I1 +
I'' 33 Ω ↑
®
TM

– +
4i
8A
2Ω
2A 3Ω
i
+ –
10 V
5Ω 2Ω j3 Ω 4Ω
30 V +
_ j5 Ω 6Ω +
_ 20 V
∠ °
5Ω j5 Ω
3Ω
V1 = 50∠90º V2 = 50∠0º
volts volts
I
j4 Ω
8.305 ∠ 85.24 ° A
4Ω 2Ω
20∠0º A 5Ω 2j Ω –2j Ω 100∠90º V
+
∠ − 163.67° A →
®
TM

A A
Z1 Z3 IL Zeq IL
V1∠0°
V
+
+
_
− Z2 1A Z4 ZL ≈V TH
+
+
_
− ZL
B B
(a) (b)
Z1 Z3 Z1 Z3
A A
+
+
_
− V1∠0° V Z2 I1 A Z4 VTH Z2 Z4 Zeq
(c) B (d) B
X
−j10 Ω
10 Ω 3Ω
10∠0° V +
_ j4 Ω
Ω
∠ °
+ +
10 ∠ 0°
13.6 ∠ 17.1°
∠ − 17.1° A
X
−j10 Ω
10 Ω 3Ω
+ j4 Ω
10∠0° V _
+−
I
Y
+
®
TM

×
VOC
∠ − 17.1°× 5 ∠ 53.13° I SC
∠+ °
X
−j10 Ω
3Ω
10 Ω Zeq I1 A
j4 Ω
R1 Z2
V1V ++−
_ 5 I1 Z3
Y
B
∴
∠ °× ∠ °
A-B
+ +
∠ °
∠ °
I1 A
∠ ° R1 Z2
V1 V +
+ Z3
_
− 5 I1
ISC
Ω B
X
Zeq
VTH = +
_
− 2.969 − j7.83 Ω
3.676 ∠ 36.12° V
Y
VTH
Z eq Ω
I SC
′
′
′
′
®
TM

I1 A
R1 Z2 I′
+ ++−
V1 volts +
_
− 5 I1 Z3 _ V′ volts
A Ix B 1Ω C
′
∴ Ω
′
+
10 V _
− 3A − 2 Ix
Ix 1Ω
I1 I2
2Ω
+ _ 2Ix F E D
10 V _ 3A +
Ω
∴
Ω
Ω
A B 1Ω
− − + − − +
+
+
10 V _
– 3A − − − +
3A
Ω
∴ Ω
⎛ ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
×
∴
∴ + +
∴
®
TM

1Ω 9V
+ –
+ –
Zeq
A C
+ – A B
3Ω 50 V
– – +
+ + + +
10 Ω 5Ω 2Ω
+
VTH = 7 V +
_ 2Ω 20 V 10 V
− + +
– – – – –
I1 I2 I3 I4
Ix
− 10 − 5 I 3 + 5 I 2 5 I2 − 5 I 3
− 2 I 4 + 10 I4
I1 I2 I3 −1 A
– + C 1Ω
A B
+ – + –
50 V 1 × I2 9V
=1V
∴ VAB −50 + 10 − 40 V
∴ VTH
Ω
1Ω
1Ω A A B
+ –
9V
50 V Req
20 Ω 10 Ω 5Ω 2Ω
+ –
+ +
20 V 10 Ω 5Ω 10 V 2Ω
– –
Redundant
Redundant
(c)
Ω 1Ω Redundant
A B
VTH
Req
− 10 I 1 + 10 I 2 + 20 − 10 I 1 + 10 I 2 − 20
(d)
− I 2 − 9 − 5 I 2 + 5 I 3 − 10 I 2 + 10 I 1
10 I 1 − 16 I 2 + 5 I 3
∴ R eq Ω
®
TM

I 1 = 15.333 A I 2 = 17.333 A
A
A 10 C,D 2 E 1 F,B
Req 0 Ω
+ – + – + –
– RL = 20 Ω
VTH + 10( 2 – 1) 2 2= 1×1 =
= 40 V IL = 20 V 34.666 V 15.333 V
B
∴ VAB VTH = 20 + 34.666 + 15.333
VTH 40 70 V with A + ve
IL
R eq + R L 0 + 20
R eq
↑
Ω C
10 2
10 Ω
2A 2Ω
+ A
50 V Req
1
– B
5Ω 1Ω
(c)
10
A
Ω
C D Req
–
+ +
10 2 2 B C
+
– 2A – Branch is
+
50 V E shorted hence
– 2+1=3 redundant
A +
1 (d)
1
B 10
–
A
F
Req
VAB VTH B
Req = 10
–I 1 + I 2 = 2 (e)
–2I 2 – I 1 + 50 = 0 I 1 + 2I 2 = 50
®
TM

A
I
Req 10 I1 I2
RL = 5
VTH +
_ 70 V
L 2500+500 +
1050+200 10 V
=3000 Ω = 1250 Ω –
B
VTH
I L = I 5Ω =
R eq + R L
∴ IL = 4.667 A
+
2500 Ω 1050 Ω
+ +
10 V
A B – Ω Ω
500 Ω 200 Ω
2500 I1 + + 1050 I2
= 8.333 V = 8.4 V
– –
∴
⎡ × ⎤ VOC
⎣⎢ + ⎦⎥ A B
2500 Ω 1050 Ω
A – + – + B
A B +
10 V 8.325 V 8.4 V
I1 –
I2
500 Ω 200 Ω
∴
®
TM

Ω
C A
1050 Ω Req IL
2500 Ω
584.667 Ω
100 Ω
+ VTH
0.0667 V _
A B
500 Ω 200 Ω B
VTH
D ∴
R eq + RAB +
(e)
Parallel
combinations
2500 Ω
A ( )
(Fig. 2 )
4Ω
500 Ω C and D are same
point as shorted.
Req a
C,D 10 Ω 10 Ω 6Ω
+
100 V 5Ω
–
200 Ω b
1050 Ω Vab VTH

(f)
416.667 Ω c + 4Ω – d
A
– + I2 – + 6Ω
e a
Series + 10 Ω – f g
10 Ω I=0A
+ +
100 V – 5Ω
I1 –
B b
168 Ω h i
∴ − 4 I 2 − 10 I 2 − 10 I 2 + 10 I 1
Ω ∴ 10 I 1 − 24 I 2
®
TM

−10 I 1 + 10 I 2 − 5 I 1 + 100
∴−15 I 1 + 10 I 2
3Ω 1Ω
I1 I2 A
2Ω
10 V + 5A 2Ω 5A
_
_
+
10 I2 10 V
f g 6Ω
a
– + B
38.46 V 0V
+
5I1 Vab = VTH
–46.1535 V
i b VAB VTH
Ω
∴ VTH
R eq
5V
3Ω C 1Ω
–+ A
+ – + –
a +
+ – 2Ω
10 V +
_ 5A 2Ω –
Req = 9.077 Ω _
– + I3
I1 I2 + 10 V
B
+ D
VTH _ 84.6145 V
4Ω
4Ω
10 Ω
a
10 Ω 6Ω
a
Req 10 Ω 6Ω
Parallel 5Ω 5 × 10 Req
= 3.333 Ω
5 + 10
b b
(c) (d)
4Ω
Parallel 4 × 13.333
4 + 13.333
= 3.077 Ω 6Ω
a a
10 + 3.333 6Ω
Req Req = 6 + 3.077
= 13.333 Ω = 9.077 Ω
b b
(e) (f)
®
TM

3Ω 1Ω Series 1Ω
A A
2Ω 2Ω Req 3 ⎜⎜2 1.2 Ω 2Ω Req
B B
Parallel
–I 1 + I 2 Ω
–3 I 1 – 2 I 2 + 2 I 3 + 10 –3 I 1 – 2 I 2 + 2 I 3
1Ω
a
+ 1Ω 2Ω
–I 3 + 5 – 2 I 3 + 10 – 2 I 3 + 2 I 2 2 I2 – 5 I 3 2V _ 1A
I1 I2 I3
∴ VTH VAB (I 3 × 2 Ω) – 10 Ω
VTH
R eq 1Ω
a
2V +
_ 1Ω 1A VTH
Parallel
b
A
Convert
1 + 1.2 = to voltage source
2.2 Ω 2Ω Req (a)
1Ω
B a
+ – +
1Ω
+ – VTH
2V _
2.2 × 2
∴ R eq Ω I +
_ 1V
2.2 + 2
b
(b)
A ∴ −I − I − 1 + 2
Req Ω
1.0476 Ω
VTH
VTH + 1Ω
_ 1.9046 V a b
+ –
+ –
B Ix1 1V
= 0.5 V
®
TM

R eq ∴
∠ °
∴
+
1Ω
a 10 ∠ 0°
8.944 ∠ 26.56°
1Ω Req
∠ °
b
Parallel 5Ω j5 Ω
a
1×1 3Ω
R eq Ω
1 +1 10∠0° V
+
+
_
−
j4 Ω
I
b
+
1.5 V _ Ω
RL = 2 Ω
0.5 Ω Req IL VTH ×
b ∠ × ∠ °
∠ °
VTH 1.5
IL
R eq + R L 0.5 + 2
0.6 A ↓
5Ω j5 Ω
a
3Ω
5Ω j5 Ω Zeq
a j4 Ω
3Ω b
10∠0° V 5Ω
j4 Ω Ω
b
Z1
j5 Ω
a
Z1 Zeq
VTH or VO
b
− 5I − 3I − 4 I + 10
®
TM

∠ °× + 5 ∠ 0°× 5 ∠ 53.13° Ω
+ + + (8 + j4)
25 ∠ 53.13°
8.944 ∠ 26.56°
2Ω 1Ω A 3Ω
∠ 26.56° Ω
+ +
∴ Ω 2V 12 Ω 2Ω 4V
– –
B
1Ω 1Ω
Zeq a
↓
+
+
5.59∠+26.56° V _
− 5Ω
I
b I = 5 ∠30º Amps 100

A
50 Ω 50 Ω
VTH 5.59 ∠ 26.56°
5 + Z eq 5 + 2.5 + j6.25
j50 Ω j50 Ω
5.59 ∠ 26.56° 5.59 ∠ +26.56°
7.5 + j 6.25 9.7628 ∠ +39.8°
B
I
∠ °
∠ ∠ Ω
3A
a
Ω 5Ω 6Ω
+
_ 10 V 10 Ω
j5 Ω j5 Ω
b
A
150 V +
_ −j20 Ω −j20 Ω
B Ω
∠ °
®
TM

+ – + – a
i1 100 i1 120 V
0.8 A 250 Ω 100 Ω
A
Ib Ie
RS
α Ie R2
V1 +
−
+
_
V1 R2 R2 RS ( 1− α )
VTH V Zeq Ω
R2 + RS ( 1− α ) R2 + RS ( 1− α )
A
A
Z1 Z3
+
+
V1V _
− Z2 I1
A
Z4 ZL
≈ IN Zeq ZL
B
B
(a) (b)
®
TM

A
Z1 Z3
V1 +
−
Z2 I1 Z4
ISC = IN
IN
Z eq
A
Z1 Z3
Z2 Z4 Zeq
IN Z eq
B
ZL
Z eq
IN ×
Z eq + Z L
Z eq
×
+
Z eq
Zeq 10 Ω 20 Ω
a b c
A A
≈
+ 0.1 Ω 0.2 Ω
+
VTH _
− IN Zeq
5Ω
2V +
_ +
_ 4V
B B
f e d
®
TM

b
ΙN
IN Req 6.733 Ω 5Ω
a 10 Ω b + 20 Ω – c 0.396A IL
I
– 1 + – I1–IN +
0.1 Ω 0.2 Ω e
+ –
I1
IN
2V +
_ +
_ 4V
f e d
R eq
∴ IN ×
R eq + R L
∴
× ↓
+
∴
∴ ↓
10 Ω b 20 Ω
– + a
6Ι x V
Series Series
4Ω 6Ω
Req Ιx
0.1 Ω 0.2 Ω
+ – b
20 V
e
(b)
b
Parallel
– +
Req 20.2 Ω 10.1 Ω
6Ιx V
4Ω 6Ω
Ιx ΙN
e + –
(c)
20 V
∴ Ω Ω,
®
TM

a
ΙN = 5 A Zeq 6Ω
4Ω IN
Ω
+ –
20 V 220 Ω RL = 100 Ω 200 Ω
+ +
10 V 470 Ω 380 Ω 5V
∴ – –
VTH
I SC IN
220 Ω A B 200 Ω
+ – + –
– + a
– –
+ +
– 6Ιx + + +
10 V 470 Ω 380 Ω 5V
4Ω 6Ω VTH – + + –
I1 – –
+ Ι – I2 I3
Ιx
+ – b
20 V
IN
–220 I 1 – 470 I 1 + 470 I 2 + 10
∴ 690 I 1 – 470 I 2
–380 I 2 + 380 I 3 – 470 I 2 + 470 I 1
∴ 470 I 1 – 850 I 2 + 380 I 3
∴ –200 I 3 – 5 – 380 I 3 + 380 I 2
∴ V6 Ω 380 I 2 – 580 I 3
VTH I1 I2
∴ Ω
I SC
I3 –3.736 × 10 – 4 A
∴ IN I2
®
TM

R eq 4Ω 4V
Req +
_ 14 V 2Ω 12 Ω 4Ω
220 Ω 200 Ω
470 Ω 380 Ω
Ω
Parallel Parallel
IN
(b)
4V
Req 4Ω – +
14 V +
_ 2Ω 4Ω
220 || 470 380 || 200 IN
= 149.85 Ω = 131.0344 Ω
(c) Redundant
as directly shorted
(a)
∴ R eq Ω
4V
4Ω – +
+ –
+ –
14 V +
_ 2Ω IN = I2
I1 – + I2
Req RL
IN
280.889 Ω IL 100 Ω
0.01258 A
(b)
R eq
IL IN ×
R eq + R L
280.889 − 4I 1 − 2I 1 + 2I 2 + 14 6I 1 − 2I 2
0.01258 ×
280.889 + 100
4 − 2I 2 + 2I 1 − 2I 1 + 2I 2
IN I2
∴ PL I 2L R L (9.2772 × 10 – 3 ) 2 × 100
R eq Ω
Ω 4 × 1.333
∴ R eq Ω
4 + 1.333
®
TM

4Ω I=0
A 3Ω
C
A
Req – +
2Ω 4Ω 3Ω 6Ω
+ VTH
+ –
20 V – I1 – 10 V
+
B B
Parallel D
(c)
4×2 ∴
Req = 1.333 Ω
4Ω 4+2
I=0
B 3Ω C 6Ω
– + D
Parallel A B
+ 6I – – +
(d) 0V 1
20 V 10 V
3Ω
IN Req IL A
12 Ω
6.5 A 1Ω
Req
3Ω 6Ω
B
R eq 6.5 × 1 Parallel
I Ω IL IN × 0.5 A ↓
12 + R eq 13
+[ ]= + =5Ω
3Ω A
A + –
3Ω – + –
3Ω 6Ω 3Ω 6Ω
+ – + ISC = I2
+ I1 I2
–
10 V 20 V 10 V
20 V – +
B B
∴
®
TM

Ω – 8 i 1 + 8 i 2 – (– j 2) i 1 + (– j 2) i 2 – 10 i 1 + 10 i 3
–j 4 i 1 + j 4 i 3 + 40 ∠ 90º
i 1 (18 + j 2) + i 2 (– 8 + j 2) + i 3 (– 10 – j 4) ∠
A A – 5 i 2 + 40 ∠ 90º
Req 5Ω ∴ i2 8 ∠ 90º A
IN 2 A Req 5Ω
+ i3 3 + i2
VTH 10 V
–
∴ i3 + ∠
B B
(f) 8.544 ∠ 69.44º A IN
(e)
Z eq
5Ω
a
8Ω –j2 Ω Zeq
10 Ω
5Ω 3 ∠0 ° A I0
8Ω –j2 Ω j4 Ω
20 Ω
10 Ω b
Redundant
40∠90° V + j15 Ω
– as shorted
j4 Ω
IN 5Ω Zeq = 5 Ω
– i2 + i 3
a
–
5Ω i2 3A
+ a
– + – + I0
+ – + –
+ –
8Ω –j2 Ω 10 Ω i3 IN 20 Ω
–
+ IN Zeq
40∠90° V +
– i1
j4 Ω j15 Ω
– +
b b
®
TM

Z eq
I0 IN ×
Z eq + 20 + j 15
8.544 ∠ 69.44º × 5 42.72 ∠ 69.44º

∴ I0
(25 + j 15) 29.154 ∠ 30.963 100 Ω A
+
∴ I0 1.4653 ∠ 38.477º A ix
Vx
1000 V +
_ ––– 3 kΩ Vx
100
–
B
A
Ω
10 A 6Ω
A 25 Ω
20 V +
_ 3Ω
B
2A 50 Ω 20 Ω +
_ 50 V
Ω
B
Ω
j3 Ω – j2 Ω
Ω Ω Ω
10∠0º V 5Ω 5∠90º V Ω Ω
ΙL
Ω
∠ °
Ω
↓
10 Ω
75 V +
+
_
− 5Ω
20 Ω
10 Ω +
+
_
− 25 V
25 Ω
®
TM

A
Zeq = R + j X
VTH +
+ ZL = R L + j X L
_
−
Z1
A I
B
E1 ∠ 0 ° V + Z2 ZL
−
Z eq Ω
B Z Ω
VTH VTH
∴
Z eq Z eq + Z L R + jX + R L + j X L
VTH
(R + R L ) + j (X + X L
Z1
A
PL I2 R L
Z2 Zeq
VTH
B
(R + R L ) 2 + (X + X L ) 2
2
VTH
∴ PL ⋅ RL
Z eq (R + R L ) 2 + (X + X L ) 2
Z eq
…
ZL RL XL
ZL Z eq
Z *eq
ZL Z *eq XL RL
∂ PL
∂ XL
Z eq
∂ ⎡ ⎤
2 R
VTH L
Z eq ⎢ ⎥
∂ X L ⎢ (R + R ) 2 + (X + X ) 2 ⎥
⎣ L L ⎦
Z eq ZL 2 R ( X+ X )
− 2 VTH L L
∴
[(R + R L ) 2 + (X + X L ) 2
XL XL
Z eq
®
TM

∴ Z eq
RL
∂ PL
∂ RL
Zeq
∂ ⎡ ⎤
2 R
VTH L
⎢ ⎥
∂ R L ⎢ (R + R 2
) + (X + X L ) 2 ⎥⎦
⎣ L
VTH +
_ I RL= | Zeq |
XL
∂ ⎡ VTH R L ⎤
2
∴ ⎢ ⎥
∂ R L ⎢ (R + R ) 2 ⎥
⎣ L ⎦
(R + R L ) 2 VTH
2 2
− VTH R L ⋅ 2(R + R L )
(R + R L ) 4
∴ 2 (R + R ) 2 − V2 R 2(R + R )
VTH L TH L L
(R + R L ) 2 R L (R + R L ) R L = Z eq
∴ R 2 + 2RR L + R L 2 − 2 RR L − 2 R L 2
R2 RL 2 VTH
Z eq + R L
∴ RL
ZL Z eq ⎡ VTH ⎤
⎢Z + R ⎥ RL
⎣ eq L ⎦
Pmax
2 R
VTH L VTH (VTH )
(2 R L )2 2 RL 4 RL
2
VTH
∴ Pmax
4 RL
VTH
10 Ω
A
−j20 Ω
Pmax +
10∠0° V _
j30 Ω
Z eq
®
TM

Z eq (VTH ) 2
∴ Pmax
4R L ×
10 Ω
A
− j20 Ω
Zeq
+ j30 Ω
B 5.2 Ω 7.1 Ω
–+ R
∴ Z eq (j30 − j20) 100 V
10 × j10 ∠ ° 10.9 Ω 19.6 Ω

10 + j10 ∠ °
∠ °Ω
∴ Z eq Ω
a
ZL Z *eq Ω +
5.2 Ω 7.1 Ω
I1
–+ VTH
VTH 100 V
10.9 Ω I2 19.6 Ω
10 Ω
A –
b
10∠0° V +
_ + j10
Ι
B
∠ ° ∠ ° ∴
∴
+ ∠ °
∠ °
∴
∴ VAB × ∠ °× ∠
Ω Ω
∠ ° VTH
a
–
A 57.723 V
+
Zeq
+ 5 + j5
7.07∠ + 45° V +
_
− ZL = 5 − j5 Ω +
64.26 V
–
B b
®
TM

a
5.2 Ω 7.1 Ω Parallel

5.2 Ω 7.1 Ω
Req ~
~ Req
10.9 Ω 19.6 Ω
10.9 Ω 19.6 Ω Parallel
b
10 Ω 20 Ω
∴
+
A 100 V B
–
30 Ω 40 Ω
∴
RL
Ω
Req
10 Ω
VTH ∴ Ω
+
_
6.5375 V R
∴ Ω
Ω
∴
2
VTH
∴
4R eq ×
2
VTH (8.3333) 2
∴
4 RL 4 × 20.8333
®
TM

C
Parallel
combinations
A 10 Ω
10 Ω 20 Ω
As C and D are
A B 30 Ω directly connected
represent same
Req point.
C,D
30 Ω 40 Ω
D 20 Ω
Req 40 Ω
(a) (b)
C 30 I1 40 I2
A B
+ – – +
75 V 66.6667 V
10 Ω + + 20 Ω
– –
+
A 100 V B
I1 –
I2
+ +
30 Ω – – 40 Ω
5V
2Ω 4Ω
D –+ A
20 V +
_ 8Ω 10 Ω
VTH B
Pmax R L RAB R eq
2Ω 4Ω 4Ω
Series
A A
2x8
8Ω 10 Ω Req 2+8 10 Ω Req
= 1.6 Ω
B B
Parallel
®
TM

A
4 + 1.6 10 Ω Req
= 5.6 Ω
R1 E1
B –
3Ω +
68 V
Parallel
I 6 A R2 10 Ω RL
10 × 5.6
∴ R eq Ω R3
10 + 5.6
2Ω
∴ RAB Ω R eq Pmax
Pmax VAB VTH

RL Pmax R TH R eq
5V
2Ω 4Ω
–+ A
+ – + – 3Ω
–
+ +
20 V +
_ 8Ω 10 Ω
+ 10 Ω Req
I1 – –
I2
B
2Ω
∴ R eq Ω
– 2 I 1 – 8 I 1 + 8 I 2 + 20
∴ RL Ω Pmax
∴ –10 I 1 + 8 I 2
Pmax VTH
4 I 2 – 10 I 2 – 8 I 2 + 8 I 1
∴ 8 I 1 – 22 I 2
3Ω 68 V
I1 I2 + –
A
10 Ω
10 Ω
VTH
A + – B 10x6 _
+
+ – = 60 V
5V 10 I2
B
2Ω
∴ VAB 5 + 10 I 2
∴ VTH
2
VTH (15.2564) 2 ∴ VTH VAB
∴ Pmax
4 RL 4 × 3.5897
RL R eq
2
VTH
∴ Pmax
4 R eq ×
®
TM

–j100 Ω
A
100 V 20 Ω 100 Ω
100 Ω 1H
B
ω = 200 rad/sec
Vr.m.s
= 100 ZL
Ω
ω 9Ω 7Ω 2Ω
+
10 V 6Ω 5Ω 10 Ω RL
–
20 Ω 12.5 mH
20 /_ 60º V 10 kΩ 0.1 μF ZL Ω
60 Ω 50 V RL 40 Ω
– +
+ +
60 V 30 Ω 60 Ω 100 V
– –
50 + j 50 Ω
®
TM

Z1 + Z 3 ) ( − Z 2 − Z 3 ) + Z 23
Z1 Z3
− Z1 Z 2 − Z 2 Z 3 − Z1 Z 3 − Z 23 + Z 23
V +
_ Z2 Z4
− Z1 Z 2 − Z 2 Z 3 − Z1 Z 3
I
Z1 + Z 3 V1
D2 − V1 Z
Z3 0
D2 − V1 Z
∴ I2
D − Z1 Z 2 + Z 2 Z 3 + Z 3 Z1
V1 Z1 Z 2 + Z 2 Z 3 + Z 3 Z1
∴ …
I2 Z
V1 I2
Z1 Z3
Z4
Z2
+
_ V
I
Z1 Z2
Z3 +
_ V1
Ι2 Ι1
Z12
− I 2 Z1 − I 2 Z 3 + I1 Z 3
I1 Z 3 − I 2 (Z1 + Z 3 ) …
− I1 Z 2 − I1 Z 3 + I 2 Z 3 + V
I1 (Z 2 + Z 3 ) − I 2 Z 3 V1 …
Z1 Z2
Z3 − Z1 − Z 3
+ ∴
V1 _ Z3 Z2 + Z3 − Z3
I1 I2
− Z 23 + Z1 + Z 3 ) ( Z 2 + Z 3 )
Z1 Z 2 + Z 2 Z 3 + Z 3 Z1
V1 / I 2 Z3 0
D2 Z V1
Z2 + Z3 V1
− I1 Z1 − I1 Z 3 + I 2 Z 3 + V D2 Z V1
∴ I2
D Z1 Z 2 + Z 2 Z 3 + Z 3 Z1
∴ I1 (Z1 + Z 3 ) − I 2 Z 3 V1 …
V1 Z1 Z 2 + Z 2 Z 3 + Z 3 Z1
∴ …
− I 2 Z 2 − I 2 Z 3 + I1 Z 3 I2 Z
I1 Z 3 − I 2 (Z 2 + Z 3 ) …
Z1 + Z 3 − Z3
Z3 − Z2 − Z3
®
TM

− 3 (I1 − I) + I
∴ − 3 I1 + 5 I …
2Ω 2Ω I + I1 + 2 I1 − 10 + 3 (I1 − I)
+
V = 10 V _ 3Ω 2Ω
∴ 7 I1 − 3 I …
−
∴
−
−
D2
I D2 −
∴
I1
2Ω I1 − I 2Ω I D −
V = 10 V +
_ 3Ω 2Ω V
Ω
I
− I1 − 3 (I1 − I) + 10
∴ 5 I1 − 3 I … 1Ω
− I − 2 I + 3 (I1 − I)
∴ 3 I1 − 7 I … Ι = 10 A 2Ω 3Ω V
−
∴
−
D2
Ω I1
D2 −
∴
D − 1Ω
V 10 A
Ω
I
Ι = 10 A 2Ω Ι1 3Ω
I I1
2 10 × 2
I 2Ω I1 − I 2 Ω
I1 I1 I× = = 4 A
2+ 3 5
2Ω
3Ω
∴ I 1 × 3 = 4 × 3 = 12 V
+ 10 V = V
_
®
TM

V 12
= 1.2 Ω
I 10
Ω I2 V1 , V2 ,.......... , Vn
1Ω Z1 , Z 2 ,................. , Z n
Ι2
V 2Ω 3Ω Ι = 10 A
V1 Y1 + V2 Y2 +.......+ Vn Yn
Y1 + Y2 + .........+ Yn
n
∑ Vk Yk
k =1
3 10 × 3 n
I2 I× = =6 A
2+ 3 5 ∑ Yk
k =1
∴ Ω I2
1
2× I2 = 2× 6 Y1 + Y2 + ............ + Yn n
∑ Yk
k =1
Ω
Y1 , Y2 , ............ , Yn
V Z1 , Z 2 , ............ , Z n
Ω
I
V1 , V2 , ............ , Vn
Z1 , Z 2 , ............ , Z n
1
Z
1 1 1
∴ Y1 Y2 Yn
Z1 Z2 Zn
A A
Z1 Z2 Zn VM +
−
V1 + V2 + Vn +
Ι ZM
5∠90ºA − − −
5Ω 2Ω B B
I2
I1
j5Ω –j2 Ω Vx
V Z
Vx = 9.2842∠21.802ºV
®
TM

V1 Y1 + V2 Y2 +.......+ Vn Yn
A A
Y1 + Y2 + .........+ Yn
ZM
1 IM YM
Y1 + Y2 + ............ + Yn VM +
−
B B
A
IM
Z1 Z2 Zn VM
YM
V1 +
− V2 +
− Vn +
− 1
B YM
VM IM Z M
IM YM
1
V1 1 VM I1 + I 2 + + In ⋅
I1 V1 Y1 Y1 (Y1 + Y2 + …+ Yn )
Z1 Z1
V1
I1 V1 Y1 I2 V2 Y2 In Vn Yn
Z1
I2 V2 Y2 V1 Y1 + V2 Y2 + …+ Vn Yn
∴ VM
I3 V3 Y3 In Vn Yn Y1 + Y2 + … + Yn
Y1 , Y2 , ............ Yn 1
∴ YM Y1 + Y2 + … + Yn
Ω
I1 Y1 I2 Y2 In Yn
3Ω j 4Ω A 5Ω
B
10∠0° + 2Ω + 25∠90° V
− −
B
IM I1 + I 2 + + In …
YM Y1 + Y2 + + Yn …
A
Z1 Z2
2Ω
V1 +
− V2 +
−
B
®
TM

V1 ∠ ° Ω
Z1 Ω ∠ °Ω
20 V
V2 ∠ ° 5Ω
–+
Z2 Ω ∠ °
96 V
24 Ω
1
∴ Y1 ∠ ° –+
Z1 ∠ °
12 V
4Ω
1
Y2 ∠ ° –+
Z2
15 Ω
VM
V1 Y1 + V2 Y2
∴ VM
Y1 + Y2
∠ °× ∠− °+ ∠ °× ∠ ° V1 V2 V3 Z1 Ω
∠− °+ ∠ °
Z2 Ω Z3 Ω
2 ∠ − 53.13° + 5 ∠ 90°
0.12 − j 0.16 + 0.2 ∴ Y1 Y2
1.2 − j 1.6 + 0 + 5 j Y3
0.32 − j 0.16
∠ ° 1 1
∠ ° ZM
∠− ° Y1 + Y2 + Y 3 0.2 + 0.04166 + 0.25
1
Ω
Y1 + Y2 2 − j 0.16
V1 Y1 + V2 Y2 + V 3 Y 3
VM
Y1 + Y2 + Y 3
∠− °
∠ ° Ω
Ω VM
ZM
–+
A
ZM
I
2Ω
+ V I
− M
15 Ω
B
VM ∠ ° VM 22.3728
∴ ∴
ZM + + + ZM + 2.0338 + 15
∠ °
∠ °
∠ °
®
TM

IL
5Ω 4Ω 2Ω
RL = 10 Ω
–
+ +
20 V 40 V + 10 V
– –
2
VTH
Pmax
4 RL
VTH
®
TM

30mA
20mA 10mA
R2
R1
R2
×
R1 + R2
10 Ω
R 1R 2
50 V 10 Ω RL Ω
R1 + R2
∴ × 10 × [R 1 + 2 R 1 ]
Ω Ω
Ω
10 × 10
∴ =5Ω
10 + 10
Ω
∴ Ω
10 Ω
Ι Rsh
50 A 2Ω
10 Ω Req
Parallel V 100
∴
R se 2
10 + j10 Ω
V 5∠0º ZL
*
eq V R1 V R2
∴ Z *eq Ω R1 + R2 R1 + R2
Ω I R2 I R1
R1 + R2 R1 + R2
®
TM

20 Ω
100 Ω
+
12 V
I
–
360 Ω RL
IN RL
20 Ω 20 Ω
100 Ω + 100 Ω
+
12 V Ω Ω
–
12 V IN
– IN
360 Ω 12
IN = = 0.1 A
100 + 20
4Ω
Due to short 30 A
circuit, 360 Ω becomes redundant
(a) (b)
6Ω
®
TM

I0
I Ω ×
+ 3∠ 0 ° A j8 Ω –j2 Ω
I Ω ×
+
R eq
j8 j8
I0 3 ∠ 0º× 3 ∠ 0º×
j 8– j 2 j6
4 ∠ 0º A
ZL
Ω
Z∗eq
I0
®
TM

®
TM

di(t)
a0 + a 1 i(t)
dt
di(t)
a0 + a 1 i(t)
dt
di(t)
a0 + a 1 i(t)
dt
di(t)
n th a0 + a 1 i(t)
dt
dn i dn− 1 di
a0 + a1 + ....... a n − 1 + a n i = v(t) − a1
dt n dt n − 1 dt t
a0
a 0 , a 1 , ........ a n − 1 an K⋅ e
®
TM

i PI
i SS i CF
it
i SS + i t
i SS
t→∞
i(t) =
− a1
×
a0
K⋅ e =a2
∴ a
− a1
t
a0
a 2 ⋅e
di
+ Pi
dt
e − Pt ∫ Q ⋅ e Pt dt + K⋅ e − Pt
t (0 − )
t (0+ )
t (0 − )
t (0+ )
i PI + i CF i (0 − ) v (0 − )
i (0+ ) v (0+ )
i PI i CF
t = 0−
®
TM

t = 0−
1
L∫ L
iL v dt
t = 0+
−∞
t (0 − )
−∞
−
+
t
1
iL
L ∫ v L dt
−∞
0− t
1 1
∴ iL
L ∫ v L dt +
L ∫ v L dt
−∞ −
i⋅R
iL
−
i L (0 )
t
−
∴ iL iL +
L ∫ v L dt
0−
t = 0+
0+
+ −
iL iL +
L ∫ v L dt
0−
d iL
vL L
dt
− +
iL L
∴ i L (0+ ) i L (0 − )
+ vL –
d iL
dt
vL
∞
t= ∞
®
TM

Element Behaviour immediately Behaviour as t ∞
after excitation is given i.e. steady state
t = 0 + instant
R R R
L O.C. S.C.
I0 S.C.
I0
C S.C. O.C.
V0 V0 V0 O.C.
+ – + – + –
I0
+
t=
I0 1
C∫ C
vC i dt
t= ∞
t
1
∴ vC
C ∫ i C dt
−∞
dv C
iC C
dt 0− t
1 1
∴ vC
C ∫ i C dt+
C ∫ i C dt
C −∞ −
iC
+ vC –
v C (0 − )
dv C
t (0+ )
dt
0+
+ − 1
iC
v C (0 ) vC (0 ) +
C ∫ i C dt
0−
− +
®
TM

∴ v C (0+ ) v C (0 − )
K
R
+ v (t) – +
t=0 R
+
+
V _ L vL(t)
t = 0+ –
i(t)
t= ∞ –
V0
+
t =0
V0
t= ∞
I0
0−
i(0 − ) I 0 = 0 = i(0 + )
≥ 0+
di(t)
dt
di(t)
dt
L di(t) V
R dt R
®
TM

