Chapter 6
Design in timber to
This chapter is concerned with the design of timber
elements to British Standard 5268: Part 2, which is
based on the permissible stress philosophy. The chapter
describes how timber is specified for structural purposes
and discusses some of the basic concepts involved such
as stress grading, grade stresses and strength classes.
The primary aim of this chapter is to give guidance on
the design of flexural members, e.g. beams and joists,
compression members, e.g. posts and columns and load
sharing systems, e.g. stud walling.
6.1 Introduction
Wood is a very versatile raw material and is still
widely used in construction, especially in countries
such as Canada, Sweden, Finland, Norway and
Poland, where there is an abundance of good-
quality timber. Timber can be used in a range
of structural applications including marine works:
construction of wharves, piers, cofferdams; heavy
civil works: bridges, piles, shoring, pylons; do-
mestic housing: roofs, floors, partitions; shuttering
for precast and in situ concrete; falsework for brick
or stone construction.
Of all the construction materials which have
been discussed in this book, only timber is naturally
occurring. This makes it a very difficult material to
characterise and partly accounts for the wide vari-
ation in the strength of timber, not only between
different species but also between timber of the
same species and even from the same log. Quite
naturally, this led to uneconomical use of timber
which was costly for individuals and the nation as
a whole. However, this problem has now been
largely overcome by specifying stress graded tim-
ber (section 6.2).
There is an enormous variety of timber species.
They are divided into softwoods and hardwoods, a
botanical distinction, not on the basis of mechani-
cal strength. Softwoods are derived from trees with
9780415467193_C06 279
BS 5268
needle-shaped leaves and are usually evergreen,
e.g. fir, larch, spruce, hemlock, pine. Hardwoods
are derived from trees with broad leaves and are
usually deciduous, e.g. ash, elm, oak, teak, iroko,
ekki, greeheart. Obviously the suitability of a par-
ticular timber type for any given purpose will de-
pend upon various factors such as performance,
cost, appearance and availability. This makes speci-
fication very difficult. The task of the structural
engineer has been simplified, however, by group-
ing timber species into sixteen strength classes for
which typical design parameters, e.g. grade stresses
and moduli of elasticity, have been produced (sec-
tion 6.3). Most standard design in the UK is with
softwoods.
Design of timber elements is normally carried
out in accordance with BS 5268: Structural Use of
Timber. This is divided into the following parts:
Part 2: Code of Practice for Permissible Stress Design,
Materials and Workmanship.
Part 3: Code of Practice for Trussed Rafter Roofs.
Part 4: Fire Resistance of Timber Structures.
Part 5: Code of Practice for the Preservative Treat-
ment of Structural Timber.
Part 6: Code of Practice for Timber Frame Walls.
Part 7: Recommendations for the Calculation Basis for
Span Tables.
The design principles which will be outlined in
this chapter are based on the contents of Part 2 of
the code. It should therefore be assumed that all
future references to BS 5268 refer exclusively to
Part 2. As pointed out in Chapter 1 of this book,
BS 5268 is based on permissible stress design rather
than limit state design. This means in practice that
a partial safety factor is applied only to material
properties, i.e. the permissible stresses (section 6.4)
and not the loading.
Specifically, this chapter gives guidance on the
design of timber beams, joists, columns and stud
walling. The design of timber formwork is not
279
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 Design in timber to BS 5268
covered here as it was considered to be rather too
specialised a topic and, therefore, inappropriate
for a book of this nature. However, before discuss-
ing the design process in detail, the following
sections will expand on the more general aspects
mentioned above, namely:
a) stress grading
b) grade stress and strength class
c) permissible stress.
6.2 Stress grading
The strength of timber is a function of several
parameters including the moisture content, density,
size of specimen and the presence of various
strength-reducing characteristics such as knots,
slope of grain, fissures and wane. Prior to the in-
troduction of BS 5268 the strength of timber was
determined by carrying out short-term loading tests
on small timber specimens free from all defects.
The data were used to estimate the minimum
strength which was taken as the value below which
not more than 1% of the test results fell. These
strengths were multiplied by a reduction factor to
give basic stresses. The reduction factor made an
allowance for the reduction in strength due to
duration of loading, size of specimen and other
effects normally associated with a safety factor such
as accidental overload, simplifying assumptions
made during design and design inaccuracies,
together with poor workmanship. Basic stress was
defined as the stress which could safely be perman-
ently sustained by timber free from any strength-
reducing characteristics. Basic stress, however, was
not directly applicable to structural size timber since
structural size timber invariably contains defects,
which further reduces its strength. To take account
of this, timber was visually classified into one of
four grades, namely 75, 65, 50 and 40, which ind-
icated the percentage free from defects. The grade
stress for structural size timber was finally obtained
by multiplying the grade designations expressed as
a percentage (e.g. 75%, 65% etc.) by the basic
stress for the timber.
With the introduction of BS 5268 the concept of
basic stress was largely abandoned and a revised
procedure for assessing the strength of timber
adopted. From then on, the first step involved grad-
ing structural size timber. Grading was still carried
out visually, although it was now common practice
to do this mechanically. The latter approach of-
fered the advantage of greater economy in the use
of timber since it took into account the density of
280
9780415467193_C06 280
timber which significantly influences its strength.
Mechanical stress grading is based on the fact
that there is a direct relationship between the mo-
dulus of elasticity measured over a relatively short
span, i.e. stiffness, and bending strength. The stiff-
ness is assessed non-destructively by feeding indi-
vidual pieces of timber through a series of rollers
on a machine which automatically applies small
transverse loads over short successive lengths and
measures the deflections. These are compared with
permitted deflections appropriate to given stress
grades and the machine assesses the grade of the
timber over its entire length.
When BS 5268 was published in 1984 the
numbered grades (i.e. 75, 65, 50 and 40) were
withdrawn and replaced by two visual grades: Gen-
eral Structural (GS) and Special Structural (SS) and
four machine grades: MGS, MSS, M75 and M50.
The SS grade timber was used as the basis for
strength and modulus of elasticity determinations
by subjecting a large number of structural sized
specimens to short-term load tests. The results were
used to obtain the fifth percentile stresses, defined
as the value below which not more than 5% of test
results fell (Fig. 6.1). The fifth percentile values
for other grades of the same species were derived
using grade relativity factors established from the
same series of tests. Finally, the grade stresses were
obtained by dividing the fifth percentile stresses
by a reduction factor, which included adjustments
for a standard depth of specimen of 300 mm, dura-
tion of load and a factor of safety. The two visual
grades are still referred to in the latest revision of
BS 5268 published in 2002. However, machine
graded timber is now graded directly to one of six-
teen strength classes defined in BS EN 519, princi-
pally on the basis of bending stress, mean modulus
of elasticity and characteristic density, and marked
accordingly.
6.3 Grade stress and
strength class
Table 6.1 shows typical timber species/grade com-
binations and associated grade stresses and moduli
of elasticity. This information would enable the
designer to determine the size of a timber member
given the intensity and distribution of the loads to
be carried. However, it would mean that the con-
tractor’s choice of material would be limited to
one particular species/grade combination, which
could be difficult to obtain. It would obviously be
better if a range of species/grade combinations could
9/3/09, 2:13 PM
 Grade stress and strength class

