Approximation Algorithm

↳
solving
TSP

↳
Max clique concept
Randomized
Algorithm
↳
Quick sort

Natural
Algorithms
Algorithm
&
Evolutionary computing
↳

Genetic
Algorithms
Annealing
simulated
* Approximation
Algorithm
:

hard
% NP
-
NP
-

to
NP-complete
An approximation algorithm
is
way of
→ a

approach NP -

completed for
the
optimization
problem .

guarantee
This does not the
technique
→

best sot .

the
goal of approximation algorithm
→
an

is to
to come as close as
possible
the seasonable
optimum value in a

is at the most
aunt time which
of
time
polynomial .
 approximation
algo
such 's are called as

or heuristic
algo .

the
→ For the vertex cover problem ,

the
optimization problem is to
find
vertices and
vertex cover with fewest
is to
the
approximation problem
vertex
find the vertex cover with few .

→
suppose we work on a
optimization
lost
problem where sofa carries a

every
returns
An
approximation algorithm
a

legal sou but the cost of that

legal
Sol "

may
not be optimal
 For
example
→ :

for minimum
suppose we are
considering a

size vertex -

cover ( ve ) .
An approximate
for but the
algorithm return a ve us
,

size ( cost ) not be minimized .

may "
the Sol returned
→ Let C be the cost of
by an
approximate algorithm
* "
( Sol
is the cost
of optimal
size
Plut ifp
~
is
approximation for an

*
e) Mohini zatiae → (
⇐ P (a)
c-

e) Maximization →
C- =P (a)
*
[

3) P In ) & I
* Vertex cover Problem : A cover of a
graph
is subset which cover
a
of vortex every
min size vertex
edge VC
problem
is the .

cover .

Approximation -

cover -

problem (G) :

C ← of is
B C
D

⑤=E[gT
white
c)
'

E
-1-4 ( B.
E
arbitrary
F
do let an a-

in
'

edge E

c ← c u { a. u
} C =
to U { B. c } =/ Be}
remove from E
'

every
edge incident either u.ie } remove B
B
-

-
E

C
-
D
return C c- F

For next loop

( u
, v1 =
} E ,
F
}

C. =
} B. C
} U I E
,
F}

F
=
? B ,
C
,
E. }
 Next loop ,

lui } =
II. G }
C
:{ B. c. E. F } U { D. G }

-
I B
,
C. 7 ,
E. F
,
G }

min vertex 6 to all

cover vertex
=
.

How we
select B F
,
,
D

B V C H
D
"

=
A
= =

E F G-

wu°u= 3 *
,
( = 6 C = 3
,

*
Pln ) (
minimization
§
=
= =
2

e-
* Christofides
Algorithm
:

Sd
"

Brute-force Optimal ✓

Algorithm
→

time ✗
Really long
✓
Heuristic
Algorithm -

polynomial
time

( Brute
force ) suboptimal approximate
✗

Approximation -
Polynomial time ✓

Algorithm high quality

soon -

algorithm for
finding
is
→ It an
approximate
salesman
traveling problem
-

Sd to the
,
on

didst metric
"

instances where the form .

a

space
.

that its will within

guarantees
- It son be

optimal
sun
a
factor of 3/2 of the

length .
- still stands as the best polynomial time

approximation algo .

the
- Let
,
G- =
Cv ,
w ) be an instance
of
is complete
is G-
graph
a
TSP . That

V vertices and
f.
±
the set of the .
.

on

real wt
negative
-
to

assigns
w a non -

every edge of G- .

in
equality for every
According
to the
triangle
-

& it should be the

three vertices u.ir ,
u .

case that

w Luv ) + w( un ) z w ( )
use
 all
connects
→ Pseudo Code :
vertices together
without any

☒ {T
" "
of vertices
' with no
odd
-

7 cycle
are

1)
ofeage Gi
an

Create
tour
that
a wot ages

2) Let 0 be the set

of vertices / with odd .

lemma

degree in T .

By the
handshaking
no
of vertices
µj÷ ÷ ÷ ÷:É!¥÷:*
.

even
.

O has an :* .

I Find a
min - wt .

perfect matching
in the induced by
subgraph given multi
having
-

edges .

the vertices from 0 .