V
di(t) R
dt R
⎡ V − i(t) ⎤ L
⎣⎢ R ⎦⎥
R
V − t
e L
V R R
ln ⎡ − i(t) ⎤ t + K′
⎢⎣ R ⎥⎦ L
K′
K′
K′
V R i(t)
− ln ⎡ − 0⎤ (0) + K′
⎣⎢ R ⎦⎥ L
V Maximum value
V
− ln ⎡ ⎤
R
∴ K′
⎢⎣ R ⎥⎦ (0.632) V P
R
K′
Time
V R V
− ln ⎡ − i(t) ⎤ t − ln ⎡ ⎤
0 t
τ
⎢⎣ R ⎥⎦ L ⎢⎣ R ⎥⎦
V V R
∴ + ln ⎡ − i(t) ⎤ − ln ⎡ ⎤ − t
⎣⎢ R ⎥⎦ ⎣⎢ R ⎦⎥ L
⎡ V − i(t) ⎤
⎥ R
∴ ln ⎢ R − t
⎢ V ⎥ L
⎢⎣ R ⎥⎦
⎡ V − i(t) ⎤ R
⎢R ⎥ e
−
L
t
⎢ V ⎥
⎢⎣ R ⎥⎦
R
V V − t
− ⋅e L A
R R τ
L
τ sec
R
®
TM

τ τ τ ⎡V V R
− t ⎤
τ v R (t) R. i(t) = R ⎢ − − e L ⎥
V V −1 ⎢⎣ R R ⎥⎦
τ − ⋅e
R R R
V − t
∴ v R (t) V − V⋅ e L
R
V V −2 R
τ − ⋅e ∴ − t
R R v R (t) V (1 − e L ) V
V
R
V V −4
τ − ⋅e
R R
Voltage
V
R
V
V V −6
τ − ⋅e
R R vR(t)
V
R vL(t)
Time
0 t
vR (t) and vL (t)
τ τ
di(t)
v L (t) L
dt
d ⎡ V ⎛⎜ ⎞⎤
R
− t ⎟⎥
∴ v L (t) L ⎢ 1 −e L
dt ⎢ R ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎣ ⎝ ⎠⎦
I0
⎧⎪ d V d ⎛V − t
R ⎞⎫⎪
∴ v L (t) L ⎨ ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ − ⎜ ⋅ e L ⎟⎬
⎪⎩ dt ⎝ R ⎠ dt ⎜⎝ R ⎟⎪
⎠⎭
R
V ⎛V − t
− −I ⎞ ⋅ e L A
⎧⎪ V R ⎛ − Rt ⎞⎫⎪ R ⎜⎝ R 0 ⎟⎠
∴ v L (t) L ⎨ − ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ ⎛⎜ − ⎞⎟ ⎜e L ⎟⎬
⎪⎩ ⎝ R ⎠ ⎝ L⎠ ⎜ ⎟⎪
⎝ ⎠⎭
R
∴ − t
v L (t) Ve L
I0
®
TM

i(t)
vL(t)
V
R
(V–I0R)
I0
Time Time
t t
(a) (b)
vL (t)
R
− t
v L (t) (V − I 0 ⋅ R) ⋅ e L
v L (t)
a K R
V +
_ L
acts
as
–
i(0 ) short
circuit
V
∴ i(0 − ) I0 = = i(0 + )
R
≥ 0+
a R
K
+ b t=0 +
V _
L vL(t)
i(t) –
R
+ –
K +
b L
–
i(t)
®
TM

i(t)
V
R
(0.36) V P
R
Time
t
0 τ
Time constant
R
∴ − ln [I 0 ] − t
L
⎡ i(t) ⎤ R ⎛ a ⎞
⎢⎣ I ⎥⎦ − t ⎜ ln [a] − ln [b] = ln ⎡ ⎤ ⎟
0 L ⎝ ⎢⎣ b ⎥⎦ ⎠
di(t)
dt
R
i(t) − t
e L
L di(t) I0
−
R dt
R R
∴ − t V −L t
I0 ⋅ e L A= e A
di(t) R R
dt
i(t) L
R
ln i(t)] − t + K′
L
K′
K′
I0
R
ln[I 0 ] − (0) + K′
L
τ
∴ K′ ln [I 0 ]
τ τ τ τ
K′
R
− t + ln [I 0 ]
L
®
TM

L
τ
R
∴ τ I 0 ⋅ e −1 I0
τ I 0 ⋅ e −2 I0 Li 2 i2 R
τ I 0 ⋅ e −4 I0
−6
τ I0 ⋅ e I0
∞ I 0 ⋅ e −∞
τ τ
R
i(t) d ⎡ − t⎤ R
v L (t) L L ⎢I 0 ⋅ e L ⎥
dt dt ⎢ ⎥⎦ t=0 i
⎣ +
V + v(t)
L
−R –
−R ⎞ t
L ⋅ I 0 ⋅ ⎛⎜
–
⎟⋅e L
⎝ L ⎠
−R
t
∴ v L (t) I 0 ⋅ R⋅ e L
i (0 – )
I0 ⋅ R = i (0+ )
R
∴ − t
v L (t) −V ⋅ e L
v L (t) ≥
di(t) di(t)
50 i (t) + 30 + 1.667 i (t)
dt dt
0
t di(t)
+ P i(t)
dt
e – Pt ∫ Qe Pt dt + K′ e – Pt
–V ∴ e – 1.667 t ∫ 1.667 e 1.667 t dt + K′ e – 1.667 t

t
⎡ e 1.667 t ⎤
∴ 1.667 e – 1.667 t ⎢ 1.667 ⎥ + K′ e
– 1.667 t
vL(t)
⎣ ⎦0
⎡ e 1.667 t ⎤
∴ 1.667 e – 1.667 t ⎢ ⎥ + K′ e
– 1.667 t
⎣ 1.667 ⎦
®
TM

∴ 1 – e – 1.667 t + K′ e – 1.667 t
I0 = 0
K′
∴ 1 – 1 + K′ K′
∴ 1 – e – 1.667 t A
0.2 H
VR(t) 50(1 – e – 1.667 t ) V +
50 V
di(t) – i(t)
VL (t) L 50 Ω
dt
d
30 [1 – e – 1.667 t ]
dt
50 e – 1.667 t V R
V ⎛V − t
i( t ) − −I ⎞ ⋅ e L
R ⎜⎝ R 0 ⎟⎠
50
50 ⎛ 50 ⎞ t
i( t ) − −1 e 0.2
i(t) 50 ⎜⎝ 50 ⎟⎠
1 i( t ) (1 − e−250 t )A
250 × 1 × 10 − 3
i( t ) e− = 0.2212A
t
0
v(t)
50 V
Io'
t 0.2 H
0 – i(t)
50 V
+
50 Ω
I ′0
R
V ⎛V − (t − 0.001)
i (t ′) − −I ⎞ e L
R ⎜⎝ R 0 ⎟⎠
S
50 ⎛ 50
i (t ′) − + 0.2212 ⎞⎟ e −250 ( t − 0.001)
1 2 0.2 H 50 ⎜⎝ 50 ⎠
+ –
50 V 50 V
50 Ω i (t ′)
– +
I0
®
TM

t′ t ≥ 0+
t′
250 ( t ′− 0.001)
i (t ′) e−
+
∴ e− 250 (t ′− 0.001) 2 40 Ω
–
250( t ′− 0.001) +
∴ e− 10 V
+
– i(t) 20 mH
–
(t ′ − 0.001)
∴ t′
di(t)
− 40 i (t) − 20 × 10 − 3 + 10
dt
di(t)
∴ − 20 × 10 − 3 − 40 i(t) −
dt
− 20 × 10 − 3
1 2 40 Ω
di(t)
+ + + 2000 i(t)
50 V 10 V dt
– – 20 mH
di(t)
+ P i(t) = Q
dt
t
e− P t ∫ Q ⋅ e P t dt + K e − P t
t = 0−
0
t
e − 2000 t ∫ 500 e 2000 t + K e − 2000 t
0
1 40 Ω
+ t
50 V
– –
L 500 e − 2000 t ∫ e 2000 t dt + K e − 2000 t
i(0 ) acts as short circuit
0
t
⎡ e 2000 t ⎤
500 ⋅ e − 2000 t ⎢ 2000 ⎥ + K e
− 2000 t
⎣ ⎦0
i(0 − )
50
40
= 1.25 A = I 0 = i (0 + ) [
0.25 e − 2000 t e 2000 t − e 0 + K e − 2000 t]
®
TM

[ ]
0.25 1 − e − 2000 t + K e − 2000 t
[ e0 = 1] –2i(t) – 0.2
di(t)
dt
+
I0
di(t)
∴ 0.2 + 2i(t)
dt
0.25 [1 − e − 0 ] + K e − 0 di(t)
∴ + 1 i(t)
dt
∴ 0.25 [1 − 1] + K
∴ [ ]
e− 0 = 1 di(t)
+ Pi(t)
dt
[ ]
0.25 1 − e − 2000 t + 1.25 e − 2000 t
∴ 0.25 − 0.25 e − 2000 t + 1.25 e − 2000 t t

e –pt ∫ Q e pt dt + k′ e –pt
∴ 0.25 + e − 2000 t A
t
e –10t ∫ 25 e 10 t dt + k′ e –10 t
t
⎡ e 10t ⎤
25 e –10t ⎢ ⎥ + k′ e
–pt
⎣ ⎦
2.5 e –10t e 10t e 0 + k′ e –10 t

1 2Ω
2.5 e –10t e 10t + k′ e –10 t
2
5V
+ – i(t)
0.2 H
2.5 e 0 e –10 t + k′ e –10 t
– 20 V +
2.5 e –10t + k′ e –10 t
k′
∴ 2.5 e –0 + k′ e –0 k′
0– ,
∴ i(0 – ) i(0+ ) 2.5 e –10 t A
– 3)
2.5[1 – e –10(100 × 10 ]
t ≥ 0+
1 2Ω
–
+
+
+
5V 0.2 H 100 ms
–
i(t) –
i′ (0 – ) i′ (0+ )
®
TM

+
t ≥ 100 ms
2Ω i(t)
–
+
2 –
– i(t)
0.2 H
20 V +
+
2.5 A
1.5803 A
0 t
100 ms
di(t)
– 0.2 i(t) + 20
dt
di(t)
∴ – 0.2 i(t)
dt
– 10 A
di(t)
∴ + i(t)
dt
10 – 11.5803 e –10 t A
di(t)
+ Pi(t)
dt
t
e –pt ∫ Q e pt dt + k′′ e –pt –[10 – 11.5803 e –10 t ]
t
e –10t ∫ 100 e 10t dt + k′′ e –10t –10 + 11.5803 e –10 t A
t
–10t ⎡ e 10t ⎤ –10t
100 e ⎢ 10 ⎥ + k′′ e ∞
⎣ ⎦0
10 e –10t [e 10t – e 0 ]+ k′′ e –10t
10[1 – e –10t + k′′ e –10t
k ′′
i′ (0 – )
i′ (0 – )
∴ 10[1 – e –0 ]+ k′′ e –0
k′′
10[1 – e –10 t ] – 1.5803 e –10 t
10 – 10 e –10 t – 1.5803 e –10 t
10 – 11.5803 e –10 t A
®
TM

≥
−R i(t) − v C (t) + V
R i(t) + v C (t)
dv C (t)
dt
dv C (t)
RC + v C (t)
dt
dv C (t)
∴ RC + v C (t) v C (t)
dt
dv C (t) 1
dt
[V − v C (t)] RC
K
R
+
t=0 t
− ln [V − v C (t)] + K′
+
V _ RC
vC(t)
C
i(t)
–
v C (t)
v C (t) 0
+ K′
t = 0− RC
∴
−
K′
t
− [V − v C (t)] − [V]
RC
t
∴ − [V − v C (t)] + [V]
v C (0 ) −
V0 = 0 = v C (0 + ) RC
t
∴ [V − v C (t)] − [V] −
RC
®
TM

⎡ V − v C (t) ⎤ t ⎛ ⎡a ⎤ ⎞
∴ − ⎜ [a] − [b] =
⎢⎣ V ⎥⎦ RC ⎝ ⎢⎣ b ⎥⎦ ⎟⎠
τ
t
⎡ V − v C (t) ⎤ −
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ e RC
V
v C (t)
t
−
∴ v C (t) ⋅e RC V τ τ
v C (t)
v C (t)
∞
vC(t)
V
t
−
V⋅e Rc
dv C (t)
i C (t) = C
dt
t
t 0
d − (a)
∴ C [V − V ⋅ e RC ]
dt
iC(t)
⎡ t ⎤
∴ C ⎢0 − V ⋅ ⎛− 1 ⎞ ⋅ e − RC
⎜ RC ⎟ ⎥ V
⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦ R
t
V − RC
∴ ⋅e A
R
0 t
(b)
vC (t)
τ
v C (t)
τ
τ τ τ τ
τ v C (t) = V − V. e −1 = (0.632) V
τ v C (t) = V − V. e −2 = (0.8646) V
τ v C (t) = V − V. e − 4 = (0.9816) V
τ v C (t) = V − V. e −6 = (0.9975) V
®
TM

v C (t)
− v C (t)
dv C (t)
i C (t) = C
dt
dv C (t)
RC − v C (t)
dt
dv C (t) −1
v C (t) dt
v C (t) RC
a −t
R [v C (t)] + K′
K RC
+ b t=0 +
V _
C vC(t)
i(t) –
−
v C (t) V0
−0
[V0 ] + K′
RC
∴ K′ [V0 ]
V0
v C (0 − ) V0 v C (0 + ) t
[v C (t)] − + [V0 ]
RC
t
∴ [v C (t)] [V0 ] −
≥ + RC
⎡ v C (t) ⎤ t
∴ ⎢⎣ V0 ⎥⎦ −
RC
⎛ a ⎞
∴⎜ ln [a] − ln [b] = ln ⎡ ⎤ ⎟
⎝ ⎢
⎣ b ⎥⎦ ⎠
t
v C (t) −
e RC
V0
t
−
∴ v C (t) V0 ⋅ e RC V
R
K
+ –
b + +
C vC(t)
i(t) – –
®
TM

K
R = 10 Ω
+ v (t) – +
t=0 R
+
τ = RC. 20 V _ vC(t)
C = 0.1 F
iC(t)
–
τ v C (t) V0 ⋅ e −1 = (0.368) V0 −
τ v C (t) V0 ⋅ e −2 = (0.1353) V0
∴ v C (0 − ) V0 = 0 = v C (0 + )
−4
τ v C (t) V0 ⋅ e = (0.0183) V0
τ v C (t) V0 ⋅ e − = (0.0024) V0
∞ v C (t) V0 ⋅ e − ∞ = 0 ≥ 0+
vC(t)
K R = 10 Ω
V0
+ – +
+ +
20 V _ C vC(t)
–
0.1 F
iC(t)
(0.368)V0 P –
t
0 t=τ
vC (t)
−10 i C (t) −v C (t) + 20
∴ 10 i C (t) + v C (t)
dv C (t) dv C (t)
i C (t) C = 0.1
dt dt
τ
i C (t)
τ τ ⎡ dv C (t) ⎤
∴ 10 ⎢0.1 + v C (t)
⎣ dt ⎥⎦
dv C (t)
∴ + v C (t)
10 Ω dt
dv
+ Pv
dt
®
TM

iC(t)
20 V 2A
vC(t)
vR(t)
t t
0 0
(b) (c)
d
∴ i C (t) 2 (1 − e − t )
dt
∴ i C (t) 2 0 − ( −1)e − t
∴ i C (t) 2 e−t A
t
v C (t) e − Pt ∫ Q ⋅ e Pt dt + K′ e − Pt
0 v R (t) R. i C (t) = 10 [2 ⋅ e − t ] = 20 ⋅ e − t V
t
v C (t) e − t ∫ 20 e t dt + K′ ⋅ e − t
0
∴ v C (t) 20 ⋅ e − t [e t ] t0 + K′ ⋅ e − t v C (t)
i C (t)
∴ v C (t) 20 e − t [e t − e 0 ] + K′ ⋅ e − t
∴ v C (t) 20 (1 − e − t ) + K′ ⋅ e − t = Ω = μ
( e0 − 1)
v C (t) = 0
(1 − e −0 ) + K′ ⋅ e −0 K
5 kΩ
∴ K′ t=0
+
K′ 100 V 20 μF
v C (t) –
v C (t) 20 (1 − e − t ) V
t = 0−
dv C (t) d
i C (t) = 0.1 [20(1 − e − t )]
dt dt
v C (0 − ) V0 = 0 = v C (0 + )
®
TM

t ≥ 0+ 5 kΩ
K
+ C
5 kΩ acts
K 100 V
as
– i
+ – S.C.
+ +
100 V 20 μF vC(t)
– i –
∴
100
= 0.02 A
5000
t
1
− 5 × 10 3 i − ∫ i dt + 100 K e − 10 (0) = K e − 0 = K
20 × 10 − 6 0−
[ e− 0 = 1 ]
⎡ 0+ t ⎤
∴ − 5000 i − ⎢50000 ∫ i dt + 50000 ∫ i dt ⎥ − 100
⎢ ⎥
⎣ 0− 0+ ⎦ 0.02 e − 10 t A
(
= 50 1 – e –100t )
t
5000 i + 50000 ∫ i dt
0
di
5000 + 50000 i
dt
⎛ t ⎞
−
v C (t) 50 [1 − e −100t ] Vo − ⎜ 1 − e RC ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
di
q0 + q1 i
dt τ
K ⋅ e− q 1 q0 t
dv C (t)
C
dt
C
d
dt [
50(1 − e −100t ) ]
q 0 = 5000, q 1 = 50000
C [0 − 50( −100)e −100t ]
K ⋅ e − 50000 5000 t = K ⋅ e − 10 t ∴
(5000) (C) e −100(0.01) × −
∴ μ
®
TM

[
50 1 − e −100(0.01) ] ∴
∴
dv C (t) − dv C (t)
C ×
dt dt
1 1
CV 2 (1.0873 × 10 −6 ) (31.606) 2
2 2 ⎡ dv C (t) ⎤
∴ v C (t) + 5000 ⎢ 1 × 10 −6
⎣ dt ⎥⎦
μ
dv C (t)
∴ 5 × 10 −3 + v C (t)
dt
dv C (t)
+ v C (t)
dt
di
1 + Pi
dt
t=0 i(t)
+ 2 5 kΩ
100 V – v C (t) e − Pt ∫ Qe
Pt dt + K′ e − Pt
– 50 V +
1 μF t
+
– e −200t ∫ 10000 e 200 t dt + K′ e −200 t
0
t
⎡ e 200 t ⎤
0− 10000 e −200 t ⎢ + K′ e −200 t
200 ⎥
⎣ ⎦0
[
50 e −200 t e 200 t − e ] + K′ e−200 t
50 e −200 t [e 200 t − ] + K′ e −200 t
1
∴ v C (t) 50 [1 − e −200 t ] + K′ e −200 t
5 kΩ
+
100 V
C +
–
as open
–
vc(0 ) = 100 V v C (t) − 100 ν C (t)
−
circuit – ve − 100 V
∴ − 100 50 [1 − e −0 ] + K′ e −0
∴ C (0 − ) C (0 + )
∴ K′ − 100
≥ 0+
v C (t) 50 [1 − e −200 t ] − 100 e − 200 t
i(t) 5 kΩ 50 − 150 e − 200 t V

–
50 V +
+ 1 μF vC(t)
– v R (t) V − v C (t) 50 − [50 − 150 e −200 t ]
+ 150 e −200 t V
®
TM

−
∴ i(0 − ) i(0 + )
R (t) R ⋅ (t)
v C (0 − ) v C (0 + )
≥ 0+
()
t
di(t) 1
dt
−
C ∫ i(t) dt + V
0
()
t
di(t) 1
L
dt
+ R i(t) +
C ∫ i(t) dt
−∞
0 − t
di(t) 1 1
C ∫ ∫
L + R i(t) + i(t) dt + i(t) dt
dt C
−∞ 0−
t
di(t) 1
L + R i(t) + ∫ i(t) dt
dt C
d 2 i(t) di(t) i(t)

L + R +
K
R L dt 2 dt C
+ – + –
t=0 d 2 i(t) di(t) 1
+ ∴ + + i(t)
+
V _ C dt 2 dt LC
–
i(t)
®
TM

d2
s 1, 2 − ξ ωn ± ωn ξ − = − ξ ωn ± ωn −ξ
dt 2
s2
ξ
R 1 α ξ ωn ωd = −ξ
s 2 i(t) + s i(t) + i(t)
L LC
ωd
ξ= ωd = ωn
R R 2 4
− ± ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ − i (t) K1 e(− α + j ωd) t
+ K2 e(− α − j ω d ) t
L ⎝ L⎠ LC
s 1, 2
2
<ξ<
2 2
R ⎛ R ⎞ − ⎛⎜ 1 ⎞ j ωd
− ± ⎜ 2L ⎟ ⎟
2L ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ LC ⎠ ej θ = θ+ j θ
( R cr )
ξ=
R cr 1
∴
2L LC
L
∴ R cr
C
i (t) K1 e s 1 t + K2 e s 2 t
( ξ) ξ>
( ξ)
i (t) K1 e s 1 t + K2 e s 2 t
R R C
ξ = ⋅ ξ=
R cr 2 L
ωn
( ωn )
ξ=
ωn
1
ωn
LC
®
TM

ξ
ξ= i(t)
K1 ωt K2 ωt
± jω t
Sustained oscillations
<ξ< i(t)
K1 e− αt ωt + K2 e− αt ωt t
−α ± jω
Damped oscillations
i(t)
ξ=
K1 e− αt + K2 t e− αt
−α −α
t
Exponential and
critical response
i(t)
<ξ<∞
ξ=2 ξ=4
K1 e− s1 t + K2 e− s2 t
t
Exponential and slow
t=0 20
L 0.05 H
+
100 V –
i(t) C 20 F
t = 0–
∴ ( )
iL 0– ( )
iL 0+ ()
v C (0 – ) 0 = v C (0 + ) ( )
t ≥ 0+
®
TM

di( t ) ⎡ 0– t ⎤
1 1
0.05 + 20 i( t ) + ⎢ ∫ i( t )dt + ∫ i( t ) dt ⎥ = 100
dt ⎢C – ∞ C ⎥
⎣ 0 ⎦
t
di( t )
dt
+ i( t ) +
×
∫ i( t ) dt =
0
d 2 i( t ) di( t ) i( t )
0.05 + 20 + =0
dt 2 dt 20 × 10 –6
d2 i (t) di( t )
∴ + 400 + 1 × 10 6 i ( t ) = 0
dt 2 dt
s 2 + 400s + 1 × 10 6
s 1,2 –200 ± j 979.7958 = – α ± j ωd
s1 –200 + j 979.7958 and s 2 = –200 – j979.7958
i( t ) K1 e – αt cosωd t + K2 e – αt sinωd t
i( t ) K1 e –200t cos 979.7958 t + K2 e –200t sin 979.7958t
k 1 e –0 cos 0 + k 2 e –0
e –0 = 1, cos 0 = 1, sin 0 = 0
K1
i( t ) K2 e –200t sin 979.7958t
di( t )
dt [
K2 e –200t ( 979.7958) cos 979.7958t + sin 979.7958 ( –200) e –200t ]
di( t )
∴ K2 e –200t [979.7958 cos ( 979.7958t ) – 10 sin (979.7958 t)]
dt
®
TM

di( t )
| K2 e –0 [979.7958 (cos 0) – 10 sin(10)] = K2 ( 979.7958)
dt t = 0
0
di( t ) 1
0.05
dt
+ 20 i ( 0) +
20 × 10 –6
∫ i( t ) dt 100
0
di( t ) di( t )
∴ 0.05 | = 100
dt dt t = 0
100
K2 = 0.1021
979.7958
K2
i( t ) 0.1021 e –200t sin 979.7958 t A
ω +φ
K R
V cos ( ωt + φ)
t=0
Vcos(ωt+φ) L
ω φ
i
φ
di
(ωt + φ) dt
di R V
∴
dt L L
(ωt + φ)
i CF K1 e − t ( R L)
i PI (ωt + φ) (ωt + φ)
®
TM

∴ i′ ω (ωt + φ) ω (ωt + φ)
R V
−A ω ωt + φ + B ω ωt + φ A ωt + φ + B ωt + φ ωt + φ
L L
⎛ − Aω + BR ⎞ ⎛ Bω+ AR ⎞ V
∴ ⎜ L ⎟⎠
(ωt + φ) ⎜ L ⎟⎠
(ωt + φ) (ωt + φ)
⎝ ⎝ L
BR
ω
L
AR V
ω
L L
R
R + ( ωL)
2
ω
R + ( ωL)
2
R ωL
R + ( ωL)
2
R + ( ωL)
2
VR VωL
K 2 cos φ K 2 sin φ
R + ( ωL)
2
R + ( ωL)
2
K2 φ K 2 sin φ K 2 cos φ
ωL
φ
R
ωL
∴ φ tan −1
R
K 2 sin φ K 2 cos φ
V2
K 22 sin 2 φ + K 22 cos 2 φ
R 2 + ( ωL)
V2
∴ K 22
R 2 + ( ωL)
V
∴
R 2 + ( ωL)
®
TM

V ⎛ ωt + φ − tan −1 ωL ⎞
i PI ⎜ R ⎟⎠
R 2 + ( ωL) ⎝
∴ i CF + i PI
∴ K1 e − t ( R L)
V ⎛ ωt + φ − tan −1 ωL ⎞
⎜ R ⎟⎠
R 2 + ( ωL) ⎝
K1
∴
V ⎛ φ − tan −1 ωL ⎞
K1 ⎜ R ⎟⎠
R 2 + ( ωL) ⎝
⎡ ⎤
−V ⎛ φ − tan −1 ωL ⎞ ⎥ ⎛ ωt + φ − tan −1 ωL ⎞
e −( R L) t ⎢
V
⎜ R ⎟⎠ ⎥ ⎜ R ⎟⎠
⎢ R 2 + ωL ⎝ ⎝
⎣ ( ) ⎦ R2 + ( ωL)
K
R = 20 Ω
t=0
π 3
L = 0.1 H
100cos (10 t + )
2 i
100 cos (10 3 t + π 2)
di
dt ( t+π )
∴
di
dt
+ 200 i ( t+π )
i CF e − t /( / )
e −200 t
®
TM

V ⎛ ωt + φ − − ωL ⎞
i PI ⎜ R ⎟⎠
R 2 + ( ωL) ⎝
φ π
⎡ π − ⎛ × ⎞⎤
i PI ⎢ t+ − ⎜ ⎟⎥
( ) +( × ) ⎣ ⎝ ⎠⎦
⎛ π
∴ i PI ⎜ t+ − ° ⎞⎟
⎝ ⎠
i PI + i CF
π
K e − 200 t + 0.98 °
∴ π °
∴ π °
π
∴ π ° e − 200 t + 0.98 °
ω +φ
K
(ωt + φ) R
t=0
(ωt + φ) Vcos(ωt+φ) C
i
φ
®
TM

(ωt + φ) ∫ i dt
di
∴
dt
ω (ωt + φ)
di − Vω
∴ sin (ωt + φ)
dt R R
i CF K1 e − t RC
i 'PI ω (ωt + φ) ω (ωt + φ)
1 Vω
∴ [− A ω sin (ωt + φ) + B ω cos (ωt + φ)] RC [
A cos (ωt + φ) + B sin (ωt + φ)]
R
(ωt + φ)
⎛ − A ω+ B ⎞ ⎛ Bω+ A ⎞ −Vω
∴ ⎜ RC ⎟⎠
(ωt + φ) ⎜ RC ⎟⎠
(ωt + φ) (ωt + φ)
⎝ ⎝ R
B Vω
ω
RC R
A
ω
RC
VR
R 2 + ⎛⎜ ⎞
⎟
⎝ ωC ⎠
−V
⎡ ⎞ ⎤
ωC ⎢R 2 + ⎛⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ ωC ⎠ ⎥⎦
VR −V
⎡ ⎞ ⎤
R + ⎛⎜
2 ⎞
⎟ ωC ⎢R 2 + ⎛⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎝ ωC ⎠ ⎢⎣ ⎝ ωC ⎠ ⎥⎦
®
TM

VR
K 2 cos φ
⎡ 2 ⎛ ⎞ ⎤
⎢R + ⎜ ωC ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎦⎥
V
K 2 sin φ
⎡ ⎞ ⎤
ωC ⎢R 2 + ⎛⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ ωC ⎠ ⎥⎦
K2 φ K 2 sin φ K 2 cos φ
φ
ωRC
∴ φ tan −1 ⎛⎜ ⎞
⎟
⎝ ωRC ⎠
K 2 sin φ K 2 cos φ
V2
K 22 sin 2 φ + K 22 cos 2 φ
⎡ 2 ⎛ ⎞ ⎤
⎢R + ⎜ ωC ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦
V2
∴ K 22
⎡ 2 ⎛ ⎞ ⎤
⎢R + ⎜ ωC ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎦⎥
V
∴ K2
R 2 + ⎛⎜ ⎞
⎟
⎝ ωC ⎠
V ⎛ ωt + φ + tan −1 ⎞
i PI ⎜ ω ⎟
⎝ RC ⎠
R 2 + ⎛⎜ ⎞
⎟
⎝ ωC ⎠
i CF i PI
∴ K1 e − t RC V ⎛ ωt + φ + tan −1 ⎞
⎜ ω ⎟
⎝ RC ⎠
R 2 + ⎛⎜ ⎞
⎟
⎝ ωC ⎠
K1
V
cos φ
R
®
TM

V
cos φ
V ⎛ φ + tan −1 ⎞
K1 ⎜ ωRC ⎟⎠
R ⎝
R 2 + ⎛⎜ ⎞
⎟
⎝ ωC ⎠
∴
V
cos φ
V ⎛ φ + tan −1 ⎞
K1 ⎜ ω ⎟
R ⎝ RC ⎠
R 2 + ⎛⎜ ⎞
⎟
⎝ ωC ⎠
⎡ ⎤
⎢ ⎥
e−t RC ⎢ V cos φ − V ⎛ φ + tan −1 ⎞⎥ V ⎛ ωt + φ + tan −1 ⎞
⎢R ⎜ ωRC ⎟⎠⎥ ⎜ ωRC ⎟⎠
⎝ ⎝
⎢ R 2 + ⎛⎜ ⎞
⎟ ⎥ R 2 + ⎛⎜ ⎞
⎟
⎢⎣ ⎝ ωC ⎠ ⎦⎥ ⎝ ωC ⎠
K 10 Ω 10 Ω
t=0 R + + R –
π π +
(
v = 50 cos 100t + — ) C 1 μF (
v = 50 cos 100t + — ) C 1 μF
4 4 –
i(t) – i(t)
1 π
−10 i(t) − ∫ i(t) dt + 50 cos ⎛⎜ 100 t + ⎞⎟
1 × 10 −6 ⎝ 4⎠
1 π
10 i (t) + ∫ i(t) dt 50 cos ⎛⎜ 100t + ⎞⎟
1 × 10 −6 ⎝ 4⎠
di(t) i(t) ⎡ π ⎤
10 + 50 ⎢−100 sin ⎛⎜ 100 t + ⎞⎟⎥
dt 1 × 10 −6 ⎣ ⎝ 4 ⎠⎦
di(t) i(t) π
∴ + − 500 sin ⎛⎜ 100 t + ⎞⎟
dt 1 × 10 −5 ⎝ 4⎠
10 ×10 −6 ) 5t
i CF K′ e −( t RC)
= Ke −( t = K′ ⋅ e −10
®
TM

i PI A cos ( ωt + φ) + B sin ( ωt + φ)
V 1 ⎞
∴ i PI cos ⎛⎜ ωt + φ + tan −1 ⎟
⎝ ωCR ⎠
1 2
R 2 + ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟
⎝ ωc ⎠
50 ⎡ π ⎛ 1 ⎞⎤
i PI cos ⎢(100 t) + + tan −1 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎥
2 ⎣ 4 ⎝ 100 × 10 × 1 × 10 −6 ⎠⎦
⎛ 1 ⎞
(10) 2 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 100 × 10 −6 ⎠
π
∴ i PI 4.9999 × 10 −3 cos ⎛⎜ 100 t + + 89.94º ⎞⎟
⎝ 4 ⎠
V
i(t)|t = 0 cos φ = i(0)
R
50 π
∴ i(t)|t = 0 i(0) = cos ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ = 3.5355 A
10 ⎝4⎠
i(t) i CF + i PI
5t π
∴ i(t) K′ . e −10 + 4.9999 × 10 −3 cos ⎛⎜ 100 t + + 89.94º ⎞⎟
⎝ 4 ⎠
K′
π
i(0) 3.5355 = K′ + 4.9999 × 10 −3 cos ⎛⎜ + 89.94º ⎞⎟
⎝4 ⎠
π
∴ K′ 3.5355 − 4.9999 × 10 −3 cos ⎛⎜ + 89.94º ⎞⎟
⎝4 ⎠
K′ i(t)
⎡ − ⎛π ⎞⎤ −105 t ⎡ ⎛ π ⎞⎤
i(t) ⎢3.5355 − 4.9999 × 10 cos ⎜⎝ 4 + 89. 94º ⎟⎠⎥ ⋅e + ⎢[4.9999 × 10 −3 cos ⎜ 100 t + + 89.94º ⎟⎥ A
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎝ 4 ⎠⎦
( ω + φ)
®
TM

K R L
t=0
(ωt + φ)
Vcos(ωt+φ) C
i
φ
di
(ωt + φ) dt ∫ i dt
d 2i di 1
+R + i
dt C
ω (ωt + φ)
dt 2
d 2i R di 1 Vω
∴ + +
L dt LC
i
L
(ωt + φ)
dt 2
i 'PI ω (ωt + φ) ω (ωt + φ)
i ''PI ω2 (ωt + φ) ω2 (ωt + φ)
[− Aω cos (ωt + φ) − B ω sin (ωt + φ) ] R

L[
− Aω sin (ωt + φ) + Bω cos (ωt + φ)]
1 −Vω
LC [
A cos (ωt + φ) + B sin (ωt + φ) ] (ωt + φ)
L
⎛ ωR ⎞ ⎡ω − 1 ⎤ Vω
⎜ L ⎟ ⎢⎣ LC⎥⎦
⎝ ⎠
⎡ω − 1 ⎤ ⎛ ωR ⎞
⎢⎣ LC⎥⎦ ⎜ L ⎟
⎝ ⎠
®
TM

