Byzantine architecture.

Byzantine architecture is a style of building that flourished under the rule of Roman Emperor
Justinian between A.D. 527 and 565. In addition to extensive use of interior mosaics, its
defining characteristic is a heightened dome, the result of the latest sixth-century engineering
techniques. Byzantine architecture dominated the eastern half of the Roman Empire during the
reign of Justinian the Great, but the influences spanned centuries, from 330 until the fall of
Constantinople in 1453 and on into today's church architecture.

Much of what we call Byzantine architecture today is ecclesiastical, meaning church-related.

Christianity began to flourish after the Edict of Milan in A.D. 313 when Roman Emperor
Constantine (c. 285-337) announced his own Christianity, which legitimized the new religion;
Christians would no longer be routinely persecuted. With religious freedom, Christians could
worship openly and without threat, and the young religion spread rapidly. The need for places
of worship expanded as did the need for new approaches to building design. Hagia Irene (also
known as Haghia Eirene or Aya İrini Kilisesi) in Istanbul, Turkey is the site of the first
Christian church ordered built by Constantine in the 4th Century. Many of these early churches
were destroyed but rebuilt atop their rubble by Emperor Justinian.
Characteristics of Byzantine Architecture
Original Byzantine churches are square-shaped with a central floor plan. They were designed
after the Greek cross or crux immissa quadrata instead of the Latin crux ordinaria of Gothic
cathedrals. Early Byzantine churches might have one, dominant center dome of great height,
rising from a square base on half-dome pillars or pendentives.
Byzantine architecture blended Western and Middle Eastern architectural details and ways of
doing things. Builders renounced the Classical Order in favor of columns with decorative
impost blocks inspired by Middle Eastern designs. Mosaic decorations and narratives were
common. For example, the mosaic image of Justinian in the Basilica of San Vitale in Ravenna,
Italy honors the Roman Christian Emporer.
The early Middle Ages was also a time of experimentation with building methods and
materials. Clerestory windows became a popular way for natural light and ventilation to enter
an otherwise dark and smokey building.
mosaic of a dozen men holding armor, crosses, and a basket
Mosaic of the Roman Christian Emporer Justinian I Flanked by Military and Clergy. CM
Dixon/Print Collector/Getty Images
Construction and Engineering Techniques
How do you put a huge, round dome onto a square-shaped room? Byzantine builders
experimented with different methods of construction; when ceilings fell in, they tried something
else. Art historian Hans Buchwald writes that:
 Sophisticated methods for assuring structural solidity were developed, such as well-built
deep foundations, wooden tie-rod systems in vaults, walls and foundations, and metal
chains placed horizontally inside masonry.
Byzantine engineers turned to the structural use of pendentives to elevate domes to new heights.
With this technique, a dome can rise from the top of a vertical cylinder, like a silo, giving height
to the dome. Like the Hagia Irene, the exterior of the Church of San Vitale in Ravenna, Italy is
characterized by the silo-like pendentive construction. A good example of pendentives seen
from the inside is the interior of the Hagia Sophia (Ayasofya) in Istanbul, one of the most
famous Byzantine structures in the world.
Why This Style Is Called Byzantine
In the year 330, Emperor Constantine relocated the capital of the Roman Empire from Rome to
a part of Turkey known as Byzantium (present-day Istanbul). Constantine renamed Byzantium
to be called Constantinople after himself. What we call the Byzantine Empire is really the
Eastern Roman Empire.
The Roman Empire was divided into East and West. While the Eastern Empire was centered in
Byzantium, the Western Roman Empire was centered in Ravenna, in northeast Italy, which is
why Ravenna is a well-known tourist destination for Byzantine architecture. The Western
Roman Empire in Ravenna fell in 476 but was recaptured in 540 by Justinian. Justinian's
Byzantine influence is still felt in Ravenna.
Byzantine Architecture, East and West
The Roman Emperor Flavius Justinianus was not born in Rome, but in Tauresium, Macedonia
in Eastern Europe in about 482. His place of birth is a major factor why the reign of the
Christian Emperor changed the shape of architecture between 527 and 565. Justinian was a ruler
of Rome, but he grew up with the people of the Eastern world. He was a Christian leader
uniting two worlds; construction methods and architectural details were passed back and forth.
Buildings that previously had been built similar to those in Rome took on more local, Eastern
influences.
Justinian reconquered the Western Roman Empire, which had been taken over by barbarians,
and Eastern architectural traditions were introduced to the West. A mosaic image of Justinian
from the Basilica of San Vitale, in Ravenna, Italy is a testament to the Byzantine influence on
the Ravenna area, which remains a great center of Italian Byzantine architecture.
Byzantine Architecture Influences.
Architects and builders learned from each of their projects and from each other. Churches built
in the East influenced the construction and design of sacred architecture built in many places.
For example, the Byzantine Church of the Saints Sergius and Bacchus, a small Istanbul
experiment from the year 530, influenced the final design of the most famous Byzantine
Church, the grand Hagia Sophia (Ayasofya), which itself inspired the creation of Blue Mosque
of Constantinople in 1616.
The Eastern Roman Empire profoundly influenced early Islamic architecture, including the
Umayyad Great Mosque of Damascus and the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem. In Orthodox
countries such as Russia and Romania, Eastern Byzantine architecture persisted, as shown by
the 15th century Assumption Cathedral in Moscow. Byzantine architecture in the Western
Roman Empire, including in Italian towns such as Ravenna, more quickly gave way to
Romanesque and Gothic architecture, and the towering spire replaced the high domes of early
Christian architecture.
Architectural periods have no borders, especially during what is known as the Middle Ages.
The period of Medieval architecture from roughly 500 to 1500 is sometimes called Middle and
Late Byzantine. Ultimately, names are less important than influence, and architecture has
always been subject to the next great idea. The impact of Justinian's rule was felt long after his
death in A.D.
 Modern and post moderanism.
Modern” and “post-modern” were terms that were developed in the 20th century. “Modern” is
the term that describes the period from the 1890s to 1945, and “post-modern” refers to the
period after the Second World War, mainly after 1968.
Modern is related to logical and rational thinking whereas post-modern has denied this logical
thinking. While the modern approach was theoretical, objective and analytical, the post-modern
approach was subjective.
The modernist was in search of an abstract truth of life whereas the post-modernist did not
believe in abstract truth or in universal truth. In modernism, there was an attempt to develop a
coherent worldview. But in post-modernism, there is an attempt to remove the differences
between the high and the low.
A modern thinker believes in learning from the experiences of the past and also has much trust
in the text that tells about the past. On the contrary, a post-modern thinker does not have such
beliefs. The post-modernist thinks that the text that tells about the past is of no use in the
present times.

