BIOLOGY SUMMARY

1)ENZYMES.
- Enzymes: definitions.
-A type of protein in all living organisms that help to speed up reactions. They are biological
catalysts.

-definition of substrate and active site.

-catalase circus laboratory activity

-Factors affecting enzyme activity

-Temperature
The higher the temperature the higher the rate of activity. There is an optimum point
where the enzyme denatures

-PH
The higher the concentration of PH the higher the rate of activity. At extreme PH or at
the optimum point, the enzyme denatures
-Substrate Concentration
The higher the substrate concentration, the higher the rate of activity. Once this gets to
the optimum point the rate of activity continues the same

-Types of human enzymes

-Pepsin(in the stomach)
-Amylase(in the small intestine)

-Types of reactions
-Metabolic
Group of all biological reactions
-Anabolic
A+B->AB
-Catabolic
AB->A+B

2) CELL RESPIRATION:
-general cell respiration definition.
-a process by which glucose is broken down in order to release energy. With the help of oxygen
or not

-aim of cell respiration.

-to release energy

-aerobic cell respiration (word equation and formula)

-word Equation
● Glucose + Oxygen -> Carbon Dioxide + Water
-formula
● C6H12O6 + 6O2 -> 6CO2 + 6H2O

-anaerobic cell respiration (lactic and alcoholic fermentation).

-alcoholic fermentation
 word Equation
● glucose —>carbon dioxide + ethanol

-lactic fermentation
word equation
● glucose —> lactic acid

-use of alcoholic fermentation for bread and pizza production

Steps for baking bread or pizza:
1. Mix up of all the ingredients with the yeats
2. By Means the alcoholic fermentation mixture increases height= because of CO2 bubbles
3. Then it is cooked in the oven and
- enzymes are denatured
- Yeast cells are killed
- Ethanol is evaporated

-Balloons laboratory activity

3)PHOTOSYNTHESIS (NUTRITION IN PLANTS):

- General definition
-Process by which light energy is converted into chemical energy in order to produce glucose

-aim
-To produce glucose (sugar) for cell respiration

Chlorophyll
Light________

-word equation and balanced formula

-Word Equation: Carbon dioxide + water -> Oxygen + Glucose(some used for cell respiration and
some stored as starch)
-Balanced Formula: 6CO2 + 6H2O-> 6O2 + C6H12O6

-importance of chlorophyll
-Chlorophyll traps energy from light. It is located inside the chloroplast

- identify the layers of cells of a cross-section of a leaf. Functions of the leaf layers.

- Waxy Cuticle
● Prevents water loss
● Protects the leaf
- Upper Epidermis
● Protection
● Structure
● The light can go through easily
- Palisade Mesophyll
● A high rate of photosynthesis
- Spongy layer
● A low rate of photosynthesis
● Contains Xylem and Phloem
● Contains air spaces to diffuse air
-Xylem
● Transports water and minerals from the roots to the leafs
 -Phloem
● Transports sugar to be used in cell respiration or stored
- Lower Epidermis
● Structure
● Protection
● Contains Stomata and Guard Cells
-Stomata
● Lets the gasses go in and out through diffusion
-Guard cells
● Regulate the rate of transpiration by opening and closing the stomata

-factors affecting photosynthesis (temperature, light intensity and carbon dioxide

concentration)

-Light intensity: chlorophyll saturation after optimum point

-Carbon dioxide concentration: enzyme saturation after optimum point
-Temperature: denaturation after optimum point

-importance of starch. meaning of destarching a plant.

-Starch is a glucose storage molecule (glucose that is not used for cell resp, in case that it is
needed later, is stored as starch for as to avoid decomposing and dissolving) and product of
photosynthesis and it is then needed for cell respiration
-it is important so as to be able to identify, with the help of the iodine test, if photosynthesis
took place./storage for glucose
-Destarching is the process of eliminating starch reserved in a plant for experiments concerning
photosynthesis. This is done by leaving the plant dark place with no light for +48hs.

- to define what is a variegated leaf

-Its a leaf with some spots with chlorophyll and some spots without
-iodine test
-The aim is to test the presence of starch
-How the iodine solution works
● Iodine + starch = blue/black color
● Iodine + no starch = yellow/brown color
-Steps
● heat a plant leaf in boiling water for 30 seconds (to soften the leaf so as to break
down the palisade cells and the chlorophyll to be released and that the starch is
exposed for the iodine test) cells are broken down
● heat it in boiling ethanol for a few minutes (this removes most of its chlorophyll
(Pigment) turn off the teclu because ethanol is flammable
● wash with water and spread onto a white tile
● add iodine solution

4)GAS EXCHANGE:
-aim
-movement of gasses based in diffusion
-components of the system and functions
-Mouth/Nose
Openings where respiratory gases enter and leave the body
-Trachea
It filters the air
-Bronchi
They are the main passageways that connect the lungs with the trachea
Left Bronchus
Right Bronchus
-Bronchioles
 To warm, moisten and clean the inhaled air and distribute it to the lungs
-Alveoli (air sacs)
Sacs in our lungs that allow oxygen and carbon dioxide to move between the lungs and
the bloodstream
-Ribs
They protect the lungs
-Intercostal muscles
Raise the ribs and expand the chest cavity
-Diaphragm
It contracts and relaxes
It reduces pressure in the lungs
-Lungs
It takes in oxygen from the bloodstream and releases carbon dioxide