ω2 R
V
L2
⎡⎛ ωR ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎤
⎢⎜ L ⎟ − ⎜ ω − LC ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎛ ω − 1 ⎞ Vω
⎜ LC ⎟⎠
⎝
⎡ ωR ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎤
L ⎢⎛⎜ −⎜ ω −
⎟
⎢⎣⎝ L ⎠ ⎝ LC ⎟⎠ ⎥⎥
⎦
ω2 R ⎛ ω − 1 ⎞ Vω
V ⎜ LC ⎟⎠
2 ⎝
i PI L (ωt + φ) (ωt + φ)
⎡⎛ ωR ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎤ ⎡ ωR ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎤
⎢⎜ L ⎟ − ⎜ ω − LC ⎟ ⎥ L ⎢⎛⎜ −⎜ ω −
⎢⎣⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎟
⎢⎣⎝ L ⎠ ⎝ LC ⎟⎠ ⎥⎥
⎦
ω2 R ⎛ ω − 1 ⎞ Vω
V ⎜ LC ⎟⎠
φ L2 φ ⎝
⎡⎛ ωR ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎤ ⎡⎛ ωR ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎤
⎢⎜ L ⎟ − ⎜ ω − LC ⎟ ⎥ ⎢⎜ L ⎟ − ⎜ ω − LC ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎦⎥
φ φ φ
⎛ ωL − ⎞
⎜ ωC ⎟⎠
φ ⎝
R
⎡ ⎞ R⎤
∴ φ tan −1 ⎢⎛⎜ ω − ⎟ ⎥
⎣⎝ ωC ⎠ ⎦
φ φ
V2
K 2 cos 2 φ K 2 sin 2 φ
R 2 + ⎛⎜ − ωL ⎞⎟
⎝ ωC ⎠
V2
∴ K2
R 2 + ⎛⎜ − ωL ⎞⎟
⎝ ωC ⎠
V
∴
R 2 + ⎛⎜ − ωL ⎞⎟
⎝ ωC ⎠
®
TM

⎡ ⎛ ⎤
⎢ ⎜ − ωL ⎞⎟ ⎥
V −1 ⎝ ωC ⎠
i PI ⎢ωt + φ + tan ⎥
⎢ R ⎥
R 2 + ⎛⎜ − ωL ⎞⎟ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
⎝ ωC ⎠
R 1
P2 + P+
L LC
−R R 2 1
P1 P2 ± ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ −
2L ⎝ 2L ⎠ LC
2
−R ⎛ R⎞ − 1
K1 K2 ⎜ 2L ⎟
2L ⎝ ⎠ LC
∴ P1 (K1 + K 2 ) P2 (K1 − K 2 )
[P − (K1 + K 2 )] [P − (K1 − K 2 )]
i CF K 3 e( K 1 + K 2)
K 4 . e( K 1 − K 2 )
i CF i PI
⎡ ωL ⎞⎤
K 3 e( K 1 + K 2)
K 4 . e( K 1 − K 2 ) ⎛
V −
⎢⎣ωt + φ + ⎜ ωCR − R ⎟⎥
⎝ ⎠⎦
R 2 + ⎛⎜ − ωL ⎞⎟
⎝ ωC ⎠
R2 1
K2
4 L2 LC
[P − (K1 + j K 2 )] [P − (K1 − j K 2 )]
i CF e K1t [K 3 cos K 2 t + K 4 sin K 2 t ]

®
TM

i CF i PI
V ⎡ ⎛ ωL ⎞⎤
∴ e K1t [K 3 cos K 2 t + K 4 sin K 2 t ] ⎢⎣ωt + φ +
−
⎜ ωCR − R ⎟⎥
⎝ ⎠⎦
R 2 + ⎛⎜ − ωL ⎞⎟
⎝ ωC ⎠
R2 1
K2
4 L2 LC
[P − K1 ] [P − K1 ]
i CF e K1t (K 3 + K 4 t)
i CF i PI
V ⎡ ⎛ ωL ⎞⎤
e K1t (K 3 + K 4 t) ⎢⎣ωt + φ +
−
⎜ ωRC − R ⎟⎥
⎝ ⎠⎦
R 2 + ⎛⎜ − ωL ⎞⎟
⎝ ωC ⎠
K 15 Ω 0.2 H
t=0
π 3 μF
π 400cos(500t + 4 )
= 400 500 + i
4
di 1 π
0.2
dt
+ 15 i +
3 × 10−6
∫ i dt …
d 2i di i π
0.2 + 15 + ω
dt 2 dt 3 × 10−6
d 2i di π
+ 75 + 16.67 × 10 i − × 10 ω
dt 2 dt
P 2 + 75 P + 16.67 × 105 − × 10 ω π
P1 P2
®
TM

i CF e −37.5 t (K1 cos 1290 t + K 2 sin 1290 t)
V ⎡ − ⎛ ω L ⎞⎤
i PI ⎢ω t + φ + ⎜ − ⎟⎥
2 ⎣ ⎝ ω RC R ⎠⎦
R 2 + ⎛⎜ − ωL ⎞⎟
1
⎝ ωC ⎠
× −
π
i PI
i CF i PI
π
∴ e −37.5 t [K1 cos 1290 t + K 2 sin 1290 t ]
K1 K2
i0
∴ e− 37.5) (0)
[K1 cos 0] °
∴ K1
di
e −37.5 t [− K1 sin 1290 t + K 2 (1290) cos 1290 t ]
dt
⋅ e −37.5 t (K1 cos 1290 t + K 2 sin 1290 t)
di (0+ )
dt
+ ( +π )
di +
∴
dt
di + K2 K1 °
dt
∴ K2
∴ K2
e −37.5 t [0.485 cos (1290 t) + 1.3 sin (1290 t) ] °
®
TM

i(t)
– +
R = 200 Ω VR VL L = 0.25 H
+ –
t1 μ
R
V2 ⎛ V2 − V1 ⎞ − t
− ⎟ .e L
R ⎜⎝ R ⎠
K t=0
K
20 MΩ a b
12 Ω 12 Ω +
C +v
10 V – C 10 MΩ
48 V 6H 0.5 μF
–
vC
R2 = 70 Ω
S
2 ⋅ e−150 tA
t=0
+
20 Ω K 30 Ω
A 10 V R1 = 50 Ω C = 100 μF
–
B t=0
100 V +
_ 0.2 H
i(t)
t1
®
TM

R1
+
t=0
1
+ S
E _ C vC(t)
2
R2
i(t)
−
t
E −
i C (t) − ⋅ e (R1 + R 2 ) ⋅ C A
(R1 + R2 )
= Ω
R L C
t=0
30 V
15 sin 4t e −2 tA
L
τ sec
R
®
TM

vC τ
100
200 ⎛ 200 − t
i( t ) −⎜ − 0 ⎞⎟ e 20
100 ⎝ 100 ⎠
τ i( t ) 2 − ( 2 − 0)e − t
i( t ) (
2 1 − e − 5t A )
i( 0.5) [ ]
2 1 − e −5( 0.5) = 1.8358A
ξ
K R L
t=0 + –+ –
+ +
V C
– i(t)
– μ
di( t ) t R C
R i( t ) + L + ∫ i( t )dt ξ =1
dt 2 L
0
L 2
2 2 = 1265 Ω
C 5 × 10 −6
Ω
R C
R
V ⎛V − t
− − I 0 ⎞⎟ e L
R ⎜⎝ R ⎠ ⎛ −j ⎞
⎜ − jX C = ⎟
⎝ 2 πf ⎠
Ω
®
TM

i(t)
V
R –Rt
V – V–I L
I0
i(t) =
R (
R 0 e )
t
0
L ×
τ = ×
R
10 μsec
Ω
ξ=
Ω
R L
ξ =1
2 C
2
R 2 L (10) ( 2)
∴ = = 50 F
4 4
R
V ⎛V – t
i( t ) – –I ⎞ e L
R ⎜⎝ R 0 ⎟⎠
10
100 ⎛ 100 – t
∴ i( t ) –⎜ – 0 ⎞⎟ e 1
10 ⎝ 10 ⎠
10 – 10e –10t ( )
10 1 – e – 10t A
μ
i(t)
Ω
V
R R
V – t
i(t) = (1 – e L )
R
t
0 ×
®
TM

®
TM

®
TM

®
TM

L−1
s = σ+ jω
L [f(t)] = F(s)
y [x(t)] = f(t)
Y [X(s), s] = F(s)
Y [X(s), s]
L−1 [X(s)]
Simple method
Integro- Inverse
Laplace Algebraic Algebraic
differential Laplace Solution
transform equations operations
equations transform
Classical method involving calculation of complementary

functions and particular solutions
Complex and time consuming method
®
TM

L−1 [F(s)]
σ1+ j ∞
1
L− [F(s)] = ∫ F(s) e st ds
2 πj
σ1− j ∞
∞
− st
ω ∫ f(t) e dt
∞ ∞
− st − st
∫ K e dt ∫e dt
∞
⎡e − st ⎤ ⎡e − ∞ ⎤
⎢ −s ⎥ ⎢ −s − − ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
∞
L [f(t)] = ∫ f(t) e − s t dt − ≥
0− ≥
∞ ∞
s = σ+ jω σ − st − t e − st dt
∫ f(t) e dt ∫e
ω
t = 0− ∞
⎡e − s + a ) t ⎤
∞
− +
∫e dt ⎢ − s + a)
⎢⎣
⎥
⎥⎦
⎡ e− ∞ ⎤
⎢ − s + a) − − + ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
⎡ ⎤
∞ ⎢ − − + ⎥ +
−σt ⎣ ⎦
∫ |f(t)| e dt < ∞ σ
0− −
∴ +
®
TM

1
s2
⎧ df(t) ⎫ −
⎨ dt ⎬
⎩ ⎭
− −
⎧ d n f(t) ⎫ −1
⎨ s n F(s) − s f (0− − s −
f ′ (0− ) f (n − 1) (0− )
n ⎬
⎩ dt ⎭
f (n − 1) (0− ) −
⎧⎪ d 2 f(t) ⎫⎪
⎨ ⎬ s 2 F(s) − s f (0− − f ′ (0− )
⎪⎩ dt 2 ⎪⎭
⎧⎪ d 3 f(t) ⎫⎪
⎨ ⎬ s 3 F(s) − s 2 f (0− ) − f ′ (0− ) − ′′ (0− )
⎪⎩ dt 3 ⎪⎭
®
TM

L { f (t − T)} e −
+
Lim f (t) Lim s F(s)
⎧⎪ t ⎫⎪ t → 0+ →∞
L⎨ ∫ f (t) dt ⎬
⎩⎪ 0 ⎭⎪
⎧⎪ t1 t2 tn ⎫⎪
L⎨ ∫ ∫ ............ ∫ f(t)dt 1 , dt 2 , dt n ⎬
⎩⎪ 0 0 0 ⎭⎪
Lim f(t) Lim s F(s)

→∞ →
−
− d F(s)
{ } L {t f(t)} = −
ds
1
e − at
s+a
d ⎡ 1 ⎤ 1
∴ L {t e − at } −
ds ⎣⎢ s + a ⎦⎥ (s + a) 2
L e at f (t)
L {e − a t f (t)}
®
TM

∞
∴ L {r(t)} ∫ t e − st dt
0
f(t) = u(t)
∞ ∞
⎡ t e − st ⎤ e − st
1 ⎢ −s ⎥
⎣
−
⎦0 0
∫ 1 ⋅
−s
dt
∞
1 ⎡ e − st ⎤ 1
0+
s ⎢⎣ − s ⎥⎦ s2
0
t ≥ 0
∞ A
∴ L {u(t)} ∫ u(t) e − st dt s2
0−
∞ ∞ f(t) = r(t)
⎡ e − st ⎤ 1
∫ 1× e − st dt = ⎢−
⎣ s ⎥⎦ − s
0− 0
Slope = 1
A u(t)
A t
F(s) = 0
s
u(t − T) t≥ T
r(t − T)
∞
∴ L {u(t − T)} ∫ 1 ⋅ e − st dt
∞
T e − Ts
∴ L {r(t − T)} ∫ t e − st dt
∞ T s2
∞
⎡ e − st ⎤ e − Ts
⎢− s ⎥ s
f(t) Ramp delayed by
⎣ ⎦T T instants
r(t – T)
f(t)
1
u(t – T) t
1 Step delayed by 0 T
T instants
t
0 T
δ(t)
®
TM

f(t) = δ(t)
ej ω t + e− j ω t
cos ωt =
1 2
⎧ e jωt +e − jωt ⎫
∴ L {cos ωt} L ⎨ ⎬
t
⎩ 2 ⎭
0
1
{L [e jωt ] + L [e − jωt ]}
2
d
∴ δ(t) [u(t)] 1 ⎡ 1 1 ⎤ 2s
dt + =
2 ⎢⎣ s − jω s + jω⎥⎦ 2 (s 2 + ω2 )
d
L [δ(t)] L ⎧⎨ [u(t)]⎫⎬
⎩ dt ⎭ s
∴ L {cos ω t}
s2 + ω2
∴ L {δ(t)} s L [u(t)] − u(t) t = 0−
u (t) t = 0−
=0
1
s× L {δ(t)} = 1
s
e − at sin ωt
δ (t − T)
e − at cos ωt
L [e − at f(t)] = F(s + a)
L {δ(t − T)} e − Ts L {δ(t)}
∴ L {δ(t − T)} e − Ts ω ω
L [e − at sin ωt] =
s2 + ω2 s = s+ a (s + a) 2 + ω2
s (s + a)
L [e − at cos ω t] =
s2 +ω 2
s = s+ a (s + a) 2 + ω2
f(t) Unit
δ(t – T) impulse
delayed by
1
T instants
t
0 T
1 1
s s2
K t2 2
jω t − jω t s s3
e −e
sin ωt =
2j tn n! e− at 1
jω t − j ω t ⎫ s n +1 s+ a
⎧e −e
∴ L {sin ωt} L ⎨ ⎬
⎩ 2j ⎭ eat 1 e− at t n n!
s−a (s + a) n + 1
1
{L [e jωt ] − L [e − jωt ]} ω s
2j sin ωt ωt
s2 + ω 2 s2 + ω 2
1 ⎡ 1 1 ⎤ 2 jω ω
− = e− at sin ωt e− at cos ωt (s + a)
2j ⎢⎣ s − jω s + jω⎥⎦ 2j (s 2 + ω2 ) (s + a) 2 + ω 2 (s + a) 2 + ω 2
ω ωt ω ωt s
∴ L {sin ω t} s2 − ω 2 s2 − ω 2
s2 + ω2
®
TM

te− at 1 1 − e− at a
(s + a) 2 s (s + a)
1 e− Ts
s s
u(t − T)
1
N(s)
e− Ts
s2 s2
D(s)
r(t − T)
N(s)
e− Ts (s − a) (s − b) ...
δ(t)
δ(t − T) A B C
+ + + ...
s −a s −b s −c
F(s) (s − a) s= a
F(s) (s − b) s= b
, C = F(s) (s − c) s= c
, ...
= ω +θ s sin θ + ω cos θ / s 2 + ω2
= ω +θ s cos θ − ω sin θ / s 2 + ω2
L−1 [F(s)] = A e at + B e bt + C e ct + ...
= 2/ s (s 2 + 4)
ω
=
ω s N(s)
(s 2 + ω2 )2 (s − a) n D′ (s)
D′ (s)
A1 A2 An B C
+ + ... + + + + . ..
(s − a) n (s − a) n − 1 (s − a) s − b s − c
A 1 , A 2 , ... A n , B, C
A 1 , A 2 , ... A n , B, C, ... ,
N′ (s)
Q+
D(s)
N′ (s) D(s) A1
A1 F(s) (s − a) n ,
s= a
F(s) (s − b) s=b
, ...
®
TM

A1 A2
, ...
(s − a) n (s − a) n − 1
n!
(s − a) n + 1
+
=
+ +
A B C
N(s) ∴ + +
s s+ 3 s+4
(s 2 + α s + β) D′ (s)
(s 2 + α s + β)
F(s) × s s= 0
(s + 2) 2 1
A s+B C D ×s = =
+ + + ... s (s + 3) (s + 4) 3 ×4 6
s2 + α s +β (s − c) (s − d) s= 0
F(s) (s + 3) s= − 3
(s + 2)
× (s + 3)
s (s + 3) (s + 4) s= − 3
−1 1
=
− 3×1 3
As + B F(s) (s + 4) s= − 4
2 2 (s + 2)
α α
s2 + α s + +β− × (s + 4)
4 4 s (s + 3) (s + 4) s= − 4
(Middle term) 2 α2 −2 1
= =−
4 × (First term) 4×1 − 4 × −1 2
As + B (1 / 6) (1 / 3) (1 / 2)
2 ∴ + −
⎛ 2 2 ⎞ s s+ 3 s+4
⎛s + α ⎞ +⎜ β− α ⎟
⎜ ⎟
2⎠ ⎜ 4 ⎟
⎝ 1 1 −3t 1 −4t
⎝ ⎠ + e − e
6 3 2
As + B
≈
(s + a) 2 + ( ω) 2
ω −
=
(s + a) 2 + ω2 +
(s + a) s = −1
(s + a) 2 + ω2 A B C D
∴ + + +
e − at
sinωt e − at
cos ωt (s + 1) 3 (s + 1) 2 (s + 1) s
∴ As + B (s + 1) s + C (s + 1) 2 s + D (s + 1) 3
(s − 2)
®
TM

∴ (C + D) s 3 + (B + 2C + 3D) s 2 + (A + B + C + 3D) s + D
∴ B+ 2 C+ 3 D
3 2 2 2 3 2! 2 × 1! 2 2
∴ + + − = × + + −
(s + 1) 3
(s + 1) 2 s + 1 s 2 (s + 1) 3 (s + 1) 2 s + 1 s
3 −t 2
∴ L−1 [F(s)] e t + 2 e− t t + 2 e− t − 2
2
⎡ n! ⎤
L−1 ⎢ ⎥ e − at t n
n+ 1
⎢⎣(s + a) ⎥⎦
−
⎡ + ⎤
⎢ = ⎥
⎢⎣ + + + ⎥⎦
s2 + 2s + 5
As + B C
∴ + s 2 (A + C) + s (2A + B + 2C) + (2B + 5C) = s 2 + 3
s2 + 2 s +5 (s + 2)
∴ 2A + B + 2C 2B + 5C = 3 −
2
− s −2 75 2 ⎧ s +5 ⎫ 7 5
∴ 5 + =− ⎨ +
s + 2s + 5 s + 2
2 5 ⎩ s 2 + 2s + 5 ⎬⎭ s + 2
2 ⎧ s +5 ⎫ 75
∴ − +
5 ⎨⎩ s 2 + 2s + 1 + 5 − 1 ⎬⎭ s + 2
2 ⎧⎪ (s + 5) ⎫⎪ 7 5 2 ⎧⎪ s + 1 + 4 ⎫⎪ 75
− ⎨ + =− ⎨ +
5 2 2 ⎬ s+2 2 2 ⎬
5 ⎪ (s + 1) + (2) ⎪ s + 2
⎪⎩ (s + 1) + (2) ⎪⎭ ⎩ ⎭
2 ⎧⎪ (s + 1) 4 2 ⎫⎪ 7 5
− ⎨ + × +
s 2 2 2 (s + 1) + (2) ⎬⎪ s + 2
2 2
⎩⎪ (s + 1) + (2) ⎭
⇑ ⇑
(s + a) ω
(s + a) 2 + ω2 (s + a) 2 + ω2
2 −t 7
∴ L−1 [F(s)] − {e cos 2t + 2 e − t sin 2t} + e −2t
5 5
®
TM

10s 2 − 14s − 5
(s + 2) (s + 5)
s = −1
P(s)
Q(s) 10s 2 − 14s − 5
(s + 1) (s + 2)
s = −5
21 4.75 26.25
1− + +
s + 2 s +1 s +5
∴ L−1 F(s)
P'(s)
P(s) δ(t) − 21 e − 2t + 4.75 e − t +26.25 e − 5t
Q(s)
L−1 δ t
P' (s)
K+
Q(s)
L−1 [1] = δ(t) δ(t)

[f1 ( t ) * f 2 ( t )] F1 (s ) . F2 (s )
δ (t) f1 (t) ∗ f2 (t)

P' (s) / Q(s)
t
f1 (t) ∗ f2 (t) ∫ f1 (t − τ) f2 ( τ) dτ
0
s 3 + 18s 2 + 3s + 5
F1 (s ) F2 (s )
s 3 + 8s 2 + 17 s + 10
F1 (s ) . F2 (s )
∴ L−1 [F(s )] L− [F1 (s ) . F2 (s )] f1 ( t ) * f 2 ( t )

3 2 3 2
s + 8s + 17s + 10 ) s + 18s + 3s + 5 (1 → K
f1 ( t ) * f 2 ( t )
s 3 + 8s 2 + 17s + 10
f1 ( t ) * f 2 ( t ) ∫ f1 (t − τ) f 2 ( τ) dτ
s 2 − 14s − 5 → P'(s)
F1 (s ) ⋅ F2 (s )
10s 2 − 14s − 5 F1 (s ) F2 (s )
∴ +
s 3 + 8s 2 + 17s + 10 f1 ( t ) f2 (t )
10s 2 − 14s − 5
1+
(s + 2) (s + 1) (s + 5) ∫ f1 (t − τ) f 2 ( τ) dτ
A B C
1+ + +
s + 2 s +1 s +5
∫ f1 ( τ) f 2 ( − τ) dτ
10s 2 − 14s − 5
∴
(s + 1) (s + 5)
s = −2
®
TM

1 d i(t )
∴
s ( s + 4) dt
F1 (s ) ⋅ F2 (s )
− V
F1 (s ) F2 (s ) ⋅
+ s
f1 ( t ) L− [F1 (s )] ∴
V
s ( −)
f2 (t ) L− [F2 (s )] −
V (V L)
∴
s (sL + R)
s ⎛⎜ s + ⎞⎟
R
∴ f1 (t) ∗ f2 (t) ∫ f1 (t − τ) f 2 ( τ) τ ⎝ L⎠
∫ ⋅e − τ τ A B
+
s ⎛ R⎞
⎜s + L ⎟
⎝ ⎠
⎡ − τ ⎤ e − 4t e
⎢ − ⎥ − VL V
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ − − I (s ) ⋅ s s = 0
RL R
e − 4t 1 VL
+ I (s ) ⎛⎜ s + ⎞⎟
R
− −R L
⎝ L⎠ s= −
R
L
1
∴
4 (
1 − e −4t )
∴
⎛ + ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
⎡ ⎤
⎢V R V R ⎥
∴ L−1 L−1 ⎢ −
s R⎥
⎢⎣ s+ ⎥
t=0
R
L⎦
R
V ⎛⎜ ⎞
R
V V − t − t
⎟ A
+ ∴ − e L 1− e L
R R R⎜ ⎟
V L ⎝ ⎠
– i(t)
i(t)
V
R
V
0.63
R
∴ i ( −)
t
0
d i(t ) τ=
L
R
dt
®
TM

L
R
τ −
I (s ) VC V
sC s
τ ⎡R + 1 ⎤ V −
∴ VC
⎢⎣ s C⎥⎦ s
τ
τ V⋅ s C VC
∴
s [1 + s R C] [ s R C]
1 +
⎛ R ⎞ VC (V R)
– t
V⎜ 1 – e L ⎟ 1
RC ⎡s +
1 ⎤
⎜ ⎟ s+
⎝ ⎠ ⎢⎣ RC⎥⎦ RC
d ⎡ V ⎛⎜ ⎞⎤
R
di( t ) – t ⎟⎥
L L ⎢ 1– e L
dt dt ⎢ R ⎜ ⎟⎥ ⎧ ⎫
⎣ ⎝ ⎠⎦
⎪ VR ⎪
L−1 [ I (s )] L−1 ⎨
1 ⎬
∴ –
R
t ⎪s + ⎪
Ve L ⎩ RC ⎭
t
V −
e RC
R
i(t)
V
R
V
0.37
R
0 t
τ = RC
t=0
R
τ
+
V C
– i(t)
τ
t
1
C ∫ i( t ) dt + V R i( t ) Ve
–
t
RC
−∞
t t t
1 1 V –
C∫
i( t ) dt = ∫ e RC dt
∴
C ∫ i (t ) C R
0 0
0− ⎡ t ⎤
1 ∴ V ⎢1 – e
–
RC ⎥
C ∫ i( t ) dt ⎣ ⎦
−∞
®
TM

R ⎛ 4L − R 2 C ⎞
(V L) − t
e 2L sin ⎜ t⎟
⎜ 2 ⎟
4L − R 2 C ⎝ 4L C ⎠
4L2 C
R 1
s2 + s+
L LC
R R 2 4
− ± ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ −
L ⎝ L⎠ LC
s 1, 2
R L C 2
2
R R 2 ⎛ 1 ⎞
i(t) − ± ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ − ⎜ ⎟
2L ⎝ 2L ⎠ ⎝ LC ⎠
V
+ –
R 1 L
∴ 2
di(t) 1 2L LC C
Ri(t) + L + ∫ i(t) dt
dt C
1 I(s) V
RI(s) + sLI (s) + K1 e − at + K2 e − bt
C s s
1 V
∴ I(s) ⎡R + sL + ⎤
⎢⎣ sC ⎥⎦ s
1 R 1 L
V ∴ R cr
CV L 2L LC C
=
s 2 LC + sRC + 1 R 1
s2 + s +
L LC
R cr
(V L)
∴ K1 e − at + K2 te − at
2 R R2 1 R2
s + s + + −
L 4 L2 LC 4 L2
(V L)
R 1 L
2 ∴ 2 < R cr
⎛ 2 2 ⎞ 2L LC C
⎛ s + R ⎞ + ⎜ 4L − R C ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜
⎝ 2L ⎠
⎝ 4L2 C ⎟⎠ ±
− at − at
K1 e sin bt + K2 e
4L − R 2 C
(V L) 4L2 C
×
2
4L − R 2 C 2 ⎛ 2 ⎞
⎛ s + R ⎞ + ⎜ 4L − R C ⎟
4L2 C ⎜ ⎟ ⎜
⎝ 2L ⎠
⎝ 4L2 C ⎟⎠
ξ
®
TM

R R C ξ
∴ ξ =
R cr 2 L
i(t)
R 1 R2
s 1, 2 − ± j − Purely exponential
2L LC 4 L2
t
R 2
1 R C
− ±j 1−
2L LC 4L
1 ξ
LC
R2 C
ξ2
i(t)
ωn
4L
R
s 1, 2 − ± j ωn 1 − ξ 2 ξ=4
2L ξ=2
t
ωn 1 − ξ 2
ωd
R
∴ s 1, 2 − α ± j ωd α ξ
2L
ωn α
i(t)
(V L)
(s + α) 2 + ω2n − α 2
Oscillatory
R C 1 R t
ξ × ωn × = =α
2 L LC 2L
VL
∴
(s + α )2 + ω2n − ξ 2 ω2n
VL
(s + α) 2 + ω2n (1 − ξ 2 )
VL
∴
(s + α) 2 + ω2d
V 1 ωd
× ×
L ωd (s + α) + ( ωd ) 2
2
V − αt
∴ e sin ωd t V − ξω n t
Lωd e sin ωd t A
Lωd
®
TM

di(t)
∴ v(t) i(t) R + L
dt
∴ V(s) I(s) R + L s I(s)

Vm ω
∴ I(s) [R + s L]
s 2 + ω2
Vm ω (Vm ω / L) A B s+C
∴ I(s) +
[R + s L] [s 2 + ω2 ] ⎛ s + R ⎞ (s 2 + ω2 ) R s 2 + ω2
⎜ s+
⎝ L ⎟⎠ L
R Vm ω
∴ A (s 2 + ω2 ) + ⎛⎜ s + ⎞⎟ (B s + C)
⎝ L⎠ L
BR CR Vm ω
∴ +C A ω2 +
L L L
Vm ω L − Vm ω L Vm ω R
ω2 L2 + R2 ω2 L2 + R2 ω2 L2 + R 2
(Vm ω L / ω2 L2 + R 2 ) Vm ω L ⎧ s − R / L ⎫
∴ − ⎨ ⎬
R ω L2 + R 2 ⎩ s 2 + ω2 ⎭
2
s+
L
(Vm ωL / ω2 L2 + R 2 ) Vm ω L ⎧ s R ω ⎫
− ⎨ 2 − × ⎬
R 2 2 2
ω L +R ⎩s +ω 2 L ω s + ω2 ⎭
2
s+
L
R
Vm ωL − t Vm ωL ⎡cos ωt − R sin ωt ⎤
∴ L−1 [I(s)] = e L −
ω2 L2 + R2 ω2 L2 +R 2 ⎣⎢ ωL ⎦⎥
= ω =
R C
1
C∫
∴ v( t ) i ( t )R + i ( t ) dt
i(t)
v(t) = Vm sin ωt
1 1 + sRC ⎤
∴ V( s) I( s) ⎡R + ⎤ = I ( s) ⎡
⎢⎣ sC ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ sC ⎥⎦
V( s )sC Vm ω
∴ I( s) V( s) = L{Vm sin ωt} =
1 + sRC s + ω2
2
Vm
Vm ω s C ωs K1 K s + K3
∴ I( s) R + 2
(s 2 + ω2 )(1 + sRC) ⎛ s + 1 ⎞ s 2 + ω2
⎜ RC ⎟⎠ ( ) s+
1
RC
s 2 + ω2
⎝
®
TM

Vm
∴ ( )
K1 s 2 + ω2 + ⎛⎜ s +
⎝
1 ⎞
RC ⎟ (K2 s + K 3 )
⎠ R
ωs
–Vm ωC
1 + ω2 R 2 C 2
Vm ωC Vm ω 3 RC 2
1 + ω2 R 2 C 2 (1 + ω2 R 2 C2 )
–Vm ω C Vm ω C ⎧⎪ s ω2 RC ⎫⎪
∴ I( s) + ⎨ 2 + ⎬
(1 + ω2 R 2 C2 )⎛⎜⎝ s + RC
1 ⎞ + ω2 2 2 2 s 2 + ω2 ⎪⎭
1 R C ⎪⎩ s + ω
⎟
⎠
t
–1 –Vm ωC – Vm ωC
∴ i ( t ) = L[I( s)] = e RC + {cos ωt + ωRC sin ωt}
1 + ω2 R 2 C 2 1 + ω2 R 2 C 2
1 1 1 + ω2 R 2 C 2
R– j |Z|= R 2 + =
ωC ω2 C 2 ωC
t ⎧⎪ ⎫⎪
–Vm – Vm 1 ωRC
i (t) e RC + ⎨ cos ωt + sin ωt ⎬
ωCZ 2 Z 2 2 2
⎩⎪ 1 + ω R C 1 + ω2 R 2 C 2 ⎭⎪
sin ( ωt + θ) sin ωt cos θ + cos ωt sin θ

ωRC 1
∴ cos θ θ
1 + ω2 R 2 C 2 1 + ω2 R 2 C 2
1 1 ⎤
∴ tan θ θ tan –1 ⎡
ωRC ⎢⎣ ωRC ⎥⎦
t
Vm Vm –
i (t) sin( ωt + θ) – e RC A
Z ωCZ 2
( + φ)
1
C∫
v( t ) i ( t )R + i ( t ) dt C
R
I ( s)
∴ V( s) I( s)R +
sC i(t)
1 ⎤
RC ⎡s + v(t) = V cos (ωt + φ)
1 + RsC ⎤ ⎢
⎣ RC ⎥⎦ I s
I( s)⎡ = ( )
⎣⎢ sC ⎦⎥ sC
®
TM

1
V( s) ⎡ ⎤ s
⎢⎣ R ⎥⎦
∴ I( s)
⎡s + 1 ⎤
⎢⎣ RC ⎥⎦
cos( ωt + φ) cos ωt cosφ – sin ωt sinφ

V
∴ V( s) L{v( t )} L{V[cos ωt cosφ – sin ωt sinφ]} [s cosφ – ω sinφ]
s2 + ω2
1
V[s cosφ – ω sin φ] s
I( s) R
⎜
⎝ RC ⎟⎠ (
⎛ s + 1 ⎞ s 2 + ω2
)
V 2 V
s cosφ s ω sinφ
R – R = F1 ( s) – F2 ( s)
⎜
⎝ RC ⎟⎠ (
⎛ s + 1 ⎞ s 2 + ω2
) ⎜
⎝ RC ⎟⎠ (
⎛ s + 1 ⎞ s 2 + ω2
)
V 2
s cosφ K1 K s + K3
F1 ( s) R + 2
1
⎜
⎝ RC ⎟⎠ (
⎛ s + 1 ⎞ s 2 + ω2
) s+
RC
s 2 + ω2
( )
∴ K1 s 2 + ω2 + ⎛⎜ s +
⎝
1 ⎞
RC ⎟ (K2 s + K 3 )
⎠
V 2
R
s cosφ
V
cosφ ω2 RC 2 Vcosφ – ω2 CVcosφ
R
1 + ω2 R 2 C 2 1 + ω2 R 2 C 2 1 + ω2 R 2 C 2
⎡ V cosφ ⎤
⎢ R ⎥
⎢ 2 2 2⎥ ⎧ ⎛ 1 ⎞ × ω⎫
⎢⎣1 + ω R C ⎥⎦ ω2 RC 2 Vcosφ ⎪⎪ s
⎜ ⎟
1 ⎝ RC ⎠ ⎪⎪
∴ F1 ( s) + ⎨ – × ⎬
s+
1 1 + ω2 R 2 C 2 ⎪ s 2 + ω2 ω s 2 + ω2 ⎪
RC ⎪⎩ ⎪⎭
⎛ V cosφ ⎞
⎜ R ⎟ – t ω2 RC 2 Vcosφ ⎡ 1
∴ f1 (t) L–1
[F1 ( s)] ⎜ ⎟ e RC + cos ωt – sinωt ⎤
2 2 2 2 2 2 ⎢⎣ ωRC ⎥⎦
⎜1+ ω R C ⎟ 1+ω R C
⎝ ⎠
V
s ω sinφ K4 K s + K6
F2 ( s) R + 5
1
⎜
⎝ RC ⎟⎠ (
⎛ s + 1 ⎞ s 2 + ω2
) s+
RC
s 2 + ω2
∴ ( )
K4 s 2 + ω2 + ⎛⎜ s +
⎝
1 ⎞
(K s + K6 )
RC ⎟⎠ 5
V
R
s ω sinφ
–VCω sinφ VCω sinφ ω 3 RC 2 Vsinφ