>
Graph
and form
edges M T to a
4) Combine the
of
which each
in
connected multi u
graph
-

"
that "
+
tra '
"
ends
Eulerian & "
"
edge

degree
vertex has even starts F"
" every

game
visits
.

Eulerian qq.fm
vortex once
.

exactly
Form an

6) Make the ckt found in

previous step
into Hamiltonian ckt
by skipping
-

shortuettiug~vis.it
each

repeated vertices ( vertex exactly

once
.

The steps 5 and 6 dont necessarily yield only one

result .
As such the heuristic can
give several diff path .
 Problem
*
Approximating Max clique :

in which all
pains
A clique is
subgraph
→ a

of vertices are
mutually adjacent
- sub
graph of graph
where the sub
graph
-
-

a ,

is
complete
is called as
clique
graph
.

a ,

_→••
connected to each
other

14 In '

IE1
¥Y
=

Eg
:
I 2
I 2- 3- 4 =)
-

complete Graph
5

subgraph of
1- 2-
3-
4- 5

4
3
 A set
→ Max -

clique is a
of objects which
related in
specific
mutually
are some

criterion .

The that
largest
can
- size
of the clique

be made
of and vertices of
up edges
G- is called the
clique
no .

of G-

→ NP -

Complete problem .

where the
→ Real life problem : social nlw ,

and the
's vertices represents people
graph
" mutual acquaintances
graph edges represent
:
Bioinformatics .

:
computational chemistry
→ Other methods :

Greedy
:

iteratively adds nodes

all the
that
nodes
are

in
adjacent
to

: Recursive C. C.
"
- 3 nodes "
a
- d- add
•

R ✗ to
the p
added
"

nodes
in

current dive
turf a pod
"

per qui
nodes course, c.
 is
→ Decision Problem :
find if a

graph
size
having a
clique of -
K .

in
Problem find Max clique a

Optimization
:
→

graph
.

→ SAT ✗ CDP
*
Me 22 ,
✗
3
,

F = die :
9--1

F ( (I ✓ Iz ) ^ ( see V23 )
= ✗
,
V ke ) n

( i
C 2 C3

G- ! V =
{ < a. i> / a c- C :}

: E =

{ < a. i >
,
< b.
j > I itj
& btñ }
 ⇐ ,
2 > < Ñ ,
27

True

CK ,
I >

< hi 37
,

CU2 1) ,

True LK3 ,
3 >

True

k①
with K clocks
If you take
problem
-

→
a
,

then there will be a son with K -

cliques .
- Reverse Sol
"
:

hi V2 ✗
3

to
0 ? {
F= ↳ v1 ) n
( i v0 ) n ( Ovi )
= I n I ^ I

I
=
* Randomized
Algorithm
:

A that randomness as a
-

technique uses

part of its
logic
.

→
It is used to reduce time ? space complexity
- An
algorithm known as amplification
is used in order to boost the probability
runtime
by sacrificing
.

correctness
of
the randomized
- It works by repeating random
several times with diff
algo
sub
samples of the ilp ,
and compromising
their results .
* Types of randomized
Algorithm
:

-
I.
i Carlo
Monte
Las
Vegas *
*
for
given :( p
a

for a
given :( p Algo whose

running time

running
me
ofp is
fixed , is deterministic ,

&
Mp /
running time
may ofp is variable

is variable random random

/ both be

random
* Randomized Quick sort :

→ TC :
0 Cue )

Tcu ) =
T ( n -
1) + c. in

RQS introduced
complexity
was
- To reduce the ,

- Pseudo Code :

RQS ( A , p .
q ) {
Greatest Function
if Cpaq) 1- Random
r= RGFCP g) ,

swap ( A [ P]
,
Acr )
m=
partition ( A. P , a)

RQS ( A ,
P ,
m -

1)

RQS ( A ,
m -11
,
a)

}
}
in
seq
generate
no .

will
.

Assumption
never
-
: RGF

all elements are

case
-

worst
(
login )
.