-definitions of ventilation and gas exchange

-ventilation: the exchange of air between the lungs and the atmosphere; it is achieved by the
physical act of breathing
-vas exchange: the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the alveoli and the bloodstream; it
occurs passively via diffusion
- adaptations of alveoli to their function
-alveoli are the place for gas exchange by diffusion
-Have thin walls (speeds diffusion)
-Only one cell thick (speeds diffusion)
-Oxygen is quickly removed
-Carbon dioxide is quickly supplied

-adaptations of capillaries (surrounding the alveoli)

-Small lumen: because red blood cells can travel slower and it spans more time contracting the
alveoli and making a better gas exchange.
-Thin wall: it is easier for the gas to go threw

-components of the air

-CO2
-O2
-Nitrogen
-H2O

- ventilation: inhalations and exhalation. Mechanism)

-mechanism
Inhalation or inspiration (air in)
Exhalation or expiration (air out)

-Inhalation
1. Diaphragm contracts and goes down
2. Intercostal muscles contract
3. Rib cage goes up and outwards
4. Lung volume increases
5. Air goes into the body

-Exhalation
1. Diaphragm relaxes and goes up
2. Intercostal muscles relax
3. Rib cage goes down and inwards
4. Lung volume decreases
5. Air goes out of the body

- smoking (components and effects, including emphysema as a probable linked disease)

-Nicotine:
It's the addictive part of the cigar
It affects the brain
Increases the rate at which the heartbeats
Increases blood pressure
Can cause a heart disease
-Tar
Can cause cancer
Affects the cells that are in the passageways leading to the lungs
Affects the cells in the lungs
-Carbon Monoxide:
Blocks the blood's ability to carry oxygen to the body cells
Can cause fatigue, headache, dizziness, nausea, and vomiting
 Increases the rate at which the heartbeats
-Smoking particles:
-Emphysema:
The alveoli or air sacs start to explode inside your lungs, therefore, you can die

-diffusion
-the net movement of anything from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower
concentration

-definitions of ventilation and gas exchange

-Ventilation: The exchange of air between the lungs and the atmosphere; it is achieved by the
physical act of breathing
-Gas exchange: The exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the alveoli and the bloodstream;
it occurs passively via diffusion

5)TRANSPORT IN MAMMALS
-components of blood: plasma and cells. Functions of cells.
-Plasma: The liquid component of the blood in which the following blood cells are suspended

-Red blood cells: These carry oxygen from the lungs to the rest of the body and then carry
carbon dioxide as a waste product from the rest of the body to the lungs

-White blood cells: These help fight infections and aid in the immune process

-Platelets: play a role in clotting chd’s

- blood vessels: comparison between arteries, veins, and capillaries

Vessels ARTERIES VEINS CAPILLARIES

Function They take oxygenated They take blood They help to connect
blood away from the towards the heart your arteries and
heart to all parts of veins and they
the body facilitate the
exchange of certain
elements between
your blood and
tissues

Wall with muscles Thick wall Thinish wall Wall made of a single
and fibres Thick layer of Thin layer of muscles cell
 muscles and fibres and fibres

Diameter of lumen Small lumen in Relatively large in Big enough for the
relation to the comparison to the red blood cells to
diameter of the artery diameter veins squeeze through

Presence of valves No valves There are valves No valves

Oxygenated / Oxygenated blood Deoxygenated blood Oxygenated/

Deoxygenated blood deoxygenated blood

Pressure High pressure Low pressure Very low pressure

-components of the heart: atria, ventricles, septum, vena cava, pulmonary vein, pulmonary
artery, aorta, tricuspid valve, bicuspid valve, semilunar valves.
This is shown in the cross-section of the heart

-functions of valves
The function of the valves is to prevent the backflow of blood
-explain the double circulatory system
Through the Vena Cava (a vein) unoxygenated blood from all the body enters the heart, goes
through the right atrium, goes through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle and there
passes the semilunar valves and goes through the pulmonary artery to the lungs.
At the same time, oxygenated blood from the lungs enters the heart, goes through the left
atrium, goes through the bicuspid valve into the left ventricle and there passes the semilunar
valves and goes through the aorta(an artery) to all the body

-movement of blood through the heart

1. Blood arriving to the heart inside veins
2. -Atria are relaxed (diastole) = filled up with blood
-Tricuspid and Bicuspid valves will be closed
3. -Atria contraction (systole) ->blood pumped to the ventricles (ventricles are in diastole)
-Valves are opened(tri and bi)
-Semilunar valves are closed
4. Ventricles will contract

- to be able to label a cross-section of a real heart

-coronary arteries
-They supply the heart with oxygen and nutrients
-From aorta
-coronary veins
-Collecting CO2 and other waste materials from the heart
-To the Vena Cava

-CHD
Read p.95 to have more information
-Consequence of
-Blockage of coronary arteries(Accumulation of cholesterol)
-Smoking
-Lack of exercise
-Big portions (of food intake)
-To much salt
-Stress(lifestyle)

-factors that can be controlled

-factors that can’t be controlled that can cause a heart attack
-The Male sex has a bigger chance of getting a heart attack and it cant be controlled as it is set
biologically. But once a woman gets a heart attack they have a larger chance of dying than men
-People with older age have a bigger chance of getting a heart attack it can't be controlled as
aging can't be stopped. Why? Your heart works slower and vessels are going to be harder/less
flexible and the muscles are weakened
-Family history of heart disease can’t be controlled because it’s hereditary
-Ethnics have different levels of chances of getting a heart attack (connected with family history)
African Americans have a bigger chance of having a heart attack
(Having of being one of these factors does not mean you will have a heart attack yes or yes)

-What causes a heart attack

-Fat is accumulated → Plaque
-Medical procedures that can be made to open the plaque
-Angioplasty
-Stent
-Bypass