Frequency of Mean strength

occurrence

1.64 s.d.

Flexural strength

5% test results Fifth percentile stress

Fig. 6.1 Frequency distribution curve for flexural strength of timber.

Table 6.1 Grade stresses for softwoods graded in accordance with BS 4978: for service classes 1
and 2 (Table 10, BS 5268)

Standard name Grade Bending Tension Compression Shear Modulus of elasticity

parallel parallel parallel
to graina to graina Parallel Perpendicular to grain Mean Minimum
to grain to grainb
N/mm 2 N/mm 2 N/mm 2 N/mm 2 N/mm 2 N/mm 2 N/mm 2

Redwood/whitewood SS 7.5 4.5 7.9 2.1 0.82 10 500 7 000

(imported) GS 5.3 3.2 6.8 1.8 0.82 9 000 6 000
British larch SS 7.5 4.5 7.9 2.1 0.82 10 500 7 000
GS 5.3 3.2 6.8 1.8 0.82 9 000 6 000
British pine SS 6.8 4.1 7.5 2.1 0.82 10 500 7 000
GS 4.7 2.9 6.1 1.8 0.82 9 000 6 000
British spruce SS 5.7 3.4 6.1 1.6 0.64 8 000 5 000
GS 4.1 2.5 5.2 1.4 0.64 6 500 4 500
Douglas fir SS 6.2 3.7 6.6 2.4 0.88 11 000 7 000
(British grown) GS 4.4 2.6 5.2 2.1 0.88 9 500 6 000
Parana pine SS 9.0 5.4 9.5 2.4 1.03 11 000 7 500
(imported) GS 6.4 3.8 8.1 2.2 1.03 9 500 6 000
Pitch pine SS 10.5 6.3 11.0 3.2 1.16 13 500 9 000
(Caribbean) GS 7.4 4.4 9.4 2.8 1.16 11 000 7 500
Western red cedar SS 5.7 3.4 6.1 1.7 0.63 8 500 5 500
(imported) GS 4.1 2.5 5.2 1.6 0.63 7 000 4 500
Douglas fir-larch SS 7.5 4.5 7.9 2.4 0.85 11 000 7 500
(Canada and USA) GS 5.3 3.2 6.8 2.2 0.85 10 000 6 500
Hem-fir SS 7.5 4.5 7.9 1.9 0.68 11 000 7 500
(Canada and USA) GS 5.3 3.2 6.8 1.7 0.68 9 000 6 000
Spruce-pine-fir SS 7.5 4.5 7.9 1.8 0.68 10 000 6 500
(Canada and USA) GS 5.3 3.2 6.8 1.6 0.68 8 500 5 500
Sitka spruce SS 6.6 4.0 7.0 1.7 0.66 10 000 6 500
(Canada) GS 4.7 2.8 6.0 1.5 0.66 8 000 5 500
Western whitewoods SS 6.6 4.0 7.0 1.7 0.66 9 000 6 000
(USA) GS 4.7 2.8 6.0 1.5 0.66 7 500 5 000
Southern pine SS 9.6 5.8 10.2 2.5 0.98 12 500 8 500
(USA) GS 6.8 4.1 8.7 2.2 0.98 10 500 7 000

Notes. a Stresses applicable to timber 300 mm deep (or wide): for other section sizes see 2.10.6 and 2.12.2 of BS 5268.
b
When the specifications specifically prohibit wane at bearing areas, the SS grade compression perpendicular to grain stress may
be multiplied by 1.33 and used for all grades.

