2810
Dissolved Gas Supersaturation
Approved by Standard Methods Committee, 2010. Editorial revisions, 2021. Joint Task Group: 20th Edition—John E. Colt (chair), Larry E. Fidler, John O. Jensen, John W.
Sweeney, Barnaby J. Watten.
2810 A. Introduction
Water can become supersaturated with atmospheric gases by
various means; heating and air entrainment in spilled or pumped
water are the most common. The primary sign of gas supersatura-
tion is the formation of bubbles on submerged surfaces or within
the vascular systems and tissues of aquatic organisms.
Gas supersaturation can limit aquatic life and interfere with
water treatment processes. Levels of supersaturation lethal to
aquatic organisms have been found in springs, rivers, wells, lakes,
estuaries, and seawater. Gas supersaturation can be produced in
pumped or processed water intended for drinking, fish hatchery
supply, and laboratory bioassays. Seasonal and other temporal
variations in supersaturation may occur in surface waters as a
result of solar heating and photosynthesis. Because the rate of
equilibration may be slow, supersaturation may persist in flowing
water for days and excessive dissolved gas levels may persist far
from the source of supersaturation.
2810  B. Direct-Sensing Membrane-Diffusion Method
1. General Discussion
a. Principle: This method requires an instrument with a variable
length of gas permeable tubing, connected to a pressure-measur-
ing device. Dimethyl silicone rubber tubing often is used because
it is highly permeable to dissolved gases, including water vapor.
At steady state, the gauge pressure inside the tubing is equal to
the difference in gas pressure (∆P) between the total dissolved
gas pressure and the ambient barometric pressure. When the
water is in equilibrium with the atmosphere, ∆P equals zero. If
∆P is greater than zero, the water is supersaturated. Conversely, if
∆P is negative the water is undersaturated.
b. Working range: The working range of this method depends
on the pressure-sensing device used, but typically will range from
−150 to +600 mm Hg. Dissolved solids in wastewater do not
interfere with this method. The practical depth range for these
instruments is 1 to 10 m.
2. Apparatus
Several types of membrane-diffusion instruments are available
commercially. Alternatively, construct a unit from commercially
available parts. Several units have been described, including a
direct-reading instrument using pressure transducers and a digital
readout,1 an on-line unit that can activate an alarm system,2 and
an early model of the Weiss saturometer.3 Each of these described
https://doi.org/10.2105/SMWW.2882.037
Gas bubbles form only when the total dissolved gas pressure is
greater than the sum of compensating pressures. Compensating
pressures include water, barometric, and tissue or blood pressure
for organisms. The total dissolved gas pressure is equal to the
sum of the partial pressures of all the dissolved gases, includ-
ing water vapor. Typically, only nitrogen, oxygen, argon, car-
bon dioxide, and water vapor pressures need to be considered in
most natural waters. Gas bubble disease, of fish or other aquatic
organisms, is a result of excessive uncompensated gas pressure.
A single supersaturated gas such as oxygen or nitrogen may not
necessarily result in gas bubble disease because bubble formation
depends largely on total dissolved gas pressure. The degree of gas
saturation should be described in terms of pressures rather than
concentration or volume units.
units has specific advantages and limitations; the instrument of
choice depends on the specific application. All these instruments