1 + ω2 R 2 C 2 1 + ω2 R 2 C 2 1 + ω2 R 2 C 2
®
TM

⎛ –VCωsinφ ⎞
⎜ ⎟
∴ F2 ( s) ⎝ 1 + ω2 R 2 C 2 ⎠ + VCωsinφ ⎧ s
+
ωRC × ω⎫
1 2 2 2 ⎨ 2 2 ⎬
s+ 1+ω R C ⎩s +ω s 2 + ω2 ⎭
RC
t
⎛ –VCω sinφ ⎞ – RC VCω sinφ
∴ F2 ( t ) L–1 [F2 ( s)] ⎜ ⎟ e + [cos ωt + ω RCsinωt ]
2 2 2
⎝1+ ω R C ⎠ 1 + ω2 R 2 C 2
∴ i (t) f1 ( t ) – f2 ( t )
R R
v(t) = i(t) R
i(t) I(s)
V(s) + – + –
V(s) = R I(s) =R v(t) V(s)
I(s)
(a) Time domain (b) Frequency domain
1
Z(s)
L
t
di(t) 1 –
v(t) dt + i (0 − )
i(0 )
L∫
i(t)
L
dt
0 + –
v(t)
i (0 − )
L [s I(s) − i (0 − )] = s L I(s) − L i(0 − )
1 i (0 − )
V(s) +
sL s
i (0 − )
L i (0 − )
s
®
TM

i(0– ) v C (0 − )
s
–+
s
I(s)
sL C v C (0 − )
L i(0– )
sL
I(s)
+ –
V(s) –
+
V(s) –
C vC(0 )
(b) (c) 1 vC(0– )
sC s
+ –
I(s) 1
I(s) sC
+ V(s) – + V(s) –
L i(0 − ) (b) (c)
i(0 − )
1
sC
v C (0 − )
s
L i(0 − ) v C (0 − )
v C (0 − )
t
1 v C (0 − )
∫ i(t) dt + v C (0 − )
C s
0−
dv(t)
C
dt
vC(0– )
+ –
i(t) C
+ –
v(t)
v C (0 − )
1 v (0 − )
I(s) + C
sC s
sC V(s) − C v C (0 − )
®
TM

1 [I ( s) × Z ( s)]
R
1
sL
1
sC
×
2H 2H
1
1Ω 2Ω
1'
2 s 2 + 4s
1×
∴ s +1
2 s 2 + 4s
1+
s +1
2s 2s 2s Series
1 1
Z(s) 1 2 Z(s) 1 2s
Z'
s+1
1' 1'
2
Parallel 2s 2s + 4s
2s + =
s+1 s+1
2 x 2s = 2s
2 + 2s s + 1
(a) (b)
®
TM

1 1 ⎧ 1 s +1 ⎫
− +
2
2s + 4s s ⎨⎩ s 2 + 2s + 2 s 2 + 2s + 2 ⎬⎭
Z(s) s+1
1 Z''
∴ VL ( s) ( s L) I L ( s)
s ⎧1 ⎡ 1 s + 1 ⎤⎫
− +
2 ⎨⎩ s ⎢⎣ s 2 + 2s + 2 s 2 + 2s + 2 ⎥⎦ ⎬⎭
1'
Parallel
1 s s ( s + 1)
− −
(
2 2 s2 + 2 s + 2
) (
2 s 2 + 2s + 2 )
2 s(s + 2)
∴ 1
2 s2 +5 s +1
s2 +2 s+2
VL( s) = VR(s) = VC(s)
IL(s) IR(s) IC(s)

Is(s)
s 1 1
2 2 s
VR ( s) VL ( s)
1
VR ( s) 2
∴ I R ( s) = s + 2s + 2
R 1
2
1 2
sC ∴ I R ( s)
s2 + 2s + 2
2
( s + 1) + (1) 2
2
= − −
( + )
⎧⎪ 1 ⎫⎪
2 ⎨
2 2⎬
⎪⎩ ( s + 1) + (1) ⎪⎭
1 1 ∴ i R (t) L−1 [I R ( s)] = 2 e − t sin t A

s H Ω 1F
iL 2 iR 2 iC
1
VC ( s) 2 s
I C ( s) = s + 2s + 2 =
⎛1⎞ 1 s 2 +
2 s+2
⎜s⎟ s
⎝ ⎠
s + 1 −1
1 ⎡ 1 s ⎤
I L ( s) − + ( s + 1) 2 + (1) 2
s ⎢⎣ s 2 + 1 s 2 + 1 ⎥⎦
s = s+ 1
( s + 1) 1
1 ⎧⎪ 1 ( s + 1) ⎫⎪ −
2 2
s
− ⎨ 2
+
2 ⎬ ( s + 1) + (1) ( s + 1) + (1) 2
2
⎩⎪ ( s + 1) + 1 ( s + 1) + 1 ⎭⎪
∴ i C (t) L−1 [I C ( s)]
e − t cos t − e − t sin t A
®
TM

δ 2Ω
i(t)
= 2u(t) R 1Ω C 1F
0.5 H
5Ω
+ –
+
v(t) +
_ 1H
i(t) –
iR + iC + iL
v C (t)
iR
1
d v C (t)
iC 1×
dt
di(t)
dt v C (t)
iL
Z
d v C (t) v C (t)
∴ v C (t) + +
(0 − ) dt Z
δ vC(t) iL
iR iC
L δ (t)]
2A 1Ω 1F Z
∴ (0 − )
3 K
∴ +
s (s + 5) (s + 5)
A B K
+ + −
s s+ 5 s+ 5
2 VC ( s)
3/5 3/5 K VC ( s) + s VC ( s) +
− + s Z ( s)
s s+ 5 s+ 5
∴ ⎛ − ⎞ e − 5t
⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
2 1
∴ VC ( s) ⎡1 + s + ⎤
− s ⎢⎣ 2 + 0.5 s ⎥⎦
2 ⎡ 2 + 0.5 s + 2 s + 0.5 s 2 + 1 ⎤
∴ ∴ VC ( s) ⎢ ⎥
s ⎢⎣ 2 + 0.5 s ⎥⎦
() () 2 × ( 2 + 0.5 s)
∴ VC ( s)
[
s 0.5 s 2 + 2.5 s + 3 ]
4 ( 2 + 0.5 s)
(
s s2 +5 s + 6 )
®
TM

4 ( 2 + 0.5 s) A B C 100
= + + ∴
s ( s + 2)( s + 3) s s+2 s+ 3 0.5 s2 + 10 s + 10 6
200
∴
s2 + 20 s + 2 × 10 6
1.333 2 0.666
∴ VC ( s) − +
s s+2 s+ 3 200
s2 + 20 s + 100 + 2 × 10 6 − 100
∴ v C (t) 1.333 − 2 e − 2t + 0.666 e − 3t V
200
VC ( s)
I L ( s)
Z ( s) ( s + 10) + (1414.178) 2
2
4 ( 2 + 0.5 s) 200 1414.178

×
( 2
)
s s + 5 s + 6 ( 2 + 0.5 s) 1414.178 ( s + 10) 2 + (1414.178) 2
4 200
∴ e − 10 t sin 1414.178 t A
s ( s + 2)( s + 3) 1414.178
0.666 2 1.333 0.1414 e − 10 t sin 1414.178 t A

− +
s s+2 s+ 3
∴ i L (t) 0.666 − 2 e − 2t + 1.33 e − 3t A
s
t=0 100 Ω
10 Ω 0.5 H
t=0
200
+ sin 500 t 25 μF
1 μF i
100 V Volt
–
i(t)
t=0 100 Ω
t
di ( t ) 1 [200 × 500]
–––––––– 1 = 40000
10 i ( t ) + 0.5
dt
+
1 × 10 −6
∫ i ( t ) dt s2+(500)2 I (s)
––
sC
–––––
s
0
10 6 I ( s) 100
∴ 10 I ( s) + 0.5 s I ( s) +
s s V( s)
∴ I( s)
40000
100 +
s
⎡ 10 6 ⎤ 100
∴ I ( s) ⎢10 + 0.5 s + 100 × 10 3 s
⎢⎣ s ⎥⎥ s ∴ I( s) ×
⎦ s2 + (500) 2 (100 s + 40000)
⎡1 s + 0.5 s 2 + 10 6 ⎤ 100
∴ I( s) ⎢ ⎥ 100 × 10 3 s
s s ∴ I( s)
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
[s 2 + 250000]100 [s + 400]
®
TM

1000 s A Bs + C
+
( s2 )
+ 250000 ( s + 400) s + 400 s 2 + 250000
( )
∴ A s 2 + 250000 + B s 2 + 400B s + Cs + 400C
∴ A +B 400 B + C 250000 A + 400 C
− 0.9756 0.9756s + 609.756

∴ I ( s) +
s + 400 s 2 + 250000
− 0.9756 0.9756 × s 609.756 500
×
s + 400 2
s + (500) 2 500 s 2 +
(500) 2
∴ i (t) L−1 [I( s)]
−0.9756 e −400t + 0.9756 cos 500t + 1.2195 sin ( 500t ) A
i (t) − 0.9756 × 0.6703 + 0.9756 cos 0.5 + 1.2195 sin 0.5
t=0
8.4 H 10 H
i1 i2
336 V +
_ 42 Ω 48 Ω
8.4 s 10 s
336 – –
−8.4 s I 1 ( s) − 42I 1 ( s) + 42I 2 ( s) + + +
s + – +
336 +
––– 42 48
336 s –
I 1 ( s)[8.4 s + 42] − 42 I 2 ( s) I1(s) – + I2(s) –
s
−10sI 2 ( s) − 48I 2 ( s) – 42I 2 ( s) + 42I 1 ( s)
42I 1 ( s) − I 2 ( s)[10 s + 90]
8.4s + 42 − 42
D − 84s 2 − 1176s − 2016 − 84 ( s + 2)( s + 12)
42 − (10s + 90)
336 − 3360 s − 30240 − 3360 ( s + 9)

− 42
D1 s =
0 − (10s + 90) s s
®
TM

336 −14112 ⎛ 100 ⎞
D2 8.45 + 42 ⎜ s ⎟
s s ⎝ ⎠
42 0 ∴ I( s)
50000
5000 +
D1 − 3360 ( s + 9) s
∴ I 1 ( s)
D s [−84 ( s + 2)( s + 12)] 100
=
0.02
5000 s + 50000 s + 10
40 ( s + 9)
s ( s + 2)( s + 12) i (t) L–1 [I( s)] 0.02 e –10t A
t t
D2 − 14112 –10t
∴ I 2 ( s) q( t ) ∫ i( t ) dt ∫ 0.02 e dt
D s [−84 ( s + 2)( s + 12)] 0 0
168 t
⎡ 0.02e –10t ⎤
s ( s + 2)( s + 12) ⎢ –10 ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ 0
A B C ⎤
∴ i 1(t) L−1 [I 1 ( s)] L−1 ⎡ + + 0.02 ⎤
⎣⎢ s s + 2 s + 12 ⎦⎥ – 0.002 e –10t – ⎡
⎢⎣ –10 ⎥⎦
40 ( s + 9)
| = 15 0.002 – 0.002 e –10t C
( s + 2)( s + 12) s = 0
40 ( s + 9) Ω
| = −14 μ
s ( s + 12) s = − 2
40 ( s + 9)
= −1
s ( s + 2) =−
15 14 1 ⎤
∴ i 1(t) L−1 ⎡ − −
⎢⎣ s s + 2 s + 12 ⎥⎦
50 Ω 0.1 s
15 − 14 e − 2 t −e − 12 t A
A B C ⎤
L−1 ⎡ +
100 1 20000
L−1 [I 2 ( s)]
+
∴ i 2 (t) + —–
s –
—–
sC
= —–—–
s
⎢⎣ s s + 2 s + 12 ⎥⎦ I(s)
7 8.4 1.4 ⎤
L−1 ⎡ − +
⎢⎣ s s + 2 s + 12 ⎥⎦
100
−2 t −12 t I( s) s
∴ i 2 (t) 7 − 8.4 e + 1.4 e A
20000
50 + 0.1 s +
Ω s
μ 100
0.1 s2 + 50 s + 20000
1000
s2 + 500 s + 200000
1000
2
s + 500 s + 62500 + 137500
5000 Ω
1000
100
—– +
–
1 50000
—– = —–—
s
( s + 250) 2 + ( 370.81) 2
s sC
I(s)
®
TM

1000 370.81 0.5 0.5 s 0.5 × 100
× – +
370.81 ( s + 250) 2 + ( 370.81) 2 s + 100 s 2 + 100 2 s 2 + 100 2
∴ i (t) L–1 [I( s)] ∴ L–1 [I (s)]
2.6968 e –250t sin(370.81 t )A 0.5 e –100 t – 0.5 cos 100 t + 0.5 sin 100 t
di(t)
Ω VL(t) L
dt
= 0.1 {0.5 ×(– 100) e–100 t + 0.5 ×100 sin100t+ 0.5 ×100cos 100 t}
∴ VL (t) – 5 e –100 t + 5 sin 100 t + 5 cos 100 t V
Ω
R
t=0 i
+
v(t) + vL(t)
L
–
–
K
30 Ω
+ t=0
60 V 15 H
– i(t)
10
+
V(s) 0.1s
–
I(s)
30
10 × 100 60 +
15 s
s2 + (100) 2 s –
I(s)
V(s) 10 V(s)
∴
10 + 0.1 s (s + 100)
10000 60
(s + 100)[s 2 + 100 2 ] s 4
∴ =
30 + 15s s ( s + 2)
A Bs + C
+ A B
s + 100 s 2 + 100 2 +
s s+2
∴ A (s 2 + 100 2 ) + (s + 100)(Bs + C) 4 4
∴ = 2, B = = –2
( s + 2) s= 0 s s = –2
2 2
0.5 – 0.5 s + 50 ∴ –
∴ + s s+2
s + 100 s 2 + 100 2
∴ L–1 [I( s)] = 2 – 2e –2t A
0.5 ⎧ s – 100 ⎫
– 0.5 ⎨ ⎬
s + 100 ⎩ s 2 + 100 2 ⎭
I( s) × sL
®
TM

4 60
∴ VL ( s) × 15s =
s( s + 2) s+2
∴ v L (t) L–1 [VL ( s)] = 60 e –2t V t=0 10 Ω
+
10 V 10 Ω 2F
–
5 − 5 e− 0.1 t V
+
i1 (t) i2 (t) >

2A t=0 1Ω 1F 1H v(t)
t=0
–
2Ω 3Ω
4Ω 7Ω
1
4 − t 3 100 V +
_
e 2 sin t V
3 2 i1 i2
2F 8H
8.39 e − 0.0734 t + 2.7213 e − 1.135 tA

8.333 − 3.6786 e − 0.0734 t − 4.6565 e − 1.135 t A
t=0
9 kΩ 4 kΩ iC(t)
10 V +
_ 1 kΩ C vC(t)
2.0408 × 10−4 e − 20 t A 1− e− 20 t
i(0 − )
R
t=0
+ –
i(0 )
i(t) –L
I R C1 C2
IR [1 − e − t/R (C 1+C 2)
] V di(t)
L
dt
L [s I(s) − i(0 − )]
®
TM

i(0 − ) v C (0 − )
t
i(0 − ) 1
i(0 − ) C ∫ i(t) dt
0
t 0– t
1
∫
C –∞
i(t) dt =
1
C ∫–∞ i(t) dt +
1
C ∫0 i(t) dt
–
– vC(0 )
−
v C (0 )
R
+ +
–
i(t)
C
– – vC(0 )
v C (0 − )
1
C∫
i(t) dt
−∞ K
R
t 0– t 2Ω
1
∫
C –∞
i(t) dt =
1
C ∫–∞ i(t) dt +
1
C ∫0 i(t) dt
+
1V C L 1H
– 1/2 F
–
vC(0 )
v C (0 − )
v C (0 − )
R
+ –
2Ω
+ – +
1
1V 1H
– 2F i(t)
R + –
+
i(t) – –
C – vC(0 )
+
t
di(t)
⎛ ⎞ −∫∞
i(t) dt
− dt
v C (0 ) ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
®
TM

0.5 H
∴
1V 1F 1Ω
i(t)
t
di(t)
∴
dt ∫ i(t) dt
−∞
∞ ∞
⎡ 0− t ⎤
di(t) ⎢ i(t) dt + i(t) dt ⎥
dt ⎢ ∫ ∫ ⎥ L
⎣− ∞ ⎦
+ +
0−
1V 1V 1F 1Ω
∫ i(t) dt – – 1A
−∞
v C (0 − ) i L (0 − )
i L (0 − ) i(0 − )
t
di(t)
∴
dt ∫ i(t) dt
0.5 H
+ –
1 2 I(s) +
+ + –
s s –
VC(0 ) 1F 1Ω
– + –
∴ ⎡2 + s + 2 ⎤ i(t)
⎣⎢ s ⎦⎥
s 1
∴
s(s 2 + 2s + 2) s2 + 2s + 2
1 t
0–
(s 2
∫0
+ 2s + 1) + 1 di(t)
0.5
d(t)
+ i(t) +
∫–∞ i(t) dt + i(t) dt = 0
1
∴ –
(s + 1) 2 + (1) 2 vC(0 ) = –1 V
t
di(t) 1
− 0.5
dt
− i(t) −
1 ∫ i(t) dt
∴ −∞
®
TM

t
di(t) R
∴ 0.5 + i(t) + ∫ i(t) dt
dt
0 + a
V
–
I(s) 1
0.5 [s I(s) − i(0 − )] + I(s) + i (0 − ) i′(t)
s s
∴ ⎡0.5 s + 1 + 1 ⎤ 1
+ 0.5
⎢⎣ s ⎥⎦ s
V
⎡ 0.5 s 2 + s + 1 ⎤ 1 + 0.5 s ∴ i′ (t)
R
⎢ s ⎥ = s
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
1 + 0.5 s
∴
0.5 s 2 + s + 1 V
∴ i L (0 − )
2 (1 + 0.5 s) s+ 2 R
=
s2 + 2s + 2 s2 + 2s + 2
s+ 2
∴
s 2 + 2s + 1 + 1 ∴ −
s+ 1+ 1
(s + 1) 2 + (1) 2
(s + 1) 1
+
(s + 1) 2 + (1) 2 (s + 1) 2 + (1) 2 +
–
∴ L− 1 [I(s)] = e − t cos t + e − t sin t A C L
+ –
i(t)
R t
di(t) 1
dt
−
C ∫ i(t) dt
−∞
−
+ a
K t
V
di(t) 1
–
b ∴ + ∫ i(t) dt
dt C
0
L
C i(t)
1 I(s)
∴ + ⋅
C s
∴ ⎡sL + 1 ⎤ − L × V V
⎢⎣ sC ⎥⎦ R R
⎡ s 2 LC + 1 ⎤ VL
∴ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ sC ⎥⎦ R
®
TM

⎛ VL ⎞ C s L = 0.5 H
⎜ R ⎟ v1(t) v2(t)
⎝ ⎠ A + – B
2
s LC + 1 i (t)
+ – +
VLC –
VC(0 ) C=1F R=1Ω
R × s – + i(t) –
LC 1
s2 +
LC D C
⎛V⎞ s
⎜R⎟ 2
⎝ ⎠ ⎛ 1 ⎞
s2 +⎜ ⎟
⎝ LC ⎠
2 (t)
V t
cos
R LC
− ∫
−∞
v1 (t)
v 2 (t) ⎡ 0− t ⎤
1 1
− ⎢ ∫ i( t ) dt + ∫ i( t ) dt ⎥
⎢C C ⎥
L = 0.5 H v2(t)
⎣ −∞ 0 ⎦
t=0 v1(t)
⎡ t ⎤
1
+
⎢⎣
( )
− ⎢− VC 0 − + ∫ i( t ) dt ⎥
C ⎥⎦
1V C=1F R=1Ω 0
–
⎡ − ⎤
−⎢ − ⎥
∴ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
VC (0 − )
s
− −
∴
− −
V1
di(t) − I(s)
v1 s
dt
®
TM

3Ω
+
v(t) +
_ 6Ω C VC
–
−
+
3 VC i3
i1 i2
⎡ + + ⎤ + 6
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ V _ C
s+2
∴ V2 ( s)
s2 + 2s + 2
+ ∴
−
+ + V − VC VC CdVC
∴ +
3 6 dt
s 2 + 2 s + 2 −s − 2
s(s 2 + 2 s + 2)
+
+ + VC VC dVC
∴ + +C
6 3 dt
dVC VC V
−
[ ] ∴ C +
dt 2 3
+ +
+ + + + + VC (s) V 1
⋅
2 3 s
∴ e − t cos t
V
+ + + 3
+ + + + VC V
∴
+ 2 3s
+ + + +
e − t cos t − ⎡⎛ ⎤
∴ ∴ ⎢⎣⎜⎝ + ⎞⎟⎥
⎠⎦
⎡1+ 2Cs ⎤ V + 6Cs

⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦ 3s
®
TM

2 [V + 6 Cs] 5000 Ω
∴
3s (1 + 2 Cs)
V⎞ V⎞
2 × 6 C ⎛⎜ s + 2 ⎛⎜ s +
+ Capacitor +
⎝ 6C ⎟⎠ ⎝ 6C ⎟⎠ 100 V
– open –
100 V
1 ⎞ 1 ⎞
3 s 2C ⎛⎜ s + ⎟ s ⎛⎜ s + ⎟
⎝ 2C ⎠ ⎝ 2C ⎠
A B
+
s 1 5000 Ω
s+
2C + –
V + + +
2× 50 V 1 μF v (0–)
∴ 6C – – – C
1 i(t)
2C
1 V⎞
2 ⎛⎜ − + ⎟
⎝ 2C 6C ⎠ −2 (V − 3) t
× 1
⎛− 1 ⎞
⎜ 2C ⎟
6C −5000 i(t) −
1 × 10 −6
∫ i(t) dt + 50
⎝ ⎠ −∞
0– t
∴ 5000 i(t) + 10 6 ∫ i(t) dt + 10 6 ∫ i(t) dt
−∞ 0
2
(V − 3)
0−
∴ −3 6 −
1 10 ∫ i(t) dt = C (0 ) = 100 V
s+
2C −∞
t
2 2 −
V − (V − 3) e 2C
3 3
∴ ∫
≥
∫
(1)
S 5000 Ω
+ (2) + I(s) −
100 V + 1 μF
– 50 V – s
–
⎡ + ⎤ −
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
−
∴ −
+ +
− −
∴ × ⎡ ⎤
⎢⎣ + ⎥⎦ +
∴ ∴
®
TM

vC(0–)
1
s 20 Ω 10 Ω
sC
+–
Ι(s)
+
100 V L short
+ VC(s) –
–
i(t)
1 ⎡I(s) ⎤ (0 − )
∴ +
C ⎢⎣ s ⎥⎦ s
20 Ω
+ –
1 ⎡ −0.01 ⎤ 100
⎢ s(s + 200) ⎥ + s + +
1 × 10 −6 ⎣ ⎦ 100 V
L
0.1 H
– –
10 × 10 3 100 i(t)
+
s(s + 200) s
⎡ A + B ⎤ + 100
⎢⎣ s s + 200 ⎥⎦ s
∴
−50 50 100 50 50
∴ ( −)
+ + = +
s s + 200 s s s + 200 Ω
di ( t )
C v 2C (t) − 20 i ( t ) − 0.1 + 100
dt
di ( t )
× × −
+ − ∴ + 200 i ( t )
dt
× ×
×
[s I ( s) − i (0 − )]+ 200 I ( s) 1000
s
1000
∴ I ( s) [s + 200]
s
+ 3.333 ( )
i 0−
( 3.333 s + 1000) A B
∴ = +
s ( s + 200) s s + 200
20 Ω 10 Ω
t=0
K 5 1.667
+ ∴ −
100 V 0.1 H s s + 200
–
∴ 5 − 1.667 e − 200 t
®
TM

() () Ω
–
VC(0 ) = 50 V
2Ω 10 H +5F –
+ – + – + –
t
di( t ) 1
−2i( t ) − 10
dt 5
− ∫ i ( t ) dt + 100 i(t)
−∞
+ –
0- t 100 u(t)
di ( t )
∴ 2 i ( t ) + 10
dt
+ 0.2 ∫ i ( t ) dt + 0.2 ∫ i ( t ) dt
−∞
( )
VC 0 −
VC ( − ) i (t) ( )
VC 0 –
t
di ( t )
∴ 2i ( t ) + 10
dt
+ 50 + 0.2 ∫ i ( t ) dt
0
t
di ( t )
∴ 2i ( t ) + 10
dt
+ 0.2 ∫ i ( t ) dt
0
i ( −)
I( s) 50
2I ( s) + 10 s I( s) + 0.2
s s
I( s) ⎡2 + 10 s + 0.2 ⎤ 50
⎢⎣ s ⎥⎦ s
⎡10s 2 + 2s + 0.2 ⎤ 50
∴ I( s) ⎢ ⎥= s
⎢⎣ s ⎥⎦
50 5
∴ I( s)
10s 2 + 2s + 0.2 s2 + 0.2s + 0.02
5 5 5 0.1
×
s2 + 0.2s + 0.01 + 0.01 2
( s + 0.1) + ( 0.1) 2 0.1 ( s + 0.1) 2 + ( 0.1) 2
∴ i (t) L−1 [I ( s)] = 50 e −0.1t sin 0.1 t A
1 2
40 Ω
50 V
10 V
20 mH
®
TM

40 Ω + 40 Ω
+
10 V
50 V i – i(t)
–
L Short 20 mH
50
40
di( t )
×
dt
di( t )
∴ + 2000 i(t)
dt
[sI( s) – i (0 – )] 500
s ( )
i 0– iL 0– ( )
500 500 + 1.25 s
[s + 2000] s
+ 1.25
s
(500 + 1.25 s) 0.25 1
+
s ( s + 2000) s s + 2000
∴ [I( s)]
10 Ω 10 Ω
S +
10 V t=0 v 10 mH
–
i
10
∴
20 (0 – ) 10 Ω 10 Ω
+
10 V iL L Short
–
di 2
×
dt
10 Ω 10 Ω
+ – + –
+ +
∴ × [s I 2 ( s) – i 2 (0 – )] (0 – ) (0 – ) 10 V
– i1
i
i2 –
10 mH
∴ [10 + 10 × 10 –3 s] × ×
0.5
s + 1000
®
TM

∴ [I ( s)] VC (0 – )
∴
t
di 2 ( t ) ∴ 15 i(t) + 2 + 5000 ∫ i(t) dt
dt 0
×
d
dt [
0.5 e –1000 t ] t
∴ 15 i(t) + 5000 ∫ i(t) dt
0
I(s) 48 5000 ⎤ 48
∴ 15 I(s) + 5000 I(s) ⎡15 +
s s ⎢⎣ s ⎥⎦ s
48 3.2
μ ∴ I(s)
15s + 5000 s + 333.333
∴ i(t) L– 1 [ I(s) ] 3.2 e – 333.333 t A
15 Ω
t=0
50 V 200 μF v( t )
i(t)
2Ω 2Ω
μF Q 0 100 μC
C 200 × 10 – 6 +
∴ VC (0 – ) +
Q0 100 × 10 – 6
8V _ 1H v(t) 1F
–
VC (0 – )
v( t ) L− 1 [ V(s)] 2.0656 e − 0.25 t sin ( 0.96824t) V

t=0 15 Ω
+ –
+ + + –
50 V 200 μF vC(0 )
– – –
i(t)
2Ω
i(t) = 2u(t) R 1Ω C 1F
t 0.5 H
1
– 15 i(t) –
200 × 10 – 6
∫ i(t) dt + 50
∞
0– t
∴ 15 i(t) + 5000 ∫ i(t) dt + 5000 ∫ i(t) dt = 50
–∞ 0
–
vC(0 )
®
TM

≥
(1)
S 5000 Ω
+ (2) +
t=0 100 V 1 μF
– 50 V –
10 Ω
i(t) 0.5 F
+ 5 Ω
50 V –
5 Ω
1F
e −0.0519 t + 0.1249e −0.308 t
2Ω
i1(t)
t=0
5Ω 4Ω 1V 5Ω 3H
i2(t)
10 Ω 2F
+
100 V
–
i1(t) 2H i2(t)
∞
− st
20 Ω 10 Ω ∫ f (t) e dt
−
+ t=0
100 V 0.1 H
–
K
⎧ d f(t) ⎫ −
t=0 ⎨ dt ⎬
0.1 H 1Ω ⎩ ⎭
i2(t) − −
+ 1F
0.1e –5t _
2 2Ω
®
TM

⎧ d n f(t) ⎫ −1 u (t ) t = 0−
⎨ s n F(s) − s f (0− − s − f ′ (0− )
n ⎬
⎩ dt ⎭
f (n − 1) (0− )
∴ {δ( )} ⋅
f (n − 1) (0− )
−
+
Lim f(t) Lim s F(s)
t → 0+ →∞
1
∴ F1 (s )
1 − e − sT
F1 (s )
Lim f(t) Lim s F(s)
→∞ →
∞
∫ f (t) δ t − T)dt δ
[f1 ( t ) * f 2 ( t )] F1 (s ) ⋅ F2 (s )
−∞
∞
∫ f(τ ) δ t − τ )dτ
−∞
d u(t )
δ( )
dt
⎧ d u(t )⎫ ⎧ d f(t )⎫
∴ {δ( )} ⎨ dt ⎬ ⎨ dt ⎬
⎩ ⎭ ⎩ ⎭
( −)
∴ {δ( )} ⋅ u (t ) t = 0−
®
TM

10 s
I(s)
+ –
100
——
s
( ) = ( ) + δ( )
1
L [u( t )] + L [δ( t )] = +1 L R 1
s 2 =
C 2L LC
s +1
s Ω
Ω
R 1
=
2L LC
C 1
R L ∴ C = 0.08 F
× 2× C
+
E
– i(t)
5 kΩ
di(t) 1
∴ i( t ) R + L + ∫ i(t)dt + + – +
dt C
V1 1μ F 1250 Ω V2
∞
L [u( t )] ∫ f( t ) e
− st
dt
–
0 –
∞ − st ∞ −∞ 0
− st ⎡e ⎤ ⎡e e ⎤
∫e dt = ⎢
⎣ −s ⎥ = ⎢ −s − −s ⎥
⎦0 ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
0
⎡0 + 1 ⎤ = 1
⎢⎣ s ⎥⎦ s
5000
Ω +
6
+ 10
Ω V1(s)
– s
1250 V2(s)
100
s 100 10 10
∴ I ( s) = –
(10 + s) s( s + 10) s s + 10 –
∴ i (t) L–1 [I( s)] = 10 – 10e –10t A

®
TM

5000 ⎡ ′ ⎤
+ ⎢⎣ ′ + ⎥⎦
V2 (s) +
∴
V1(s) +
– Z' V2(s) V1 (s) ⎛ ⎞+
⎜ + ⎟
⎝ ⎠
–
+ +
V2 (s) 20
∴ V1 (s) s +100
×
′
+ +
∴ ′ ω
+
®
TM

®
TM

®
TM

π
®
TM

°
°
°
®
TM

Em eR eY eB
°
π 2π
O ωt
R1 - R 2 Y1 - Y2 B1 - B2
120º 120º
240º
S
B2 Y1 Flux
Coil R1-R2
Coil Y1-Y2
R1 R2 eR E m sin ω
Rotation
Coil B1-B2 eY E m sin ωt − 120º )
Y2 B1
eB E m sin ω − 240º )
N E m sin ωt + 120º )
eB
eR eY eB
R1 R 2 Y1 Y2 B1 - B2
eB lags
120º
eY by120º
120º eR
120º
º
eY lags eR by 120º
eR eY
eY º eR
eR eB
º eY eY eR
eY eR º eB eY º
eY
°
º eY
º+ º º eR
®
TM

eR + eY + eB E m sin ωt + E m sin ( ω − °) + E m sin ( ω + °)
E m [sin ωt + sin ωt cos 120° − cos ωt sin 120° + sin ωt cos 120° + cos ωt sin 120° ]
− 1 ⎞⎤
E m [sin ωt + 2 sin ωt cos 120°] E m ⎡sin ωt + 2 sin ωt ⎛⎜ ⎟
⎢⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎥⎦
∴ eR + eY + eB
R1 R 2 Y1 Y2 B1 B2
®
TM

R1
Load 1
R2
B2 Y2 Load 2
B1 Y1
Load 3
R1
R
R2
R
B2 R1 Y
Y1 To
Y load
To B
B1 Delta R2 Y2
load
Y2 Y1 B1
B
B2
R1 - Y1 - B1
R 2 - Y2 - B2
VL VRY
VYB VBR
IL IR IY
IB
R
R1
R2
Y To R2 R1
N load R
Y2 Y1
B2 Y2
N Y To
B1 Y1 Neutral B2 B1 load
B B
®
TM

IR
R
R1
VRY
IY
To
N Y
load
VYB VBR
B1 Y1
B
IB
Z ph1 , Z ph2 Z ph3

IR
R
VRY
B2 R1
IY To
Y
load VRN , VYN
B1 Delta
R2 VBN IR , IY IB
VYB VBR
Y2 Y1
B Vph
IB
I ph
VL Vph VR VY VB
IL IR , IY IB I ph IR
IY IB
I L I ph
IL I ph
Line
current(IL)
R
R Phase current (Iph)
IR IR
Line
VRY Zph1
VRN
voltage Phase voltage (Vph)

(VL)
Y V
YN
IB
N
Zph3 Zph2
B
B V BN Y
Supply IY IL = Iph
®
TM

Line
current
IR R
R
Line Phase voltage
voltage VRY VRY (Vph)
(VL) IY VBR
Y Zph3 Zph1
IBR Phase current (Iph)

IRY
IB B IYB
B Zph2 Y
Supply
VL = Vph
VYB
Z ph1 , Z ph2 Z ph3
Z ph1 , Z ph2 Z ph3
Z ph1 VRY
Z ph2 VYB Z ph3 VBR
Vph VRY VYB VBR
VL Vph
VL V ph
Z ph1 , Z ph2 Z ph3
®
TM