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 Design in timber to BS 5268

Table 6.2 Softwood combinations of species and visual grades which satisfy the requirements for
various strength classes

Standard name Strength classes

C14 C16 C18 C22 C24 C27 C30

Imported
Parana pine GS SS
Caribbean pitch pine GS SS
Redwood GS SS
Whitewood GS SS
Western red cedar GS SS
Douglas fir-larch (Canada and USA) GS SS
Hem-fir (Canada and USA) GS SS
Spruce-pine-fir (Canada and USA) GS SS
Sitka spruce (Canada) GS SS
Western whitewoods (USA) GS SS
Southern pine (USA) GS SS

British grown
Douglas fir GS SS
Larch GS SS
British pine GS SS
British spruce GS SS

be specified and the contractor could then select
the most economical one. Such an approach forms
the basis of grouping timber species/grade com-
binations with similar strength characteristics into
strength classes (Table 6.2).
In all there are sixteen strength classes, C14,
C16, C18, C22, C24, TR26, C27, C30, C35, C40,
D30, D35, D40, D50, D60 and D70, with C14
having the lowest strength characteristics. The
strength class designations indicate the bending
strength of the timber. Strength classes C14 to C40
and TR26 are for softwoods and D30 to D70 are
for hardwoods. Strength class TR26 is intended
for use in the design of trussed rafters. The grade
stresses and moduli of elasticity associated with
each strength class are shown in Table 6.3. In the
UK structural timber design is normally based on
strength classes C16 to C27. These classes cover a
wide range of softwoods which display good struc-
tural properties and are both plentiful and cheap.
6.4 Permissible stresses
The grade stresses given in Tables 6.1 and 6.3 were
derived assuming particular conditions of service
282
and loading. In order to take account of the actual
conditions that individual members will be sub-
ject to during their design life, the grade stresses
are multiplied by modification factors known as
K-factors. The modified stresses are termed per-
missible stresses.
BS 5268 lists over 80 K-factors. However, the
following subsections consider only those modifica-
tion factors relevant to the design of simple flexural
and compression members, namely:
K 2: Moisture content factor
K 3: Duration of loading factor
K 5: Notched ends factor
K 7: Depth factor
K 8: Load-sharing systems factor
K 12: Compression member stress factor.
6.4.1 MOISTURE CONTENT, K 2
The strength and stiffness of timber decreases with
increasing moisture content. This effect is taken
into account by assigning timber used for struc-
tural work to a service class. BS 5628 recognises
three service classes as follows:
Service class 1 is characterised by a moisture con-
tent in the material corresponding to a temperature

9780415467193_C06 282 9/3/09, 2:13 PM

 Permissible stresses

Table 6.3 Grade stresses and moduli of elasticity for various strength classes: for service classes 1
and 2 (based on Tables 8 and 9, BS 5268)

Strength Bending Tension Compression Compression Shear Modulus Characteristic Average

class parallel parallel parallel perpendicular parallel of elasticity density 2 density 2
to grain to grain to grain to grain1 to grain
(σm,g,|| ) (σc,g,|| ) (σc,g,⊥ ) (τg ) E mean E min ρk ρmean
N/mm 2 N/mm 2 N/mm 2 N/mm 2 N/mm 2 N/mm 2 N/mm 2 N/mm 2 kg/m 3 kg/m 3

C14 4.1 2.5 5.2 2.1 1.6 0.60 6 800 4 600 290 350
C16 5.3 3.2 6.8 2.2 1.7 0.67 8 800 5 800 310 370
C18 5.8 3.5 7.1 2.2 1.7 0.67 9 100 6 000 320 380
C22 6.8 4.1 7.5 2.3 1.7 0.71 9 700 6 500 340 410
C24 7.5 4.5 7.9 2.4 1.9 0.71 10 800 7 200 350 420
TR26 10.0 6.0 8.2 2.5 2.0 1.10 11 000 7 400 370 450
C27 10.0 6.0 8.2 2.5 2.0 1.10 12 300 8 200 370 450
C30 11.0 6.6 8.6 2.7 2.2 1.20 12 300 8 200 380 460
C35 12.0 7.2 8.7 2.9 2.4 1.30 13 400 9 000 400 480
C40 13.0 7.8 8.7 3.0 2.6 1.40 14 500 10 000 420 500
D30 9.0 5.4 8.1 2.8 2.2 1.40 9 500 6 000 530 640
D35 11.0 6.6 8.6 3.4 2.6 1.70 10 000 6 500 560 670
D40 12.5 7.5 12.6 3.9 3.0 2.00 10 800 7 500 590 700
D50 16.0 9.6 15.2 4.5 3.5 2.20 15 000 12 600 650 780
D60 18.0 10.8 18.0 5.2 4.0 2.40 18 500 15 600 700 840
D70 23.0 13.8 23.0 6.0 4.6 2.60 21 000 18 000 900 1 080
1
When the specification specifically prohibits wane at bearing areas, the higher values may be used.
2
For the calculation of dead load, the average density should be used.