are portable so that data collection is completed in the field.
Test the instrument for leaks according to the manufacturer’s
recommendation. Even a very small leak, difficult to detect and
locate, will result in useless data. Calibrate the pressure-measuring
device with a mercury manometer or certified pressure gauge. If
a manometer is used, include fresh mercury that flows freely in
the tubing. An alternative method for directly testing membrane-
diffusion instruments in a small, closed chamber where induced ∆P
levels can be compared against observed ∆P levels is available.2
Van Slyke-Neill4 or gas chromatography methods1 are inappro-
priate for calibration but they may be used to verify results. These
methods measure individual gas concentrations and require fur-
ther conversion to ∆P or partial pressure and suffer from sampling
and sample handling problems.5–7
3. Procedure
At the start of each day, test the instrument for leaks and recal-
ibrate. At a monitoring site, completely submerge the sensing ele-
ment in the water, preferably below the hydrostatic compensation
depth. This is the depth where the hydrostatic and total gas pres-
sures are equal and as a result, bubbles do not form on the tubing.
Bubble formation on the silicone rubber tubing seriously reduces
accuracy. Compute hydrostatic compensation depth5 as follows:
1
 2810 DISSOLVED GAS SUPERSATURATION - B. Direct-Sensing Membrane-Diffusion Method
Figure 2810:1 Time response for the membrane-diffusion method.
∆P
Z=
73.42
where:
Z = hydrostatic compensation depth (m), and
∆P = pressure difference between total dissolved gas pressure and
the ambient barometric pressure (mm Hg).
The factor 73.42 is the hydrostatic pressure of fresh water at
20 °C expressed in terms of mm Hg/m water depth. Because the
variation of hydrostatic pressure with temperature and salinity is
small, this equation can be used for all natural waters.
Dislodge formed bubbles on the tubing by gently striking the
instrument or moving the instrument rapidly in the water. Move-
ment of water across the silicone rubber tubing also facilitates
establishing the equilibrium between gas pressure in the water
and in the tubing.
Operate the instrument in a bubble-free state until a stable ∆P
is observed. This may take from 5 to 30 min, depending on the
∆P, water temperature, water flow, and geometry of the system.
The time response of the membrane-diffusion method is shown in
Figure 2810:1 for bubble-free and bubble conditions.
If the instrument is used in heavily contaminated water con-
taining oil or other organic compounds, clean the silicone tubing
with a mild detergent according to the manufacturer’s instruc-
tions. Silicone rubber tubing has been used in uncontaminated
natural water for at least 8 years without being adversely affected
by attached algal growth.2 The tubing can be damaged by abra-
sive grit, diatoms, biting aquatic organisms, certain organic com-
pounds, and strong acids.2
Obtain the barometric pressure with each measurement by using
a laboratory barometer, a calibrated portable barometer, or pressure
transducer. Barometric pressures reported by weather agencies (or
airports) are unusable because they are corrected to sea level and
even if back-corrected for local pressure are for a reading located
too far away to be considered a true local barometric pressure.
4. Calculation
a. Total gas pressure: Preferably report total gas pressure as
∆P.2,6,8 Express pressure as millimeters of mercury.
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Total gas pressure also has been reported as a percentage of
local barometric pressure:
 P + ∆P 
TGP % =  b  ×100