IR R
R
IR
VRY VR Zph
Three IY
phase Y VY
supply IB
N
VBR VYB
Zph Zph
IY
IB
B B Y
VB
VB VRY=VL
−VY=Vph
B
VL VRY VYB VBR
C
60º
30º
IL IR IY IB O A
VR=Vph
120º
Vph VR VY VB
VY
I ph IR IY IB
VL
IL I ph
VR
VL Vph − VY
VRY ∴ ∠ BOA °
VRY VRN + VNY VNY − VYN
VL
VRY VR − VY ∴ OC CB
2
VYB VYN + VNB VYN − VBN
VY − VB (VRY 2)
OC
cos 30°
VBR VB − VR OA VR
° (VL 2)
Vph
VRY
−
®
TM

∴ VL 3 Vph
IL I ph
VRY VR − VY ,
VYB VY − VB and VBR = VB − VR
Z ph Pph Vph I ph cos φ

R+ j L I ph Vph φ
φ tan −1
(X L R) Z ph R − j XC
I ph Vph φ Z ph Pph Vph I ph cos φ
R+ j 0 I ph Vph VL
3 I L cos φ
3
Z ph I ph V ph
φ I ph V ph ∴ 3 VL I L cos φ
Vph
Z ph
I ph
Vph
Z ph R ph + j X Lph Z ph ∠ φ Ω I ph
Z ph
I ph Vph φ
φ Vph I ph
Z ph
° 3 VL I L cos φ
VBR=VL
VRY=VL
VB=Vph IB=Iph −VY
φ VL leads Vph by 30º

30º
−VR φ VR=Vph
φ
IY=Iph IR=Iph
Iph Iags Vph by angle ‘φ’
in every phase, as load
−VB is balanced and inductive
VY=Vph
VRY = VR – VY
VYB = VY – VB
VBR = VB – VR
VYB=VL
®
TM

Vph 230.94
I ph
Z ph 5
3 × Apparent power per phase IL I ph
VL IL
∴ 3 Vph I ph 3 IL 3 VL 3 VL I L cos φ φ º
3 3
∴ 3 × 400 × 46.188 × cos (36.869º )
∴ VL I L
8 + 10 Ω
VL I L cos φ
VLILsin φ VL
VL
Vph
3
Z ph 8 + j 10 Ω 12.806∠51.34º Ω
Vph 254.034
∴ I ph
S = √ 3 VLΙL Z ph 12.806
2 2
= √ P +Q
Q = √ 3 VLΙL sin φ
Apparent power
Reactive power ∴ IL I ph
φ
φ cos (51.34º )
P = √ 3 VLIL cos φ
Active power ∴ 3 VL I L cos φ
3 × 440 × 19.8371 × 0.6247
Ω ∴ 3VL I L sin φ
Ω
3 × 440 × 19.8371 × sin (51.34º )
R ph Ω X Lph Ω VL
Z ph R ph + j X Lph 4+ j 3 Ω
5 ∠ 36.869º Ω
VL 400 VL
Vph
3 3
IL
VL 1100
Vph = = 635.0853 V
3 3
®
TM

3 VL I L cos φ × 51.2 + j 38.4 Ω R ph + jXLph Ω
× × × φ ∴ R ph 51.2 Ω X Lph = 38.4 Ω
∴ φ 2π× f × L ph
φ cos − 1 0.7872 38.4

∴ L ph
2π× 50
− 38.066°
Vph
Z ph Ω μ
I ph
I ph I L = 100 A I1
R
635.0853
∴ Z ph = 6.35085 Ω
100 C R L
C
∴ Z ph Z ph ∠ φ C
400 V, 50 Hz
R
6.35085 ∠ − 38.066°Ω R L
L
R − j XC Ω 5 − j 3.9157 Ω I3
B
∴ Ω X C = 3.9157 Ω
Y
1 I2
XC
2π f C
1
= 812.9067 μF Ω μ
2π × 50 × 3.9157
2πfL Ω
1
Ω
2πfC
φ 1
R∠0º ∠ º
VL
VL ∠ º
Vph
3 1
∴
X L ∠ 0º ∠ º
3VL I L cos φ
−
× ∠ º
2 × 10 3 3 × 400 × I L × 0.8
×
∴ IL I ph
1
Vph 230.94 X C ∠ − 0º ∠− º
∴ Z ph Ω
I ph 3.6084
∠ º
φ cos −1 0.8 = 36.869º
∴
∴ Z ph Z ph ∠φ 64 ∠ 36.869º Ω
∠ 15.76º
®
TM

1 440
∴ ∠ + 120º
Yeq ∠ º VB
= 3
Z ph 25 ∠ 53.13º
9.6246∠ 15.76º Ω
VL 10.161 ∠ 66.87ºA
3
Vph 230.94∠0º φ
∴
Z ph 9.6246∠ − 15.76º
º
24∠15.76ºA ∴ 3VL I L cos φ
∴ 24∠15.76ºA
3 × 440 × 10.161 × cos (53.13º )
φ º
4646.233 W
∴ 3VL I L cos φ
3 × 400 × 24 × cos (15.76º )

∠ ºΩ
∴ φ º
IL I ph
+ Ω
3φ, 440 V, 50 Hz
VL Z Ph Ω 10 ∠ 36.86º Ω
440 440
∴ ∠0º V, VY = ∠ – 120º V, VL
3 3 Vph
3
440
VB ∠ + 120º V Vph 230.94
3 ∴ I ph
Z ph 10
440
∠0º
VR 3 ∴ IL I ph
=
Z ph 25∠53.13º
φ º
10.161 ∠ – 53.13ºA
3 VL I L cos φ
15 + j20 = 25∠53.13º
440
∠ – 120º
V 3
=
Z ph 25∠53.13º
10.161 ∠ – 173.13ºA
®
TM

Ω
Ω Ω
+ Ω
Ω Ω
( + ) Ω
VL VRY VYB VBR
IL IR IY IB
Ω μF
Vph VRY VYB VBR
IR R
R
VRY VRY
Three VBR
IY
phase Y Zph Zph
supply
VYB VBR IBR IYB IRY
IB B
B Zph Y
VYB
®
TM

I ph I RY I YB I BR ∴ IL 3 I ph V ph VL
Vph VL
IL I ph
Z ph I ph
∑ Ientering ∑ Ileaving Vph V ph
∴ IR + IBR IRY I ph φ
∴ IR IRY − IBR
IY IB IR IRY − IBR , IY = IYB − IRY

IY IYB − IRY and IB = IBR − IYB
IB IBR − IYB
φ
IR
I RY I YB
Z ph R ph + j X Lph Z ph ∠ φ Ω
IBR
I ph Vph φ
120º
IRY = Iph
O
30º
A °
60º
C
IYB −IBR=Iph
B
IR=IL Pph Vph I ph cos φ
Pph Vph I ph cos φ

IL
º VL cos φ VL I L cos φ
3
IL
− I YB I RY º
IL
∴ ∠ BOA °
2
OC IR 2 IL 2
cos 30°
OA I RY I ph
®
TM

VBR IB=IL IR I RY − I BR
IY I YB − I RY
IB I BR − I YB
IBR
−IYB
−IRY φ
VRY=Vph=VL
φ Iph lags Vph by
angle φ in every
IY=IL φ 30º
phase
IRY=Iph
IYB
IL lags Iph by 30º
−IBR
IR=IL
VYB
× × ×
∴ π π× × Ω
∴ ∠ °Ω
IR − BR Y YB − RY
Ω
−
φ º
Vph
Z ph
VL
∴
3
VL I L φ
®
TM

Vph1 Vph1
∴
Z ph Z ph 0∠ º
∴ φ Z ph = 60 ∠ ºΩ
Vph1
× × φ
Z ph
(VL / 3)
× φ Vph ∠ º
Z ph I ph ∠
Z ph ∠ º
VL2
φ ∴ I ph ×
Z ph
PT VL I L cos φ
× × × º
QT VL I L φ
Vph2 VL
∴
Z ph Z ph × × × º
3 VL
Z ph
φ VCA
∴ φ
ICA
3 VL
× φ
Z ph
30º
VL2 VAB
φ 30º
Z ph 30º IAB
−ICA
IA=IL
VBC
®
TM

S1
IA IAB − I CA Q1 (lag)
º
φ1
P1
2π π× × × −
∴ Ω
∠− °Ω
Vph
R ∴
Z ph
415 V
3 phase Y
50 Hz ∴ ×
B
∴ φ
× × × °
Load 1 Load 2
IL = 10 A, star Zph = R – jXC

cos = 0.8 lag delta φ
S2
Q2 (lead)
φ2
φ
P2
φ
× × ×
× × × °
φ
× × ×
∴
®
TM

º
ST
QT (lead)
∴ IA I AB º IA 3.464 ∠0ºA
φT
∴ IB I BC º IB 3.464 ∠ − 120ºA
PT
∴ IC I CA º IC 3.464 ∠ − 240ºA
φT
QT VL 100 V
PT
Vph 100 V
∴ φT °
VBC Vph
φT
Vph 100∠0º = VBC
Vph VBC 100 ∠0º
∴ Z ph
φT I ph I BC 2 ∠ − 90º
∴ × × × 50 ∠ + 90º Ω
∴
Vph X L = 50 Ω
I ph
φ ° IA I AB − I CA I B I BC − I AB IC I CA − I BC
∠+ °Ω
Δ
Ω Δ
∠ º
Δ
I ∠ º
Z Ph Ω 25 ∠ 36.869º Ω
Vab ∠ º VL Vph
∴ Vbc ∠ º
I BC 2 ∠ − 90º A
Vca ∠+ º
Vab
I AB ∴ I ph I ab 13.2 ∠ + 36.869º A
Z ph
º 120º
∴ I CA 2 ∠ − 90º −120º 2 ∠ − 210º A

Vbc
∴ I AB 2 ∠ − 90º +120º 2 ∠ + 30º A ∴ I ph I bc 13.2 ∠ – 83.131º A
Z ph
IL 3 I ph 3×2
®
TM

Vca IR 77.46∠ − 93.43ºA
∴ I ph I ca 13.2 ∠ 156.869º A
Z ph
IY 77.46∠ − 213.43ºA
IB 77.46∠ + 26.57ºA
∴ IL Ia I ab I ca
|I L| φ º
22.864 ∠ – 6.87º A Δ ∠ º Ω
∴ Ib 22.864 ∠ – 126.87º A
Ic 22.864 ∠ + 113.13º A
|I L| 3 |I ph| 3 × 13.2
3 VL I L cos φ IR 6.928∠ − 75ºA

3 × 330 × 22.864 × cos (– 36.869º ) IY 6.928∠ − 195ºA
IB 6.928∠ + 45ºA
Ω
φ = 45º
IR = IRY – IBR
IY = IYB – IRY
IB = IBR – IYB
VRYÎRY = 45º VBR IB = IL

VYBÎYB = 45º
IBR
VBRÎBR = 45º
– IRY 45º
+45º
– IYB
IY = IL
– 195º VRY
– 45º
IYB
–7
45º 5º IRY = Iph
– IBR
VYB
IR =IL
®
TM

IL1
VL2 3 VL2
∴
X1 X2
X1 VL
X1
X1
IL2
R L
X2 X2 VL
X2
i(t)
v(t) = Vm sin ωt
v( t ) ω
VL
i( t ) ( ωt − φ)
3
Vph1
X1 p (t) v( t ) i( t ) Vm sin ω t × I m sin ( ωt − φ)
Vph1 Vm I m [sin ω t sin (ω t − φ)]

∴ φ
X1
cos ( A − B) − cos ( A + B)
φ φ º 2
VL VL2 ⎡ cos φ − cos (2 ωt − φ) ⎤

Vm I m ⎢ ⎥
3 X1 2
⎣ ⎦
Vm I m Vm I m
cos φ − cos (2ωt − φ)
2 2 2 2
Vph2
Vm
X2 V( rms ) = Vph
2
3 Vph2
Im
X2 I ( rms ) = I ph
2
φ
Vph2
∴ φ ( 2ωt − φ)
×
X2
3 VL 3 VL VL2
X2 X2
φ cos ( 2ωt − φ)
φ cos (2ωt φ )
®
TM

φ cos (2ωt φ º)
φ { cos ( 2ωt – φ) + cos ( 2ωt – φ –120º ) + cos ( 2ωt – φ – 240º )
∴ φ 3 VL I L cos φ
φ
3 VL I L cos φ
Δ−Δ θ θ
a
A
IAa
EAB = 120 V ∠0° Iab
+
–
V ab
5 Ωca
5Ω
V
3-phase
5Ω
5Ω
Δ-connected ac
generator
–
+
ECA = 120 V ∠θ3

phase sequence: ACB
5Ω
Ica Ibc
– +
c b
5Ω
IBb Vbc
B
ICc
C
EBC = 120 V ∠θ2
EAB ∠ ºV E CA ∠θ V E BC ∠θ
∴ θ º θ º
5× – j 5
Z ph
5–j5
®
TM

EBA EBC
ECA EAC +120°
Ω
ECB EAB
–120°
25 ∠ – 90º
3.5355 ∠ – 45 Ω
7.071 ∠ – 45º
Vph E line
Vph 120
∴ I ph
Z ph 3.5355
∴ I line 3 I ph
EAB 120 ∠ 0º
I ab
Z ph 3.5355 ∠ – 45º 60∠30º
33.94 ∠ + 45º A
E BC 120 ∠ + 120º
I bc
Z ph 3.5355 ∠ – 45º
33.94 ∠ + 165º A
E CA 120 ∠ – 120º
I ca
Z ph 3.5355 ∠ – 45º ∠
33.94 ∠ 75º A
20 ∠ 36.86° Ω = 16 + j 12 Ω Ω
Ω Ω
®
TM

ΙR
R
VRY Z1
ΙY
Y N
Z3 Z2
VBR VYB
ΙB
B
ΙN
N
–VY
VBN VRY
ΙB
φ3 30º
30º
ΙY VRN
φ2 φ1
°
ΙR
VYN
IR , IY , IB IN
VRY , VYB VBR
VRN
VRN Vph ∠ °
VYN Vph ∠ − °
VBN Vph ∠ °
Z1 , Z2 Z3
IN IR +IY +IB
Vph Vph ∠ °
IR
Z1 Z 1∠ φ
Vph
∠ −φ
Z1
VRY
VYB VBR
®
TM

VYN Vph ∠ − °
IY
Z2 Z2 ∠ φ
Vph
∠− °−φ
Z2
VBN Vph ∠ °
IB
Z3 Z3∠φ
Vph
∠+ ° φ
Z3
VAO YA + VBO YB + VCO YC
VNO
YA + YB + YC
I R , IY IB
A A
ZA VAN
B
ZC
N
ZB
C
C
B
VAN VAO + VON
VBN VBO + VON
VCN VCO + VON
VAN VBN VCN

ZA ZB ZC
®
TM

∴
A+
+
I1 ZA
– –
B +
+
– – + ZB
ZC
– IN IR + IY + IB
C + –
I2
ZN
IA = I 1 –I 2 I2 – I1 ZN
VNO
E R YR + E Y YY + E B YB
VNO
YR + YY + YB + YN
YR YY YB
VNO
VR = ER − VNO VY = EY − VNO VB = EB − VNO
R R ER, EY, EB are

supply phase
ER ZR VR voltages.
Supply
system Load
O ZN N VR, VY, VB are
VY load phase
voltages.
ZY
B
EB EY
Z
VB
B Y B Y
ZN
®
TM

π
π
1
Z31 Z12
2
Z23
3
(a)
Z12
1 2
Z31 Z23
1 3 3
(b)
π
Z1
π
S
Z3 Z2 ZA , ZB , ZC
3 2
(a)
Z1
S
Z2 π
1 2
Z1 , Z 2 , Z 3
Z3
π,
3 3 1
(b)
ZA Z1
ZB
Equivalent Star of given Delta
S
Z3 Z2
3 ZC 2
®
TM

1
ZA
ZB 3
ZC
(Z A + ZB
2
ZB ZA + ZC )
ZB + ZA + ZC )
1
Z1
S
Z3 Z2
Z1 Z2
3 2
(a)
Z1
ZB ZA + ZC )
∴ Z1 + Z 2 S
ZA + Z + ZC Z2
(b)
ZC Z + ZB )
Z2 + Z3
ZA + ZB + ZC
Z A (Z B + Z C )
Z1 + Z 3
ZA + Z + ZC
Z1 Z 2 Z 3 ZA , ZB ZC
ZA ZB + Z ZA ZC + ZBZC
∴ Z1 Z 2 Z 2 Z3
ZA ZB − Z A ZC
∴ Z1 Z 3
ZA + ZB + ZC
ZA ZB + ZA ZC Z Z − ZA ZC
+ A B Z1 Z 3 Z1 Z 3
2 ZA ZB
∴ Z1
ZA + ZB + ZC
®
TM

ZA ⋅ ZB
∴ Z1
ZA + ZB + ZC
ZB ⋅ ZC
Z2
ZA + ZB + ZC
ZA ⋅ ZC
Z3
ZA + ZB + ZC
π
Z1 Z 2 Z 3
1
ZA Z1
ZB
Equivalent Delta of given Star
ZA ZB ZC S
Z3 Z2
2
ZC
ZA ZB ZC
3
Z1 Z 2 Z3
ZA ⋅ ZB
Z1
ZA + ZB + ZC
ZB ⋅ ZC
Z2
ZA + ZB + ZC
ZA ⋅ ZC
Z3
ZA + ZB + ZC
Z A ⋅ Z 2B Z C
Z1 Z 2
(Z A + Z B + Z C ) 2
2
ZA ⋅ ZB ZC
Z2 Z3
(Z A + Z B + Z C ) 2
Z 2A ⋅ Z B Z C
Z1 Z 3
(Z A + Z B + Z C ) 2
2
Z A Z 2B Z C + Z A Z B Z C + Z 2A Z B Z C
∴ Z1 Z 2 Z2 Z3 Z1 Z 3
(Z A + Z B + Z C ) 2
®
TM

Z A Z B Z C (Z B + Z C + Z A )
∴
(Z A + Z B + Z C ) 2
ZA ZBZC
∴ Z1 Z 2 Z2 Z3 Z1 Z 3
(Z A + Z B + Z C )
ZA ⋅ ZB
Z1
ZA + ZB + ZC
∴ Z1 Z 2 Z3 Z1 Z 3 Z1 Z C
Z2 Z3
∴ ZC Z2 Z3
Z1
Z1 Z 2
ZB Z1 Z2
∴ Z3
∴ Z1 Z 3
ZA Z1 Z3
Z2
1 1 1
Z1 Z1
ZA ZB
ZA ZB
ZC
Z3 Z2 ZC Z3 Z2
3 2 3 2 3 2
ZA Z B
Z1 =
Z Z ZA + Z B + Z C
ZA = Z 1 + Z 3 + 1 3
Z2 ZB ZC
Z Z Z2 =
ZA + Z B + Z C
ZB = Z1 + Z2 + 1 2
Z3
ZA Z C
Z Z Z3 =
ZC = Z2 + Z 3 + 2 3 ZA + Z B + Z C
Z1
( 3 VL I L φ ) ( 3 VL I L )
®
TM

∑ V I cos φ
∑ VI
∴ ∑ V I cos φ φ φ φ
2 2
∑ VI [∑ V I cos φ] + [∑ V I sin φ]
∑ V I sin φ
∴ ∑ VI sin φ φ φ φ
Ia
a A
120∠0° rms +
_ j5 Ω
I1
n N
–j10 Ω
– – 120∠–120° rms
120∠120° rms +
10 Ω
+
Ib
c C
b B
I2
Ic
(– j 5) I 1 – 10 I 1 + 10 I 2 – 120 ∠ – 120º + 120 ∠ 0º
∴ (10 + j5) I 1 – 10 I 2
10 I 2 + 10 I 1 – (– j 10) I 2 – 120 ∠ 120º + 120 ∠ – 120º
∴ – 10 I 1 + I 2 (10 – j 10) – j 207.846
10 + j 5 – 10
70.7106 ∠ – 45º
– 10 10 – j 10
180 + j 103.923 – 10
D1 4015.27 ∠ – 45º
– j 207.846 10 – j 10
®
TM

10 – j 5 180 + j 103.923
D2 3023.58 ∠ – 20.11º
– 10 – j 207.846
D1
∴ I1 56.7845 ∠ 0º A
D
D2
∴ I2 42.76 ∠ + 24.89º A
D
∴ Ia I1 56.7845 ∠ 0º A
∴ Ib I2 – I1 25.455 ∠ 135º A
∴ Ic – I2 42.76 ∠ – 155.1º A
∴ VAN Ia × j 5
VAN Ia lags VAN by 90°
VCN
56.7845 ∠ 0º × 5 ∠ 90º Ib in phase with VBN
VBN
Ic leads VCN by 90°
283.9225 ∠ 90º V +135°
–245.1° Ib 90°
∴ VBN I b × 10
Ia
254.55 ∠ 135º V Ic
–155.1°
∴ VCN I c × (– j 10)
42.76 ∠ – 155.1º×10 ∠ – 90º
427.6 ∠ – 245.1º V
φ IR
R
3φ 10 Ω
balanced 440 V
supply 15 Ω 20 Ω
VL Vph VL / 3
Y
IY
VRn VR ∠ º
B
IB
∴ VY ∠ −120º
VB ∠ + 120º V
ZR Ω ZY Ω ZB Ω
VR
∴ IR 25.4034 ∠0º A
ZR
VY
∴ IY 16.9356 ∠ − 120ºA
ZY
®
TM

VB VBC ∠− º
∴ IB 12.7017 ∠ + 120ºA I BC
ZB Z BC ∠ º
∠ º
PR VR I R cos (VR ^ I R )
254.034 × 25.4034 × cos ( 0º ) VCA ∠ º

I CA ∠
PY VY I Y cos (VY ^ I Y ) Z CA ∠ º
254.034 × 16.9356 × cos ( 0º )
PB VB I B cos (VB ^ I B )
254.034 × 12.7017 × cos ( 0º ) IA IAB + I CA

∴ PR + PY + PB
∠ º
IB I BC + IAB
∠ º
A IC I CA + I BC
A
IA
250 V 25∠ 90º Ω 20∠ 0º Ω

3 Phase ZAB ZCA
supply
ZBC
∠ º
B C
IB B
15∠ 20º Ω º
ZPh
C
IC
VCA
VAB ∠ º
φ3 = 0º
ICA
VBC ∠ º VCA ∠ º
∠ ºΩ Ω VAB
90º
∠ ºΩ Ω φ2
120º φ1 = 90º
∠ ºΩ Ω IBC
φ2 = 20º +140º
VAB ∠ º
IAB ∠ º VBC IAB
ZAB ∠ º
®
TM

º º º
º º º
Ω μ
A A
VAB ∠ º IA
VAB
VCA
B
VBC ∠ º IB ZCA ZAB
VBC
IC ZBC
C B
C
VCA ∠ º
Ω Ω ∠ º
π× × × π × × Ω
−j −j
Ω
(2π × 50 × 31.8 × 10 −6 ) (100π × 1.8 × 10 −6 )
VAB 400∠0º
IAB = ∠ º
ZAB 100∠0º
VBC 400∠ − º
I BC = ∠ º
Z BC 1 ∠ 0º
VCA 400∠ 0º
I CA = ∠ º
Z CA 100∠ − 0º
IA IAB + I CA ∠ º
IB I BC + IAB ∠ º
®
TM

IC I CA + I BC IR I RY − I BR
(2.4 − j 3.2) − (1.567 + j10.2928)

∠ º 0.833 − j13.4928 A
13.5184 ∠ − 86.46ºA
º
IY I YB − I RY
(6.25 − j10.714) − (2.4 − j 3.2)

3.85 − j7.54 A 8.443 ∠ −62.87ºA
IR
R
j40 Ω 15 Ω IB I BR − I YB
3φ
balanced 200 V 30 Ω j12 Ω
supply (1.567 + j 10.2928) − (6.25 − j10.714)
Y 4.683 + j 21 A
IY
8Ω –j14 Ω
21.5158 ∠ 102.57 ºA
B
IB
( + )
( + ) ( − )
VL
Vph VL
VRY Vph VL
VRY ∠ º 0 – j 10 = 10 ∠ – 90º Ω
VRY 200 ∠ 0º 200 ∠ 0º R R

∴ I RY
Z RY ( 30 + j 40) 50 ∠ 53.13º
17.32 + j 10
Y Z3 Z1 = 20 ∠ 30º Ω
4 ∠ − 53.13 º A 2.4 − j 3.2 A
Z2
VYB 200 ∠ − 120º B B
Y
I YB
Z YB 8 − j14
20 + j 34.64
200 ∠ − 120º = 40 ∠ 60º Ω
16.1245 ∠ − 60.255º
12.4034 ∠ − 59.745º A VRY
6.25 − j10.714 A Vph VL

VBR 200 ∠ + 120º
I BR ∴ VRY 400 ∠ 0º V
Z BR 15 + j12
200 ∠ + 120º ∴ VYB 400 ∠ − 120º V

19.2093 ∠ 38.66º
∴ VBR 400 ∠ + 120º V
10.4116 ∠ 81.34º A V RY
∴ I RY
Z1
1.567 + j10.2928 A
®
TM

400 ∠ 0 º
20 ∠ −30ºA I ph1
20 ∠ 30 º
V YB 400 ∠ − 120º
∴ I YB 10 ∠ − 60 ºA 5 − j 8.66 A I ph2
Z2 40 ∠ 60º
V BR 400 ∠ + 120º
∴ I BR 40∠ + 120ºA − 34.64 − j 20 A I ph3
Z3 10 ∠ − 90º
IR I RY − I BR (17.32 − j10) − (− 34.64 − j 20) 51.96 + j 10 A
52.913 ∠ 10.89ºA
IY I YB − I RY (5 − j 8.66) − (17.32 − j10) −12.32 + j1.34 A
12.392 ∠ 173.79ºA
IB I BR − I YB (− 34.64 − j 20) − (5 − j 8.66) − 39.64 − j11.34 A
41.2301 ∠ − 164.03ºA
P Pph1 + Pph2 + Pph3
VRY I RY cos (VRY ^ I RY ) + VYB I YB cos (VYB ^ I YB ) + VBR I BR cos (VBR ^ I BR )
400 × 20 × cos ( 30º ) + 400 × 10 cos ( 60º ) + 400 × 40 cos ( 90º )
6928.2032 + 2000 + 0
cos φ = 0.7
VL
3 cos φ
3
∴ 5 × 10 3 3 × 400 × I L × 0.7
Vph
∴ Ω
I ph
φ cos −1 0.7 45.573º
∴ 22.4∠45.573º Ω
VRY VL 400
∴
2 Z ph 2 Z ph 2 × 22.4
®
TM

∴ IR − [4.792 + j 17.194]A
R
Path of the
current 17.85∠ − 105.573ºA
Y Zph
V YN V YB 400∠ − 120º
IY
N Z ph Vph 22.4∠45.573º
B Zph
17.85∠ − 165.573ºA
Inductor is
IB [
− IR +IY ]
disconnected − [ 4.792 − j17.194 − 17.287 − j 4.447 ]
30.916∠44.426ºA
230.94∠0º V 230.94∠120º
V RN + V NY 400∠ + 30º V = ∠ ºΩ
= ∠ ºΩ = ∠ ºΩ
400∠ + 30º
∴
2 × 22.4∠45.573º
8.9285∠ − 15.573ºA º
IR =IY , IB = 0
VL 120
∴ ∠ º ∠ º 69.282 ∠0º V
3 3
IR
R ∴ 69.282∠ − 120º V
IY
Y Zph 69.282 ∠ + 120º V
N
IB 5∠0º Ω 10∠ 30º Ω
B Zph
20∠60º Ω
VAN 69.282∠0º
Inductor is IA
shorted ZA 5∠0º
13.856∠0ºA
VBN 69.282∠ − 120º
IB
ZB 10∠ 30º
6.9282∠ − 150º
V RY 400∠0º V V YB = 400∠ − 120º V VCN 69.282∠ + 120º

IC
ZC 20∠60º
V RB 400∠120º V V RB = −VBR
3.464∠ + 60ºA
[400∠120º] V
VRN VRB −[400∠ + 120º]
∴ IR IN IA + I B + I C
Z ph Z ph 22.4∠45.573º
−17.85∠74.47º A
9.6∠ − 2.771ºA
®
TM

VL = VCA
VC = Vph – VB VL = VAB
IC Iph = IL
60º
– VA VA = Vph VAB = VA – VB
IA
VBC = VB – VC
IB 30º
VCA = VC – VA
VB = Vph – VC
VAÎA = 0º
VB^ IB = 30º lag
VCÎC = 60º lag
VL = VBC
VBN 100∠ − 120º

IB
ZB 11.18∠26.56º
8.944∠ − 146.56ºA
Ω Ω Ω
V YN 100∠ + 120º
IY
ZC 10∠ − 53.13º
IR
R ZA = 15∠ 0º Ω 10∠ + 173.13ºA
ZB = 10 + j 5 Ω
= 11.18 ∠ 26.56º Ω
ZC = 6 – j 8 Ω
IB ZA
B = 10 ∠ – 53.13º Ω
N
IN IR +IY +IB
ZC ZB
IY
Y
N
IN 11.352∠ − 160.8ºA
= + Ω = Ω
= + Ω
∴ 100∠0º V
ZR 2 + j3 = 3.6055∠56.31º Ω
100∠ – ºV
1 – j2 = 2.236∠ – 63.43º Ω
100∠ + 120º V
VRN 100∠0º 3 + j4 = 5∠53.13º Ω
IR
ZA 15∠0º
6.67 ∠0ºA
®
TM

R R
ZBR ZRY
ZR
≈
ZB ZY
B Y
ZYB
B Y
Given star Equivalent delta
ZR ZY 3.6055∠56.31º × 2.236∠ – 63.4º

ZR + ZY + = (2 + j3) + (1 – j2) +
ZB 5∠53.13º
3 + j1 + 1.6123∠ – 60.25º = 3 + j1 + (0.8 – j1.4)
3.8 – j0.4 Ω = 3.821 ∠ – 6º Ω

ZY ZB 2.236∠ – 63.43º × 5∠53.13º
ZY + ZB + = (1 – j 2) + ( 3 + j4) +
ZR 3.6055∠56.31º
4 + j 2 + (1.231 – j 2.846) = 5.231 – j0.846 Ω = 5.29∠ – 9.1º Ω

ZR ZB 3.6055∠56.31º × 5∠53.13º
ZB + ZR + = ( 3 + j4) + (2 + j3) +
ZY 2.236∠ – 63.43º
(5 + j7) + (–8 + j1) = –3 + j8 Ω = 8.544∠110.5ºΩ
= ∠ ºΩ = ∠ ºΩ = ∠ ºΩ
10∠ 30º = 8.66 + j5 Ω R

R
ZR
10∠ – 45º = 7.071 – j7.071 Ω
ZBR ZRY
2.5∠60º = 1.25 + j 2.165 Ω ZB ZY
B Y B Y
ZYB
16.98∠0.317º Ω Given delta Equivalent star
Z RY Z BR 10∠ 30º × 2.5∠60º

= 1.472∠89.68º Ω = 0.0082 + j1.47 Ω
Z RY + Z YB + Z BR 16.98 ∠ 0.317º
Z RY × Z YB 10 ∠ 30º × 10∠ – 45º

= = 5.89∠ – 15.317º Ω = 5.68 – j1.55 Ω
Z RY + Z YB + Z BR 16.98∠0.317º
Z YB Z BR 10∠ – 45º × 25∠60º

= = 1.47 ∠14.68º Ω = 1.422 + j0.372 Ω
Z RY + Z YB + Z BR 16.98 ∠ 0.317º
®
TM

R R
R R
Z2 Z2
Z1 Z2 Z2
≈ Y
Y Z1' Z1'
Z1
Z1
B B Y
B Y B
Z2 Z'
1
Z2
∴ IL 3 I ph
+ 37.7 Ω
− Ω 3 × 1.94
φ cos (9.892º )
3 VL I L cos φ
3 × 398 × 3.36 × 0.9851
3 VL I L sin φ
3 × 398 × 3.36 × sin (9.892º )

Z1 Z1
Z′ Z1 + Z1 + 3 Z1
Z1
60 + j 113.1 Ω 128.03 ∠ 62.053º Ω
Z2 30 − j 159.3 Ω 162.1 ∠ − 79.334º Ω
Z2 Z′
Z 2 Z' 20753.663 ∠ − 17.281º

Z ph
Z 2 + Z' 90 − j 46.2
20753.663 ∠ − 17.281º
101.165 ∠ − 27.173º
205.146 ∠ 9.892º Ω Ω Ω
Ω
Vph VL
Vph 398 I RY ∠ − 60.94° I YB ∠ − 30°

∴ I ph I BR ∠ 120° IR ∠ 27.12°
Z ph 205.146
IY ∠ −47.31° ∠ 101.09°
®
TM

= + Ω
= + Ω = − Ω φ
∠ − 30° ∠33.7 °
∠ − 123.44° 27.27 ∠ − 54.73°
⎧ cos ( 2ωt – φ) + cos ( 2ωt – φ –120º )⎫

⎨ ⎬
⎩ + cos ( 2ωt – φ – 240º ) ⎭
∠ ∠
∠ ∠
∠ Ω
= 4.5 ∠ 56.31º Ω
= 2.24∠ − 26.57 º Ω
∠ ∠
∠ ∠
Ω Ω Ω
VR ∠ VY ∠
VB ∠
3 VL I L cos φ
φ V ph I ph
M L Current coil
C V Pressure coil
®
TM

φ
φ Vph I ph
I ph
Vph
Ic
Vpc
Vpc × I c × cos (Ic ∧ Vpc )

Vpc Ic
Ic I ph Vpc Vph I c ∧ Vpc I ph ∧ Vph φ
Vph I ph φ
IC = IL = Iph Delta is required to be

Neutral must opened to insert coils.
be available
M L R
R IC = Iph
C V
M
Vpc = Vph
C
Y N Y
Vpc = Vph
V
B
B
W = Vph Iph cos φ W = Vph Iph cos φ
(a) Star load (b) Delta load
®
TM

W (
I R × VRB × cos I R ∧ VRB)
W I Y × VYB × cos (I Y ∧ VYB )
IR VRB (I Y
VYB
φ
VRB VR − VB
VYB VY − VB
VR ∧ I R φ φ
VR VY VB Vph
IR IY IL I ph
VB
VR
W W φ ΙR
30º
φ
ΙY 30º
W VL I L φ
−VB
VY VRB
VYB
W1
IR R
R
Load 1
W2
IY
Y
N
Load 3 Load 2
IB B Y
B
®
TM