of 20°C and the relative humidity of the surround- Table 6.4 Modification factor K 2 by which
ing air only exceeding 65% for a few weeks per year. stresses and moduli for service classes 1 and 2
Timbers used internally in a continuously heated should be multiplied to obtain stresses and moduli
building normally experience this environment. In applicable to service class 3 (Table 16, BS 5268)
such environments most timbers will attain an aver-
age moisture content not exceeding 12%. Property K2
Service class 2 is characterised by a moisture
content in the material corresponding to a tem- Bending parallel to grain 0.8
perature of 20°C and the relative humidity of the Tension parallel to grain 0.8
surrounding air only exceeding 85% for a few weeks Compression parallel to grain 0.6
per year. Timbers used in covered buildings will Compression perpendicular to grain 0.6
normally experience this environment. In such en- Shear parallel to grain 0.9
vironments most timbers will attain an average Mean and minimum modulus of elasticity 0.8
moisture content not exceeding 20%.
Service class 3, due to climatic conditions, is
characterised by higher moisture contents than
service class 2 and is applicable to timbers used notes that because it is difficult to dry thick timber,
externally and fully exposed. service class 3 stresses and moduli should be used
The grade stresses and moduli of elasticity shown for solid timber members more than 100 mm thick,
in Tables 6.1 and 6.3 apply to timber exposed to unless they have been specially dried.
service classes 1 and 2. According to clause 2.6.2
of BS 5268 where service class 3 exists, the values 6.4.2 DURATION OF LOADING, K3
in Tables 6.1 and 6.3 should be multiplied by a The stresses given in Tables 6.1 and 6.3 apply to
modification factor K2 given in Table 16 of BS 5268, long-term loading. Where the applied loads will
reproduced here as Table 6.4. Clause 2.6.1 also act for shorter durations e.g. snow and wind, the
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 Design in timber to BS 5268

Table 6.5 Modification factor K 3 for duration of loading (Table 17, BS 5268)

Duration of loading Value of K 3

Long term (e.g. dead + permanent imposeda) 1.00

Medium term (e.g. dead + snow, dead + temporary imposed) 1.25
Short term (e.g. dead + imposed + windb, dead + imposed + snow + windb) 1.50
Very short term (e.g. dead + imposed + windc) 1.75

Notes. a For uniformly distributed imposed floor loads K 3 = 1.00 except for type C3 occupancy (Table 1, BS 6399: Part 1:
1996) where for foot traffic on corridors, hallways, landings and stairways only, K 3 may be assumed to be 1.5.
b
For wind where the largest diagonal dimension of the loaded area a, as defined in BS 6399: Part 2, exceeds 50 m.
c
For wind, very short-term category applies to classes A and B (3 s or 5 s gust) as defined in CP3 : Chapter V : Part 2 or,
where the largest diagonal dimension of the loaded area a, as defined in BS 6399: Part 2, does not exceed 50 m.

grade stresses can be increased. Table 17 of BS 1. For a notch on the top edge (Fig. 6.2(a)):
5268, reproduced here as Table 6.5, gives the modi-
fication factor K 3 by which these values should be h(he − a ) + ahe
K5 = for a ≤ he (6.1)
multiplied for various load combinations. h2e

6.4.3 NOTCHED ENDS, K 5 K 5 = 1.0 for a > he (6.2)

Notches at the ends of flexural members will re- 2. For a notch on the underside (Fig. 6.2( b)):
sult in high shear concentrations which may cause
structural failure and must, therefore, be taken into he
K5 = (6.3)
account during design (Fig. 6.2). h
In notched members the grade shear stresses
parallel to the grain (Tables 6.1 and 6.3) are mul- Clause 2.10.4 of BS 5268 also notes that the
tiplied by a modification factor K 5 calculated as effective depth, he, should not be less than 0.5 h,
follows: i.e. K 5 ≥ 0.5.

a 6.4.4 DEPTH FACTOR, K 7

The grade bending stresses given in Table 6.3 only
apply to timber sections having a depth h of 300
mm. For other depths of beams, the grade bending
stresses are multiplied by the depth factor K 7,
h defined in clause 2.10.6 of BS 5268 as follows:
he
K 7 = 1.17 for solid beams having a depth
≤ 72 mm
0.11
 300 
(a) K7 =   for solid beams with
 h 
72 mm < h < 300 mm (6.4)
he
h 0.81(h + 92 300)
2
K7 = for solid beams
(h2 + 56 800)
with h > 300 mm
(b)
6.4.5 LOAD-SHARING SYSTEMS, K 8
Fig. 6.2 Notched beams: (a) beam with notch on The grade stresses given in Tables 6.1 and 6.3
top edge; ( b) beam with notch on underside ( Fig. 2, apply to individual members, e.g. isolated beams
BS 5268). and columns, rather than assemblies. When four
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 Symbols