 Pb 
where:
Pb = true local barometric pressure (mm Hg).
The reporting of total gas pressure as a percentage is not
encouraged.8
b. Component gas pressures: When information on component
gas supersaturation is needed, express data as partial pressures,
differential pressures, or percent saturation.5,8 This requires addi-
tional measurements of dissolved oxygen, temperature, and salin-
ity at the monitoring site. (Methods for these variables may be
found in Sections 4500-O, 2550, and 2520, respectively.) In a mix-
ture of gases in a given volume, the partial pressure of a gas is the
pressure that this gas would exert if it were the only gas present.
1) Oxygen partial pressure—Calculate the partial pressure of
oxygen as follows:
DO
PO2 = × 0.5318
βo2
where:
PO2 = partial pressure of dissolved oxygen (mm Hg),
bO2 = Bunsen coefficient for oxygen (Table 2810:1), [L/(L ⋅ atm)],
and
DO = measured concentration of oxygen (mg/L).
Bunsen coefficients for marine waters are available.5 The factor
0.5318 equals 760/(1000 K), where K is the ratio of molecular
weight to molecular volume for oxygen gas.5
2) Nitrogen partial pressure—Estimate the partial pressure of
nitrogen by subtracting the partial pressures of oxygen and water
vapor from the total gas pressure.
PN 2 = Pb +∆P −PO 2 − PH2O
where:
PH O = vapor pressure of water in mm Hg from Table 2810:2.
2
This term includes a small contribution from argon and any other
gases present, including carbon dioxide and methane. The partial
pressure of carbon dioxide is negligible in natural waters of pH > 7.0.
3) Nitrogen:oxygen partial pressure ratio—The ratio of the partial
pressure of nitrogen to the partial pressure of oxygen (N2:O2) charac-
terizes the relative contribution of the two gases to the total dissolved
gas pressure. In water in equilibrium with air, this ratio is 3.77.
c. Differential pressures: The differential pressure of a gas is
the difference between the partial pressures of that gas in water
and air. The oxygen differential pressure may be calculated as
∆Po2 = Po2 − 0.20946( Pb − PH2O )
and the nitrogen differential pressure as
2
 2810 DISSOLVED GAS SUPERSATURATION - B. Direct-Sensing Membrane-Diffusion Method