I R ∧ VRB φ
I Y ∧ VYB φ
∴ W I R VRB cos ( − φ)
W Ic IR Vpc VRB
∴ W VL I L cos ( − φ)
W Ic IY Vpc VYB
W I Y VYB cos ( + φ) ∴ W (
I R VRB cos I R ∧ VRB )
W I Y VYB cos (I Y ∧ VYB )
W VL I L cos ( + φ)
I R ∧ VRB I Y ∧ VYB
∴ W W VL I L [cos ( 30 − φ) + cos ( 30 + φ)] φ
VL I L [cos 30 cos φ + sin 30 sin φ + cos 30 cos φ − sin 30 sin φ] VRB VYB Vphase Vline
3 IR IY I line
2 VL I L cos 30 cos φ 2VL I L cos φ
2
IR IRY − IBR IY IYB − IRY
∴ W W 3 VL I L cos φ
W1
ΙR R
R
W2
ΙY ΙBR
Y
ΙYB ΙRY
ΙB B
B Y
ΙBR
VBR
−ΙRY
∧ ∧
VRY ΙR VRB = ΙR (–VBR)
φ
= 30 – φ
30° ΙRY
∧
ΙY φ ΙY VYB = 30 + φ
(30°+φ)
φ
ΙYB 30° (30°−φ)
VYB −V
B R =V
−ΙBR RB
ΙR
®
TM

∴ W I R VRBcos ( 30 − φ)
I L VL cos ( 30 − φ)
W instantaneous i c × v pc
W I Y VYBcos ( 30+ φ)
I L VL cos ( 30+ φ) W W
∴ W W VL I L [cos( 30 − φ) + cos ( 30 + φ)]

W i r × v rb W i y × v yb
VL I L cos φ
v rb vr −vb v yb vy −vb
W W
∴ vr vy vb
VR , VY VB
∴ W W
W W W i r × (v r − v b )
I ph
W (
iy × v y − v b )
Vph φ W W ∴ W W (
i r (v r − v b ) + i y v y − v b )
φ
ir v r − ir v b + iy v y − iy v b
φ
i r v r + i y v y − (i r + i y ) v b
W W
ir + iy + ib
∴ ir + iy −i b
W VL I L cos ( 30 − φ) W VL I L cos ( 30+ φ)

W W ir v r + iy v y + ibv b
vr , vy vb
W VL I L cos ( 30+ φ) W VL I L cos ( 30 − φ)
ir , iy ib
φ φ ° W W VL I L cos 30°
W W PR + Py + PB
PR , Py PB
(
= I c × Vpc × cos I c ∧ Vpc ) Ic
Vpc
®
TM

φ φ °
∴ °
∴ °
W W
= μ
R Ω μ
3 phase
W star
3 phase Y
supply connected
zero p.f.
B VL
leading
3
1
ωC ph π
Ω
−
π× × ×
∠ º Ω
Vph
VB
Z ph
120º VR = Vph
60º
º
30º
60º
ΙY
VY 90º
φ
–VB VRB = VL
× × × −
3VL I L φ
®
TM

× × × −
Vph
∴ Z ph Ω
I ph
φ ∴ ∠ ºΩ
× × º− − º
φ º
× × º+ − º
VL η
IL
Pout 11.2 × 10 3
Pin
η 0.88
Pin 3 VL I L cos φ
× × × φ
∴ φ
φ
φ
φ
−φ ∴ W1 VL I L cos ( 30º − φ)
∴
+φ
220 × 38 × cos ( 30º −28.483º )
[ +φ] −φ
∴ [ φ− φ] φ+ φ
∴ W2 VL I L cos ( 30º + φ)
∴ φ φ
220 × 38 × cos ( 30º +28.483º )
∴ φ
φ º
× × W1 + W2
IL 12.7293
∴
3 3
®
TM

z
Δ
x = √3 (W1 – W2)
∠ Ω
φ
y = (W1 + W2)
12∠ 30º Ω
φ = 30º
( W1 − W 2 ) 3 ( W1 − W2 ) x
Vph 120 ∴ tan φ
∴ ( W1 + W2 ) ( W1 + W2 ) y
Z ph 12
3
3 I ph
VL I L cos ( 30 − φ) 2
∴ [ 3( W1 − W2 )] + ( W1 + W2 ) 2
120 × 17.3205 × cos ( 30 − 30)
3W12 − 6W1 W2 + 3W22 + W12 + 2 W1 W2 + W22
VL I L cos ( 30 + φ) 4W12 − 4W1 W2 + 4W22
120 × 17.3205 × cos ( 30 + 30) 2 W12 − W1 W2 + W22
y
∴ cos φ
z
φ 120 × 10 × cos 30º
W1 + W2
2 W12 − W1 W2 + W22
∴ 3 × 1039.23
W1
+1
W2 α +1
∴ cos φ
2
⎛ W1 ⎞ W1 2 α2 −α +1
⎜ ⎟ − +1
⎝ W2 ⎠ W2
W1
α
W2
φ
=
+
φ=
+
φ φ º
3 VL I L cos φ
VL I L
( 30 − φ)
W1 VL I L º φ
( 30 + φ)
º
∴ 3VL I L cos φ
φ
®
TM

W2 VL I L º+ φ φ
º
φ
W1 + W2
W1 W2
W1 VL I L cos ( 30 − φ)
W2 VL I L cos ( 30 + φ)
W1 W2 3VL I L cosφ
φ
W1 W2 VL I L [cos ( 30 − φ) − cos ( 30 + φ)]
= VL I L [cos 30 cos φ + sin 30 sin φ − cos 30 cos φ + sin 30 sin φ]

VL I L [2 sin 30 sin φ]
VL I L ⎡2 × × sin φ⎤
1
Ω Ω ⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦
∴ W1 W2 VL I L sin ( φ
W1 − W 2 VL I L sin φ tan φ
∠ º
W1 + W 2 3 VL I L cos φ 3
φ
3(W1 − W 2 )
tan φ
(W1 + W 2 )
⎡ 3(W1 − W 2 ) ⎤
∴ φ tan −1 ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ (W1 + W 2 ) ⎥⎦
⎧⎪ ⎡ 3(W1 − W 2 ) ⎤ ⎫⎪
∴ φ cos ⎨ tan −1 ⎢ ⎥⎬
⎩⎪ ⎢⎣ (W1 + W 2 ) ⎥⎦ ⎭⎪
®
TM

  3  W1  W2   
cos  cos  tan –1  
   W1  W2   
  3    
cos  tan –1  
      
W1 W2 VL
cos  14.335º 
Pin W1  W2
3VL I L cos 
  3  W1  W2   
 cos  tan 1  
   W1  W2    3  220  I L  0.9688
 
 3  200  
cos tan 1  
  400   IL
3
  3 
cos tan 1   cos  40.8933º  Vph 220
  2   |Z ph| 
I ph 5.724
Pin 3 VL I L cos 
 |Z ph| 38.4346  14.335º 
400  10 3 3  2000  I L  0.75559
 IL
W1  W2 1560  2100
3 3
 3  W1  W2 
935.307

3
®
TM

(C ↔ V)
(M ↔ L)
cos φ φ °
∴ W1 VL I L cos ( 30 − 60) VL I L cos30
W2 VL I L cos ( 30 + 60)
∴ W1 W1
cos φ
W1 VL I L cos ( 30 − φ)
W2
W2 VL I L cos ( 30+ φ) W1
cos φ φ °
cos φ φ ° ∴ W1 VL I L cos ( 30 + 0) VL I L cos 30
∴ W1 VL I L cos ( 30 − 90)
1
+ VL I L W2 VL I L cos ( 30 − 0) VL I L cos 30
2
W1 W2
1
W2 VL I L cos ( 30+ 90) − VL I L
2
W1 W2
W1 W2 W2 W1
M W1 L M W2 L
[Pressure coil
C V C V connections are
reversed]
For +ve reading For −ve reading
®
TM

⎪⎧ − ⎡ W1 ⎤ ⎪⎫
φ W1 ∴ φ ⎨ ⎢ W ⎥⎬
W2 ⎪⎩ ⎣ 1 ⎦⎪ ⎭
φ φ ° W1 W2 º
∠ φ∠ °∠ φ∠ °
φ φ °
∠ φ∠ °∠ φ∠ °
φ φ ° W1 W2
W1 W2
W1 ⎧⎪ ⎡ 3(W1 – W2 ) ⎤ ⎫⎪
∴ φ cos ⎨ tan – 1 ⎢
W2 ⎪⎩ (W1 + W2 ) ⎥ ⎬⎪
⎣ ⎦⎭
⎧⎪ ⎡ 3(1500) ⎤ ⎫⎪
cos ⎨ tan – 1 ⎢
(2500) ⎥ ⎬⎪
⎩⎪ ⎣ ⎦⎭
cos (46.1021º )
W2
W1 W2
⎧⎪ ⎡ 3[2000 – (–500)] ⎤ ⎫⎪
∴ φ cos ⎨ tan – 1 ⎢
⎪⎩ [2000 + (–500)] ⎥ ⎬⎪
⎣ ⎦⎭
⎧⎪
−
⎡ 3 ( W1 − W2 ) ⎤ ⎫⎪ ⎧ ⎡ 3 × 2500 ⎤ ⎫
φ ⎨ ⎢ ⎥ ⎬ cos ⎨ tan – 1 ⎢ ⎥⎬
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ( W1 + W2 ) ⎥⎦ ⎪⎭ ⎩ ⎣ 1500 ⎦ ⎭
cos (70.8934º )
∴ φ { −
( ) }
º W1 − W2 = 0
W1 φ
∴ φ { ( ∞) }
{ º} W1 + W2 =
⎧⎪
−
⎡ ( W1 − W1 ) ⎤ ⎫⎪
∴ φ ⎨ ⎢ ⎥⎬
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ W1 ⎥⎦ ⎪⎭ φ
⎧ − ⎛ ⎞⎫
⎨ ⎜− ⎟⎬
⎩ ⎝ ⎠⎭
{( − º )}
®
TM

φ
eR E m sin ω
eY E m sin ωt − 120° )
eB E m sin ω − 240° ) E m sin ωt + 120° )
VL 3 Vph
®
TM

Vpc × I c × cos (Ic ∧ Vpc )
Vpc
IL 3 I ph Ic
∴ VL I L cos φ
VL I L cos φ
VLILsin φ
VL I L
∴ W VL I L cos ( − φ)
W VL I L cos ( + φ)
W W VL I L [cos ( 30 − φ) + cos ( 30 + φ)]
VL I L [cos30cos φ + sin 30 sin φ + cos 30cos φ − sin30sin φ]
2 VL I L cos 30 cos φ
3
2VL I L cosφ 3 VL I L cos φ
2
®
TM

∴ ⎧⎪ ⎡ 3(W1 − W 2 ) ⎤ ⎫⎪ R
φ cos ⎨ tan −1 ⎢ ⎥⎬
⎩⎪ ⎢⎣ (W1 + W 2 ) ⎥⎦ ⎭⎪ 3φ 10 Ω
balanced 415 V
supply
10 Ω 10 Ω
VL R ph Ω
∠ º VL
Vph
3
Vph 239.6
∠ 0º V I ph =
R ph 10
VYB VRY º
23.96 A = I L
∴ VYB 400 ∠ − 120º V
VL Vph VL φ
Z ph Ω ∠ ºΩ
Vph 230.94 R
∴ I ph = = 23.094 A
Z ph 10 3φ
balanced 415 V 5Ω 5Ω
supply
Y
∴ IL I ph 5Ω
B
VL Vph VL
R ph Ω
Vph 415
∴ I ph = =8 A
R ph 5
∴ IL 3 I ph = 3 × 83 = 143.7602 A
φ
∴ 3 VL I L cos φ
Ω Ω
φ
®
TM

VL
Vph Ω
3
∴ Vph =
Ω 50∠ − 53.13º Ω
∠ º
º
Vph 415
∴ ∠ º ∴
Z ph 50
∴ φ
Ω ∠ −53.13º Ω
VL
∴
3
Vph 254.034
∴
Z ph 10
3 φ
5.6 × 10 3 3 × 220 × 18.2 × cos φ
∴ φ
IR I RY − I BR IY I YB − I RY
IB I BR − I YB
®
TM

IR IY IB
1 I 1 rms
º I T rms
1 + (THD) 2
Ω
Ω
I 1rms
R ph 20 Ω X Lph 15 Ω I T rms
VL
Z ph 20 + j 15 Ω ∠ ºΩ
VL
Vph
3
Vph 230.94
∴ I ph
Z ph 25
IL I ph
3 VL I L cos φ
®
TM

®
TM

®
TM

Maximum energy stored per cycle
2π ×
Energy dissipated per cycle
R R
+ +
V V
– L – C
I I
(a) (b)
1
WL L I 2m
2
Im
2
⎛ Im ⎞ 1 2
PD ⎜ ⎟ R I R
⎝ 2⎠ 2 m
1 2
PD I R
2 m
f f
®
TM

1 2
LI m
π × 2
1 2
I R
2 m
f
π f) L
∴
R
ωL
∴ R
R L C
VR VL VC
1 2
I
WC CVm Vm
2
V
I I 2m
C ⎡⎢ m ⎤⎥
⎣ ωC ⎦ ω C
V
2 I
⎛ Im ⎞ 1 2
PD ⎜ ⎟ R I R
⎝ 2⎠ 2 m
∴ XC XL XC
⎛ ⎞
⎜ω − ⎟ ω
1 2 ⎝ ω ⎠
PD I R
2 m
f f
∴
1 2
I
2 m ⎡ ⎤
2 ⎢ω0 −
ω ⎥
π× ω C ⎣ ⎦
1 2
I R
2 m ∴ ω
f ω
π f) 1
∴ ∴ ω
ω2 RC LC
1
∴ ∴ ω
ωRC LC
ω × π× f 0
®
TM

f
π LC
f
VL
VC
Ω
μ
10 Ω 5 × 10 − 3 H,
f
C = 5 μF = 5 × 10 − 6 F
f
f 1
f0
2π LC
f 1
VL 2× π× 5 × 10 − 3 × 5 × 10 − 6
VC
1006.58 Hz 1.0065 kHz
f
f
VL VC Ω
2Ω 1 × 10 − 3 H
VR
f0 = 5 kHz = 5 × 10 3 Hz
VL VL
VL
VR V = VR (VL–VC) V
0 I I
I
(VC –VL) VR
V
VC VC
VC
For f < f0 , For f = f0 , For f > f0 ,
ωL < 1 ωL = 1 ωL > 1
ωC ωC ωC
∴ VL < VC ∴ VL= VC ∴ VL> VC
(a) (b) (c)
®
TM

+ jX + jX + jX
XL = ωL XL = X C
0 ω 0 ω 0 ω0 ω
1
XC = ––
ωC
– jX – jX – jX
(a) (b) (c)
1
f0
2π LC
1
∴ LC
2πf0
1 XL
∴
(2πf0 ) 2 L XL ωL
XC
1
∴ XC
(2 × π × 5 × 10 3 ) 2 × 1 × 10 − 3 ω
1.0132 × 10 − 6 F = 1.0132 μF
R + j ⎛⎜ ωL − ⎞
⎝ ωC ⎟⎠
R + ⎛⎜ ωL − ⎞
⎝ ωC ⎟⎠
f0
f0
®
TM

f0
Z0
Z0 Ω
V V
|Z|
R 2 + ⎛⎜ ωL + ⎞
⎝ ωC ⎟⎠
I0
°
V V
∴ I0 =
Z0 R
I
I0
Capacitive Inductive
|Z|
Low R
High R
Z0 = R
0 ω
ω
ω0 0 ω0 Resistive
Frequency
(a) (b)
|Y| + φ Phase angle (φ)
+90
0 ω
ω0
–90
0 ω0 ω –φ
(c) (d)
®
TM

× π × 1.5915 × 10 3 )(0.1)
° ≈
Q0
1 L 1 0.1
Q0
R C 10 0.1 × 10 −6
V V
ω0 L 1 I0
= Z0 R
R ω0 RC
⎛ω ⎞
ω ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
ω0 L
R ∴ ∠ °
ω ⎛ ω0 L ⎞
⎜ = ⎟
⎝ R ⎠
ω
LC
LC 1 L
∴
R C ⎛ ⎞ − ω
⎜ ⎟ ( )
⎝ ⎠
⎛ ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝ω ⎠
Ω μ ∴ ⋅ ∠ °
Ω, μF
1
f0
π LC 2 × π × (0.1) (0.1 × 10 −6 )
ω0 L πf0 )L
Q0
R R
®
TM

Ω,
∴
π ×
∴ μ
ω π × π× ×
∴
V V
Z0 R
1 ⎤ 1 ⎤
R + ⎡jωL − j R + j ⎡ωL −
⎢⎣ ωC ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ ωC ⎥⎦
1 ⎤
∴ R + j ⎡2πfL −
⎢⎣ 2πfC ⎥⎦
⎡ 1 ⎤
∴ 4 + j ⎢2 × π × 100 × 0.5 − ⎥
− 6
⎣ 2 × π × 100 × 20.2642 × 10 ⎦
∴ Ω ∠ 89.02º Ω
V 100
= = 0.4243 ∠ − 89.02ºA
Z 235.6539 ∠ 89.02º
f0
Vs
XC XL
VR VC VL
®
TM

d VC2
VC2
dω
VC
VR
V2
VC2
⎡ 1 ⎞2 ⎤
ω2 C2 ⎢R 2 + ⎛⎜ ω L −
⎢⎣ ⎝ ω C ⎟⎠ ⎥⎥
⎦
(X L − X C ) V2
∴ VC2
VR ⎡ ω L C − 1) 2 ⎤
ω2 C2 ⎢R 2 + ⎥
VC VL ⎢⎣ ω C2 ⎥⎦
VR VC
V2
VL Vs ∴ VC2
ω2 R 2 C2 + ω L C − 1) 2
VR VC VL
VC2 ω
d VC2 V2 ω R 2 C2 + ω L C − 1) (2 ω L C)]
f dω [ω2 R 2 C2 + ω L C − 1) 2
V VL
VC fC
f0 VL
fL f0 V2 ω R 2 C2 + ω L C − 1) (2 ω L C)]
V
∴ ω R 2 C2 + (2 ω L C) ω L C − 1)
VC VL
ωR 2 C 2 + ω L2 C 2 − ωLC
ω L2 C 2 ωLC − ωR 2 C 2
Vs Vs ωLC ωR C 2
VR ∴ ω −
ωL2 C 2 ωL2 C 2
0 f
fC f0 fL
1 R2
∴ ω
LC 2 L2
1 R2
VC ∴ ω −
L C 2 L2
fC
⎛ ⎞ V
VC ⎜ ⎟ VC
⎝ ω ⎠ Z
V 1 R2
∴ VC … ∴ −
2 2π LC 2L2
ω C R 2 + ⎛⎜ ω L −
1 ⎞
⎝ ω C ⎟⎠
VC
ω 1 R2 C
VC fC ⋅ 1−
2π L C 2L
®
TM

R2 C
∴ fC f0 ⋅ 1 − 1
2L fL
R2 C
π LC ⋅ −
f0
fL
VL
∴ R2 C
−
V
VL I ⋅ ( ωL)
Z
V( ω L) fC
∴ VL …
2 fL
R 2 + ⎛⎜ ω L −
1 ⎞
⎝ ω C ⎟⎠
f0
V2 ω2 L2 Ω,
VL2 μ
⎛ ⎞
R2 + ⎜ ωL − ⎟
⎝ ωC ⎠
V2 ω2 L2
∴ VL2
R 2 C2 ω2 + ω L C − 1) 2
Ω, μ
ω C2
V2 ⋅ ω4 L2 C2 f
∴ VL2 π LC
ω2 R2 C2 + ω L C− 1) 2
VL2 ω π (0.1) × (50× 10− 6
f
ω2 ω R 2 C2
∴ ω2 R 2 C2 1 1 R2
f −
2 2 π L C 2L2
∴ ω2
2L C − R 2 C2
1 1 (10) 2
1 −
∴ ω2 2 π (0.1) (50× 10− 6 2 (0.1) 2
R 2 C2
L C−
1
∴ ω
R 2 C2 f
L C−
f
fL f
VL
1 f
fL
∴ R 2 C2 R 2 C2
π L C− π L C−
2
®
TM

(10) 2 (50× 10− 2
π (0.1) (50× 10− 6 ) −
2
VC – jQ0 V j(3.4641) (20)
∠ 90º V
f
f
δ
1 L 1 0.1
=
R C 10 50 × 10 −6
f – f0 ω ω
δ =
f0 ω
∴ R [1 + jQ 0 δ( 2 – δ)]
5Ω 0.03 H 100 μF
δ
δ
+ –
20 V
Ω 10 F
10 0.1 H
μ × F
f0 =
π LC π 0.03) (100 × 10 – 6 Vs
1
2π LC
L 0.03
Q0 = 1
R C 100 × 10 – 6 = 159.155 Hz
2π 0.1 × 10 × 10 –6
1 L 1 0.1
= = 10
R C 10 0.1 × 10 –6
VL + jQ0 V + j(3.4641) (20)
∠ 90º V
Ω
®
TM

f – f0 10
δ = = 0.0628
f0 159.155
∴ R [1 + j Q 0 δ ( 2 – δ)]
10 [1 + j (10)( 0.0628)( 2 – 0.0628)]
10 [1 + j1.2165]
10 [1.57476∠5.57º] 15.7476∠50.57º Ω Pmax ⋅R
⋅ ⎛ I0 ⎞
2
′ ⎜ ⎟ ⋅R
⎝ 2⎠
f – f0 –10
δ = = – 0.0628
f0 159.155
⎛ ⎞
R [1 + jQ 0 δ( 2 – δ)] ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
10[1 + j10 ( –0.0628)( 2 + 0.0628)]
10[1 – j1.2954]
∴ 10 [1.636∠ – 52.35º]
16.36∠ – 52.35º Ω
Current
I
I0
(0.707) I0
Bandwidth
f f
Frequency
f1 f0 f2 f
(I 0 ) 2 ⋅ R
′ (I 0 ) 2 ⋅ R
′ (I 0 ) 2 ⋅ R
®
TM

ω2
ω
3 dB ω1
ω C
3 dB
3 dB 1
ω2 L –
3 dB ω2 C
1
R ω2 – ω22 L +
C
R 1
∴ ω22 – ω –
L 2 LC
V
R R 2 1 ⎞
Z
⎛ ⎞ – ⎛⎜ – ⎞⎟ ± ⎛⎜ – ⎞⎟ – 4 ⎛⎜ – ⎟
+⎜ω − ⎟ ⎝ L ⎠ ⎝ L ⎠ ⎝ LC ⎠
⎝ ω ⎠ ω
2
R 1 R2 4
∴ ω ± + π f2
I0
V 2L 2 L2 LC
R
⎡ R 1 R2 4 ⎤
∴ f2 ⎢ + + ⎥
π ⎢2 L 2 L2 LC ⎥
⎣ ⎦
⎛ ⎞ f2
+⎜ω − ⎟
⎝ ω ⎠
⎛ ⎞ 1
∴ +⎜ω − ω L–
⎟ ω1 C
⎝ ω ⎠
⎡ R 1 R2 4 ⎤
∴ f1 ⎢ + + ⎥
π⎢ 2L 2 L2 LC ⎥
⎛ ⎞ ⎣ ⎦
+⎜ω − ⎟
⎝ ω ⎠
f1 f2
⎛ ⎞
∴ ⎜ω − ⎟ R
⎝ ω ⎠ ∴ f2 – f1
2π L
⎛ ⎞
∴ ⎜ω − ⎟ ±
⎝ ω ⎠
⎛ ⎞
∴ (ω2 + ω1 ⎜ + ⎟
⎝ ω ω ⎠
⎛ω +ω ⎞
∴ (ω2 + ω1 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ω ω ⎠
⎛ω +ω ⎞
ω ∴ (ω1 + ω2 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ω ω ⎠
ω ω1 ω2
1
∴ ω1 ω
LC
®
TM

ω0
∴ ω1 ω ω
f1 ⋅ f2
⎛ ⎞
∴ (ω2 − ω1 ⎜ − ⎟ f0
ω
⎝ 1 ω ⎠ Bandwidth
⎛ ω −ω ⎞ f0
∴ (ω2 − ω1 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ω ω ⎠ (f2 − f1 )
∴
1 f0
ω1 ω2 Q0
LC
∴ (ω2 − ω1 (ω2 − ω1
∴ (ω2 − ω1
π Ω
∴ π
Ω,
Resonant frequency
Bandwidth π
∴
f0
(f 2 −f1 ) π × −
× × −
R
2πL
f0 (2πf0 )L ω
∴
⎛ R ⎞ R
⎜ 2πL ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ×
®
TM

⎡ ⎤
⎢ + + ⎥
− π⎢ ⎥⎦
× ⎣
× −
Ω
⎡ ⎤ μ
⎢ + + ⎥
π⎢ ⎥⎦
⎣
⎡ ⎤
⎢− + + ⎥
π⎢ ⎥⎦
⎣
1
f0
2π LC
Ω,
1
(ω0
2π (10 × 10 −3 )(1 × 10 −6 )
ω1 ω2 (Δω)
Ω,
Z0 Ω
ω0
LC × −
× −
V V 200
I0 = =
Z0 R 10
ω −
× ×
Q0
ω0 L (2πf0 )L
Q0 =
R R
(2 × π× 1.5915 × 10 3 )(10 × 10 −3 )
R 10
Δω ( ω2 − ω1 )
L × −
≈
R1
⎡ ⎤ VR (I 0 ) ( R) = ( 20)(10)
⎢− + + ⎥
π⎢ ⎥⎦ VL j (Q 0 ) ( V )
⎣
j (10)( 200) = j 2000 V
2000 ∠ 90º V
®
TM

VC j (Q 0 ) ( V ) = −j (10)( 200)
−j 2000 V 2000 ∠ − 90º V
0.4765∠ − 90º V
R 10
=
2πL 2 × π × 10 × 10 −3
R 0.9
159.155 Hz 2πL 2 × π × 15 × 10 −6
9.5493 × 103 Hz 60 × 103 rad / sec

(2 π × 455 × 10 3 t)V Ω
μ
0.9 Ω 15 μH
Ω
+
μ 10 × 10 −6 F
e C
–
1 1
2π LC 2π 0.2 × 10 × 10 −6
ω0 = 2π × 455 × 10 3
1 1
ω ω2
LC LC
1 ω0 L (2πf0 )L
∴ R R
ω20 L
( 2π× 112.5395)( 0.2)
1
50
(2 × π× 455 × 10 3 )(15 × 10 −6 )
8.1569 × 10 −9 F R 50
(f2 − f1 ) 2πL 2π× 0.2
V Em 0.01
Z0 R 0.9
⎡ R R2 ⎤
f1 ⎢ + + ⎥
π⎢ 2L L2 LC⎥
⎣ ⎦
1 L 1 15 × 10 −6
R C 0.9 8.1569 × 10 −9
⎡R R2 ⎤
≈ f2 ⎢ + + ⎥
π ⎢2 L L2 LC⎥
⎣ ⎦
®
TM

Ω μ
Ω μ
f0 =
π LC π 0.1) (10 × 10 – 6
R 10
f2 f1 =
2 π L 2π × 0.1
L 0.1
Q0 =
R C 10 × 10 – 6
f0 f0 159.155
Q0 =
(B. W.) f2 f1 15.9155
R L
1
f0
2π LC 0 Coil
V C
C 0 = 500 pF, 1 MHz i
1
∴ × 10 6
2 π L × 500 × 10 −12
∴ 50.661 μH
C1
∴ X = XL − XC
1
∴ ωL −
ωC 1
∴ × π× × × × − −
× π× × × × −
∴ 53.0542 Ω
®
TM

25X C
∴
ω0 L 2 π f0 L 100 + X 2C
Q0 =
R R
∴ X 2C − 20X C + 100
2 × π × × 10 6 × 50.661 × 10 −6
53.0542
∴ Q0 5.9997 ≈ 6 XC 10Ω
1 1 1
XC
ωC ωXC (2πf) X C
1
(5 − jXC ) Ω + Ω Ω (2π× 50) (10)
XC
Z0
5 (10) 2 + 250 750

Z0 + 6.25 + 6.25
100 + (10) 2 200
(5 − j X C ) (5) 10 Ω
∴ Z′ Z 1 || Z 2
5 − jX C + 5
5 (5 − jX C ) 5 (5 − jX C ) (10 + jX C )
V 100
10 − jX C (10 − jX C ) (10 + jX C ) I0
Z0 10
(25 − j5 X C ) (10 + jX C )
(100 + X C 2 )
I 0 2 ⋅ Z0 (10) 2 (10)
2
250 − j50 X C + j25 X C + 5 X C 2
Z′
(100 + X C 2 )
5X C 2 + 250 25 X C
−j
2
100 + X C 100 + X 2C
Z3 Z1
Z2 Z′
+ VR – + VL –
I R=2Ω XL = 10 Ω
Z′ + Z 3 + +
⎡5X 2 + 250 E = 10 ∠0° V XC = 10 Ω V
25 X C ⎤ – C
⎢ C −j ⎥ + (6.25 + j 1.25) –
⎢⎣ 100 + X C 2 100 + X 2C ⎥⎦
⎡5X 2 + 250 ⎤ ⎡ 25 X C ⎤
∴ ⎢ C + 6.25⎥ + j ⎢1.25 − ⎥
⎢⎣ 100 + X 2C ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 100 + X 2C ⎥⎦
∠ ºV Ω
E ∠ º
∴ I0 5 ∠ 0º A
25 X C Z
∴ 1.25 −
100 + X 2C VR 5 ∠ 0º × 2 ∠ 0º 10 ∠ 0º V
®
TM

VL I (j X L ) 5 ∠ 0º × 10 ∠ 90º
50 ∠ 90º V
VC I (– j X C ) 5 ∠ 0º × 10 ∠ – 90º
50 ∠ – 90º V
f0 π f0 L
μH
μF
π f0 C
1 L 1 318.309 × 10 – 6
∴
R C 2 3.183 × 10 – 6
R
πL
π× 318.309 × 10 – 6
P0 I 20 Z ×
1 2
P′ I Z
2 0
Q0
⎡ R 1 R2 4 ⎤
f1 ⎢– + + ⎥
π⎢ 2L 2 L2 LC ⎥
⎣ ⎦
⎡ R 1 R2 4 ⎤
f2 ⎢ + + ⎥
π ⎢2 L 2 L2 LC ⎥
⎣ ⎦
®
TM

j ωC
ωC
YL + YC
R L − jωL
∴ + jωC
R 2L + ω L2
I RL ⎡ ωL ⎤
∴ + j ⎢ωC − ⎥
R 2L + ω L2 ⎢⎣ R 2L + ω2 L2 ⎥⎦
RL
V C
IL IC
L
ωar ω ωar
ωar L
ωar
R 2L + ω2ar L2
(a)
IC ωar
∴ ωar
+ ωar
I ∴ R L 2 + ωar 2 L2
V
∴ L
R L 2 + ωar 2 L2
C
IL L
ωar RL 2
C
(b)
1 RL 2
∴ ωar
LC L2
2
1 RL
∴ ωar −
LC L2
RL
2
1 RL
−
1 R L − jX L π LC L2
YL
RL + j XL R 2L + X 2L
R L − jωL 2
1 RL
> ar
R 2L + ω L2 LC L2
YC j
− j XC XC
®
TM

−
RL π
∴
R L 2 + ω2 L2
R 2L + ω −
π
∴
RL
ω0
L ω0
R 2L + ω2 L2
C
ω0
∴
ω0
L Q0
∴ CR L
−
L π
R 2L + ω2ar L2
C
⎛ ω2 L2 ⎞ L
R 2L ⎜ + ar ⎟
⎜ R 2L ⎟ C
⎝ ⎠ −
L
∴ R L (1 + Q 20 )
CR L Q0
L
∴ R L (1 + Q 20 )
C RL
IC
V RL RC
I
IL IC V
L C
IL
(a) (b)
V V
Z ar ⎛ ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
®
TM

RL
− ω −
L + ω + ω +
+
ω +
C
− + +
ω ω
∴
− +
L C
+ +
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ XC X ⎞
⎜ + ⎟ ⎜ − ⎟
⎜ + + ⎟ ⎜R 2 + X 2 R 2 + X 2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ C C L L ⎠
XC XL
−
2
RC + XC 2 RL + XL 2
2
XC XL
2
RC + XC 2 RL + XL 2
2
ωar ωar
1 R 2L + ωar
R 2C +
ωar
⎛ ⎞
∴ R 2 + ωar ωar ⎜ + ⎟
⎜ ωar ⎟
⎝ ⎠
∴ R 2L + ωar ωar +
L
∴ ω2ar − ωar − R 2L
C
∴ ω2ar ⎛ L − R2 ⎞ ⎛L−R 2⎞
⎜C C ⎟⎠ ⎜C L ⎟
⎝ ⎝ ⎠
®
TM

1 ⎡L / C − RL ⎤
2
∴ ωar ⎢ ⎥ ωar L
LC ⎢ L / C − R 2 ⎥ Q0
⎣ C⎦ RL
1 R 2L − L / C ∴
∴ ωar RL
LC R 2C − L/ C
∴ RL Ω
1 R 2L − L / C
∴ 1 RL
2
π LC R 2C − L / C ωar −
L C L2
1 (10) 2
∴ −
(0.1) C) (0.1) 2
RL R RL
R ∴ −
−
∴ ×
μ
10 Ω RL Ω
RC Ω XC Ω
1 1 R2
∴ far −
2π LC L2
1 1 (10) 2
∴ −
2π 1 × 10 − 3 × C (1 × 10 − 3 ) 2
j XL – j XC = – j 30 Ω
2 E = 120 V
1 ⎛ 10 ⎞
∴ (2π × 50) 2 − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ f = 60 Hz
−3
(1 × 10 ) (C) ⎝ 1 × 10 − 3 ⎠ RL = 15 Ω RC = 30 Ω
∴ 9.99 μF
YT
1 1
YT YL + YC = +
ZL ZC
RL
1 1
C ∴ YT +
RL + j L RC − j C
L
®
TM