or more members such as rafters, joists or wall i radius of gyration

studs, spaced a maximum of 610 mm centre to I second moment of area
centre act together to resist a common load, the Z elastic modulus
grade stress should be multiplied by a load-sharing
factor K 8 which has a value of 1.1 (clause 2.9, BENDING
BS 5268).
L effective span
6.4.6 COMPRESSION MEMBERS, K 12 M design moment
MR moment of resistance
The grade compression stresses parallel to the grain
given in Tables 6.1 and 6.3 are used to design struts σm,a,|| applied bending stress parallel to grain
and columns. These values apply to compression σm,g,|| grade bending stress parallel to grain
σm,adm,|| permissible bending stress parallel to
members with slenderness ratios less than 5 which
would fail by crushing. Where the slenderness ratio grain
of the member is equal to or greater than 5 the
grade stresses should be multiplied by the modifi- DEFLECTION
cation factor K12 given in Table 22 of BS 5268, δt total deflection
reproduced here as Table 6.6. Alternatively Appen- δm bending deflection
dix B of BS 5268 gives a formula for K12 which δv shear deflection
could be used. This is based on the Perry-Robertson δp permissible deflection
equation which is also used to model the behaviour E modulus of elasticity
of steel compression members (section 4.9). The Emean mean modulus of elasticity
factor K12 takes into account the tendency of the Emin minimum modulus of elasticity
member to fail by buckling and allows for imper- G shear modulus
fections such as out of straightness and accidental
load eccentricities. SHEAR
The factor K12 is based on the minimum
modulus of elasticity, Emin, irrespective of whether Fv design shear force
the compression member acts alone or forms part τa applied shear stress parallel to grain
of a load-sharing system and the compression stress, τg grade shear stress parallel to grain
σc,||, is given by: τadm permissible shear stress parallel to grain
σc,|| = σc,g,||K3 (6.5) BEARING
F bearing force
6.5 Timber design lb length of bearing
σc,a,⊥ applied compression stress
Having discussed some of the more general as- perpendicular to grain
pects, the following sections will consider in detail σc,g,⊥ grade compression stress perpendicular
the design of: to grain
1. flexural members σc,adm,⊥ permissible bending stress perpendicular
2. compression members to grain
3. stud walling.
COMPRESSION
Le effective length of a column
6.6 Symbols λ slenderness ratio
For the purposes of this chapter, the following sym- N axial load
bols have been used. These have largely been taken σc,a,|| applied compression stress parallel
from BS 5268. to grain
σc,g,|| grade compression stress parallel
GEOMETRICAL PROPERTIES to grain
σc,adm,|| permissible compression stress parallel
b breadth of beam to grain
h depth of beam σc,|| compression stress = σc,g,||K 3
A total cross-sectional area σe Euler critical stress
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 286

9780415467193_C06
Table 6.6 Modification factor K 12 for compression members (Table 22, BS 5268)

E/σc,|| Value of K 12
Design in timber to BS 5268

286
Values of slenderness ratio λ (= L e/i)
<5 5 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 250
Equivalent L e /b (for rectangular sections)
< 1.4 1.4 2.9 5.8 8.7 11.6 14.5 17.3 20.2 23.1 26.0 28.9 34.7 40.5 46.2 52.0 57.8 63.6 69.4 72.3

400 1.000 0.975 0.951 0.896 0.827 0.735 0.621 0.506 0.408 0.330 0.271 0.225 0.162 0.121 0.094 0.075 0.061 0.051 0.043 0.040
500 1.000 0.975 0.951 0.899 0.837 0.759 0.664 0.562 0.466 0.385 0.320 0.269 0.195 0.148 0.115 0.092 0.076 0.063 0.053 0.049
600 1.000 0.975 0.951 0.901 0.843 0.774 0.692 0.601 0.511 0.430 0.363 0.307 0.226 0.172 0.135 0.109 0.089 0.074 0.063 0.058
700 1.000 0.975 0.951 0.902 0.848 0.784 0.711 0.629 0.545 0.467 0.399 0.341 0.254 0.195 0.154 0.124 0.102 0.085 0.072 0.067
800 1.000 0.975 0.952 0.903 0.851 0.792 0.724 0.649 0.572 0.497 0.430 0.371 0.280 0.217 0.172 0.139 0.115 0.096 0.082 0.076
900 1.000 0.976 0.952 0.904 0.853 0.797 0.734 0.665 0.593 0.522 0.456 0.397 0.304 0.237 0.188 0.153 0.127 0.106 0.091 0.084
1000 1.000 0.976 0.952 0.904 0.855 0.801 0.742 0.677 0.609 0.542 0.478 0.420 0.325 0.255 0.204 0.167 0.138 0.116 0.099 0.092
1100 1.000 0.976 0.952 0.905 0.856 0.804 0.748 0.687 0.623 0.559 0.497 0.440 0.344 0.272 0.219 0.179 0.149 0.126 0.107 0.100
1200 1.000 0.976 0.952 0.905 0.857 0.807 0.753 0.695 0.634 0.573 0.513 0.457 0.362 0.288 0.233 0.192 0.160 0.135 0.116 0.107
1300 1.000 0.976 0.952 0.905 0.858 0.809 0.757 0.701 0.643 0.584 0.527 0.472 0.378 0.303 0.247 0.203 0.170 0.144 0.123 0.115
1400 1.000 0.976 0.952 0.906 0.859 0.811 0.760 0.707 0.651 0.595 0.539 0.486 0.392 0.317 0.259 0.214 0.180 0.153 0.131 0.122
1500 1.000 0.976 0.952 0.906 0.860 0.813 0.763 0.712 0.658 0.603 0.550 0.498 0.405 0.330 0.271 0.225 0.189 0.161 0.138 0.129
1600 1.000 0.976 0.952 0.906 0.861 0.814 0.766 0.716 0.664 0.611 0.559 0.508 0.417 0.342 0.282 0.235 0.198 0.169 0.145 0.135

9/3/09, 2:14 PM
1700 1.000 0.976 0.952 0.906 0.861 0.815 0.768 0.719 0.669 0.618 0.567 0.518 0.428 0.353 0.292 0.245 0.207 0.177 0.152 0.142
1800 1.000 0.976 0.952 0.906 0.862 0.816 0.770 0.722 0.673 0.624 0.574 0.526 0.438 0.363 0.302 0.254 0.215 0.184 0.159 0.148
1900 1.000 0.976 0.952 0.907 0.862 0.817 0.772 0.725 0.677 0.629 0.581 0.534 0.447 0.373 0.312 0.262 0.223 0.191 0.165 0.154
2000 1.000 0.976 0.952 0.907 0.863 0.818 0.773 0.728 0.681 0.634 0.587 0.541 0.455 0.382 0.320 0.271 0.230 0.198 0.172 0.160
 Flexural members

Bearing Bearing e.g. wall plate

Clear span
Effective span

Fig. 6.3 Effective span of simply supported beams.