Table 2810:1. Bunsen Coefficient for Oxygen in Fresh Water

Bunsen Coefficient [L real gas at STP/(L · atmosphere)] at Given Temperature (to nearest 0.1 °C)
Temperature (°C) 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
 0 0.04914 0.04901 0.04887 0.04873 0.04860 0.04847 0.04833 0.04820 0.04807 0.04793
 1 0.04780 0.04767 0.04754 0.04741 0.04728 0.04716 0.04703 0.04680 0.04678 0.04665
 2 0.04653 0.04640 0.04628 0.04615 0.04603 0.04591 0.04579 0.04567 0.04555 0.04543
 3 0.04531 0.04519 0.04507 0.04495 0.04484 0.04472 0.04460 0.04449 0.04437 0.04426
 4 0.04414 0.04403 0.04392 0.04381 0.04369 0.04358 0.04347 0.04336 0.04325 0.04314
 5 0.04303 0.04292 0.04282 0.04271 0.04260 0.04250 0.04239 0.04229 0.04218 0.04206
 6 0.04197 0.04187 0.04177 0.04166 0.04156 0.04146 0.04136 0.04126 0.04116 0.04106
 7 0.04096 0.04086 0.04076 0.04066 0.04056 0.04047 0.04037 0.04027 0.04018 0.04008
 8 0.03999 0.03989 0.03980 0.03971 0.03961 0.03952 0.03943 0.03933 0.03924 0.03915
 9 0.03906 0.03897 0.03888 0.03879 0.03870 0.03861 0.03852 0.03843 0.03835 0.03826
10 0.03817 0.03809 0.03800 0.03791 0.03783 0.03774 0.03766 0.03757 0.03749 0.03741
11 0.03732 0.03724 0.03716 0.03707 0.03699 0.03691 0.03683 0.03675 0.03667 0.03659
12 0.03651 0.03643 0.03635 0.03627 0.03619 0.03611 0.03604 0.03596 0.03588 0.03581
13 0.03573 0.03565 0.03558 0.03550 0.03543 0.03535 0.03528 0.03520 0.03513 0.03505
14 0.03498 0.03491 0.03448 0.03476 0.03469 0.03462 0.03455 0.03448 0.03441 0.03433
15 0.03426 0.03419 0.03412 0.03406 0.03399 0.03392 0.03385 0.03378 0.03371 0.03364
16 0.03358 0.03351 0.03344 0.03338 0.03331 0.03324 0.03318 0.03311 0.03305 0.03298
17 0.03292 0.03285 0.03279 0.03272 0.03266 0.03260 0.03253 0.03247 0.03241 0.03235
18 0.03228 0.03222 0.03216 0.03210 0.03204 0.03198 0.03192 0.03186 0.03180 0.03174
19 0.03168 0.03162 0.03156 0.03150 0.03144 0.03138 0.03132 0.03126 0.03121 0.03115
20 0.03109 0.03103 0.03098 0.03092 0.03086 0.03081 0.03075 0.03070 0.03064 0.03059
21 0.03053 0.03048 0.03042 0.03037 0.03031 0.03026 0.03020 0.03015 0.03010 0.03004
22 0.02999 0.02994 0.02989 0.02983 0.02978 0.02973 0.02968 0.02963 0.02958 0.02952
23 0.02947 0.02942 0.02937 0.02932 0.02927 0.02922 0.02917 0.02912 0.02907 0.02902
24 0.02897 0.02893 0.02888 0.02883 0.02878 0.02873 0.02868 0.02864 0.02859 0.02854
25 0.02850 0.02845 0.02840 0.02835 0.02831 0.02826 0.02822 0.02817 0.02812 0.02808
26 0.02803 0.02799 0.02794 0.02790 0.02785 0.02781 0.02777 0.02772 0.02768 0.02763
27 0.02759 0.02755 0.02750 0.02746 0.02742 0.02737 0.02733 0.02729 0.02725 0.02720
28 0.02716 0.02712 0.02708 0.02704 0.02700 0.02695 0.02691 0.02687 0.02683 0.02679
29 0.02675 0.02671 0.02667 0.02663 0.02659 0.02655 0.02651 0.02647 0.02643 0.02639
30 0.02635 0.02632 0.02628 0.02624 0.02620 0.02616 0.02612 0.02609 0.02605 0.02601
31 0.02597 0.02594 0.02590 0.02586 0.02582 0.02579 0.02575 0.02571 0.02568 0.02564
32 0.02561 0.02557 0.02553 0.02550 0.02546 0.02543 0.02539 0.02536 0.02532 0.02529
33 0.02525 0.02522 0.02518 0.02515 0.02511 0.02508 0.02504 0.02501 0.02498 0.02494
34 0.02491 0.02488 0.02484 0.02481 0.02478 0.02474 0.02471 0.02468 0.02465 0.02461
35 0.02458 0.02455 0.02452 0.02448 0.02445 0.02442 0.02439 0.02436 0.02433 0.02429
36 0.02426 0.02423 0.02420 0.02417 0.02414 0.02411 0.02408 0.02405 0.02402 0.02399
37 0.02396 0.02393 0.02390 0.02387 0.02384 0.02381 0.02378 0.02375 0.02372 0.02369
38 0.02366 0.02363 0.02360 0.02358 0.02355 0.02352 0.02349 0.02346 0.02343 0.02341
39 0.02338 0.02335 0.02332 0.02329 0.02327 0.02324 0.02321 0.02318 0.02316 0.02313
40 0.02310 0.02308 0.02305 0.02302 0.02300 0.02297 0.02294 0.02292 0.02289 0.02286
Based on Benson and Krause.1,2 β = 9.9902 × 10−4[exp(9.7265 − 5.26895 × 103/T + 1.00417 × 106/T2)], where T = 273.15 + °C.
References
1. Benson BB, Krause D. The concentration and isotopic fractionation in freshwater in equilibrium with the atmosphere. 1. Oxygen. Limnol Oceanogr. 1980;25:662.
2. Benson BB, Krause D. The concentration and isotopic fractionation of oxygen dissolved in freshwater and seawater in equilibrium with the atmosphere. Limnol Ocean-
ogr. 1984;29:620.