L2
1 1
YT +
15 + j L 30 − j30
L1 X L1
15 − j
L ( 30 + j30)
+
(225 + X 2L ) ( 900 + 900)
⎡ 15 30 ⎤
⎡ 15 ⎤ YT ⎢ + ⎥
XL 30 30 ⎤ ⎢⎣ 225 + (55.9807 ) 2 1800
∴ YT ⎢ −j ⎥ + ⎡ + j ⎥⎦
2
⎢⎣ 225 + X L 225 + X 2L ⎥⎦ ⎣⎢1800 1800 ⎥⎦
0.02113
1
∴ Z ar = 47.326 Ω
YT
⎡ 15 30 ⎤ ⎡ 30 XL ⎤
YT ⎢ + ⎥ +j ⎢ − ⎥ E 120
2
⎢⎣ 225 + X L 1800 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1800 225 + X 2L ⎥⎦ I ar = = 2.5356 A
Z ar 47.326
L2
X L2
⎡ 15 30 ⎤
XL YT ⎢ + ⎥
∴ − ⎢⎣ 225 + ( 4.0192) 2 1800 ⎥
225 + X 2L ⎦
0.07886
1
XL ∴ Z ar Ω
YT
225 + X 2L
E 120
I ar = = 9.4632 A
X 2L − 60X L + 225 Z ar 12.6807
− (− 60) ± (− 60) 2 − 4(1)( 225)

X L1, 2
2 (1)
60 ± 51.9615
2 5Ω
60 + 51.9615 Z
X L1 = 55.9807
2
0.05 H
60 − 51.9615
X L2 = 4.0192
2
XL ωL = (2 πf)L
∴ X L1 (2π 60) L 1 = 55.9807
L1
X L2 (2π 60) L 2 =4
®
TM

2 XL
− + +
4 + X 2L 4 + X 2L
RC RL 5Ω
Z
⎡ 2 ⎤ ⎡ XL ⎤
∴ ⎢ + ⎥+ ⎢ − ⎥
C L 0.05 H ⎢⎣ 4 + X 2L ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 4 + X 2L ⎥⎦
ω ω0
∴ −
+
L
C
∴
Ω +
L L ∴
R 2L
C C
∴
L
∴ ×
R 2L
+ ± − ±
Ω ±
∴ Ω Ω
ω
ω0 L
∴
2 Ω 5 Ω
V
– j 10 Ω
L
100 Ω 25 Ω
Ω. V
L C
1 1
+
ZL ZC
1 1
+
2 + j X L 5 − j10
2 − jX L 5 + j10
+
(4 + X 2L ) 25 + 100 1 1
+
ZL ZC
®
TM

+
+ −
− +
+ 12.5
+ + ∴
R 2C + 156.25
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
=⎢ + + −
+ + ⎥ ⎢ + + ⎥
∴ R 2C
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
∴ R 2C
XL
∴ Ω
+
Ω Ω
∴
1 1
− − ± − − +
ZL ZC
1 1
+
± 626 ± 593.19 (R L + j 20) (20 − j10)
∴
2
⎡ (R L − j 20) ⎤ ⎡ (20 + j10) ⎤
∴ ⎢ ⎥+⎢ ⎥
∴ Ω Ω ⎣(R L + j 20)(R L − j 20) ⎦ ⎣(20 − j10)(20 + j10) ⎦
(R L − j 20) (20 + j10)
∴ +
R 2L + 400 400 + 100
⎡ R 20 ⎤ ⎡ 10 200 ⎤
⎢ L ⎥ +j⎢ ⎥
∴ + −
3 Ω RC ⎢⎣ R L + 400 400 + 100 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 400 + 100 R L + 400 ⎥⎦
2 2
j12 Ω – j12.5 Ω
10 20
500 R 2L + 400
1 1 10 20
+
3 + j12 R C – j12 .5 500 R 2L + 400
3 − j12 R C + j 12.5
+ ∴ R 2L + 400
(3 + j12) (3 − j12) (R C − j12.5)(R C + j12.5)
∴ R 2L
3 − j12 R + j12.5
+ C ∴ ± 24.4949 Ω ≈ ± Ω
9 + 144 R 2 + 156.25
C
3 − j12 R C + j12.5
+
153 R 2 + j156.25
C
Ω
3 RC ⎡ 12.5 12 ⎤
+ ⎢ − ⎥
153 R 2 + 156.25 ⎢⎣ R 2C + 156.25 153 ⎥⎦
C
®
TM

R1
R2
L C
−
BL =
π
= π
RL
jXc
jXL
ωar
ωar
+j B +j B +j B
ωC
( ωC – 1
ωL)
0 0 0
ω ω ωar ω
–1
ωL
–j B –j B –j B
(a) (b) (c)
®
TM

Y I Z
G
ω ω ω
ωar ωar ωar
(a) (b) (c)
⎛ ωar L ⎞
∴ IC ⎜ ⎟ I
⎝ RL ⎠
∴ IC Q 0I
I C and I L
Rs
I I 2 Z ar
+ R
V
C IC IL RL
– L
I 2L R L
I 2L R L I 2 Z ar
L
L ∴ I 2L I2
Z ar CR 2L
CR L
1 L
Q0
R C
V V
Z ar ∴ I 2L Q 20 I 2
⎛ L ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝ CR L ⎠ ∴ IL Q 0I
V V
IC ωar C)V
XC ⎛ ⎞
⎜ ω C⎟
⎝ ar ⎠
⎛ L ⎞
∴ IC ωar C) ⋅ I ⎜ ⎟
⎝ CR L ⎠
®
TM

far
∴ f2 − f1
Q0
Resonant frequency far

Bandwidth (f2 − f1 )
far
∴ Q0
f1 f2 (f2 − f1 )
Z ar
R L Q 20
1+ j. 2Q 0 δ
ZT
I R L C
YT
Z ar R L Q 20
Z ar
Z 1
ZT
1 ⎛ 1 ⎞
∴ |1+ j 2δQ 0| |1 ± j1 + j⎜ ω C – ⎟
R ⎝ ωL ⎠
2δ Q 0 ± 1
ZT R
1 2
∴ δ ±
2Q 0
1 1
∴ R
δ 1 ⎛ 1 ⎞ 2
+ j⎜ ω C – ⎟
R ⎝ ωL ⎠
f − far 1
δ ±
far 2Q 0 1 1
∴ R
1⎡ ⎛ 1 ⎞⎤ 2
1 + jR ⎜ ω C – ⎟
R ⎢⎣ ⎝ ω L ⎠⎥⎦
far
∴ f2 − far + 1 1
2Q 0 ∴
⎛ 1 ⎞ 2
1 + jR ⎜ ω C – ⎟
⎝ ω L⎠
far
f1 − far −
2Q 0
⎛ 1 ⎞
∴ 1 + jR ⎜ ω C – ⎟
⎝ ω L⎠
®
TM

⎛ 1 ⎞ ∴
L
× …
R⎜ ω C – ⎟
⎝ ω L⎠ C
∴ R [ω2 LC – 1] ωL
1 R2 1 1
∴ ω LCR – R ωL ω ω − L ⋅ −
RC LC π L C L2 π LC Q20
1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞2 4
– ⎛⎜ – ⎟ ± ⎜ RC ⎟ + LC
⎝ RC ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ∴ × ⋅ −
∴ ω π LC
2
1 ⎡1 1 4 C⎤ ∴ × ⎡ ⎤
∴ ω ± +
2 C ⎢⎣ R R 2 L ⎥⎦ π L C ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
1 ⎡1 1 4 C⎤ ∴
∴ f1 + ×π × × ×
4 π C ⎢⎣ R R 2 L ⎥⎦
−
∴ × …
1 ⎡1 1 4 C⎤
f2 + +
4 π C ⎢⎣ R R 2 L ⎥⎦
⎛ L ⎞
⎜ ⎟ × −
⎜ × ⎟
⎝ ⎠
∴ 2.425 × 10 −10
f1 f1 ∴ μ
f ar 2.4 × 10 6
(f 2 − f1
Q0 4
1000 Ω ×
Q0 Z Ω, ∴
L
C RL
|Z|
R L (1 + Q 20 )
10 Ω
∴ R L [1+ (4) 2
∴ RL Ω 7.07 Ω
L
∴
C⋅ RL
0.4
L ω in rad/sec
∴ RL
C 0 10
®
TM

L
Ω
CR L
ω Ω
′
1
ω
new LC′ 0.04
ω
B. W.
≈
1 L 1 0.04
′
∴ R C′ 0.01597 1
∴ Ω
L ω
∴ new
CR L ′ 2.5
L
C
1
ω ⋅ −
LC
RL = 2 Ω
C = 10 μF
1 mH
1 ⎡ 1 ⎤
ωar ⎢1 − ⎥
LC ⎢ Q 2 ⎥
⎣ 0⎦
1 ⎡ 1 ⎤
∴ ⎢1 − ⎥
LC ⎢ (25) 2 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
2
∴ ⎛
⎜
⎞⎛
⎟⎜
⎞
⎟ 1 RL
⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠ −
π L C L2
∴ −
π × −
× × −
× −
∴
∴
∴
L −
×
Ω
CR L × −
0.25
∴
®
TM

ωar L 2πfar L
RL RL
−
× π× × × ×
far ×
Q0
Ω μF ω
i0
+
10 sin ωt _ R L C Z ar
kΩ μF
f0
π LC π 0.2 × 10 –3 × 8 × 10 – 6
∴ ω π f0
R 8 × 10 3
ω L 25 × 10 3 × 0.2 × 10 –3
f0 3.978 × 10 3
∴
Q 1600
1 ⎡1 1 4 C⎤
f1 +
4 π C ⎢⎣ R R 2 L ⎥⎦
Q0
1 ⎡1 1 4 C⎤
f2 + +
4 π C ⎢⎣ R R 2 L ⎥⎦
f1
®
TM

Ω
μ ∠
°
ω VC
Ω
μ
ω0 ω1
ω2
Ω
Ω μ
Ω
Ω.
f0 Ω
RL
RL Ω
RL 20 μF
π 1 mH
RL
RL Ω
RL Ω 10 Ω
j10 Ω –j5Ω
Ω μ μ
®
TM

1
ω0
LC
1
2π LC
φ
Maximum energy stored per cycle

π
Energy dissipated per cycle
V
R
®
TM

∠
ω0 L 1 1 L
= = VL Q0 ⋅V
R ω0 RC R C
∠−
VC Q0V
XL = XC
VL VC
Ω
μ
1 1
=
2π LC 2π 0.5 × 10 −3 × 10 × 10 −6
μ μ
1
2π LC
1 1 1 R2
−
2π LC 2L2
2π (1 × 10 −6 × 1 × 10 −6 )
R2 C 1
f0 1 − = f0 1 − Hz
2L 2Q 20
1
R 2 C2
2π LC
2
ωL jX L f0 f0
QL = = Hz
R R
R 2 C2 1
1 1−
2L 2Q 20
®
TM

Resonant frequency
δ Bandwidth
δ
δ δ
δ
R
2πL
f − f0
δ
f0
Resonant frequency
δ B. W.
δ δ
f0 (2πf0 )L ω′0 L
= = = Q0
⎛ R ⎞ R R
⎜ 2πL ⎟
⎝ ⎠
I(A) ω ω ω f0 f1 f2
I0 Max power and current
0.707 I0 Half power point
B.W.
f(Hz)
0 f1 f0 f2
XL − XC ± XL − XC
1
ωL − =R
ωC
ω ω1
ω1 L − −R
ω1 C
ω ω
®
TM

I
ω L −
ω2 C
RL
RC
V
L C
2
⎛ 1 ⎞
R 2 + ⎜ ωL − ⎟
⎝ ω C ⎠
L
R2 + R2 = 2R 2 = 2R C
L
= R L ⎛⎜ 1 + Q 20 ⎞⎟
CR L ⎝ ⎠
1 1 R 2L
2π LC L2
1 1
1 −
2π LC Q02
I L = Q 0I
I C = Q 0I
1 R 2L − (L C)
2π LC R 2C − (L C)
®
TM

Ω
20 × 10 3 Hz
Ω Ω
Ω
μ
R 10000
20 × 10 3
2 πL 2 πL
10000
1 L 1 0.01 ∴ 79.5775 × 10 –3 H
=
R C 1 100 × 10 − 6 (
2π 20 × 10 3 )
VL jQ0 = j(10)( 230)

= Ω
j2300 V = 2300 ∠ 90º V
μ
1 L 1 0.1
Q0 = = = 10
R C 10 10 × 10–6
j C Ω
Ω
jX L jX C Ω
∴ XL Ω π
62.833
∴
2 πf
∴ f0 LC
π LC π f0
62.833
= 0.1 H or 100 mH
2 × π × 100
®
TM

π f0
1
∴
0.01 × (2 × π × 190) 2
× − μ
μ
V V 220 f0
Z0 R 2.2 π LC π × − × × −
i1
I0 Maximum
(0.707) I0
Imin
f
f1 f0 f2
f
far
®
TM

®
TM

®
TM

×
Flux × Number of turns of coil
∴ φ
φ φ
∴ φ
Nφ − Nφ
∴
t
Nφ − Nφ
∴ ∝
t
Nφ − Nφ
∴ ×
t
dφ
∴ N
dt
φ
φ
®
TM

∴ dφ
−N
dt
i
+
v φ
dφ
−N
dt
_
φ
Nφ φ ( Flux / Ampere ) × Ampere ×
I
μ
φ
∴Rate of change of flux ×
I
dφ φ dI
∴ .
dt I dt
φ dI N φ ⎞ dI
−N ⋅ ⋅ − ⎛⎜ ⎟
I dt ⎝ I ⎠ dt
Nφ
I
®
TM

Nφ
I
∴ Nφ
I
1H
1A
Nφ
I
dI
∴ −L
dt
−
φ ×
−
× ×
∴
dI
−L
dt
Final value of I − Initial value of I ⎤
−L⎡
⎢⎣ Time ⎥⎦
−
− × ⎛⎜ ⎞
⎟
⎝ ⎠
Nφ
I
M. M. F. NI
φ
Reluctance S
N ⋅ NI Nφ
∴
I⋅S I
150 × 0.01
∴ N2 ∴
10
S
l
μa
N2 di ⎡ Change in current ⎤
L = L⎢ ⎥
dt ⎣ Change in time ⎦
⎛ l ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝μ a ⎠ ∴
⎡ 0 − 10 ⎤
150 × 10 − 3 ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 0.01 ⎦
∴ N μa N 2μ 0μ a
®
TM

Mutual flux θ21
i1
+ +
φ1
v1 L1 L2 v2
Coil 1 Coil 2
– –
N1 N2 i1
φ1
φ21 φ1
φ1 φ21
N2
I1
φ I1
dφ2
v2 −N 2
dt
φ2
φ × I1
I1
φ ∝ Ι1 φ I1
φ
∴ φ × Rate of change of current I 1
I1
dφ2 φ2 dI 1
∴ ⋅
dt I1 dt
®
TM

φ2 dI 1 ⎛ N φ ⎞ dI M
∴ v2 −N 2 ⋅ ⋅ ∴ v2 −⎜ 2 2 ⎟ 1
I1 dt ⎝ I 1 ⎠ dt i1 i2
+ +
⎛ N 2 φ2 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝ I1 ⎠ v1 L1 L2 v2
φ1 φ2
Coil 1 Coil 2
∴ dI
v2 −M 1 – –
dt
i1 φ
i2
φ
di 1
i1 L1
dt
di 2
i2 M
dt
di 1 di
v1 L1 + M 2
dt dt
i2
i1
di 2 di
v2 L2 + M 1
dt dt
L1
L2
®
TM

∴ k L1L2
L1
L2 ∴ M
N1 N2 L1L2
i1
i2
φ
N 1 φ21
i1
φ φ
φ =k φ ∴ L1L2
N 1 (k 1 φ )
∴
i1
i2 φ
N2 φ
i2
φ φ
φ =k φ
N 2 (k 2 φ )
∴
i2
N 1 (k 1 φ ) N 2 (k 2 φ )
M2 ⋅
i1 i2
jX m Xm
=
⎡N φ ⎤ ⎡N φ ⎤ (jX L ) (jX L ) XL XL
∴ M 2
k1k2 ⎢ 1 ⎥ ⎢ 2 ⎥ 1 2 1 2
⎣ i1 ⎦ ⎣ i2 ⎦
N 1φ
L1
i1
N2 φ 0.6 × 10 –3
L2 0.3 × 10 –3
i2
∴ M2 k1k2 L 1L 2
∴ k1k2 L1L2 N1 N2 i1
k1k2 φ1 0.6 × 10 –3
®
TM

N 1 φ1 500 × 0.6 × 10 –3 ⎛ M ⎞ 160 × 10 −3
∴ L1 φ1 ⎜ ⎟ [2 sin 500 t ]
i1 5 ⎝ k N2 ⎠ ( 0.8)( 2000)
2 × 10 −4 sin 500 t Wb
L ∝ N2
di 1
L1 2
M
dt (160 × 10 −3 ) dtd [2 sin 500 t]
⎛ N1 ⎞ 0.06 ⎛ ⎞
∴ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
L2 ⎝ N2 ⎠ L2 ⎝ ⎠
∴ L2
φ 0.3 × 10 –3
N 2 φ21 1500 × 0.3 × 10 –3

∴
i1 5
M 0.09 k L1 L2
∴
L1L2 0.06 × 0.54
− −
L1 L2 × ×
φ1
k L1L2
0.8 (100 × 10 −3 )(400 × 10 −3 )
L1 N 21 ⎛L ⎞
N 22 = ⎜ 2 ⎟ N 21
L2 N 22 ⎝ L1 ⎠
L2 400 × 10 −3
∴
L1
(1000)
100 × 10 −3
N 2 φ12 N 2 (kφ1 )
i1 i1
®
TM

di 1 di
v1 L1 + M 2
dt dt
di 2 di
v2 L2 + M 1
dt dt
L2 i1
L1 i2
L2
L1 i2 L2
L1
L2
i1 L1
L2
di 1 di
v1 L1 −M 2
dt dt
d i2 di
v2 L2 −M 1
dt dt
L1 L2
L1
L2 i1 i2
di 1 di
v1 L1 −M 2
dt dt
di 2 di
v2 L2 −M 1
dt dt
L1 L2
i1 i2
di 1 di
v1 L1 +M 2
dt dt
di 2 di
v2 L2 +M 1
dt dt
®
TM

i1 M i2 i1 i2
+ + + +
L1 L2
v1 L1 L2 v2 v1 v2
di + + di
M ––2 M ––1
dt – – dt
– – – –
(a) (b)
i1 M i2 i1 i2
+ + + +
L1 L2
v1 L1 L2 v2 v1 v2
di – – di
M ––2 + + M ––1
dt dt
– – – –
(c) (d)
i1 M i2 i1 i2
+ + + +
L1 L2
v1 L1 L2 v2 v1 v2
di – – di
M ––2 + + M ––1
dt dt
– – – –
(e) (f)
i1 M i2 i1 i2
+ + + +
L1 L2
v1 L1 L2 v2 v1 v2
di + + di
M ––2 M ––1
dt – – dt
– – – –
(g) (h)
M=2H
a
4H
5H
3H
M = 2.5 H
b
®
TM

M=2H
i
a
+
4H
v 5H
_ 3H
M = 2.5 H
b
di di di di di di di
dt dt dt dt dt dt dt
di di
∴ L eff
dt dt
∴ L eff
∴ Leff
L3
+
V(t) _ L1 L2
Ι1 Ι2 Ι3 C
d d di
− i 1 R1 − L1
dt
(i 1 − i 2 ) − M12
dt
(i 2 − i 3 ) − M13 3 + V ( t )
dt
d d di
i 1 R1 + L1 (i − i ) + M12 dt (i 2 − i 3 ) + M13 dt3
dt 1 2
d d di di d d
− L1 (i − i ) − L 3 dt (i 2 − i 3 ) + M13 dt3 − M23 dt3 + M12 dt (i 2 − i 3 ) + M21 dt (i 2 − i 1 )
dt 2 1
d d d d di di
∴L 1
dt
(i 2 − i 1 ) − M21
dt
(i 2 − i 1) + L 3
dt
(i 2 − i 3 ) − M12
dt
(i 2 − i 3 ) + M23 3 − M13 3
dt dt
t
di 3 1 d d d di
− L3 −
dt C ∫ i 3 dt − L 2
dt
(i 3 − i 2 ) − M 31
dt
(i 1 − i 2 ) − M21
dt
(i 1 − i 2 ) + M23 3
dt
0
d
+ M 32 (i − i )
dt 3 2
®
TM

t
di 3 di 1 d d
∴ L3
dt
− M23 3 +
dt C ∫ i 3 dt + L 2 (i − i ) − M 32 dt (i 3 − i 2 )
dt 3 2
0
d d
+ M 31 (i − i ) + M21 dt (i 1 − i 2 )
dt 1 2
1H
0.5 H 1H
L1 = 1 H L2 = 2 H L3 = 5 H
L eq
di
L eq
dt 1H
0.5 H 1H
i 1H 2H 5H
di di di di di di di di di
− − 0.5 + − 2 − 0.5 + −5 + + +v L1 L2 L3
dt dt dt dt dt dt dt dt dt
A + – B
di
∴ −5 v
dt
di di
∴ L eq 5
dt dt
L eq
j4 Ω
j3 Ω j5 Ω j6 Ω
j2 Ω j3 Ω
Ω
Ω
5Ω 2Ω
j2 Ω
V1 + j2 Ω j2 Ω + V2
– –
I1 I2
®
TM

∴ 4 + j8 j4 = (4 + j8)(4 + j4) − (j4)(j4)
Δ
j4 4 + j4 = [16 + j32 + j16 − 32 − ( −16)]
Δ
V1 I1
Δ
j2
120 j4
j120 4 + j4
Δ
⎛ V1 ⎞ [120(4 + j4) − (j4)(j120)]
⎜ ⎟
⎝ j2 ⎠ j48
V2 2+ j2 2.8284 ∠ 45º
∴ 480 + j480 + 480 960 + j480
V1 j2 2 ∠ 90º =
j48 j48
1.4142 ∠ − 45º 1073.3126∠26.56º
I1
48∠90º
22.3606∠ − 63.44ºA
Δ
I2
Δ
4Ω j4 Ω 4Ω
4 + j8 120
+ + j4 j120
120 ∠ 0º V j8 Ω j4 Ω 120 ∠ 90º V
– I1 I2
–
j48
j480 − 960 − j480 − 960

=
j48 j48
960∠180º
= 20∠90ºA
48∠90º
− 4I 1 − j 8I 1 − j4I 2 + 120
∠ º
∴ − (4 + j8) I 1 − j 4 I 2
∴ (4 + j8) I 1 − j 4) I 2 (V1 )(I 1 )

(120∠0º )( 22.3606∠ − 63.44º )
− 4I 2 − j 4I 2 − j 4I 1 + 120∠90º 2.683 kW
∴ − (j 4) I 1 − (4 + j 4) I 2 − (120∠90º ) ∠ º
∴ (j 4) I 1 + (4 + j 4) I 2 120∠90º
(V2 )(I 2 )
⎡4 + j8 j4 ⎤ ⎡I 1 ⎤ ⎡ 120 ⎤ ⎡ 120 ⎤ (120∠90º ) ( 20∠90º ) = 24 kW
⎢ j4 4 + j4⎥⎦ ⎢I ⎥ ⎢120∠90º ⎥ = ⎢j120⎥
⎣ ⎣ 2⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
[ 120∠90º = j120]
®
TM

K = 0.8
j5Ω j 10 Ω
A B C
j5 Ω K = 0.8 j10 Ω
3Ω
+
50 ∠ 0º V 3Ω 5Ω 50∠0º 5Ω
– I1
–j 4 Ω I2
–j4Ω
I2 I2
F E D
I 1 and I 2
Xm 0.8 (5) (10) = 5.656 Ω
− (j5) I 1 + (j5.656) I 2 − (3) I 1 − − j 4) I 1 + (3) I 2 + ( − j 4) I 2 + 50 = 0
∴ − I 1 [j5 + 3 − j 4] + I 2 [j5.656 + 3 − j 4] − 50
∴ (3+ j1) I 1 − (3 + j 1.656) I 2
− (j10) I 2 + (j 5.656) I 1 − 5I 2 − ( − j 4) I 2 − (3) I 2 + (3) I 1 + ( − j 4) I 1 = 0
∴ I 1 [j 5.656 + 3 − j 4]−I 2 [j10 + 5 −j 4 + ]

∴ − ( 3 + j 1.656) I 1 + (8 + j 6) I 2
I2
(3 + j1) − (3 + j1.656)
− (3 + j1.656) (8 + j 6)
∠ °
(3 + j 1) 50
D2 (3 + j1 ) (0) − [− ( 3 + j1.656) (50)]
− (3 + j 1.656) 0
( 3.426 ∠ 28.89°)(50) 171.3 ∠ 28.89°

D2 171.3 ∠ 28.89°
∴ I2 8.609 ∠ − 24.94°
D 19.897 ∠ 53.83°
®
TM

Ω
(I 2 ) (5) ( 8.609 ∠ − 24.94°) (5) 43.045 ∠ − 24.94° V
Ω k = 0.8
j5 Ω j10 Ω
A B C
Ω
+
50 ∠ 0º V 3Ω 5Ω
– I1
–j 4 Ω I2
− j 5I 1 − j 5.656I 2 − 3I 1 + 3I 2 − (−j 4) I 1 + (−j 4) I 2 + 50 F D

E
∴ −[ j 5 + 3 − j 4] I 1 + [3 − j 4 − j 5 ⋅ 656] I 2
∴ ( 3 + j1) I 1 − ( 3 − j 9.656) I 2
−j10I 2 − 5I 2 − (−j 4) I 2 + (−j 4) I 1 − 3I 2 + 3 I 2 − j 5.656 I 1
∴ [3 − j 4 − j 5.656] I 1 − [5 + 3 + j10 − j 4] I 2
∴ ( 3 − j 9.656) I 1 − (8 + j 6) I 2
− ( 3 − j 9.656) I 1 + (8 + j 6) I 2
⎡ 3 + j1 − ( 3 − j 9.656)⎤ ⎡ I 1 ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
⎢
⎣− ( 3 − j 9.656) (8 + j 6) ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ I 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢
⎣
⎥
⎦
Δ2
Δ
(3 + j1) − ( 3 − j 9.656)
∴ Δ
− ( 3 − j 9.656) (8 + j 6)
[( 3 + j1) (8 + j 6)] − [( 3 − j 9.656)( 3 − j 9.656)]

[24 + j 8 + j18 − 6] − [9 − j 28.968 − j 28.968 − 93.2383]
(18 + j 26) − (−84.2383 − j 57.936)
∠ º
3 + j1 50
Δ = − 50 ( 3 − j 9.656) − ( ∠− º)
− ( 3 − 9.656) 0
(50 ∠ 186º)(10.1113 ∠ − 72.74º) 505.65 ∠ 107.26º

Δ2 505.65 ∠ 107.26º
∴ = = 3.8225 ∠ 67.88 A
Δ 132.2797 ∠ 39.38º
®
TM

Ω ∴
(5) (I 2 )
5 ( 3.8225 ∠ 67.88º)
⎛ ⎞ ∠ º
⎜ ⎟
19.1125 ∠ 67.88º V ⎝ ⎠
Ω ∴ ∠
50∠45º
∴
5 + j36.3333
5Ω j4 Ω – j8 Ω
50∠45º
56.6757 ∠82.16º
+ j3 Ω
50∠45° V j5 Ω 1.3633∠ − 37.16º
–
Ω
Ω
∠ º
()
()
I1 5Ω j4 Ω (I1 – I2) – j8 Ω
A B C
+ – + – I2 + – M
i1 (t) i2 (t)
+ j3 Ω +
50∠45° V j5 Ω
– – +
V1(t) L1 L2
–
F E D
−5I 1 − j4I 1 − j3I 2 − j5I 2 − j3I 1 + 50∠45º di 1 ( t ) di ( t )

− L1 +M 2 + v 1 (t)
dt dt
∴ − (5 + j4 + j3)I 1 − (j3 + j5)I 2 ∠ º
di 1 ( t ) di ( t )
∴ L1 −M 2 v 1 (t)
∴ (5 + j7) I 1 + (j8) I 2 ∠ º dt dt
di 2 ( t ) di ( t )
− L2 +M 1
dt dt
di 2 ( t ) di 1 ( t )
− ( −j 8) (I 1 − I 2 ) + j5 I 2 + j 3 I 1 ∴ L2 M
dt dt
∴ (j8+ j3) I 1 + j5 − j 8) I 2 di 1 ( t ) L 2 di 2 ( t )
∴
dt M dt
∴
®
TM

di 1 ( t )
dt
−2 I 2 − j2 I 2 − j2 I 1 + V2
⎡ L di ( t ) ⎤ di ( t )
L1 ⎢ 2 2 ⎥ − M 2 v 1(t) ∴ (j2) I 1 + (2 + j2) I 2 V2
⎣ M dt ⎦ dt
L1 , L2 V1 (t)
⎡(5 + j8) j2 ⎤ ⎡I 1 ⎤ ⎡10 ∠ 90º ⎤
( 0.2)( 0.2) di 2 ( t ) di ( t ) ⎢ j2 (2 + j2) ⎥⎦ ⎢I ⎥ ⎢ V ⎥
− 0.1 2 ⎣ ⎣ 2⎦ ⎣ 2 ⎦
( 0.1) dt dt
I1 I1
di 2 ( t )
∴
dt
di 2 ( t ) 10 ∠ 90º j2
∴ V2 (2 + j2)
dt
I1
Δ
j10 j2
di 2 ( t ) ∴ [ r ∠ 90º = jr]
V2 (2 + j2)
1
∴ j10 (2 + j2) − (j 2 ) V2
t j10 (2 + j2 )
∴ V2
∫ di 2 ( t ) 100 ∫ sin t dt j2
0
∴ V2
∴ i 2 (t) 100 [− cos t] t0 14.1421 ∠ 45º V
∴ i 2 (t) − 100 [cos t − 1]
i 2 ( t) 100 (1 − cos t ) A
5Ω j2 2Ω
L1
L2
+ +
10 ∠ 90º V j8 Ω j2 Ω +
–
V2
i1 i2
– –
L1
L2
− 5 I 1 − j8 I 1 − j2 I 2 + 10 ∠ 90º
∴ (5 + j8) I 1 + (j2) I 2 10 ∠ 90º
®
TM

a
i1
v1 L1
i1 i2 v2
i2
L2
a
i1
v1 L1 di
L1
dt
M
di
L2
i2 dt
v2 L2
b
di
′
dt
di
v1 L1 di
dt ′ +M
di dt
v2 L2
dt
+ + ′ + ′
di di di di di
v ′1 L1 L2
dt dt dt dt dt
di
L1 L2
di dt
v ′2
dt
∴ v1 v 2 v ′1 v ′2
di
− ⎛⎜ L1 + L 2 + M + M ⎞⎟
di di di di L eff
dt
⎝ dt dt dt dt ⎠
di L eff L1 L2
L1 L2
dt
di
L eff
dt
i
L eff L1 L2 +
i1 M i2
v L1 L2
i1and i 2
L1 L2
®
TM

ω L1 i1 ω i2
ω L2 i 2 ω i1 i
+
i1 M i2
ω L1 i1 ω i2 …
v L1 L2
ω L2 i 2 ω i1 …
ω L1 ⋅ i1 ω ⋅ i2 ω L2 ⋅ i 2 ω ⋅ i1
i1 i2
i2 i1 ω L1 i1 ω i2
i2 ω L2 i 2 ω i1
∴ ω L1 i1 ω i1 ω L2 i1 ω i1 ω L1 i1 ω i2 …
∴ ω i1 L1 L2 ω L2 ω L2 i 2 ω i1 …
⎡ L2 − M ⎤
∴ i1 ⎢ L + L − 2M ⎥
⎣ 1 2 ⎦
ω L1 i1 ω i2 ω L2 i 2 ω i1
⎡ L1 − M ⎤
i2 ⎢ L + L − 2M ⎥ i1 i2
⎣ 1 2 ⎦
∴ i2 i1
i1 i2
i2
⎡ L (L − M) M (L1 − M) ⎤
ω⎢ 1 2 + ⎥
⎣ L1 + L 2 − 2M L1 + L 2 − 2M ⎦ ω L1 i1 ω i1 ω L2 i1 ω i1
∴ ω i1 L1 L2 ω L2
⎡ L L − L1 M + L1 M − M 2 ⎤ ⎡ L2 + M ⎤
∴ ω⎢ 1 2 ⎥ ∴ i1 ⎢ L + L + 2M ⎥
⎢⎣ L1 + L 2 − 2M ⎥⎦ ⎣ 1 2 ⎦
⎡ L L − M2 ⎤ ⎡ L1 + M ⎤
i2 ⎢ L + L + 2M ⎥
∴ ω⎢ 1 2 ⎥ … ⎣ 1 ⎦
⎢⎣ L1 + L 2 − 2M ⎥⎦
2
i1 i2
⎡ L (L + M) M (L1 + M) ⎤
ω⎢ 1 2 − ⎥
ω L eff ⋅ … ⎣ L1 + L 2 + 2M L1 + L 2 + 2M ⎦
L1 L 2 − M 2 ⎡ L L + L1 M − L1 M − M 2 ⎤
L eff ω⎢ 1 2 ⎥
L1 + L 2 − 2M ⎢⎣ L1 + L 2 + 2M ⎥⎦
⎡ L L − M2 ⎤
ω⎢ 1 2 ⎥ …
⎢⎣ L1 + L 2 + 2M ⎥⎦
®
TM

ω L eff ⋅ … L1 L 2 − M 2
L1 + L 2 + 2M
− − −
× × × − ×
2
L1 L 2 − M −
L eff ×
L1 + L 2 + 2M
−
×
μ
× −
μ
μ
k ⋅ L1 L 2
− −
× ×
1
L i2 J
2
L1 L2
− − −
× + × + × ×
L1 , L2
μ
1 1
L i 2 + L i 2 ± M i 1i 2
L1 L2 2 1 1 2 2 2
× − + × − − × × −
L1 L 2 − M 2
L1 + L 2 − 2M
− − −
× × × − ×
−
(M i 1 i 2 )
×
−
×
μ
× −
(M i 1 i 2 )
®
TM

M
L1 L2
+ – + –
R1 jω M R2
+
_
V = 12 V
i
+
V jωL1 jω L 2
I1 I2
(a) Magnetically coupled circuit

di di di di
−L 1 − M − L2 −M + V
dt dt dt dt
Z1 Z2
di
∴ (L 1 + L 2 + 2M)
dt
di +
∴ (2 + 4+ 2 × 1.5) Z3
dt V
di I1 I2
∴ 9
dt
t 0.2 (b) Equivalent T section of circuit
∴ ∫ 12 dt ∫ dt
0 0
1
L i2 − (R 1 ) I 1 − (j ω L 1 ) I 1 + (j ω M) I 2 + V
2 eff
∴ − [R 1 + j ω L 1 ] I 1 + [j ω M] I 2 −V
∴ × × 0.2667) 2
∴ (R 1 + j ω L 1 ) I 1 − (j ω M) I 2
∴
®
TM