6.7 Flexural members

Beams, rafters and joists are examples of flexural d
members. All calculations relating to their design x x
are based on the effective span and principally in-
volves consideration of the following aspects which
are discussed below:
1. bending b
2. deflection
3. lateral buckling Fig. 6.4 Section modulus.
4. shear
5. bearing.
Generally, for medium-span beams the design pro- where
cess follows the sequence indicated above. However, b breadth of section
deflection is usually critical for long-span beams and d depth of section
shear for heavily loaded short-span beams. The permissible bending stress is calculated by
multiplying the grade bending stress, σm,g,||, by any
6.7.1 EFFECTIVE SPAN relevant K-factors:
According to clause 2.10.3 of BS 5268, for simply
supported beams, the effective span is normally σm,adm,|| = σm,g,||K 2 K 3 K 7 K 8 (as appropriate)
taken as the distance between the centres of bear- (6.8)
ings (Fig. 6.3). For a given design moment the minimum required
section modulus, Z xx req, can be calculated using
6.7.2 BENDING equation 6.9, obtained by combining equations 6.6
If flexural members are not to fail in bending, the and 6.7:
design moment, M, must not exceed the moment
of resistance, MR M
Z xx req ≥ (6.9)
M ≤ MR (6.6) σ m,adm,||

The design moment is a function of the applied A suitable timber section can then be selected
loads. The moment of resistance for a beam can be from Tables NA.2, NA.3 and NA.4 of BS EN
derived from the theory of bending (equation 2.5, 336: Structural timber. Sizes permitted deviations.
Chapter 2) and is given by These tables give the commonly available sizes of,
respectively, sawn timber, timber machined on the
MR = σm,adm,||Z xx (6.7) width and timber machined on all four sides. Ta-
where ble NA.2 is reproduced here as Table 6.7. Table 6.8
σm,adm,|| permissible bending stress parallel to grain is an expanded version which includes a number of
Z xx section modulus useful section properties to aid design. Finally, the
chosen section should be checked for deflection,
bd 2 lateral buckling, shear and bearing to assess its suit-
For rectangular sections Z xx = (Fig. 6.4)
6 ability as discussed below.

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 Design in timber to BS 5268

Table 6.7 Commonly available target sizes of sawn softwood

structural timber (based on Table NA.2, BS EN 336)

Thickness (mm) Width (to tolerance class 1) (mm)

(to tolerance
class 1) 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 300

22 x
38 x x x x x
47 x x x x x x x x x
63 x x x x
75 x x x x x x x
100 x x x x x x
150 x x
300 x x

Note 1 Timber in other sizes is available to order

Note 2 In the UK the above sizes are commonly available in strength classes
C16 and C24

Table 6.8 Geometrical properties of sawn softwoods

Customary Area Section Modulus Second of moment area Radius of gyration

target size*
About x–x About y–y About x–x About y–y About x–x About y–y
mm 10 3mm 2 103mm3 103mm3 106mm4 106mm4 mm mm

22 × 100 2.20 36.6 8.1 1.83 0.089 28.9 6.35

38 × 100 3.80 63.3 24.1 3.17 0.457 28.9 11.0
38 × 150 5.70 143 36.1 10.7 0.686 43.3 11.0
38 × 175 6.54 194 42.1 17.0 0.800 50.5 11.0
38 × 200 7.60 253 48.1 25.3 0.915 57.7 11.0
38 × 225 8.55 321 54.2 36.1 1.03 65.0 11.0
47 × 75 3.53 44.1 27.6 1.65 0.649 21.7 13.6
47 × 100 4.70 78.3 36.8 3.92 0.865 28.9 13.6
47 × 125 5.88 122 46.0 7.65 1.08 36.1 13.6
47 × 150 7.05 176 55.2 13.2 1.30 43.3 13.6
47 × 175 8.23 240 64.4 21.0 1.51 50.5 13.6
47 × 200 9.40 313 73.6 31.3 1.73 57.7 13.6
47 × 225 10.6 397 82.8 44.6 1.95 65.0 13.6
47 × 250 11.8 490 92.0 61.2 2.16 72.2 13.6
47 × 300 14.1 705 110 106 2.60 86.6 13.6
63 × 150 9.45 236 99.2 17.7 3.13 43.3 18.2
63 × 175 11.0 322 116 28.1 3.65 50.5 18.2
63 × 200 12.6 420 132 42.0 4.17 57.7 18.2
63 × 225 14.2 532 149 59.8 4.69 65.0 18.2

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 Flexural members

Table 6.8 (cont’d )

Customary Area Section Modulus Second moment of area Radius of gyration

target size*
About x–x About y–y About x–x About y–y About x–x About y–y
mm 10 3mm 2 103mm3 103mm3 106mm4 106mm4 mm mm