∆PN 2 = ∆P − ∆PO2  PN 2 
N 2 (%) =   ×100

 0.7902( Pb − PH2O ) 
d. Percent of saturation: In older literature, supersaturation
values have been reported as percent saturation. This method of
reporting component gases is discouraged but can be calculated  P02 
as follows: O2 (%) =   ×100

 0.20946( Pb − PH2O ) 

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 2810 DISSOLVED GAS SUPERSATURATION - B. Direct-Sensing Membrane-Diffusion Method

Table 2810:2. Vapor Pressure of Fresh Water

Vapor Pressure (mm Hg) at Given Temperature (to nearest 0.1 °C)
Temperature (°C) 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
 0 4.58 4.61 4.64 4.68 4.71 4.75 4.78 4.82 4.85  4.89
 1 4.92 4.96 4.99 5.03 5.07 5.10 5.14 5.18 5.21  5.25
 2 5.29 5.33 5.36 5.40 5.44 5.48 5.52 5.56 5.60  5.64
 3 5.68 5.72 5.76 5.80 5.84 5.88 5.92 5.97 6.01  6.05
 4 6.09 6.14 6.18 6.22 6.27 6.31 6.36 6.40 6.44  6.49
 5 6.54 6.58 6.63 6.67 6.72 6.77 6.81 6.86 6.91  6.96
 6 7.01 7.05 7.10 7.15 7.20 7.25 7.30 7.35 7.40  7.45
 7 7.51 7.56 7.61 7.66 7.71 7.77 7.82 7.87 7.93  7.98
 8 8.04 8.09 8.15 8.20 8.26 8.31 8.37 8.43 8.48  8.54
 9 8.60 8.66 8.72 8.87 8.84 8.89 8.95 9.02 9.08  9.14
10 9.20 9.26 9.32 9.39 9.45 9.51 9.58 9.64 9.70  9.77
11 9.83 9.90 9.97 10.03 10.10 10.17 10.23 10.30 10.37 10.44
12 10.51 10.58 10.65 10.72 10.76 10.86 10.93 11.00 11.07 11.15
13 11.22 11.29 11.37 11.44 11.52 11.59 11.67 11.74 11.82 11.90
14 11.98 12.05 12.13 12.21 12.29 12.37 12.45 12.53 12.61 12.69
15 12.78 12.86 12.94 13.05 13.11 13.19 13.28 13.36 13.45 13.54
16 13.62 13.71 13.80 13.89 13.97 14.06 14.15 14.24 14.33 14.43
17 14.52 14.61 14.70 14.80 14.89 14.98 15.08 15.17 15.27 15.37
18 15.46 15.56 15.66 15.76 15.86 15.96 16.06 16.16 16.26 16.36
19 16.46 16.57 16.67 16.77 16.88 16.98 17.09 17.20 17.30 17.41
20 17.52 17.63 17.74 17.85 17.96 18.07 18.18 18.29 18.41 18.52
21 18.64 18.75 18.87 18.98 19.10 19.22 19.33 19.45 19.57 19.69
22 19.81 19.93 20.05 20.48 20.60 20.42 20.55 20.67 20.80 20.93
23 21.05 21.18 21.31 21.44 21.57 21.70 21.83 21.96 22.09 22.23
24 22.36 22.50 22.63 22.77 22.90 23.04 23.18 23.32 23.46 23.60
25 23.74 23.88 24.03 24.17 24.31 24.46 24.60 24.75 24.90 25.04
26 25.19 25.34 25.49 25.64 25.80 25.95 26.10 26.26 26.41 26.57
27 26.72 26.88 27.04 27.20 27.36 27.52 27.68 27.84 28.00 28.17
28 28.33 28.50 28.66 28.83 29.00 29.17 29.34 29.51 29.68 29.85
29 30.03 30.80 30.37 30.55 30.73 30.91 31.08 31.26 31.44 31.62
30 31.81 31.99 32.17 32.36 32.54 32.73 32.92 33.11 33.30 33.49
31 33.68 33.87 34.06 34.26 34.45 34.65 34.85 35.05 35.24 35.44
32 35.65 35.85 36.05 36.25 36.46 36.67 36.87 37.08 37.29 37.50
33 37.71 37.92 38.14 38.35 38.57 38.78 39.00 39.22 39.44 39.66
34 39.88 40.10 40.33 40.55 40.78 41.01 41.23 41.46 41.69 41.92
35 42.16 42.39 42.63 42.86 43.10 43.34 43.58 43.82 44.06 44.30
36 44.55 44.79 45.04 45.28 45.53 45.78 46.03 46.29 46.54 46.79
37 47.05 47.31 47.56 47.82 48.08 48.35 48.61 48.87 49.14 49.41
38 49.67 49.94 50.21 50.49 50.76 51.03 51.31 51.59 51.87 52.14
39 52.43 52.71 52.99 53.28 53.56 53.85 54.14 54.43 54.72 55.01
40 55.31 55.60 55.90 56.20 56.50 56.80 57.10 57.41 57.71 58.02
Based on an equation presented by Green and Carritt.1 This equation is cumbersome to use. The following equation2 is adequate for most applications:
PH2O = 760[exp(11.8571 − 3,840.70/T − 216,961/T2)], where T = 273.15 + °C.5
References
1. Green EJ, Carritt DE. New tables for oxygen saturation of seawater. J Mar Res. 1967;24:140-147.
2. Benson BB, Krause Jr D. The concentration and isotopic fractionation of gases dissolved in freshwater in equilibrium with the atmosphere. 1. Oxygen. Limnol Oceanogr.
1980;25(4):662-671.