Tc 0
→ :
n
distinct
-
.

case all elements are

:
0C n4 worst →

same .
Q An distinct is
array of
. 25 element to be

sorted quick sort Assume that the

pivot
using at random The
element is chosen
uniformly
.

that the
pivot
element
gets
probability worst possible
location in the
the
placed in

( rounded off to

first
round
of partitioning
places )
is
2 decimal -

is min :
- is > f- element

c)✗l

element is
e) If Max :

(n-_

"
Sol : 0.08
⇐
=

→ Uses : Pro balistic

Analysis .
*
Evolutionary computation :( EC )
refers to

that
computer-based problem solving system
use computational models
of evolutionary
process .

candidate
representing
a
→ chromosome : individual ,

the optimization problem

of
.

sot

chromosomes
-
Population : d- set of .

chromosome
fundamental building
block
of
gene
→ :

each
each in a chromosome reprints
gene smallest
is the
variable to be
optimized .
It

unit
of information .
*
Optimization Problems :

Problems
sample Optimization
:
-

I TSP

2)
3) Graph Colouring
Knapsack 4)
Assignment
Job Machine
5) Coin
change 6) BST construction

→
limitation of traditional optimization
approach
:

I
computationally expensive
e) Methods fail for discontinuous
objective f± .

3)
May not be suitable for parallel computing
handle
4) Discrete variables are difficult to .

Methods not adaptive

may necessarily
.
*
Evolutionary Algorithm :

1- Behaviour
Behaviour Physical
Biological

!| ←
"
/ f. \ Artificial
stimulated

Annealing
Ant
Genetic → ISA )
Fussy
'

colony
Algorithm Optimization
new

(ANN)
( GA )
( Fi
)
( AC0)

particle

swarming
optimization
( PS0)
→ A meta - heuristic :

counter
generation
;
Let .
t=o → a

Plot ;
create & initiate a
population

repeat Pct ) ;
Hui
Evaluate the fitness ,
flu ;) ,
c-

Perform cross -
over
to produce offspring
Per for mutation on
offspring
select population
Pettis of new
geuez
.

generation + -1+1
the
=
new
Advance to ,

until
and "
is true :

stopping
- NP -

Complete Problems .
→
Applications :

detection
D concealed
weapon
controllers
e) Automotive
active
steering
.

3) Medical scan classifiers .

4) SMART home systems

5) A1 behaviour for videos
games
.
* Genetic
Algorithm →
John Holland

→
Principles of G- A : based on two fundamentals
Genetics and Evolution
biological
:
process

is
→ G- d- Is a search heuristic that

inspired by
charles Darwin
theory of
natural evolution .

natural
process of
selection
the
→ It
reflects
individuals selected
where the fittest are

for reproduction
in order to produce

offspring
next
of the
gene
.
 evolution
→
Abstraction of real
biological
( like NIP Hard)
→ solve complex problems

focus optimization
→
on
.

population for given

→ "

of possible sol a

problem .

From individuals the best

group of
→ a
,

will survive .

Encode .

-
Phenotype
-

Genotype
e
 working
- :

Initialisation → chromosomes .

to

each chromosome In
↳ a score to

↳ the current population

) Goal achieved ?
Terminate ? -→
'

of generations

|
2) No .
.

reached Max
?

3) Performance stagnating ?

Selection → survival of fittest

-
based on fitness .

-
chromosome with higher value

to
.
I. Yes
✓ I
mutation
optimal crossover
✓
soi
f. 1
multi
single pt
pt .
* Evolution :
Natural selection :

* 4 premises
primary
:

D-
Information An
propagation
:

offspring has

many of its characteristics

of its parent
(
Heredity )
in characteristic
→
Population diversity : Variation -

in the next 2

gene
.

→
varsity )
3) existence
for Only
-
survival
: a small

produced
percentage of
the
offspring
survival to adulthood .

( selection )

4) survival
of the best
offspring survived
:
-

their inherited characteristics

depends on
.

(
Ranking )
* selection :

selected to reproduce
→ the no .

of chromosomes
size
Keeping
size const
population
.

=
the .

→
This
phase has an element of randomness ,

just like the survival of organism in nature .

→ Most used selection methods are :

↳ roulette -
wheel
↳
rank selection
↳
state
steady
-

,
etc .

To iuc selection
of
→
the
.

performance GA 's .
the

by elitc①which
methods are enhanced

method first
the
copies a few of
scored chromosomes
top &
to new population
then continues
the rest
of
generating
the population .
* Crossover :

Process bits
of chromosome
of combining
→
the one

with those another

of
.

single pt
-
crossover
.