When a modern thinker analyses a subject by going deep into it, the post-modern thinker does
not believe in in-depth analysis. A post-modern thinker bases his views on hyper-reality
whereas the modern thinker only considered original works as genuine. A post-modern thinker
considers morality as relative.
When considering the arts, modern and post-modern art have many differences. While modern
art is based on elegance and simplicity, post-modern art is considered elaborate and decorative.

When modern philosophy is based on effect and cause, post-modern philosophy is based on
chance only. When modern thinkers consider truth as objective, the post-modern thinkers
consider truth as relative and socially based. It can also be seen that post-modernists involve
politics in everything whereas modernists are not that political.
Concept of modern and post modern architecture.
The concepts of modern architecture and postmodern architecture gained traction during the
20th century as architectural techniques evolved to first accommodate the philosophy of
minimalism. This then progressed toward a more flared style of construction. Although
postmodernism built on concepts of modernism, many of the differences between the two
approaches to architecture are philosophical.

Modernism versus postmodernism is rooted in how the architect views and approaches the
design. The inherent orientation of human nature is what makes the one style more aesthetically
pleasing for some over the other. Differences between modernism and postmodernism are based
on their respective focus, objectives, perspectives, and use of design elements:

Focus: Modernist architecture focuses on implementing modern elements into the design,
whereas postmodernist architects focus on adding a sense of uniqueness to the design.
Objectives: Modernism aims to extract all the excessive elements and unnecessary things from
designs, compared to postmodernism that looks to keep the cultural feel of historic architecture.
Perspectives: Modern architects center their philosophy on a vision of the future, whereas
postmodernists prefer to keep the feeling of the past in their creations.
Design Elements: Modern architecture uses minimal, plain design elements as this correlates
with its objective of removing all excess from design. Postmodernism prefers to keep elements
that hold sentimental value even if they are excessive.
Another trademark of this type of architecture is its use of floor-to-ceiling windows (or glass
walls). The building style acknowledges how impressive designs can be achieved by
incorporating glass walls. Glass walls can be used to make a very small space seem far larger
than it actually is. The birth of shipping container homes in 2012 emphasizes this concept. In
order to successfully renovate something as small as a shipping container into a home, the use
of various modern architectural principles is required. Builders of container homes have made
effective use of principles like glass walls and open floor plans to minimize the feeling of
smallness inside the houses. This maximization of space is another characteristic of modern
architecture. Modernists pursue space due to the inviting feel it gives to establishments such as
homes and institutional buildings. This is based on how humans are predominantly drawn to
large spaces rather than small confinements. The factor of openness also adds to the connection
between modern buildings and the environments they are situated in. It unites them with their
surroundings, making for a more unified feel.
Post modern desingners:
 Aldo rossi
Aldo Rossi was an Italian architect and designer who achieved international recognition in four
distinct areas: architectural theory, drawing and design and also product design. He was one of
the leading proponents of the postmodern movement. He was the first Italian to receive the
Pritzker Prize for architecture.
 Robert Charles
Robert Charles Venturi Jr. was an American architect, founding principal of the firm Venturi,
Scott Brown and Associates, and one of the major architectural figures of the twentieth century.
 Milton Ernest "Robert" Rauschenberg
Milton Ernest "Robert" Rauschenberg was an American painter and graphic artist whose early
works anticipated the Pop art movement. Rauschenberg is well known for his Combines, a
group of artworks which incorporated everyday objects as art materials and which blurred the
distinctions between painting and sculpture.