∴ Z1 + Z 3 R1 + j ωL1
+ (j ω M) I 1 − (R 2 ) I 2 − (j ω L 2 ) I 2 Z2 + Z 3 R2 + j ωL2
∴ − (j ω M) I 1 + (R 2 + j ω L 2 ) I 2 Z3 j ωM
⎡(R 1 + j ω L 1 ) − j ωM ⎤ ⎡I 1 ⎤ ⎡V ⎤ ∴ Z1 R 1 + j ω L 1 − j ω M = R 1 + j ω (L 1 − M)
⎢
⎣ − j ωM (R 2 + j ω L 2 )⎥⎦ ⎢I ⎥
⎣ 2⎦
⎢0 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
Z2 R 21 + j ω L 2 − j ω M = R 2 + j ω (L 2 − M)
Z3 j ωM
− (Z 1 ) I 1 − (Z 3 ) I 1 + (Z 3 ) I 2 + V
∴ − (Z 1 + Z 3 ) I 1 + (Z 3 ) I 2
R1 jω(L1−M) jω(L2−M) R2
∴ (Z 1 + Z 3 ) I 1 − (Z 3 ) I 2
+
V jω M
I1 I2
− (Z 2 ) I 2 − (Z 3 ) I 2 + (Z 3 ) I 1
∴ (Z 3 ) I 1 − (Z 2 + Z 3 ) I 2
∴ − (Z 3 ) I 1 + (Z 2 + Z 3 ) I 2
j6 Ω
j5 Ω j10 Ω
⎡(Z 1 + Z 3 ) − Z3 ⎤ ⎡I 1 ⎤ ⎡V ⎤ + 3Ω
⎢ 50∠0º V 5Ω
⎣ − Z3 (Z 2 + Z 3 )⎥⎦ ⎢⎣I 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢0 ⎥
⎣ ⎦ – I1
– j4 Ω I2
∠ º
∴ − [j5 + 3 − j ]I 1 + [3 + j 6 − j 4]I 2 − (50∠0º )
∴ ( 3 + j1) I 1 − ( 3 + j 2) I 2 50∠0 º
®
TM

∴
ZA ZC
+
50∠0º V ZB
– I1 I2
∠ º
∠ º
Ω Ω
Ω Ω
–j4 Ω j3 Ω
Ω
12∠0° V +
_ j5 Ω j6 Ω 12 Ω
I1 I2
– (– j 4) I 1 – j 5 I 1 + j 3 I 2 + 12 ∠ 0º
∴ j I1 – j 3 I2 ∠ º
ZA
– 12 I 2 – j 6 I 2 + j 3 I 1
12 ∠0° V + ZB ZC
∴ – j 3 I 1 + (12 + j 6) I 2 _
I1 I2
(ZA + Z B ) I 1 – Z B I 2 ∠ º
®
TM

– Z B I 1 + (Z B + Z C ) I 2 40 mH
M
+ i1 i2 +
ZA + Z B ZB
L1 L2
∴ ZA v2
v1 50 mH 60 mH
ZB + ZC – –
∴ ZC (a)
+ i1 Z1 Z2 i2 +
j –j3 – – +
+
– j 3 12 + j 6 (i1+i2)
+
12 ∠ 0º –j3 v1 Z3 v2
D1
0 12 + j 6 –
j 12 ∠ 0º – –
D2
–j3 0 (b)
D1 161 ∠ 26.56º
∴ I1
D 12 ∠ 90º
13.417 ∠ – 63.44º A
− −
ω× × + ω× ×
D2 j 36
∴ I2
D j 12
∴ Ω 12 I 2
− ω − ω +
∴ ω + ω
40 mH
i1 i2
− −
∴ ω× × + ω× ×
50 mH 60 mH
− ω − ω +
∴
∴ ω + ω
®
TM

ω× × − Ω
−
ω× × Ω
ω × − − × − + ω× × − Ω
–3
− jω×20×10 Ω
ω× × Ω –3
i1 jω×10×10 Ω i2
ω× × − Ω + +
–3
− − V1 jω×40×10 Ω V2
ω × − ×
ω× × − Ω
– –
5Ω
Xm
Ω
+
100∠0º V j5 Ω j12 Ω 8Ω
I 1 and I 2 –
I 1 – j5 I 1 + j X m I 2 +
5Ω
∴ 5+ j5) I 1 j Xm I 2 – Xm
+
– +
+ +
100∠0º V j5 Ω j12 Ω 8Ω
+
– – –
I1 I2
I2 – j I 2 + j X mI 1
∴ j Xm I 1 + j12) I 2
⎡ + j5 – j X m ⎤ ⎡I 1 ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
⎢– j X
⎣ m 8+ j12 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣I 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢
⎣
⎥
⎦
I2
Δ2
I2
Δ
+ j5 – j Xm = + j5) (8 + j12) – (– j X m jX m
Δ
j Xm + j12 = + j 40+ j60 – 60+ X 2m = X 2m + j100
+ j5 100 = 5+ j5) (0) – (–j X m

Δ
– j Xm = j100 X m
®
TM

j100 X m
∴ I2
(X 2m + j100
Ω
Ω I2
I2R I2 ⋅8
I2 ⋅8
j100 X m
∴ ×
(X 2m + j100
⎡ ⎤
⎢ 100 X m ⎥ ×
⎢ (X 2 + 100 2 ⎥
⎣ m ⎦
80000 X 2m
∴
(X 2m +
Secondary
∴ (X 2m − + 800 X 2m X 2m X′m Primary winding
winding
∴ X′m2 X′m X′m +
∴ X′m2 X′m +
A. C. Load
N1 N2
X′m supply
X′m X′m
Laminated magnetic core
Flux(φ)
Xm X′m 12.0784 3.4754 Ω
j3.4754 Ω
Core
N1 N2 Load
P S
®
TM

N1 N2
φ
jωM
k=1
+ +
V1 jωL1 jωL2 ZL V2
I2
I1 N1 N2
1:a
V1 (j ω L 1 ) I 1 − (j ω M) I 2
− (j ω M) I 1 + (Z L + j ω L 2 ) I 2
I2
I1
j ωM
I2 I
( L + j ωL2 ) 1
Z
I2
⎡ (j ω M) ⎤
V1 (j ω L 1 ) I 1 − (j ω M) ⎢ ⎥ I1
⎢⎣(Z L + j ω L 2 ) ⎥⎦
ω M2
∴ V1 (j ω L 1 ) I 1 + I
(Z L + j ω L 2 ) 1
⎡ ω M2 ⎤
∴ V1 ⎢j ω L 1 + ⎥I
⎢⎣ (Z L + j ω L 2 ) ⎥⎦ 1
V1
Z in
I1
ω M2
∴ Z in j ωL1 +
(Z L + j ω L 2 )
∴ L1 L2
L2 N 22 N2
= a2 a M2 L1 L2
L1 N 21 N1
®
TM

M2 Z in
ω L1 L2
Z in j ωL1 +
ZL + j ωL2
j ω L 1 (Z L + j ω L 2 ) + ω L 1 L 2
∴ Z in
(Z L + j ωL2 )
j Z L ωL1 − ω L1 L2 + ω L1 L2
∴ Z in
ZL + j ωL2
(j ω L 1 ) Z L
∴ Z in
ZL + j ωL2
L2
= a2 L2 = a 2 L1
L1
L2 Z in
(j ω L 1 ) L
Z in
ZL + j ωa 2 L1
ZL , L1
ZL
Z in R2
j ωL1
∴ Z in ZL
j ωa 2 L1
R1
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ N2 ⎞ L1 L2 C2
∴ Z in ⎜ ⎟ ZL = ⎜ 1 ⎟ ZL +
⎝a2 ⎠ ⎜ N2 ⎟ V
⎝ 2⎠ I1 I2
V2
I1
R1
I2
I 1 Z in V L1 R1
= 1
I 2 ZL V2 R2
V1 1
V2 a
−j
V2 (− j X C ) I2 = I
ω C2 2
®
TM

(L1−M) (L2−M) R2
R1
M C2 V2
V1
I1 I2
− (R 1 ) I 1 − j ω(L 1 − M) I 1 − (j ω M) I 1 + (j ω M) I 2 + V1
∴ − [R 1 + j ω L 1 − j ω M+ j ω M] I 1 + (j ω M) I 2 − V1
∴ (R 1 + j ω L 1 ) I 1 − (j ω M) I 2 V1
⎛ −j ⎞
− j ω(L 2 − M) I 2 − (R 2 ) I 2 − ⎜ ⎟ I 2 − (j ω M) I 2 + (j ω M) I 1
⎝ ω C2 ⎠
−j ⎤
∴ (j ω M) I 1 − ⎡⎢j ω L 2 − j ω M+ R 2 + j ω M+ ω C ⎥ I2
⎣ 2⎦
⎡ ⎛ ⎞⎤
∴ − (j ω M) I 1 + ⎢R 2 + j ⎜ ω L 2 − ⎟⎥ I 2
⎣ ⎝ ω C2 ⎠⎦
⎛ ⎞
R2 + j⎜ ωL2 − ⎟
⎝ ω C 2 ⎠
I1 I2
j ωM
I1
⎡ ⎛ ⎞⎤
⎢R2 + j⎜ ωL2 − ωC ⎟⎥
⎝ 2 ⎠⎥ I − j ωM I = V
(R 1 + j ω L 1 ) ⎢
j ωM 2 ( ) 2 1
⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
⎧ ⎡ ⎛ ⎞⎤ ⎫
⎪ (R 1 + j ω L 1 ) ⎢R 2 + j ⎜ ω L 2 − ω C ⎟⎥ + ω M2 ⎪
⎪ ⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎦ ⎪
∴ I2 ⎨ ⎬ = V1
j ωM
⎪ ⎪
⎪⎩ ⎪⎭
⎡ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎤
∴ I 2 ⎢R 1 R 2 + j ω L 1 R 2 + j R 1 ⎜ ω L 2 − ⎟ − ωL1 ⎜ ωL2 − ⎟ + ω M2 ⎥ = j ω M V1
⎣ ⎝ ω C2 ⎠ ⎝ ω C2 ⎠ ⎦
®
TM

j ω M V1
∴ I2 =
L1 ⎡ ⎛ ⎞⎤
ω M2 + R 1 R 2 − ω L 1 L 2 + + j ⎢ω L 1 R 2 + R 1 ⎜ ω L 2 − ⎟⎥
C2 ⎣ ⎝ ωC 2 ⎠⎦
I2
I2
⎛ ⎞
ωL1 R2 + R1 ⎜ ωL2 − ⎟
⎝ ω C2 ⎠
R
∴ ωL1 R2 + ωR1 L2
ω C2
⎛ R ⎞
ω ⎜ L2 + L1 2 ⎟
ωC 2 ⎝ R1 ⎠
⎛ R ⎞
R 1 >> R 2 ⎜ L1 2 ⎟
⎝ R1 ⎠
I2
ωL 2
ωC 2
I2
j ω M V1
I2
L1
ω2 M2 + R 1 R 2 − ω L 1 L 2 +
C2
1
ω L2
C2
j ω M V1
I2
ω M2 + R1 R2 − ω L1 L2 + ω L1 L2
j ω M V1
∴ I2
ω2 M2 + R 1 R 2
−j ⎡ j ω M V1 ⎤ M V1
V2 ⎢ 2 2 ⎥
ω C2 ⎢ ω M + R R ⎥
⎣ 1 2⎦ (
C 2 ω M2 + R 1 R 2
2
)
ω2 M L 2 V1 1
∴ V2 = ω2 L 2
ω2 M2 + R1 R2 C2
®
TM

Secondary
ωM voltage
k = k1
ωM R1 R2 k = k2
k = k3
k1>k2>k3
M ωM ωr ω
=
L1 L2 ω L1 L2
ωM
R1 R2
kC
ω L1 L2
ω(ω M) L 2 V1
V2
(ω M) + R 1R 2
ω( )
R 1 R 2 L 2 V1
2
( R1 R2 ) + R 1R 2
R1
(ω )
R 1 R 2 L 2 V1
L1 R2
2 R 1R 2
L2 . R2
ωL 2 V1
∴ V2
R1 R2 A R2
ω L 2 V1 R1
∴ V2
(ω )
Rg
L 1 L 2 kC
C1 L1 L2 C2 V2
Vg
∴ V2
V1 ( L2 / L1 ) B
2 kC
⎛ L2 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝ L1 ⎠ V1
⎛ ⎞
⎜ ⎟ Vg
⎝ j ω C 1⎠
V1
Rg +
j ω C1
Vg
j ω C 1 Rg + 1
®
TM

A A
Rg
C1 V1 Rg C1
Vg
ZOC
B B
(a) (b)
Rg >> ω C 1 Rg >> 1
ω C1
Vg
∴ V1
j ω C 1 Rg
⎛ ⎞
(Rg ) ⎛⎜⎝ j ω C1 ⎞⎟⎠ Rg
Z oc Rg ⎜ ⎟ =
⎝ j ω C 1⎠ j ω C 1 Rg + 1
Rg +
j ω C1
1
Rg >>
ωC 1
Z oc
j ω C1
C1 A R2
C1
R1
V1 L1 L2 C2 V2
R1 C1 (L1−M) (L2−M) R2
V1 M C2 V2
I1 I2
®
TM

⎛ −j ⎞
− (R 1 ) I 1 − ⎜ ⎟ I 1 − j ω(L 1 − M) I 1 − j ω MI 1 + j ω MI 2 + V1
⎝ ω C1 ⎠
⎡ j ⎤
∴ − ⎢R 1 + j ω L 1 − j ω M+ j ω M −
ω C ⎥ I + (j ω M) I 2 − V1
⎣ 1⎦
⎡ ⎛ ⎞⎤
∴ ⎢R 1 + j ⎜ ω L 1 − ω C ⎟⎥ I 1 − (j ω M) I 2 V1
⎣ ⎝ 1 ⎠⎦
⎛ −j ⎞
− j ω (L 2 − M) I 2 − (R 2 ) I 2 − ⎜ ⎟ I 2 − (j ω M) I 2 + (j ω M) I 1
⎝ ω C2 ⎠
⎡ j ⎤
∴ − ⎢j ω L 2 − j ω M+ R 2 − + j ω M⎥ I 2 + (j ω M) I 1
⎣ ω C 2 ⎦
⎡ ⎛ ⎞⎤
∴ − (j ω M) I 1 + ⎢R 2 + j ⎜ ω L 2 − ⎟⎥ I 2
⎣ ⎝ ω C2 ⎠⎦
I2
ωr L 1 ωr L 2 =
ωr C 1 ωr C 2
(R 1 ) I 1 − (j ω M) I 2 V1
− (jω M) I 1 + (R 2 ) I 2
I 2 R2 (jω M) I 1
I2 I1
(jω M)
(R 1 ) I 1 − (jω M) R2
I1 V1
⎡ R R + ω M2 ⎤
∴ I1 ⎢ 1 2 ⎥ V1
⎢⎣ R2 ⎥⎦
V1 R 2
∴ I1
R 1 R 2 + ω M2
®
TM

ωr L 2 V1 M
∴ V2
I1 I2 R 1 R 2 + ω M2
R
(R 1 ) ⎡⎢ jω M
2 ⎤
⎥ I 2 − (jω M) I 2 V1 ωr M L 2 V1
⎣ ⎦ R1 R2
∴ V2
∴ (R 1 R 2 + ω M2 ) I2 jω M V1
+
ωr M2
R1 R2
jω M V1
∴ I2
R 1 R 2 + ω M2 Q1
Rg
ωr L 1
∴ Q1
R1
ωM R1 R2 Q2
I 1 and I 2
R2
ωr L 2
V1 R 2 ∴ Q2
I1 R2
R1 R2 + R1 R2
V R2 V1
=
2 R1 R2 2 R1 M
L1 L2
I2
j ( R1 R2 ) V1
R 1 R 2 + (R 1 R 2 ) ∴ k2 L 1 L 2 M2
L 1 and L 2
j R 1 R 2 V1
2 R1 R2
⎛Q R ⎞ ⎛Q R ⎞
j V1 k2 ⎜ 1 1 ⎟ ⎜ 2 2 ⎟ M2
⎝ ωr ⎠ ⎝ ωr ⎠
2 R1 R2
ωr M2
I2 ∴ k 2 (Q 1 Q 2 )
R1 R2
V2 k Q1 Q2 L 2 / L 1 V1
V2
⎛ −j ⎞ 2
k Q1 Q2 +1
V2 ⎜ ⎟ I2
⎝ ω C2 ⎠
⎛ − j ⎞ ⎛⎜ jω M V1 ⎞
⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝ ω C 2 ⎠ ⎜⎝ R 1 R 2 + ω M2 ⎟
⎠ 1
kC
M V1 / C 2 Q1 Q2
∴ V2
R 1 R 2 + ω M2
ωr L 2 = V2
ωr C 2
Q 1 Q 2 L2
V2 V
2 L1 1
®
TM

Secondary
voltage k1 = kC = Critical coupling
V2 k2 < k1 = Sufficient coupling
k3 k3 > k1 = Overcoupling
k1
k2
ωr ω
ω 2 π f0 = 3.1622 × 105
Q1, Q2 L2
MV1
[
C 2 ω20 M2 + R 1R 2 ]
Ω
(9 × 10 −6 )(15)
0.1 × 10 −6 ⎢( 3.1622 × 105 ) (9 × 10 −6 ) + (10 × 10)⎥
⎡ 2 2 ⎤
⎣ ⎦
10 Ω 10 Ω
Rs R2
L1 L2
15 V C2 0.1 μF vo
1 μH 100 μH
k L1L2
(1 × 10 −6 )(100 × 10 −6 ) = 9 μH 1
L L
4 A B
1
f0
2π L 2 C 2
Ω
1
2π 100 × 10 −6 × 0.1 × 10 −6
®
TM

5Ω 5Ω
B
j5 Ω j5 Ω
j2 Ω
+ +
10∠0º V − − 10∠90º V
−j10 Ω
5Ω
+
V1 Ι1 0.3 H Ι2 0.8 H
k = 0.8
B
j5 Ω j10 Ω
+
3Ω
+
50∠0°V − V
−
−j4 Ω
j2 Ω
5Ω 2Ω
V1 + j8 Ω j2 Ω
+ V2
− −
Ι1 Ι2
®
TM

φ
∴ L1L2
jX m Xm
=
(jX L ) (jX L ) X L X L2
1 2 1
M
k=
L1 L2
®
TM

L 1 + L 2 + 2M
L1 M L2
i1 i2
i
A B
i = i 1 = i2
L 1 + L 2 − 2M
L1 M L2
i1 i2
i
i = i 1 = i2
A B
L 1 L 2 − M2
L 1 + L 2 − 2M
i
A
i1 L1 i2 L2
M
B
L 1 L 2 − M2
L 1 + L 2 + 2M
i
A
i1 i2
M
B
®
TM

33 mH 47 mH
k L1L2 k
0.5 (50 × 10 −3 )(200 × 10 −3 )

50 mH
∴ L1L2
× − × −
k L1L2
× × × ×
0.8 (5 × 10 −3 ) (10 × 10 −3 )
5.6568 mH
®
TM

®
TM

Note :
nd
Answer ALL Questions
B.Tech. IISemester - II (ECE/EEE)
Year (Mechanical) Regulation
Semester 2013 2013)
- II - (Course
[Time : Three Hours] [Maximum Marks : 100]
I0
I0
3∠0° A j8 Ω –j2 Ω
sin( ωt)
5A
2Ω 8Ω
+ v –
4Ω x I0
2
1
4Ω 4Ω
6Ω
i1 i2
2Ω 6Ω 10 A
+
vs +
_ – 3vx
I0 vs
®
TM

I2 Ω
XL1 = 2 Ω
XC 8Ω I2 5 μF 60 μF
a
R1 1Ω R2 4Ω
XL2 6Ω
+ 20 μF 6 μF 20 μF Ceq
–
E1 = 8 ∠20° V E2 = 10 ∠0° V
– + b
R ab
i a 13 Ω
R1 E1
+ –
24 Ω 10 Ω 3Ω 68 V
20 Ω
+
100 V _ I RL
6 A R2 10 Ω
30 Ω 50 Ω R3
b 2Ω
RL RL
24 V
8Ω
+ – + VR – + VL –
I R=2Ω XL = 10 Ω
4Ω 4Ω
+ +
E = 10 ∠0° V XC = 10 Ω V
i – – C
+
12 V – 3Ω 3A
VR VL VC
®
TM

–j4 Ω j3 Ω
12 Ω
12∠0° V +
_ j5 Ω j6 Ω 12 Ω
I1 I2
0.6 × 10–3 R
0.3 × 10–3 L1 , L2 t=0 i
+
RL Ω V + v(t)
L
–
–
I1 4 I1 I2
5Ω 10 Ω
– + 2Ω 3Ω
+ +
V1 20 Ω V2 6Ω
– –
Δ−Δ θ2 θ3
a
A
IAa
EAB = 120 V ∠0° Iab

+
–
V ab
5 Ωca
5Ω
V
3-phase
5Ω
5Ω
Δ-connected ac
generator
–
+
ECA = 120 V ∠θ3

phase sequence: ACB
5Ω
Ica Ibc
– +
c b
5Ω
IBb Vbc
B
C
ICc
EBC = 120 V ∠θ2
®
TM

P1 P2
Note :
nd
B.Tech. IISemester - II (ECE/EEE)
Semester 2013 2013)
- II - (Course
R
+
+
16 V 8Ω 4Ω 4V
–
1H 1F
10 cos t +
_ 1Ω
i(t)
Rth Vth
®
TM

M
i i
L1 L2
+ V1– + V2–
A I0
3Ω 10 Ω
2Ω
–j4 Ω
5V +
_ j8 Ω
2A
10 Ω
2∠ 0° A
+ –
50∠0° V _
+
8V
5Ω 4Ω
5Ω –j6 Ω
I0
vx ix
ix
10 Ω
8Ω 10 Ω 4Ω
vx
3A
4 5Ω
50 V +
_ 100 V 4Ω 10 Ω 40 V
+
vx 2Ω +
– 4ix
–
®
TM

i0
5V
1Ω
– + 22 Ω 10 Ω
i0
68 Ω
B
6Ω 5A 3Ω 7Ω 3A 4Ω
+ 10 V
47 Ω – 10 Ω
+ –
A
20 V 33 Ω
I0
5Ω 3 ∠0 ° A I0
8Ω –j2 Ω
20 Ω
10 Ω
40∠90° V + j15 Ω
–
j4 Ω
kΩ i0
μF ω0
+
10 sin ωt _ R L C
®
TM

–j4 Ω j3 Ω
12∠0° V +
_ j5 Ω j6 Ω 12 Ω
I1 I2
t=0 i
0.6 × 10–3 0.3 × 10–3 +
+
L1 , L2 v(t)
–
L vL(t)
–
I1 I2
8Ω 10 Ω
+ +
V1 20 Ω 20 Ω V2
Δ Ω
Δ – –
Vab 330∠0º
3φ
Ia
a A
120∠0° rms +
_ j5 Ω
I1
n N
–j10 Ω
– – 120∠–120° rms
120∠120° rms +
10 Ω
+
Ib
c C
b B
I2
Ic
®
TM

®
TM

Note :
nd
B.Tech. II Semester - II (EEE)Semester
- II2017
- (Course 2013)
 
R1  R2 
R1R2
Req 
R1  R2
Rse
Rsh = Rse
 I Rsh V
I=
Rse
+
V _
5 Vrms 
Pmax
 ZL 

0 s 
v R (t) I 0 Re t 
I0
®
TM

eB
eB lags
120º
eY by120º
120º eR
120º
eY lags eR by 120º
eY
cos 45
f0
f0 1  106
 Q0
B.W. 100  103
1 2
i2
3
15 A –
i1 +
Vx
1
V
9 x 1
2
i3
®
TM

A B C
i1 + – +
1 2
1 i2
V i3  i1 i3  15 – + –
9 x
– 3 +
15 A D – E
 2i 2  3i 2  3i 3  i 2  i1 i1 +
1
V +
6i 2  3i 3 9 x
I 1
–
Vx  –
2 i3
+
Vx 3(i 3  i 2 ) F G H
2 1
i  i
3 3 3 2
i2 i3 Vx
3 E 1 H G 2
D I
+ V – + i – 0V +2i –
x 3 3
22.5 V 20 V 40 V
5 V1 10  V2
100 V 30  10  20 
V3 = 0
5 I1 V1 I3 10  V2 I5
I2 I4
+
100 V – 30  10  20 
 I1  I 2  I 3 I1  I 2  I 3
I 3  I 4  I5
®
TM

V1 V2 V2 I5
5 I1 V1 V1 10  V2
I2 I4
+ I3
100 V – 20 
Opposing 30  10 
V1 – 100 V1 – 0 V1 – V 2 V2 – 0 V2 – 0
I1 = I2 = I3 = I4 = I5 =
5 30 10 10 20
V1  100 V1 V1  V2
  0.333 V1  0.1 V2
5 30 10
V1  V2 V2 V2
  0.1 V1  0.25 V2
10 10 20
 V1 V2
j5  20 V
–+
2 90º j15  – j20  – j5  1 90º

A A
   
j5  A
Parallel
– j20 × – j5
2 90º A j15  – j20  – j5  – j20 – j5
= – j4 
I'AB
I1 j5  I1
2 90º A j15  – j4  Z' = j5 – j4

2 90º A j15 
=j
Parallel Parallel
of – j20 and – j5
®
TM

j15
I1 2  90   
j15  j
 j5 1

IAB I1  1.875  90  
 j5  j20 5
 
VAB    j20
IAB    
   
V 20 V
I1 A x I3
I1  I 2  I 3 –+
I2
Vx V V  20
  x  x j20  – j20  – j5 
j20  j20  j5
 Vx
B
 
VAB Vx
   
I1 A Vx
I2 I3
I1  I 2  I 3   j5 + j15
– j20 – j5  1 90º A
= j20 
Vx V V
  x  x  
j20  j20  j5
B
 Vx  
   
 Vx
 
VAB Vx
 VAB   VAB
VAB   VAB

5V
+ –
20 
19  5Vx Vx
®
TM


I1 Vx

19  5 Vx 1A
VTH IN Req
Vx
  5Vx  1
19
19
Vx
96
0.198  Req
Vx
Req 
1A
v(t)
iL iR iC
I0
V0 +
L R C V
I0 – 0
0
1
L
v(t) dt

V0
iL  iR  iC
t
1 v(t) dv(t)

L  v(t) dt + R
C
dt

d 2 v(t) 1 dv(t) 1
  v(t)
dt 2 RC dt LC
d d2
s2
dt dt 2
1 1
 s2  s
RC LC
2
1  1  1
s1, 2     
2RC  2RC  LC
®
TM

1 1
 S1, 2     2  20  
2RC 0 LC
 0
A 1es1t  A 2 es2 t
 0
1 1 1 L
 R cr
2RC LC 2 C
(A 1  A 2 t) e t
 0
s1, 2    jd d 20   2
(A 1 cos d t  A 2 sin d t)e  t
A1 A2
v(t)
v(t) v(t)
0 t
2
d
0 t 0 1 t

(a) Overdamped (b) Critically damped (c) Underdamped
Vo
V1
V0 V0
v(0 ) v(0 ) V0
®
TM

V0 V1
(V1  V0) Vs R
+ –
+ +
 i(t) R  v (t)  Vs Vs u(t) _ v(t) C
–
i(t)
Vs  v(t) dv(t)
 C
R dt
Vs  v(t) dv(t)
 C
R dt
dv(t) v(t)  Vs
 C 
dt R
dv(t) v(t) Vs
 
dt RC RC
dv(t) v(t)  Vs
 
dt RC
dv(t) dt
 
v(t)  Vs RC
t
v(t) t
 ln[v(t)  Vs] V 
0 RC 0
t
ln [v(t)  Vs]  ln [V0  Vs] 
RC
 v(t)  Vs  t
 ln  
 V0  Vs  RC
v(t)  Vs
 e t RC 
V0  Vs
 v(t)  Vs (V0  Vs) e t 
 Vs  (V0  Vs) e t 
Vs V1  V0
 (V1  V0)  (2V0  Vt ) e t  V
V0
Am 
®
TM

R L
+
Amcos t C
–
 
  
  
cos(  t   t  )  cos(  t   t  )
2
A m I m cos( 2 t  ) A m I m cos( )

2 2
T
1
T
p(t)dt
0
T
1  A m I m cos( 2t  ) A m I m cos( ) 
T  
  dt
2 2
0
T T
1 A m I m cos( 2t  ) 1 A I cos( )
T
dt   m m dt
2 T 2
0 0
T
1 A m I m cos( )
T
dt
2
0
T
A m I m cos( )
2T  dt
0
A m I m cos( ) T
[t]0
2T
A m I m cos( )
[T  0]
2T
A m I m cos( )
2
®
TM

PR (t) VR (t) i (t) PL (t) VL (t) i(t) PC (t) VC (t)i(t)
PR (t) i 2 (t) R
  
A mI mcos() A mI mcos(90) A mI mcos[ 90]
PL PC
2 2 2
A mI mcos(0) A mI m 0 A mI m [0]
PL PC
2 2 2
A mI m PL PC
2
I2mR 2R
Vm
2 2
1
+ 2
Vs 5 1 mF
–
0.1 H
Vs = 20 cos (t)
1
1
2
VS = 20 V 5 O.C.  20 V 2 5
S.C.
(a) (b)
®
TM

1
20 V +
_
 
5 1F
2  0º + 7H 6H 3
_
2H
–j
5
2  0º + j7  j6  3
_
I1 I2 I3
j2
5I1  j7(I1  I2 )  j2(I3  I2 )  
5  j7I1  j9I2  j3I3  
j7 I2  I1  2j (I2  I3 )  jI2 j6 (I2  I3 )  j2(I2  I1 )
 j9I1  16jI2  j8I3

®
TM

j6I3  I2  j2(I1  I2 )  3I3
j2I1  j8I2  (3  j6)I3
I3
5  j7  j9 z 5  j7  j9 j2 
3   j9
I3 j16 0   j9 j16  j8 
    
 j2  j8 0  j2  j8 3  j6
2  j9 j8   j2 j6  2( 72  32)

5  j7 j16(3  j6)  (  j8)2   j9 j9(3  j6)  (  j8)(j2) j2 j9 j8  (j2)(j16)  496  j16  243  j342  j80
80
I3  0143
.  j 0157
. 
253  j 278
 I3  3 0.212  47.69 3
V3  0.636  47.69
ZL ZL
ZL
1 0º 4 – j2  2 + j4  0.5  + 90º

A A
ZL
VTH Vab
a b
+ –
1 0º A 4 – j2 V1 2 + j4 V2 0.5 90º A
I1 – + I
2
I1 V1 (4  j2) I1
 V1    
 
I2   V2 (2+ j4) I 2
®
TM

Zeq
 V2
a b
 Vab V1  V2
 VTH Vab  
4 – j2 2 + j4
Zeq
 Zeq   
VTH 2.236   26.56 Series

IN  
Zeq 6.325  18.44
a a
Zeq 6 + j2 IN
0.3535 – 45º A 6 + j2 Zeq
+
VTH 2.236 – 26.56º V
–
b b
(c) Thevenin's equivalent (d) Norton's equivalent
Pmax ZL Z*eq 
2
VTH 2.2362
Pmax
4Req 4 6
i1 i2
i1( 0) i2 ( 0)
2H
3H 2
1 i1 i2
di1 di di
3  3 2  i1  2 1
dt dt dt –
2H + – +
di1 di
 5  i1  3 2 + 3H 2
dt dt –
– + –
di 2 di 1 i1 i2
 2i 2  3 3 1 +
dt dt
di1 di
 3  3 2  2i 2
dt dt
®
TM

5[5I1(s)  i1(0  )]  I1(s)  3[sI 2 (s)  i2 (0  )]
3 [sI1(s)  i1(0  )]  3 [sI 2 (s)  i2 (0  )]  2I 2 (s)
i1(0  ) i2 (0  )
 I1(s) [5s  1]  3 sI 2 (s)
 I1(s) [3s]  ( 3s  2 )I 2 (s)
5s  1  3s
  6s2  13s  2
3s  (3s  2)
22  3s
D1
0  (3s  2)
5s  1 22
D2
3s 0
D1  22(3s  2) 3.667(3s  2)
 I1(s)
D  6s2  13 s  2 s2  2.1667s  0.333
D2  66 s 11s
 I 2 (s)
D  6s2  13 s  2 s2  2.1667 s  0.333
1  3.667(3s  2) 
i1(t) L1[I1(s)] L  (s  0.1667) (s 
 2) 
1  3 8 
L s 
 0.1667 s  2 
 i1(t) 3e 0.1667 t

 8e 2t
A
1[I (s)] 1  11s 

i 2 (t) L  (s 
L 2
 0.1667)(s  2) 
1  1 12 
L s 
 0.1667 s  2 
 i 2 (t)  e 0.1667 t  12e 2tA
®
TM

EE8251 - Circuit Theory

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EE8251 - Circuit Theory

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Circuit Theory

Late Ajay V. Bakshi

TECHNICAL Website : www.technicalpublications.org

First Edition : January 2018

ã Copyright with Authors

9789333217149 [2] (ii)

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

Active Passive Linear Nonlinear Bilateral Unilateral Lumped Distributed

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

(a) Symbol (b) Circuit (c) Characteristics

(a) Circuit (b) Characteristics

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

(a) Symbol (b) Circuit (c) Characteristics

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

(a) (b) (c) (d)

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

R 1 R < R 2 , ..... , R < R n ∴

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TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

2 Ω Series 1.2 Ω Series

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

P1 I 2 R 1 = (0.22857) 2 × 625 = 32.653 W

P2 I 2 R 2 = (0.22857) 2 × 1562.5 = 81.6316 W

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

–2 + 3 I 2 – 1.5 (I 1 – I 2 ) + 3 1.5 I 1 – 4.5 I 2 I1 I2

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

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Area of curve over half cycle

mean or average of square of current

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∴ Area under curve for half cycle

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TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

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e = Em sin (ωt) e = Em sin (ωt + φ) e = Em sin (ωt – φ)

(a) Zero phase (b) Positive phase (c) Negative phase

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TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

(a) Im cos φ in + X direction (b) Im sin φ in + Y direction

(c) Rectangular representation of phasor