P :
O l I 10
0
,

P2 :
I 1 0 I 00

01 ! 0 I 0 0
0 I

02 :
I 1 I 0 I 0

→ Two pt
.

cross over

P :
O l I 10
0
,

P2 :
I 1 0 I 00

< 2
I

01 ! 0 I 0 I 1 0

02 : I
I 1 0 0
0
- Multi pt
.

crossover :

Pi :
O l I 10
0

P2 :
I 1 0 I 00

Fr
~

swap K3
\
2

01 !
I 1 0
0 I 0

02 l
:
O l l O
0

crossover :
→ Uniform
the
At each bit position of parent
string ,

to determine whether there

we toss a coin

not .

will
swapping
be or

Rule ! If tou is 0
,
then
swap .
* mutation :

→
Performed after crossover

Sol in the
"

prevents
falling of
→ all
.

optimum of
solved
local
population ,
into a

problem
→ Mutation
changes
the new
offspring by
0 to 1

flipping
or
to 0
bits from 1

in the
→ Can occur at each bit position

string
with some
probability ,
usually
small
very
Eg offspring O
→ : :
l '
0 0 I

↳ crossover

Mutation MP ( Up ) :
O
O O 1
:
l O
probability
↳ mutation

Mutated MO : O O l O O O

offspring
 Eg offspring 0
:
- :
I 1
0 0 I

* *

Mutated MO : 0 I 0 ? 1
offspring
 * GA Operators :

with GA
fit
"
sd to
to
represent
a

D how
Encoding
:

framework .

2) the termination
Convergence how to decide
:

criteria

"
"
Granato generate
"
"" " "

the diverse set

4) Fitness Evaluation : how to make

of next son .

"

5) other Sol
Mutation explore
.

: to

to others
time
from
.

the
6) Inversion : to move op
?⃝
*
simple Genetic
Algorithm
:

: ; ÷-
÷
sta① -

Np is a subset of N

":_→;
µ
( population CN )
f

/
individual
each
( Evacuate pool (
randomly )

•
crou
⇐ ← Yes
£
IRep)
I
::;-n
with best fitness
to

s①
?⃝
 value
'

'M
→
of depends on
programmer
.

*
sample F1
optimization problem
:

e) Portfolio optimization
e) Neural Network
Training
3) Design optimisation

4)
Drug Discovery
5) Traffic optimization
* GA Operators
:

encoding
Binary
__RedvaL encoding offertree
1) →

Encoding -
encoding
2) test
convergence
→

selected at
Pool A
mating pairare
3)
Mating
-

N then
→

of mating pool
is
Thus if size ,

random .

HE formed
meeting pains
are

4) → Fitness

5) → Evaluation

6) → Cross over

7) → Mutation

8) - Inversion
 GA metaphor consisting of
* uses two

distinct element .

1-
Individual Population
-
defined by
a

chromosome .

stores
chromosome
info ( called phenotype)
genetic individual
for an

~
Genotype
Phenotype Is
4 set
The of
due actual
genes
representation
physical representing
the chromosome the
of
chromosome
* Real value
encoding
:

in continuous search
→ suitable for optimizing
space
.

&
→ avoid
any
intermediate
encoding decoding

Genotype y
- : a

-475.36
Phenotype 5.28
:

Order
encoding
:
*

Eg Tsp
→ :
 creatingthe
is
* selection : It a
process for the

population for from

generation
next

generation
current

Breeding
in
To population
generate
→ :
new

GA .

↳ create a

mating pool
↳ select a
pair
↳
Reproduce .

* selection involves
→
survival
of the fittest
existence
struggle for the
→ .

scheme is followed .

4) Tournament is selected
→
schemes individual
only
: → one
Np tournaments
evaluation ( fi ) tournament and
1) Canonical
- •
per
be played to
make the

%fg"÷hL!IE )
are to

size mating pool

of
NP
state
-

5)
Roulette wheel steady
-

pool fitness
mating ✗

3) Rank -
based 6) Boltzmann
in
→ individuals are
assigned fitness
ascending order ace .

based selection
to .

- The