75 × 100 7.50 125 93.8 6.25 3.52 28.9 21.7

75 × 150 11.3 281 141 21.1 5.27 43.3 21.7
75 × 175 13.1 383 164 33.5 6.15 50.5 21.7
75 × 200 15.0 500 188 50.0 7.03 57.7 21.7
75 × 225 16.9 633 211 71.2 7.91 65.0 21.7
75 × 250 18.8 781 234 97.7 8.79 72.2 21.7
75 × 300 22.5 1130 281 169 10.5 86.6 21.7
100 × 100 10.0 167 167 8.33 8.33 28.9 28.9
100 × 150 15.0 375 250 28.1 12.5 43.3 28.9
100 × 200 20.0 667 333 66.7 16.7 57.7 28.9
100 × 225 22.5 844 375 94.9 18.8 65.0 28.9
100 × 250 25.0 1010 417 130 20.8 72.2 28.9
100 × 300 30.0 1500 500 225 25.0 86.6 28.9
150 × 150 20.0 563 563 42.2 42.2 43.3 43.3
150 × 300 30.0 2250 1130 338 84.4 86.6 43.3
300 × 300 90.0 4500 4500 675 675 86.6 86.6

Note. * Desired size of timber measured at 20% moisture content

6.7.3 DEFLECTION The total deflection, δt, is the summation of the

Excessive deflection of flexural members may
result in damage to surfacing materials, ceilings,
partitions and finishes, and to the functional needs
as well as aesthetic requirements.
Clause 2.10.7 of BS 5268 recommends that
generally such damage can be avoided if the total
deflection, δt, of the member when fully loaded
does not exceed the permissible deflection, δp:
δt ≤ δp (6.10)
The permissible deflection is generally given by
δp = 0.003 × span (6.11)
but for longer-span domestic floor joists, i.e. spans
over 4.67 m, should not exceed 14 mm:
δp ≤ 14 mm (6.12)
bending deflection, δm, plus the shear deflection,
δv:
δt = δm + δv (6.13)
Table 6.9 gives the bending and shear deflection
formulae for some common loading cases for
beams of rectangular cross-section. The formulae
have been derived by assuming that the shear
modulus is equal to one-sixteenth of the permis-
sible modulus of elasticity in accordance with clause
2.7 of BS 5268.
For solid timber members acting alone the de-
flections should be calculated using the minimum
modulus of elasticity, but for load-sharing sys-
tems the deflections should be based on the mean
modulus of elasticity.

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 Design in timber to BS 5268

Table 6.9 Bending and shear deflections 6.7.4 LATERAL BUCKLING

assuming G = E/16 If flexural members are not effectively laterally
restrained, it is possible for the member to twist
Load distribution Deflection at sideways before developing its full flexural strength
and supports Centre C or end E (Fig. 6.5 ), thereby causing it to fail in bending,
shear or deflection. This phenomenon is called
Bending Shear lateral buckling and can be avoided by ensuring
that the depth to breadth ratios given in Table 6.10
w C are complied with.
5 wL4 12 wL2
× ×
L 384 EI 5 EA 6.7.5 SHEAR
If flexural members are not to fail in shear, the
W applied shear stress parallel to the grain, τa, should
WL3 24 WL
×
not exceed the permissible shear stress, τadm:
C 48 EI 5 EA
L /2 L /2
τa ≤ τadm (6.14)

W W
C Wa  L2 a2  96 Wa
a a  −  ×
EI Lateral
L 8 6 5 EA
displacement

w C Original position of
wL4 12 wL2
L
× beam shown dotted
384 EI 5 EA

W
WL3 24 WL
C ×
L /2 L /2 192EI 5 EA

an
w Sp Lateral displacement
E wL 4
48 wL2
×
L 8 EI 5 EA

W
WL3 96 WL
×
L E 3EI 5 EA
Fig. 6.5 Lateral buckling.

Table 6.10 Maximum depth to breadth ratios (Table 19, BS 5268)

Degree of lateral support Maximum depth

to breadth ratio

No lateral support 2
Ends held in position 3
Ends held in position and member held in line, as by purlins or 4
tie-rods at centres not more than 30 times the breadth of the member
Ends held in position and compression edge held in line, 5
as by direct connection of sheathing, deck or joists
Ends held in position and compression edge held in line, as by direct 6
connection of sheathing, deck or joists, together with adequate bridging
or blocking spaced at intervals not exceeding six times the depth
Ends held in position and both edges held firmly in line 7

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 Flexural members

For a beam with a rectangular cross-section, the

maximum applied shear stress occurs at the neutral
axis and is given by:
3Fv
τa = (6.15)
2A
where
Fv applied maximum vertical shear force
Wane
A cross-sectional area
The permissible shear stress is given by Fig. 6.6 Wane.