The following relationships are useful conversions:  O (%)    N (%)  

∆P = 0.20946  2 −1  Pb − PH2O  + 0.7902  2 −1  Pb − PH2O 
 100     100   
TGP (%) = 0.20946 O2 (%) + 0.7902 N 2 (%)

DO
∆P =
βo2
(
(0.5318)(1 + N 2 : O2 ) − Pb − PH2O )

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 2810 DISSOLVED GAS SUPERSATURATION - B. Direct-Sensing Membrane-Diffusion Method
Use care with these relationships with older data because both
TGP (%) and N2 (%) have been differently defined.5
5. Quality Control
The quality control practices considered to be an integral part
of each method are summarized in Tables 2020:1 and 2.
The precision of the membrane-diffusion method depends pri-
marily on the pressure-sensing instrument. For an experienced
operator it is approximately ±1 to 2 mm Hg with an accuracy of
±3 to 5 mm Hg.3,6 Air leaks, bubble formation, biofilm develop-
ment, incomplete equilibration, or condensation produce negative
errors while direct water leaks can result in positive errors in sub-
mersible units.
For accurate work, measure water temperature to the nearest
±0.1 °C.
6. Reporting of Results
In reporting results, include the following data:
• Sensor depth (m),
• Barometric pressure (mm Hg),
• Water temperature (°C),
• Dissolved oxygen (mm Hg or mg/L),
• Salinity (g/kg), and
• ∆P (mm Hg).
If component gas information is needed add:
• Partial pressure of oxygen (mm Hg),
• Partial pressure of nitrogen (mm Hg), and
• Nitrogen: oxygen partial pressure ratio
or
• ∆PO2 (mm Hg) and
• ∆PN2 (mm Hg).
7. Interpretation of Results
The biological effects of dissolved gas supersaturation depend
on the species, age, depth in water column, length of exposure,
temperature, and nitrogen:oxygen partial pressure ratio.9 Safe
limits generally are segregated into natural environments, where
Published Online: August 27, 2018
Revised: November 4, 2021
https://doi.org/10.2105/SMWW.2882.037
behavior and hydrostatic pressure can modify the exposure by hor-
izontal and vertical movements away from dangers, and captive
environments such as aquaria, hatcheries, or laboratories, where
conditions not only preclude escape but also include other signifi-
cant stresses. Of these two realms, captive environments are more
likely to cause illness or mortality from gas bubble disease and do
so sooner and at the lower ∆P levels.
In natural environments, the limit of safe levels of gas supersat-
uration depends on the depth available to the species, the species
behavior, or both, but this limit usually occurs at a ∆P between 50
and 150 mm Hg. Under captive environment conditions, the ∆P
should be as close to zero as possible. For sensitive species and
life stages, sublethal and lethal effects have been observed at ∆P
of 10 to 50 mm Hg.10
References
1. D’Aoust BG, White R, Siebold H. Direct measurement of total dis-
solved gas pressure. Undersea Biomed Res. 1975;2(2):141–149.
2. Bouck GR. Gasometer: an inexpensive device for continuous moni-
toring of dissolved gases and supersaturation. Trans Amer Fish Soc.
1982;111(4):505–516.
3. Fickeisen DH, Schneider MJ, Montgomery JC. A comparative eval-
uation of the Weiss saturometer. Trans Amer Fish Soc. 1975;104(4):
816–820.
4. Beiningen KT. A manual for measuring dissolved oxygen and nitro-
gen gas concentrations in water with the Van Slyke-Neill apparatus.
Portland: Fish Commission of Oregon; 1973.
5. Colt J. Computation of dissolved gas concentrations in water as func-
tions of temperature, salinity, and pressure; Special Publication 14.
Bethesda (MD): American Fisheries Society; 1984.
6. D’Aoust BG, Clark MJR. Analysis of supersaturated air in natural
waters and reservoirs. Trans Amer Fish Soc. 1980;109(6):708–724.
7. Pirie WR, Hubert WA, Fickeisen DH, Schneider MJ, Montgom-
ery JC. Assumptions in statistical analysis. Trans Amer Fish Soc.
1977;106(6):646–648.
8. Colt J. The computation and reporting of dissolved gas levels. Water
Res. 1983;17(8):841–849.
9. Weitkamp DE, Katz M. A review of dissolved gas supersaturation
literature. Trans Amer Fish Soc. 1980;109(6):659–702.
10. Colt J. Gas supersaturation: impact on the design and operation of
aquatic systems. Aquacult Eng. 1986;5(1):49–85.
5