τadm = τg K 2 K 3 K 5 K 8 (as appropriate) (6.16)

where τg is the grade shear stress parallel to the
grain (Tables 6.1 and 6.3).
6.7.6 BEARING PERPENDICULAR TO GRAIN
Bearing failure may arise in flexural members which
are supported at their ends on narrow beams or
wall plates. Such failures can be avoided by en-
suring that the applied bearing stress, σc,a,⊥, never
exceeds the permissible compression stress perpen-
dicular to the grain, σc,adm,⊥:
σc,a,⊥ ≤ σc,adm,⊥
The applied bearing stress is given by
F values for the grade compression stress perpendicu-
σc,a,⊥ =
bl b
where
F bearing force (usually maximum reaction)
b breadth of section
l b bearing length.
The permissible compression stress is obtained
by multiplying the grade compression stress per-
pendicular to the grain, σc,g,⊥, by the K-factors for
moisture content (K 2), load duration (K 3) and load
sharing (K 8) as appropriate:
σc,adm,⊥ = σc,g,⊥K 2 K 3 K 8 (6.19)
It should be noted that the grade compression
stresses perpendicular to the grain given in Tables
(6.17) 6.1 and 6.3 apply to (i) bearings of any length at
the ends of members and (ii) bearings 150 mm
or more in length at any position. Moreover, two
(6.18) lar to the grain are given for each strength class
(Table 6.3). The lower value takes into account the
amount of wane which is permitted within each
stress grade (Fig. 6.6). If, however, the specification
prohibits wane from occurring at bearing areas the
higher value may be used.

Example 6.1 Design of a timber beam (BS 5268)

A timber beam with a clear span of 2.85 m supports a uniformly distributed load of 10 kN including self-weight of
beam. Determine a suitable section for the beam using timber of strength class C16 under service class 1. Assume
that the bearing length is 150 mm and that the ends of the beam are held in position and compression edge held in
line.

W = 10 kN

150 2850 150

EFFECTIVE SPAN
Distance between centres of bearing (l ) = 3000 mm
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 Design in timber to BS 5268

Example 6.1 continued

GRADE STRESS AND MODULUS OF ELASTICITY FOR C16
Values in N/mm2 are as follows

Bending parallel Shear parallel Compression Modulus of

to grain to grain perpendicular to grain elasticity
σm,g,|| τg σc,g,⊥ Emin

5.3 0.67 1.7 5800

MODIFICATION FACTORS
K 2, moisture content factor does not apply since the beam is subject to service class 1
K 3, duration of loading factor = 1.0
K 8, load sharing factor, does not apply since there is only a single beam
0.11
 300 
K 7, depth factor =  
 h 
Assume h = 250, K 7 = 1.020

BENDING
W l 10 × 3
M= = = 3.75 kN m
8 8
σm,adm,||(assuming h = 250) = σm,g,||K 3 K 7 = 5.3 × 1.0 × 1.020 = 5.406 N/mm2
M 3.75 × 106
Z xxreq ≥ = = 694 × 103 mm3
σm,adm,|| 5.406

DEFLECTION
Permissible deflection (δp ) = 0.003 × span
The deflection due to shear (δs ) is likely to be insignificant in comparison to the bending deflection (δb) and may be
ignored in order to make a first estimate of the total deflection (δt ):
5Wl 3
δt(ignoring shear deflection) = (Table 6.9)
384E minI xx
5 × 104 × 30003
=
384 × 5800 × I xx
Since δp ≥ δt
5 × 104 × 30003
0.003 × 3000 ≥
384 × 5800 × I xx
Ixx req ≥ 67.3 × 106 mm4
From Table 6.8, section 75 × 250 provides
Z xx = 781 × 103 mm3 I xx = 97.7 × 106 mm4 A = 18.8 × 103 mm2
Hence total deflection including shear deflection can now be calculated and is given by
5Wl 3 12Wl 5 × 104 × 30003 12 × 104 × 3000
+ = +
384E minI xx 5E minA 384 × 5800 × 97.7 × 106 5 × 5800 × 18.8 × 103
= 6.2 mm + 0.7 mm = 6.9 mm ≤ δp = 0.003 × 3000 = 9 mm
Therefore a beam with a 75 × 250 section is adequate for bending and deflection.
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 Flexural members

Example 6.1 continued

LATERAL BUCKLING
d
Permissible = 5 (Table 6.10)
b
d 250
Actual = = 3.3 < permissible
b 75
Hence the section is adequate for lateral buckling.

SHEAR
Permissible shear stress is
τadm = τg K 3 = 0.67 × 1.0 = 0.67 N/mm2
Maximum shear force is
W 10 × 103
Fv = = = 5 × 103 N
2 2
Maximum shear stress at neutral axis is
3 Fv 3 5 × 103
τa = = × = 0.4 N/mm2 < permissible
2A 2 18.8 × 103
Therefore the section is adequate in shear.

BEARING
Permissible bearing stress is
σc,adm,⊥ = σc,g,⊥K3 = 1.7 × 1.0 = 1.7 N/mm2
End reaction, F, is
W 10 × 103
= = 5 × 103 N
2 2
F 5 × 103
σc,a,⊥ = = = 0.44 N/mm2 < permissible
blb 75 × 150
Therefore the section is adequate in bearing. Since all the checks are satisfactory, use 75 mm × 250 mm sawn C16 beam.

Example 6.2 Design of timber floor joists (BS 5268)

Design the timber floor joist for a domestic dwelling using timber of strength class C18 given that:
a) the joists are spaced at 400 mm centres;
b) the floor has an effective span of 3.8 m;
c) the flooring is tongue and groove boarding with a self-weight of 0.1 kN/m2;
d) the ceiling is of plasterboard with a self weight of 0.2 kN/m2.

Floor deck
tongue and groove
boarding

400 mm 400 mm Plasterboard

ceiling

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